- I PRIVATE TEACHERS FORUMI------
Teaching a MelodiclHannonic Awareness
of Intonation
Michael Kimber isprofessor ofviola at the
University ofKansas. Be has performed ex-
tensively in theU.S. andabroad asa soloist,
Baroque violinist/violist, andchamber musi-
cian. Kimber isprincipal violist ofthe Kansas
City Chamber Orchestra anda frequent so-
loist. A founding member of the Atlanta
Virtuosi, he has participated in recording
major new chamber works. He is a former
memberoftheKronos Quartet, withwhich he
performed more than 50 concerts. Heearned
his D.M.A. asa studentof Raphael Hillyer.
What string player has not experi-
enced frustration with double stops and
chords or a disagreement over tuning in
an ensemble? Chances are that we were
taught, and we in tum teach, intonation
primarily in terms of two influences:
1. melodic tendencies,suchas closerhalf
steps, higher sharps, lower flats, em-
phatic major/minor distinctions, or
2. equal temperament, the 12-note scale
of keyboard instruments and elec-
tronic tuners.
We may be at a loss to explain a third
influence that cannot be ignored when
two or more pitchesare heard atthe same
time:
3. harmonic agreement, involvinga more
sensitive and flexible approach to
major/ minor distinctions.
Each of these three influences yields
differing results, due mostly to a musical
paradox: pitches that sound in tune indi-
vidually (melodically) do not always
sound in tune together (harmonically)-
and vice versa! We can help our students
anticipate and avoid many intonation
pitfalls by understanding this and by
Barbara Barber, Editor
School ofMusic, Box4239
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409
SPRING 1992
Michael Kimber
having some guidelines for listening and
adjusting.
Melodic and Harmonic Listening
We continually urge our students to
listen intently, but it is not usual to askcarefully, aska studentto play eachof the
them to "listen melodically" or "listen
harmonically," since it is not commonly
understood that these two ways of lis-
tening differ.
When playing melodically, we are lis-
tening to notes one at a time in succes-
sion. We rely on pitch memory, aided by
openstrings and their resonances, to fine-
tune pitches first approximated by our
sense of fingerboard distances. Open-
string resonances define the size of some
melodic intervals, such as the whole step
from G to A. For other intervals, such as
B to C#, we depend on aural memory
alone. Melodic intonation tends to fol- perfect fourth with open A must be low-
low the pattern of Pythagorean tuning, ered to tune the major sixth with open G.
derived from a successionof perfectfifths This pitch difference arises from a dis-
that includes our open strings.
When tuning harmonically, we are
listening to more than one note at the
same time. This involves pitch matching,
a process different from, and more pre-
cise than, pitch memory. The tuning of
harmonic intervals is influenced by har-
monics, present in every note we play.
For example, ifwe play C andE together,
both containing E as a harmonic partial,
and the E's do not match, we notice
something is wrong. Tuning every in-
terval to simpleharmonicratios is known
as just intonation.
Intonation may gravitate in either a
Pythagorean or a just direction, de-
pending upon whether the focus of our
listening is on tuning pitchesin succession
(horizontal focus) or simultaneously
(vertical focus).Sincemusicinvolvesboth
melody and harmony, and an interplay
between their influences is inevitable, it
is important for students to understand
that good intonation is not rigid but
flexible and that it requires continuous
listening and adjusting.
The extent to which this melodic/
harmonic interplay affects the tuning of
thirds and sixths can be easily demon-
strated. After tuning the open strings
double stops in example 1 perfectly in
tune without moving the first finger.
Ex. 1: Pitch interplay of E
o
It cannot be done! The E that makes a
59
crepancy between the harmonic series Ex. 3: Matching harmonic partials and difference tones
and the "circle of fifths."
• •I ::L
: e
::
Harmonics, Fifths, and Discrepancies ~ - -
, -,
Every note we play is actually a series
of harmonic partials whose frequencies ,
--;j
IIIlIt.
~

IT
of vibration are two, three, four, five, and ~

so on, times that of the lowest partial, the eJ ~J

fundamental. The viola's open C string, (difference tone)
for example, produces the pitches of the
••
~.

C major triad-i-C, E, and G-as well as a I

theoretically infinite number of higher
7
,
.-.-.. 1
~

partials forming progressively smaller

intervals. After tuning the open-string seriesoffourperfectfifths/C-G-D-A-E, we find
that the resulting E is higher than the 5th harmonic partial E of the original C!
Ex. 2a: First five harmonic partials of C (The next time you have a violinist in the same room with a violist or cellist,
have them tune up, then notice the clash when openC and E strings are played

I "....,
~ at the same timel) Each ascending perfect fifth increases the frequency by 3/
• 4 2/and 3/2 x 3/2 x 3/2 x 3/2 comes outto 81/16, or 5-1/l6--not an evenS. This
-' discrepancy, a syntonic comma, about 1/5 of a tempered semitone, accounts for
I • 2 the difference between the two E's in example 1.

