Science - Module-1 (Class Viii)

Name: Class:
SCIENCE
STUDY MATERIAL
MODULE – I
CLASS – VIII
INDEX
S.No. Topics Page No.
1. Force, Friction and Pressure 1 - 25

2. Sound 26 - 47
3. Synthetic Fibres and Plastic 48 - 65
4. Metals & Non-Metals 66 - 104
5. Crop Production and Management 105 - 127
6. Microorganisms: Friends & Foe 128 - 145
7. Conservation of Plants and animals 146 - 165
FORCE, FRICTION AND PRESSURE
INDEX
Topic Name Page No.
 Overview 1-1
 Introduction 2-2
 Force, Friction & Pressure 2-15

What is force?
Types of forces
Mass and Weight
Friction force
Factors Affecting Friction
Limiting friction
Radical Test-I
Thrust and pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Pascal’s Law
Buoyant force
Density, Apparent Weight and Relative Density
Radical Test-II
Concept Map 16 - 16
 Exercise 17-24
CBSE Assignment
Mind Booster Assignment
 Solution to CBSE Assignment 25-25
 Answer to Mind Booster Assignment 25-25
SOUND
INDEX
Topic Name Page No
 Overview 26-26
 Sound 27-38
 Simple Pendulum
 Waves Classification on the basis of Medium of Propagation
Mechanical wave
Non-Mechanical wave
 Classification on the basis of Nature of Propagation
Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
 Radical Test-I
 Sound
 Propagation of a Sound Wave (longitudinal wave)
 Characteristics of sound
Loudness
Pitch
Quality or Timber
 Audible and Inaudible Sounds
 Noise and Music
 Sonic Booms
 Reflection of sound
Echoes
Sonar
 Radical Test-II
 Concept Map 39-39
 Exercise 40-46
 CBSE Assignment
 Mind Booster Assignment
 Answer Key 47-47
SYNTHETIC FIBERES AND PLASTICS
INDEX
Topic Name Page No.
 Overview 48-48
 Synthetic fibers & Plastics 49-59
Rayon
Nylon
Polyester
Acrylic
 Characteristics of Synthetics fibers
 Disadvantages of synthetics fibers
 Advantages of synthetics fibers
Radical Test-I
 Types of plastics
Thermosetting plastics
Thermoplastics
Linear & Cross-linked plastics
 Characteristics of synthetic plastics
 Properties, preparation & uses of Some plastics
 Plastics & Environment
 Biodegradable & non-biodegrable Substances
 How to save environment from plastics
 Radical Test-II
Concept Map 60-60
 Exercise 61-64
CBSE Assignment
METALS & NON-METALS
INDEX
Topic Name Page No
 Overview 66-67
 Metals & Non-Metals 68-93
 Physical Properties
Metal
Non-Metals
 Difference between Physical properties of metal & non-metals
 Metalloids
 Chemical properties
Metals
Non-Metals
 Metal Reactivity Series
 Uses of Metals & Non Metals
 Radical Test-I
 Ores & Minerals
 Occurrence of Metals
 Metallurgy
 Radical Test-II
 Concept Map 94-94
 Exercise 95-101
 CBSE Assignment
CROP-PRODUCTION & MANAGEMENT
INDEX
Topic Name Page No.
 Overview 105-105
 Crop Production 106-122
Agricultural Practices
Soil Preparation
Agriculture Implements
Sowing, Adding Manures & Fertilizers
Irrigation & its Methods
Harvesting & Storage
Radical Test
 Exercise 124-126
CBSE Assignment
MICROORGANISMS: FRIENDS & FOE
INDEX
Topic Name Page No
 Microorganisms 129-139
 Major groups of microorganisms
 Various Habitats of Microorganisms
 Friendly Microorganisms & its uses
 Fermentation, Antibiotics & Vaccination
 Radical Test-I
 Harmful microorganisms
 Common human & plant diseases caused by microorganisms
 Food preservation
 Food poisoning
 Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrogen cycle
 Radical Test-II
 CBSE Assignment
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND
INDEX
Topic Name Page No
 Conservation of plants and animals 147-159
 Deforestation, Its causes and consequences
 Biosphere reserve and its role
 Flora & fauna
 Species, endemic species
 Wildlife Sanctuary
 National Parks
 Project Tiger
 Extinct, Endangered, vulnerable & rare species
 Red data book
 Migration
 Reforestation & its advantages
 Radical Test
 CBSE Assignment
FORCE, FRICTION AND PRESSURE
A force is any influence that causes an object to

