MENC: The National Association for Music Education

String Instrument Intonation in Upper and Lower Registers: The Effects of Accompaniment
Author(s): Vincent J. Kantorski
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Autumn, 1986), pp. 200-210
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for Music
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200 JRME 1986, VOLUME 34, NUMBER 3, PAGES 200-210

The effectsof differentaccompanimentand registerconditionson string instrumentalists'

intonationperformanceof scalar passages were investigated.Forty-eightcollege-aged
instrumentalists(12 each of violinists, violists, cellists, and double bassists)performed
ascendingand descendingwhole-tonetetrachordsin the instruments'upper and lower
registers.All performanceswere accompaniedbyprerecordedcomputergeneratedtones
thatformedfour harmonicinterval typeswithperformancetones.Results indicatedthat
upperregisterperformanceswith accompanimentbelowweresignificantlysharper(p <
.05), relativeto equal temperament,than lower registerperformanceswith accompani-
mentabove, whichwerealso sharp.Descendingtetrachordswereperformedsignificantly
sharper (p < .01) than ascending tetrachords.Violinistsevidencedthe least overall
deviationfollowed in order by violists, cellists, and bassists.The sharpnesspropensity
observedin this study was consistentwith previous research.It appears that further
researchis needed to explain morefully the effects of accompanimentand register
conditionson string instrumentalists'intonation.

Vincent J. Kantorski,BowlingGreenStateUniversity

Sting Instrument Intonation in

Upper and Lower Registers:

The Effects of Accompanimen
Substantialresearch over the past several decades has explored a
number of topics concerning intonationalperformance,including per-
formed direction of scalar vocal passages (Edmonson, 1972; Madsen,
1963, 1966, 1974), wind instrumentalists'performanceof melodic and
harmonicintervals(Duke, 1983; Mason, 1960), string instrumentalists'
performancetendencies (Greene, 1937; Lader, 1977; Nickerson, 1949;
Papich & Rainbow, 1974; Salzberg, 1977; Schackford, 1961, 1962a,
1962b; Small, 1937), musicians' perception versus performance of
ascending scalar passages (Geringer, 1976, 1978), listener preference for
intonation versus tone quality (Geringer & Madsen, 1981; Madsen &
Flowers, 1981; Madsen & Geringer, 1976, 1981), and verbal induce-
ments to improve vocal and instrumental pitch acuity (Albert, 1967;
Duke, 1983; Edmonson, 1972; Geringer, 1978; Salzberg, 1977; Sharp,
1972).
The effects of performance direction on the intonation accuracy of
scalar passages and melodic intervals have been investigated. Descend-

For reprints of this article, contact Vincent J. Kantorski, College of Musical Arts,
Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403.

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 JRME 201
ing scaleswere sung with more accurateintonation than ascendingscales
regardless of practice (Madsen, 1963, 1966), and college wind players
informed of a sharpness propensity in the performance of ascending
scales subsequently performed with increased sharpness (Geringer,
1978). In other studies, college music majors sang ascending melodic
intervals significantly more accurately than descending ones (Edmon-
son, 1972). Duke (1983) observed that wind instrumentalists'overall
intonation accuracyof melodic intervalswas not significantlyaffected by
performance direction.
Simultaneousperformance contexts (i.e., accompaniedperformances)
have evidenced less intonational deviation from an equi-tempered
standard than have unaccompaniedperformancesamong college vocal-
ists (Small, 1977), instrumentalists performing a unison tuning task
(Corso, 1954), and music majorsperforming vocal pitch-matchingtasks
(Vorce, 1964).
Several researchershave investigated the intonation of college string
instrumentalists.When subjectsin a study by Papichand Rainbow(1974)
erred in shifting to a higher pitch, the error tended to be in the sharp
direction. Subjectsin another study (Salzberg, 1977) performed scales,
arpeggios, double stops, and melodies. The greatest deviation was
evidenced in the arpeggio task, the least in the melody task. An observed
predominance of sharp deviations found by Salzberg corroborates
findings made by Geringer (1978) and Papich and Rainbow (1974).
However, in a study by Lader (1977), college subjects performing
ascending triads revealed a general tendency toward performing in the
flat direction.
Other researchers have investigated the intonation of highly trained
or professional string instrumentalists. Analyses of melodic perfor-
mances by professional violinistsindicated that, compared withjust and
equal temperament, major seconds and major thirds tended to be
expanded, minor seconds and minor thirds tended to be contracted,and
perfect fourths approximatedthe just and equallytempered scalevalues
(Greene, 1937). Results of another study, in which professional string
quartet members performed in solo and quartet contexts, indicated that
only slight variations were noted between solo and ensemble perform-
ance of like intervals (Nickerson, 1949). Intonation analysesby Schack-
ford (1961, 1962a, 1962b), of melodic and harmonic intervals per-
formed by professional string trios, revealed an overall sharpness
propensity and variations in intonation that were related to musical
context within a tonality.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of
different accompaniment and register conditions on string instrumen-
talists' intonation in the performance of scalar passages. Additional
aspects of the study investigated the effects of melodic direction and
differences in intonation among instrument types.