I ~,. Ex. 4: Melodic/harmonic pitch discrepancy

I
•• ., (E= skXC) (E=SXC)

Ex.2b: Corresponding harmonics of the

open C string 4 2xC.

<-.) <-.)
<:)
II U"
~f-)

U" U"
~
U"
~

U"
Ordinarily, we are aware of only the
fundamental (except when playing in-
dividualharmonics/asshowninexample
2b), but the other partials are always
present, and their influence is noticeable
when playing two or more notes at once.
When an interval is brought into tune
harmonically, some partials of one note
If we continue tuning by perfect fifths (3/2 ascending, 2/3 descending) or
perfect fourths (4/3 ascending, 3/4 descending) all the way around the circle
of fifths, another discrepancy appears: sharps tum out higher than their
enharmonic flats. Multiply the fractions and see for yourself. This enharmonic
discrepancy is the Pythagorean comma, just under 1/4 semitone.
Ex. 5: Enharmonic pitch discrepancy
3/2 3/4
3/2 ~ r--., 3/4

i~@~ ~ &Jni~4 ~~
blend into unison with partials of the
other note. At the same time, vibrations
between the other partials create the sen-
sation of additional, lower-pitched dif-
ference tones (also called resultant tones,
combination tones, or Tartini tones). If an G# =1.4238281 X D

lBl---.. . . . -----~
interval is not in tune harmonically, a
roughness is sensed and beats may be
heard, due to partials being not quite in AI = 1.4046639 X D
unison and difference tones being out of
tune with the notes being played.
For example, to tune the perfect fifth
C-G/ we need to get the 3rd harmonic
partial of C to match the 2nd partial of G.
G~ 2/3
~4/3
~
u
V"" 4/3
4~
The result is an interval with a frequency 2/3 4/3
ratio of 3:2. At the same time, we are
aligning the other partials so that their Pitch Interplay and Temperament
frequency differencesproduce consonant Pitch discrepancies have to be reconciled when tuning keyboard instru-
difference tones. ments such as the piano. Equal temperament, the compromise keyboard

60 AMEAICAN STAING TEACHEA

tuning adopted only after centuries of resistance to its harmonically out-of-tune thirds, is actually a
mistuning in which all fifths are made very slightly narrow (and all fourths very slightly wide) to close the
circle of fifths evenly, eliminate enharmonic pitch differences, and enable unrestricted modulation using
only 12 equally-spaced pitches per octave.
When performing with piano, we must be reasonably in agreement with equal temperament or risk
sounding out of tune. Even so, the inclination persists to play intervals that sound more convincing to us,
either melodically or harmonically.
Our melodic leading-tone tendencies produce narrower diatonic semitones (F#-G,A-Bb) than on the
piano; as a result, we play sharps higher and flats lower than in equal temperament, emphasizing the
contrast between major and minor intervals. Heightening the leading-tone tendency for greater expressive
effect carries us even further from equal temperament. As melodically appealing as such "hyper-
Pythagorean" intonation may be on its own, it must be tempered when playing with accompaniment. Play
example 6 alone and then with piano; you are likely to find the half steps with piano to be a bit "looser."

Ex. 6: Melodic tendencies (shown by arrows)

Corelli, La F olia

-~~
Melodic intonation must be moderated even more to achieve beautifully in-tune double stops, chords,
and ensemble harmonies containing thirds or sixths. Ideally, melodic and harmonic intonation agree in the
tuning of the perfect intervals-unisons, octaves, fourths, and fifths. Thirds and sixths whose constituent
notes are sounding at the same time, however, involve tuning to the 5th harmonic partial. Because the 5th
partial is a comma lower than the product of four perfect fifths in Pythagorean tuning (example 4),
harmonically tuned major thirds and sixths are narrower and minor thirds and sixths are wider than when
tuned either melodically or to equal temperament.
Let'sexaminesomedouble-stop thirds and sixths with open strings. Keepingin mind the narrowermajor
intervals and wider minor intervals of harmonic tuning, we find that sharps need to be lowered and flats
raised. (Note in example 7b that Bb must be raised if its 5th partial is to match the 4th partial of D, and F#
must be lowered if its 3rd partial is to match the 5th partial of A.) Despite this apparent reversal of melodic
tendencies, there is still a clear major/minor distinction, only somewhat less pronounced than in melodic
playing.

Ex. 7a: Harmonic tendencies Ex. 7b: Adjusting to 5th partial

(+>#t-#-.

: ,E I
.a._ (+)~ :!: #I
~. • j-
II +e

Making Intonation Decisions

If only our ears could be satisfied with a single system-melodic intonation, harmonic intonation, or
equal temperament! Unfortunately, neither melodic nor tempered thirds and sixths blend harmonically,
and intervals derived fromharmonic thirds or sixths are not melodically convincing when played alone.
The following comparisons are instructive in this regard.