undergo a certain change, either concerning its
movement, direction, or geometrical construction.
To initiate any motion, force is required. Moving a
cricket ball or opening a door, force is acting to
put the objects into motion.
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of

solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. We are able
to walk or drive our car only because of friction.
Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed. Pressure is
force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object.
Pressure difference is necessary for flying of airplane or drinking of cold drink through
straw.
Delhi & NCR / Mumbai / Akola / Lucknow / Indore / Nashik / Goa / Pune / Kolkata / Bokaro / Nagpur / Durgapur / Dubai 1
FORCE, FRICTION AND PRESSURE FBC-Phy. [VIII]-20-21
WHAT IS FORCE?
A force is a pull or push, which can at least do one of the following:
1. Set a body at rest into motion.
For example: A football set into motion by kick(force).

2. Stop a moving body.
For example: Moving car is stopped after hitting (force) from wall
3. Change the speed of the moving body.
4. Change the direction of the moving body.
For example: A ball changes its direction after it get hit (force) by bat.
5. Change the shape or size of the body.
The direction in which the object is pushed or pulled is called as the direction of force.
TYPES OF FORCES
Forces are of two type, one that acts only when the body is in physical contact with another body and the
other which does not need a physical contact, i.e., it can act from a distance. The first type is known as a
contact force while the latter falls under non-contact forces.
CONTACT FORCE: The forces which acts only when the body is in physical contact
(i) Muscular Force: This force is exerted by the muscle.
Muscular force holding a ball
2 Delhi & NCR / Mumbai / Akola / Lucknow / Indore / Nashik / Goa / Pune / Kolkata / Bokaro / Nagpur / Durgapur / Dubai
(ii) Frictional Force: It is the necessary evil which we will study in later part of the chapter. It acts
tangential to the surface in contact.
Friction force acts when we push a body

(iii) Normal Force: This force acts when two objects come in contact with each other. This force acts
perpendicular to the surfaces in contact.
(iv) Elastic spring Force: force exerted by spring under compression or expansion on objects in
contact
NON-CONTACT FORCE: Physical contact is not necessary for this force to act. It acts from a distance.
(i) Magnetic force: A force which magnet exerts on other magnets or on magnetic substances like
iron.
Under the influence of magnetic force of attraction,

piece of irons and get attracted by magnet.
(ii) Electrostatics force: The force which results due to the repulsion of similar charges or
attraction of dissimilar charges.
(iii) Gravitational Force: The force by which two bodies attract each other by virtue of their
masses.
Under the influence of gravitational force, earth attracts stone.

UNITS OF FORCE:
 SI unit of force is newton (N)
 CGS unit of force is dyne
 Another unit commonly used is kilogram force (kgf).
 1kgf = 9.8 N (It is the gravitational force acting on 1kg of mass)
What happens in tug of war when two teams pull equally hard?
MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. For a particular body mass does not vary with
conditions.
Weight is the force with which Earth pulls a body towards itself.
Unit of Mass:
SI unit of mass is kilogram (Kg)

CGS unit of mass is gram (g).
Measurement of mass:
Mass of a body is measured by a beam balance by comparing the mass with bodies of known
mass. At one place, bodies of same mass have same pull of gravity on them.
Unit of weight:
Units of weight are same as that of force. ‘kgf’ and ‘gf’ are generally used. If mass of a body is
m, then its weight (W) is given by relation W = mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity (g =
9.8 m/s2)
Measurement of weight
Weight of a body is measured by a spring balance.
Illustration 1: Mass of an object is 10 kg. What is its weight on the earth? (acceleration due to gravity, g =
2
9.8 m/s )
Solution: Mass, m  10 kg
Acceleration due to gravity, g  9.8 m / s2
W  mg
W  10  9.8  98N
Thus, the weight of the object is 98 N
FRICTION FORCE
The force acting along the two surfaces in contact which opposes the motion or the tendency of motion
of one body over the other is known as the force of friction or frictional force. It acts on both the surfaces
in contact.
A diagram showing how friction opposes the motion