METHOD

Forty-eight undergraduate, graduate, and other string instrumental-

ists associated with a school of music at a large Southern university were

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202 KANTORSKI
randomly selected as subjects: 12 each of violinists, violists, cellists, and
double bassists. Average length of playing experience with the perform-
ance instrument was 10.2 years.
Each subject performed ascending and descending whole-tone tetra-
chords (three successive whole steps), with four different accompani-
ments and in the upper and lower registers of the performer's instru-
ment. The lowest performed pitches in lower registers were A3 for
violin, D3 for viola, D2 for cello, and F#i for double bass. Highest
performed pitches in upper registers were A6 for violin, D6 for viola, D5
for cello, and Bb3 for double bass (in the current description, an A440 =
A4).
Each whole-tone tetrachord performance was accompanied by a single
line of computer-generated tones moving in similar motion at one of
four interval distances from the subject's line: unison, thirds (major and
minor), multiple (two) octaves, and compound thirds (i.e., two octaves
plus thirds). Non-unison accompaniment pitches were above the pitches
performed in each string instrument's lower register, and belowthose
performed in the upper register.
The purpose of using non-unison/octave accompaniment intervals in
the present study, in this case thirds, was to make intonation comparison
with unison/octave performances since previous research involving
experienced string players has suggested that thirds evidence substantial
intonation deviation (Greene, 1937; Nickerson, 1949; Schackford, 1961,
1962a, 1962b). Pairs of major and minor thirds were selected in the
present study as non-unison/octave accompaniment intervals.
All instrumentalists performed first in the lower register. A pilot study
(N = 11) in which string instrument registers were rotated revealed that
register order was not a significant factor in intonational accuracy.
Like-instrument subjects performed identical pitches in a given regis-
ter, but each did so in one of two direction orders arranged in a
counterbalanced design. Six subjects of each instrument type (n = 24)
were randomly assigned to Direction Order A, in which the lower
register tetrachords were performed up-down and the upper register
tetrachords down-up;the other six subjects of each instrument type were
assigned to Direction Order B, in which the lower register tetrachords
were performed down-up, the upper register up-down.
The presentation order of accompaniments, each of which formed
one of four harmonic intervals with subjects' performed pitches, was
randomized within instrument registers using a random numbers table
to control for a possible learning effect.
Accompaniment tones were computer generated using the prototype
International Music Systems digital synthesis process on the Plato
computer system. The program was designed jointly by the Music
Group of the Computer-based Educational Research Laboratory
(CERL) at the University of Illinois in Champaign-Urbana, and the
Center for Music Research (CMR) at The Florida State University in
Tallahassee.
Stimulus tapes containing accompaniment tones were initially record-
ed on three audio tracks using an Otari 4-track reel-to-reel tape recorder
(Model MX-5050 BQ II): Track 1 = computer-generated metronome