Half step C-B

Tune
sounds too wide!
GtoC
(alone)

SPAING 1992 61
 How, then, can anyone ever learn to play in tune, since music is both melody and harmony, yet melodic
tendencies and harmonic tuning seem to be at odds? The answer lies in learning how to adjust. All the
notes in example 8 can be played in tune easily once we learn that the Bneeds to be inflected one way or
the other. Deciding which way depends upon whether the focus is on melodic activity or harmonic blend
at any given moment in the music. For example, in the opening of Bach's Double Concerto, melodic
activity predominates, while in the beginning of the last movement of Vivaldi's "Spring," harmonic
agreement is clearly essential.
Ex. 9a: Bach, Concerto in D Minor for 2 violins, 1st mvt

-
Vivace

.. -
-
-' -
,....
r, .... v ..
......
.....
-
--
- - -
• ._ ._ -
r- -
r- _ .,r- 1_"
r
-
~
_1 ~

I ,.
.. ..- _ -.
r-
r - _ ........ _ _

r- _ r-
_

r- _ .,r-
... _ _ _

- - - r-------
, "'... r-
v

Ex. 9b: Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, "Spring," 3rd mvt

"r---- "
- ..
-r
Allegro
.J
- -.
,..... "iii

..-.-. -_. 11~-

~.If -tl: 11~)11 : .. 11-) .. : "l1li l1li.
-
l1li • • l1li l1li.

..
I r.... u. " " "C"l
.- ,.,.
'"
-
,~. n

I . IL
111 • •
..-.-.
-
r.J •
.-/.

Whether listening melodically or harmonically, students must never underestimate the importance of
making clear major / minor distinctions; such distinctions are basic to good intonation. At the same time,
they should learn that we cannot simply play "hyper-melodically," as major or minor as possible, and
expect always to sound in tune with others. Melodic/harmonic interplay indicates that we must decide,
in context, how major or minor to shade our intonation, by continually listening and adjusting.
Informed listening offers definite advantages. Simply having students play examples 1, 6, and 8 will
serve as an introduction to melodic/harmonic awareness. In addition, the following guidelines have
helped both students and professionals resolve intonation dilemmas and refine their listening ability.
Begin applying even a few of them in your own teaching and playing, and be prepared for some
fascinating and ear-opening revelations!

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62 AMERICRN STRING TEACHER

 :
Guidelines for MelodicIHarmonic Interplay in Intonation

1. Good intonation depends upon in-
tent listening and continual flexibil-
ity to accommodate the inevitable
interplay between melodic tenden-
cies, harmonic purity, and keyboard
temperament.
2. Intervals that sound in tune melodi-
cally do not always sound in tune
harmonically, and vice versa-a re-
flection of certain discrepancies be-
tween the circle of fifths and the har-
monic series.
3. Melodicallyplayed,diatonicsemitones
(such as B-C, F#-G, A-Bb) tend to be
close, resulting in wider major inter-
vals,narrowerminorintervals,higher
sharps, and lower flats than in equal
temperament. This intonationis most
effective for rapid passages, scalar
motion, and solo melodic playing..
4. Harmonically tuned, major thirds and
sixthsarenarrower, and minor thirds
and sixths wider, than in equal tem-
perament. As a result, diatonic
semitones are less close, sharps are
lower, and flats are higher. Double
stops, chords, ensemble harmonies,
and chordal outlines call for some
degree of harmonic tuning.
5. The last three sharps or flats of a key
signature and any accidentals gener-
ally indicate the pitches most often
affected by melodic/harmonic inter-
play. Expect these sharps to be lower
and these flats to be higher harmoni-
cally than melodically.
6. The naturals B,E, and A are lower and
F, C, and G are higher when tuned
harmonically as a third, sixth, or tenth
to an open string than when played
melodically. . 11. Tuning the open-string fifths very
7. Expect the third in a major triad to be
lower and the third in a minor triad to
be higher than if played melodically.
When the third is any open-stringnote
(C,G, D,A,or E),be prepared to adjust
the root and the fifth of the triad in-
stead.
8. The scale degrees most susceptible to
harmonic adjustmentarescale degrees
3, 6, and 7 (the same ones altered by a
change of mode from major to minor).
Scale degrees 1, 4, and 5, however,
may be affected in keys where 3, 6, or
7 are open-string notes.
9. Unisons, octaves, fourths, and fifths
tuned as double stops can be used to
check the accuracy of melodic into-
nation. Thirds,sixths,ortenths tuned
as double stops will result in har-
monic rather than melodic intervals.
10. When playing with piano, and es-
pecially with organ, general confor-
mity to the keyboard temperament
is necessary; yet at times our ears
will allow, even demand, a degree
of melodic inflection or harmonic
adjustment of intonation.
slightly on the narrow side (and for
the double bass, tuning the fourths
on the wide side) decreases the me-
lodic/harmonic discrepancy and
also facilitates playing in tune with
equal-tempered accompaniment.
(Note: This tuning does not result in
equal-tempered intonaton.)
12. Melodic/harmonic interplay, in-
volving pitch shading through a
range of less than 1/4 of a semitone,
does not diminish the fundamental
importance of making clear major/
minor distinctions; it is Simply a
refinement of these distinctions! ,

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