Reason behind friction
Force of friction arises due to the force of adhesion at the point of contact. Adhesion is the force of
attraction between molecules (material) of different kind. Similarly Cohesion is the force of attraction
between molecules of same kind.
When two rough surfaces come in contact, many contact points are formed. The atoms or molecules
present at such points of contact attracts due to adhesive forces which opposes motion of one body over
other.
FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTION
Friction depends on the following:
1. Nature of surfaces.
Smooth surface (Ice) provide less friction compare to rough surface (grass) provide
2. Normal forces (forces which act perpendicular to the surface) : Friction forces is directly
proportional to normal force between the contact surfaces. Greater the normal force more is the
friction.
3. Actual area of contact and is independent of apparent area of contact (increases with increase in
actual area of contact).
Area of apparent
contact
Magnified viewof the surfaces

Area of actual contact
LIMITING FRICTION
The limiting friction force is the maximum frictional force that can arise before an object begins to slide.
In the figure shown we can see friction (f) acting opposite to the applied force F.
Let us increase the applied force F but till F = f, the block will not move as friction is also increasing
along with F. But this increase of friction is limited up to a value which is known as fl (limiting friction).
Let us take the limiting value of friction be fl, then unless F exceeds fl, the block won’t move over the
rough surface.
Types of friction
Friction is of three types:

1. Static friction
2. Sliding friction
3. Rolling friction
Static friction is the friction acting when one body is not moving over other body but there is a tendency
to move.
Sliding friction is the friction acting when one

body is moving over other body. Sliding friction is
also known as kinetic friction.
Rolling friction acts when body rolls over another rough

body.
Sliding friction and rolling friction both come under the category of kinetic friction, i.e., the friction acting
when the body is in motion.
Static friction > sliding friction > Rolling friction
The above graph between friction and force applied shows the concept of static, sliding and limiting
friction. It can be easily seen that fstatic>fkinetic
Friction due to liquid and gases
When a solid moves in a liquid or gas its surface experiences a frictional force. This frictional force
exerted by fluids is also known as drag.
It is established that fsolid>fliquid>fgas
The shape of the body around which fluid (liquid or gas) can easily flow, offering minimum friction is
called as streamlined flow.
What happens in tug of war when two teams pull equally hard?
Effects of Friction
i) Friction opposes motion of body over other body,
ii) Friction produces Heat (rubbing of surfaces leads to evolution of heat)
iii) Friction causes wear & Tear.
Friction enables us to walk
In position 1, friction acts on the leg if the forward direction which is the driving force for walking.
In position 2, no friction force acts on the leg.
In position 3, friction acts on the leg if the backward direction which is the decelerating force for stop.
Ways to reduce friction
i) Streamlined Shape- The shape of a body around which a fluid (liquid or gas) can easily flow, offering
minimum friction, is called streamlined shape, e.g., Aeroplane, Submarine, Rocket, fish etc.
ii)Polishing – making the surface smooth.
iii)Wheels – due to rolling friction is very less.
iv) Lubricants – makes the surface smooth.
v)Ball Bearing – It has rolling balls due to which there is rolling friction, which is less than both static
and sliding friction.
RADICAL TEST – I (CLASS WORK)
1. List the things that force can do?
2. Name the contact and non-contact force
3. What is the difference between Mass and Weight?
4. Is static friction always less than rolling friction?
5. What are the factors that can affect friction?
THRUST AND PRESSURE
Thrut
The total force acting normal (perpendicular) to any given area is called as Thrust
Pressure
When a force acts perpendicularly on a surface and is uniformly distributed over an area A of the
surface, then the pressure on the points over the area is defined as
Thrust Total force
P or
Area Area
Hence, pressure is the force acting perpendicularly on a unit area of the object.
Unit of Pressure
SI unit of pressure is Newton/metre2 (N/m2)
Newton/metre2 is also called Pascal (Pa)
1N/m2 = 1Pa
The bar is a non-SI unit of pressure, defined by the
IUPAC as exactly equal to 100,000 Pa
i.e. 1 bar = 105 Pa
Barometer used to measure the