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 JRME 203
clicks (J = 60); Track 2 = voice informingsubjectof startingbeat
("Ready...one, two, three, begin");and Track 3 = accompaniment
tones.An AKG222 cardioidmicrophonewasused for voicerecordings
on Track2. Tracks1, 2, and3 weresubsequently mixedto stereousinga
Teac5 Tascam8-to-4mixingboardanda Technics2-track1520reel-to-
reel tape recordersuch that the originalTracks1 (metronome)and 2
(voice)were mixedto a singlechanneland recordedas channelA, and
the originalTrack3 (accompaniment pitches)wasrecordedas channel
B.
The timbreof computer-generated accompaniment pitchesapproxi-
matedthatof fluteas graphedby Culver(1956,p. 200).Thistimbrewas
chosenfroma pool of possiblecomputer-generated tonesby a panelof
three professionalmusicianson the basis of its consistentclarityof
timbreacrossthe relativelywidefrequencyrangeusedin the study(34.6
Hz to 1760.0Hz).Equal-loudness levelsweremaintainedforallcomput-
er-generatedaccompaniment tones throughthe use of a Platocomputer
program that duplicatedthe Fletcher and Munson(1933)equal-loud-
ness contours.All accompanimenttones were tuned to exact equal-
temperamenttuning.
Subjectswere testedindividually.Audiorecordingsof performances
were madein a well-ventilated roomdesignedfor acousticalresearch.
A DeArmond contact microphone designed for use with string
instruments (Model 700) was affixed to the front of each instrument
slightly below and to the right of the bridge. The contact microphone
signal was then directed to a Conn ChromaticTuner Model 6T5 set at
A4 = 440Hz, allowing subjectsto tune the A string. The remainingthree
strings of each instrument were subsequentlytuned in the performer's
usual fashion.
Accompanimenttapes were played on a Technics 2-track1520 reel-to-
reel tape recorder and were heard through two KEF Model 105
speakers placed 12 inches apart and 6 feet from the subject. A sound
pressurelevel of 76 to 80 decibels, as measured periodicallyby a Realistic
Music/SoundLevel Meter (Model No. 33-1028), was maintainedduring
testing.
Each subjectperformed 64 pitches accompaniedby the stimulustape.
First, one whole-tone tetrachord was performed either up-down or
down-up (Direction Order A or B) four times in the instrument'slower
register, each time with a different accompaniment, presented in ran-
dom order. Then, a different whole-tone tetrachord was performed
either down-up or up-down four times in the upper register. Subject
performance pitches were recorded on the right channel of a Technics
2-track 1500 reel-to-reel tape recorder at a constant voltage input level.
Each performance pitch was four seconds in duration (4, ? = 60). Each
pair of ascending and descending tetrachords (eight pitches) was per-
formed as an unbroken musical line. Subjects were instructed to
perform all pitches without vibrato.
A 20-s rest period followed each of the first three performances of
tetrachords in each register; the rest period between upper and lower
register examples lasted 60 s. Recorded piano music (Pierre Boulez'
"Premiere Sonate pour Piano," 1946, performed by David Burge on

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204 KANTORSKI
Avant-GardePiano, Candide/Vox CE 31015) heard during all rest peri-
ods was intended to block tonal memory for recently performed tones.
A total of 3,072 performance pitches was analyzed for cent deviations
from equal temperament (48 subjects x 64 pitches = 3,072 pitches).
Intonational analyses were made using the Digital Pitch Extractor (a
peripheral unit of the Plato computer system), developed jointly by the
Center for Music Research, and the Music Group of the Computer-
based Educational Research Laboratory.
A bandpass filter was utilized for each tetrachord such that any tones a
major third below the lowest notated pitch and a major third above the
highest notated pitch would not be analyzed by the Pitch Extractor. In
addition, audio tape inputs below a minimal intensity level incremented
within the Plato system were not analyzed. Thus, due to the bandpass
filter and minimum intensity limits imposed on the system, the Digital
Pitch Extractor analyzed only the fundamental frequency (Hz) of each
performed tone. Cent deviations of performance tones, relative to equal
temperament and accurate to within plus or minus 1.5 cents, were
subsequently calculated using software developed at CMR for the Plato
computer system.
RESULTS

Data used in statistical analyses were the absolute and sharp/flat

deviation values for tetrachordsrather than for individual pitches. The
absolute and sharp/flatdata for tetrachordswere analyzed separately
using the BMDP8V Analysis of Variance ComputerProgram from the
University of California at Los Angeles (revised 1979). The Newman-
Keul's Multiple Comparison of Means test was used to test for differ-
ences among levels of significant factors.
Tetrachord deviation scores were determined as follows: For the
absolute deviation analysis, the absolute (unsigned) cent deviation values
of the four tones comprising a tetrachord were summed. This proce-
dure reflected each subject's total cent deviation from the equi-tempered
standard of tuning. Results of the absolute deviation analysis of variance
are presented in Table 1. A second analysis of variance was conducted
taking directional signs into account. In this analysis, two tones with
signed values of +15 and -5 cents deviation would result in a summed
deviation value of +10 cents, indicating an overall deviation in the
direction of sharpness. Results of the sharp/flat analysis of variance are
presented in Table 2.

