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Symmetry and Introduction To Group Theory
Symmetry and Introduction To Group Theory
to Group Theory
Disclaimer: Some lecture note slides are adopted from CHEM 59-
250 - Originally by Dr. Samuel Johnson
Power point slides from Inorganic Chemistry 4th edition by Gary
L. Miessler and Donald A. Tarr
Symmetry and Point Groups
I. Introduction
A. Symmetry is present in nature and in human culture
B. Using Symmetry in Chemistry
1. Understand what orbitals are used in bonding
2. Predict IR spectra or Interpret UV-Vis spectra
3. Predict optical activity of a molecule
C17 axis
3. s (Reflection Operation) = exchange of points through a plane to an
opposite and equidistant point
a. Symmetry element is a plane
b. Human Body has an approximate s operation
c. Linear objects have infinite s‘s
d. s h = plane perpendicular to principle axis
e. s v = plane includes the principle axis
f. s d = plane includes the principle axis, but not the outer atoms
sd
O C O O
H H
sh sv
4. i (Inversion Operation) = each point moves through a common central
point to a position opposite and equidistant
a. Symmetry element is a point
b. Sometimes difficult to see, sometimes not present when you think
you see it
c. Ethane has i, methane does not
d. Tetrahedra, triangles, pentagons do not have i
e. Squares, parallelograms, rectangular solids, octahedra do
5. Sn (Improper Rotation Operation) = rotation about 360/n axis followed by
reflection through a plane perpendicular to axis of rotation
a. Methane has 3 S4 operations (90 degree rotation, then reflection)
b. 2 Sn operations = Cn/2 (S24 = C2)
c. nSn = E, S2 = i, S1 = s
d. Snowflake has S2, S3, S6 axes
C2 sd
C. Examples:
1. H2O: E, C2, 2s
O
H H
sv
Cl Cl
H H
H C C
H H
H
4. Try Ex. 4-1, 4-2
III. Point Groups
A. Definitions:
1. Point Group = the set of symmetry operations for a molecule
2. Group Theory = mathematical treatment of the properties of the group
which can be used to find properties of the molecule
d. Associative property
We need to be able to specify the symmetry of molecules clearly.
F H
No symmetry – CHFClBr
Br
Cl
F H
Cl
What about ?
Element Operation
Rotation axis, Cn n-fold rotation
Improper rotation axis, Sn n-fold improper rotation
Plane of symmetry, s Reflection
Center of symmetry, i Inversion
Identity, E
n-fold rotation - a rotation of 360°/n about the Cn axis (n = 1 to )
O(1)
180° O(1)
120° 120°
N(1) N(1)
N(1)
H(3)
H(2) H(4)
C31 C32
N(1) N(1)
N(1)
H(2) H(4)
H(4) H(3) H(2)
H(3)
H(2)
C33 = E
N(1)
H(4) H(3)
Notes about rotation operations, Cnm:
- If n/m is an integer, then that rotation operation is equivalent to an n/m -
fold rotation.
e.g. C42 = C21, C62 = C31, C63 = C21, etc. (identical to simplifying fractions)
C43
Cl (4)
Cl (5)
Notes about rotation operations, Cnm:
- Linear molecules have an infinite number of rotation axes C because any
rotation on the molecular axis will give the same arrangement.
C(1) O(2)
O(2)
C(1)
N(2)
N(1)
N(1) N(2)
The Principal axis in an object is the highest order rotation axis. It is
usually easy to identify the principle axis and this is typically assigned to
the z-axis if we are using Cartesian coordinates.
The principal axis is the three-fold axis The principal axis is the six-fold axis
containing the C-C bond. through the center of the ring.
O(1) sv O(1)
sh
Br
Br 2
i 1
1 2 Br 2 1
Br
1 2
Cl F
Cl F
1 2 2 1
i
[x, y, z] [-x, -y, -z]
We will not consider the matrix approach to each of the symmetry operations in this
course but it is particularly helpful for understanding what the inversion operation
does.
n-fold improper rotation, Snm (associated with an improper rotation axis or
a rotation-reflection axis) This operation involves a rotation of 360°/n
followed by a reflection perpendicular to the axis. It is a single operation and
is labeled in the same manner as “proper” rotations.
F1 F2 H1
F4 S4 1 F1 H4 C H2
H3
F2 F3 S41
F2 H2
F3 F4
F1 H1 C H3
90° sh
H4
C21
F3
S42
F4 H3
H2 C H4
H1
e.g. 1,3,5,7-tetrafluoroCOT, S4
F1
F4
F2
F3
e.g. CHFCl2
F H
Cl
Cl
Identifying point groups
Low symmetry groups:
Only an inversion center (Ci)
Br
Br
Cl F
No symmetry (C1)
e.g. CHFClBr F H
Br
Cl
Identifying point groups
Cn type groups:
A Cn axis and a sh (Cnh)
e.g. B(OH)3 (C3h, conformation is important !)
H
O
H
B
O O
H
O O
H
H
B
H
N N
H H
O O
H
Identifying point groups
Cn type groups:
A Cn axis and a sv (Cnv)
H H
O O
H H
Identifying point groups
Cn type groups:
A Cn axis and a sv (Cnv)
H H C O
F F
Sb O
C
F Sb
Br
Cl F F F
Br
F
Identifying point groups
Dn type groups:
A Cn axis, n perpendicular C2 axes
and a sh (Dnh)
H B
H H
H H
Cl Ni Cl
Cl (3)
Identifying point groups
Dn type groups:
e.g. pentagonal prism (D5h)
A Cn axis, n perpendicular C2 axes
and a sh (Dnh)
Mg
Mg
View down the C5 axis
O O O
C
Identifying point groups
Dn type groups:
A Cn axis, n perpendicular C2 axes
and no mirror planes (Dn)
-propellor shapes
Ni
H H H H H
H
H H
Ni
H H
H H
H H H H
Ni
H H H H
e.g. (SCH2CH2)3 (D3 conformation is important!)
e.g. propellor (D3)
H H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Fe Mg Al M