pressure
2 2
Illustration 2 : A force 20 N acts over an area of 4 cm . Find the value of pressure (in N/m )?
Force
Solution: Pr essure 
Area 4
Given F = 20 N and A = 4 cm  4  10 m
2
20
 Pr essure   5  10 4 N / m2
4  10 4
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
The pressure at any place due to atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Its value varies from place
to place. The value of atmospheric pressure at the earth’s surface near the sea level is approximately
1.01  105 Pa, which is also known as 1 atmospheric pressure (atm). Thus atm is the unit of pressure.
1 atm is similar to the pressure that 104 kgf of weight of atmosphere above us will exert on
1 m2 of land. Also, 1 atm = pressure exerted by a mercury column of length 760 mm.
Pressure in a Liquid
A liquid exerts pressure on the base of the container due to its weight and on the walls due to collisions
of its molecules with the wall. The magnitude of the pressure exerted by a liquid on a surface inside it
does not depend on how the surface is tilted. Surface is horizontal, vertical or at any angle, the pressure
has the same magnitude. There are four important rules regarding pressure in a liquid
Pressure at different level can be compared with the speed of liquid flowing out.
(i) The pressure in a liquid is the same at all the points at the same horizontal level.
(ii) The pressure increases with depth.
(iii) The pressure depends on the density of the liquid.
(iv) The liquid exerts lateral pressure on the walls of the container.
Measurement of liquid pressure

Pressure in liquid can be measured by a simple device called a manometer. A manometer consists of a
U shaped tube containing liquid. One arm of the tube is open to air and other arm is connected to funnel
with a rubber membrane stretched across its mouth. The difference in pressure in the liquid levels in the
two arms represents the pressure exerted on the rubber membrane.
Pascal’s Law
In a fluid at rest, the pressure applied at any one point in the enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all
direction.
Why the tip of needle is always kept so sharp.
Application of Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s principle is used in hydraulic brakes, hydraulic elevators, hydraulic press, hydraulic jacks,
vacuum pumps and air compressors.
In all these devices, the pressure on the fluid is increased at one point and the fluid carries the increased
pressure to all other points in the machine.
(a) Hydraulic brakes: The force applied to the brake pedal is transmitted to the wheels by a brake
fluid.
(b) Hydraulic press: It consists of a cylinder that contains two pistons, one smaller than the other.
The cylinder is filled with a fluid.
A force applied to the smaller piston is transferred through the fluid to the larger piston.
The force increases in direct proportion to the ratio of the area of the larger piston to the area of
the smaller piston.
Illustration 3: In a hydraulic lift a force of 5 N applied to one piston of cross-section area in 1 m2. If the cross
section of the other piston is 5 m2, find the force on this piston.
Solution: F1 = 5 N, A1 = 1 m2, A2 = 5m2, F2= ?
As we know,
F1 F
 2
A1 A 2
F1 5N  5m2
 F2  , A2  = 25 N.
A1 1m 2
BUOYANT FORCE
A particle whether floats or sink is solely dependent on buoyant force
When an object is immersed in a liquid, it experiences an upward force due to the liquid because of
which it feels lighter. This upward force is called ‘Buoyant force’. Buoyant force is also known as
upthrust.
1. When a piece of wood is held below the surface of water and then released, the wood immediately
rises to the surface. It means some upward force is exerted by water on the wood which pushes it to
the surface.
2. When a stone lying at the bottom of a pond is lifted up, it appears to be light as long as it is being
lifted inside water. But as soon as the stone is lifted out of water into air, one feels it to be much
heavier. It means some upward force acts on the stone when it is immersed in water and makes us
feel lighter.
Cause of Buoyant Force:

Consider a rubber ball dipped completely inside a liquid filled in a beaker. The liquid in contact with the
ball exerts a force in perpendicular direction, pressing it. Therefore, the force on the surface near the
topmost point A is downwards, whereas on the surface near the lowest point, C it is upwards. The force
on the surface near the point B is towards the left and near the point D is towards the right. Now, the
forces acting on it are not equal in magnitude.
The point C lies at a greater depth than point A. Therefore pressure at C is larger than A. Consider equal
areas near A and C.
F
A
D B
C
It means upwards force near C is larger in magnitude than the downward force near A. Therefore, the
forces exerted on different parts of the ball by the liquid are not balanced. Hence the resultant force
exerted by the liquid acts in upward direction, which is called buoyant force.
Factors Affecting Buoyant Force
The magnitude of buoyant force acting on an object immersed in a liquid depends on two factors:
(i) Volume of the Solid object immersed in the liquid