Register
Absolute deviation means for tetrachords were greater (p < .04) when
subjects performed in the instruments' upper registers (64.8) than in the
lower registers (52.8). In addition, results of the sharp/flat analysis
indicate that while deviations from equi-tempered intonation occurred
primarily in the direction of sharpness in both performance registers,
the magnitude of this directional deviation was markedly greater (p <
.03) in the upper register (+25.6) than in the lower register (+1.4). It

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 JRME 205
Table 1
Analysisof Variance
(Absolute
Deviation)

Sum of Mean
Source of variance squares DF squares F

Mean 2656090 1 2656090

Groups 342780 3 114260 12.73**
Register 27636 1 27636 4.80*
Accompaniment interval 47016 3 15672 7.02**
Direction 260 1 260 1
Subjects (groups) 394850 44 8974
Groups x register 26380 3 8793 1.53
Groups x accompaniment interval 8956 9 995 1
Register x accompaniment interval 46171 3 15390 5.58**
Note. All other unlisted interactionsin the absolute deviation analysis were not significantat either
the .01 or .05 levels.
*p <. 05
*p <.0 1

should be recalled that the absolute (unsigned) and sharp/flat(signed)

deviation means represent the cumulative cent deviations of the four
tones comprising a performed tetrachord.
The performance register by accompanimentintervalinteractionwas
found to be significant in the absolute deviation analysis (p < .01). As
shown in Figure 1, the absolute cent deviation means for lower register
performance tones at accompaniment intervals of thirds (61.6), two
octaves (39.5), and two octaves plus thirds (57.0), were less than for
upper register means for the same accompanimentintervals(75.4, 72.2,
and 69.4 respectively);unisons were performed with less absolute cent
deviation in the upper register (42.2) than in the lower (53.2).
A significant interaction (p < .01) was also found between perform-

Table2
Analysisof Variance
(Sharp/Flat
Deviation)

Sum of Mean
Source of variance squares DF squares F

Mean 139509 1 139509

Groups 19121 3 6374 1
Register 111964 1 111964 5.64*
Accompaniment interval 5946 3 1982 1
Direction 16884 1 16884 13.35**
Subjects (groups) 1025340 44 23303
Groups x register 307512 3 102504 5.17**
Groups x accompaniment interval 36929 9 4103 1
Register x accompaniment interval 25383 3 8461 1.93
Note.All other unlisted interactionsin the sharp/flatdeviation analysis were not significantat either
the .01 or .05 levels.
*p <.05
**p <.0 1

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206KANTORSKI
Performanceregister:
=
80 Lower
75.4 - Upper
75 -

72 2

70

65
- 61.6
S
60 - 57.0
0 4 0
55-
& 50 - 53.2
0
45-

40 - 42.2
O
U 39.5
0 35

I I I I
Unisons Thirds Twooctaves Twooctaves
plusthirds
intervals
Accompaniment

1. Absolutedeviationmeansforperformance
Figure interval
registerby accompaniment
interaction.

ance register and instrument groups in the sharp/flat deviation analysis

indicating that these two factors were not independent of one another
(see Table 3). It appears that the register condition exerted a consequen-
tial effect on the sharp/flat intonation performance of basses in the lower
(-23.5) and upper (+62.4) registers.