As the volume of object immersed inside the liquid increases, the upward buoyant force increases.
When the object is completely immersed in the liquid, the buoyant force is at its maximum.
(ii) Density of the liquid in which the object is immersed
As the density of liquid increases, the buoyant force exerted by the liquid also increases, e.g. sea-water
has higher density than fresh water, and therefore sea-water will exert more buoyant force on an object
immersed in it than the fresh water.
BUOYANT FORCE HELPING A BOAT TO FLOAT OVER WATER
Archimedes Principle
When a solid body is fully or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body,
and this force has a magnitude equal to the weight of displaced fluid. In other words,
Buoyant force acting on an object = weight of the displaced fluid
The force exerted by a fluid on a solid body dipped partially or fully in it is called the buoyant force, e.g. if
only a part of the ball is inside the liquid, then it displaces a smaller volume of liquid. The volume of the
liquid displaced is equal to the volume of that part of the ball which is inside the liquid. The net force
exerted on the ball by the liquid is again in the upward direction and it is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid.
This rule is also applicable for solids immersed in gases.
A body of weight W is completely immersed in a liquid and released, and then the two forces acting on it
are:
a) The weight W, of the body in downward direction.
b) Buoyant force B exerted by the liquid in upward direction.
Therefore,
(i) If W > B, then net force on the body is in downward direction and the body sinks. It
reaches the bottom and stays there.
(ii) Principle of Floatation: If B > W, net force on the body will be in upward direction. Body
will come to the surface and floats, with a part of it inside the liquid. A body will float in a
liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by it, is greater than equal to its own weight. This
is called the principle of floatation.
(iii) For a floating body, to be in equilibrium,
Weight of the liquid displaced = Weight of the body or B = W
Illustration 4: If a body of density 5  103 kg/m3 and volume 4 m3 immersed in a fluid of density
4  103 kg/m3, find the buoyant force acting on the body. (g = 10 m/s2 )
Solution: Volume of body = 4 m3
 Water displaced by the body = volume of the body = 4m3
 Mass of the liquid displaced = Water displaced  density of liquid
3  3 3 3
= 4m 4  10 kg/m = 16  10 kg
Weight of liquid displaced = 16  103 kg  g
3
= 16  10 10 N
= 16  104 N
The principle of floatation is applicable to both liquid and gaseous state of the fluid.
DENSITY, APPARENT WEIGHT AND RELATIVE DENSITY

Density of a substance:
Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. Its SI unit is Kg/m3. Under specified
conditions, it is always same. Therefore, it is one of the characteristic properties of the substance.
Apparent Weight
When a body is dipped in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on it which is called buoyant force.
Due to which less force is needed to hold the body. This, weight of the body inside a liquid is called the
apparent weight of the body. Apparent weight of a body dipped in a liquid is less than its true weight.
Relative Density
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water. That is:
Density of the subs tance

Relative density of a substance 
Density of Water
Mass Mass
We know that, Density  , so by writing in place of the density in the above relation, we
Volume Volume
get:
Massof the substance Volume of water

Relative density of a substance  
Volume of the substance Mass of water
Now, if we take ‘equal volume of the substance and of water’, then the two volume factors of the above
relation cancel out, and we are left with:
Mass of the substance