AccompanimentInterval
Performances accompanied by unisons were significantly different, as
determined by the absolute deviation analysis, from those accompanied
by compound thirds and simple thirds (p < .01), but these latter intervals
were not significantly different from one another or from two octaves
(see Table 4). Performances accompanied by unisons were not signifi-
cantly different from those accompanied by two octaves.
TetrachordDirection
There was no significant difference (p > .01) between absolute
deviation means of ascending versus descending tetrachords. However,
the sharp/flat deviation analysis revealed subjects' performances of
descending tetrachords, with a sharp/flat deviation mean of +18.2 cents,
were significantly sharper (p < .01) than performances of ascending
tetrachords with an overall mean of +8.8 cents. There were no signifi-

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 JRME 207
Table3
DeviationMeansfor Instrument
Sharp/Flat RegisterInteraction
GroupbyPerformance

Performance condition
register
Lower Upper

Instrument
Violin + 13.8 + 18.0
Viola - 8.6 + 20.4
Cello + 23.9 + 1.4
Bass - 23.5 + 62.4

cant interactions between tetrachord direction and any of the other

experimental variables in either the absolute or sharp/flat deviation
analyses.
Instruments

Violinistsevidenced the least absolutecent deviation(38.1) followed in

order by violists (48.1), cellists (55.3), and bassists(93.8). There were no
significantdifferences among the absolutedeviationmeans for violinists,
violists,and cellists,but the mean for bassistswas significantlygreater (p
< .01) than those for the three other instrument groups. Results of the
sharp/flatdeviation analysis indicated no significantdifferences among
instrument groups (p > .01).

DISCUSSION

The sharpness propensity observed in this study, particularlyin the

upper register, is consistentwith previous researchinvolvingcollege and
professional string instrumentalists (Geringer, 1978; Greene, 1937;
Nickerson, 1949; Papich & Rainbow, 1974; Salzberg, 1977; Schackford,
1961, 1962a, 1962b; Small, 1937).
The question arises as to the reason for the sharpness propensity in
performances by string instrumentalists.It may be that, since higher
pitched tones are farther up the fingerboard, are often notated with
additionalleger lines, and are usually not performed as often as tones in
the lower positions, string performers may attempt to "reach"for a tone
and overestimateits position.

Table 4
MeanAccompaniment
Interval
Absolute
Deviation

Two octaves
Unisons Two octaves plusthirds Thirds
47.7 55.8 63.2 68.5

Note.Underlineindicatesno significant Allothercomparisons

difference. weresignificant
according
to Newman-Keul's test,p< .01.

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208 KANTORSKI
On the other hand, it may be that performancesin an instrument's
higher registersare related to the performer'sperception of the tones in
those registers. Geringer (1978) addressed this issue by examining the
relationshipbetween the perception and performanceof intonationin
vocalists'and instrumentalists'middle registers. College string players,
one of four instrumentalgroups participatingin the Geringer study,
performed and perceived ascending major scales (sol to sol) in the
instrument'smiddle register with significantlyless deviation than the
other groups. It may be useful to replicatethe Geringer(1978) study in
string instrumentalists'upper (and lower) registersso that relationships
between perception and performance in these registerscould be more
completelyexplained.
Performance tones with accompaniment at the interval of thirds
evidenced the most extensive absolute cent deviation of all intervals
tested in this study, in both the lower and upper registers.This was also
the case for three of the four instrument groups. Cellists, however,
performing in the lower register deviated most when accompaniedby
unisons rather than by thirds. The large absolute deviation values
associated with harmonic thirds in this study are similar to those
reported in previous investigationsin which harmonicmajoror minor
thirdswere performedby string instrumentalists(Greene, 1937; Nicker-
son, 1949; Schackford,1961, 1962a, 1962b).
Perhapsthe most surprisingresult of the sharp/flatdeviationanalysis
was that descending tetrachordsin this study were performed signifi-
cantlysharperthan ascending tetrachords.These resultswere inconsis-
tent with other intonationstudies involvingvocal (Madsen, 1963, 1966,
1974) and string instrument (Salzberg, 1977) scalar performances.
Thus, it appears that further research is necessary to explain more
completelythe effects of performancedirectionon a reportedsharpness
propensity.
Although all subjects were experienced string instrumentalists,it
appears that the upper register performance task may have been too
difficultfor some subjectsto perform comfortably(specifically,several
violistsand bassists).While college bassistsare expected to perform in
the upper register, it should be noted that tones in this range are more
typicallyfound in the instrument'ssolo rather than orchestral reper-
toire. In this sense, upper register materialsapproximatedan accompa-
nied solo performancein that accompanimenttones were at or belowthe
bassist'smelodic line. It appears that some of the bassiststested had
relativelylittle experience with the upper register tones performed in
this study.

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