Relative density of a substance 
Mass of equal Volume of water
This relation gives us the following definition of relative density. The relative density of a substance is the
ratio of the mass of any volume of the substance to the mass of an equal volume of water. In other
words, the relative density of a substance is the mass of the substance relative to the mass of an equal
volume of water. As the relative density is a ratio of two similar quantities (masses), it has no units.
The relative density of a substance expresses the heaviness (or density) of the substance in comparison
to water. For example, the relative density of iron is 7.8. Now, by saying that the relative density of iron is
7.8 we mean that iron is 7.8 times as heavy as an equal volume of water. (Relative density is also
known as specific gravity)
RADICAL TEST – II (CLASS WORK)
1. Why is it difficult to use a pair of scissors with blunt blades?
2. Why is it much easier to burst an inflated balloon with a needle than by a finger. Explain.
3. What is the necessary condition to float a body?
4. Name the factors on which buoyant force depends?
5. What is the value of atmospheric pressure at the surface of earth?
CONCEPT MAP
CBSE ASSIGNMENT (HOME WORK)
Very short Answer Type Questions
1. Does force acting on a body always cause a change in its state of motion?
2 What measures the earth’s gravitational pull on an object, its weight or mass?
3. Which type of force is exerted by a static charge?
4. Which force tends to slow down objects?
5. Name the force that acts on all bodies on the earth at all times.
6. What is the force per unit area?
7. What do you understand about the force of friction?
8. What is the unit of pressure?
9. What is the resultant force when two forces act in same direction?
10. Whether the following statement are true or false
a. Buoyant force is experienced only when bodies are immersed in liquids and not in
gases.
b. In a barometer the height of mercury column is independent of the shape and size of
the tube.
c. Liquids having a higher density exert a greater pressure.
d. The bodies appear heavier when immersed in a liquid.
e. When a gas is compressed, its pressure decreases.
f. Buoyant force acts in all directions
short Answer Type Questions

1. What is a force? Explain with help of some example.
2. What are the two factors which affect the frictional force acting on a body?
3. Describe state of motion.
4. Why do deep-sea divers wear special suits?
5. Why do some people suffer from nose bleeds at higher altitudes?
6. A body weigh 70 N in air. It displaces 0.002 m3 of water when fully immersed into
water. [Take g = 10 m/s2 and density of water = 1000 kg/m3]
Calculate:
(i) Weight of the water displaced (ii) Weight of the object in water.
7. A boy has a volume of 0.049 m3. What would be the upthrust acting on him in water?
(Take g = 10 m/s2 and density of water = 1 g/cm3.)
8. The relative density of a body weighing 20 N in air is 4. Find its weight in water.
9. Calculate the density of a body which weighs 15 N in air and 12 N in water. (density of
water = 103 kgm-3)
10. Two different objects completely immersed in water undergo same loss in weight. Is it necessary
that their weights in air should also be same? Explain.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Define Archimedes principle.

2. Prove that the force of friction depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact.
3. What are non-contact forces? Explain different types of non-contact forces.
4. A body weighs 450 N in air and 310 N in water when completely immersed. [Take g = 10 m/s2
and density of water = 1000 kg/m3]
Find: (i) Loss in weight of body (in water) (ii) Upthrust (iii) Volume of the body.
-3
5. A body of density 0.8 g cm floating on a liquid has 80% of its volume submerged in a liquid. Find
the density of the liquid.
MIND BOOSTER ASSIGNMENT
FOUNDATION BUILDER (CLASS WORK)

1. If no force acts on a body it will:
(a) change shape
(b) move with increased speed
(c) either remain in rest or move in a straight line
(d) break up
2. A force is applied to an object in the direction of its motion. The speed of object will:
(a) increase (b) can’t say (c) decrease (d) remain unchanged
3. In football, a goal keeper stops a ball. This is due to:
(a) friction between the ball and hand of goal keeper
(b) decrease in speed of ball due to air resistance
(c) application of force by goal keeper
(d) all of the above
4. Which of the following example describes change of shape by applying force?
(a) kicking a ball to move faster (b) switching on a fan to rotate
(c) jumping from a height (d) tearing a paper into two pieces
5. Which of the following is NOT a type of force?
(a) muscular (b) magnetic
(c) chemical (d) pulling a bucket of water from a well
6. Which of the following action describes pushing by a body?
(a) kicking (b) picking (c) lifting (d) opening
7. The force of friction between two bodies is:
(a) parallel to contact surface (b) perpendicular to contact surface
(c) inclined to contact surface (d) a non contact force
8. Friction force is responsible for changing:
(a) shape of an object (b) direction of an object
(c) speed of an object (d) all of the above
9. Friction is a type of:
(a) contact force (b) non contact force
(c) resistance force (d) motion
10. Friction can be increased by:
(a) making the surfaces rough (b) using dry surfaces
(c) increasing the weight (d) all of the above
11. Powder is used in carom board for:

(a) increasing friction (b) decreasing friction
(c) decoration (d) fragrance
12. Which of the following is used to reduce friction in a rotating machine?
(a) wheels (b) rollers
(c) ball bearing (d) polishing
13. A streamlined body:
(a) increases friction (b) reduces friction
(c) decreases weight (d) increases weight
14. The thrust is expressed in
(a) Newton (b) N/m2 (c) Pascal (d) none of these
15. Barometer is used for measuring:
(a) Liquid pressure (b) Thrust
(c) Atmospheric pressure (d) Air temp
16. Thrust is:
(a) Force x area (b) Force / Area (c) Pressure (d) Pressure x Area
17. The atmospheric pressure is due to the:
(a) sky above our head
(b) air mass surrounding earth
(c) gravitational force of sun and other planets
(d) mass of the earth
18. During dry weather, while combing hair, sometimes we experience hair flying apart. The force
responsible for this is
(a) force of gravity (b) electrostatic force (c) force of friction (d) magnetic force
19. Two objects repel each other. This repulsion could be due to
(a) frictional force only
(b) electrostatic force only
(c) magnetic force only
(d) either a magnetic or an electrostatic force
20. In cities water supply from an overhead tank to the houses is done due to:
(a) difference in pressure (b) gravitational force
(c) decrease of friction in pipes (d) flow of liquid
CONCEPT STRENTGENER (HOME WORK)
1. A body floats in water because:
(a) no force is acting on it. (b) the net force acting on this body is zero
(c) of gravitational pull (d) of friction between body and the water
2. In which of the following cases the net force is not equal to zero?
(a) A kite skillfully held stationary in the sky
(b) A ball falling freely from a height
(c) A helicopter hovering above the ground
(d) A cork floating on the surface of water
3. A car accelerates on a horizontal road due to the force exerted by:
(a) the engine of the car (b) the driver of the car
(c) the earth (d) the road
4. While walking on ice, one should take small steps to avoid slipping. This is because
smaller steps ensure:
(a) larger friction (b) smaller friction
(c) larger normal force (d) smaller normal force
5. In which of the following activity, friction is useful?
(a) driving a car (b) hitting a ball with bat
(c) rowing a boat (d) sitting on a chair
6. In which of the following cases more friction is desirable?
(a) movement of piston in a Cylinder (b) braking of a vehicle
(c) running on a track (d) all of the above
7. Spikes are provided in the shoes of athlete:

(a) for decoration (b) to increase friction
(c) to decrease friction (d) none of the above
8. The frictional force exerted by fluids is called:
(a) lift (b) drag
(c) rolling friction (d) dynamic friction
9. Friction reduces efficiency of machines due to:
(a) production of heat (b) wearing out of moving parts
(c) increase in energy consumption (d) all of the above
10. The magnitude of non-contact force depends upon:
(a) distance between two bodies (b) density of the two bodies
(c) chemical properties of the two bodies (d) all of the above
11. Which of the following is NOT attributable to application of force?
(a) rowing of a boat (b) bursting of a balloon while blowing
(c) pedaling a cycle (d) catching a moving cricket ball
12. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT for friction force?
(a) Friction force is produced when two objects rub against each other
(b) A lighter object will experience a smaller frictional force
(c) friction produces more wear and tear
(d) friction is always harmful
13. The force used by an archer to pull a bow is :
(a) Muscular (b) gravitational force
(c) friction force (d) elastic spring force
14. A non-liquid barometer is
(a) Simple barometer (b) Fortin’s barometer
(c) Aneroid barometer (d) none of these
15. Which of the following is NOT true?
(a) A sharp knife can easily cut due to its small cutting surface
(b) It is easier to walk in sand than on road
(c) A battle tank can move easily on soft ground because its tracks have bigger
Surfaced
(d) The pressure exerted by a needle is much more than the foot of an elephant
EXPERTISE ATTAINER (HOME WORK)
1. A force of 5 N is required to move an object form rest. The maximum value of static friction (f)
acting on the body will be:
Object
Force
(a) 5 N (b) f > 5 N (c) f < 5 N (d) 10 N
2. Which of the following statement is CORRECT?

(a) rolling a body is easier than sliding
(b) sliding a body is easier than rolling
(c) dragging a body is easier than sliding
(d) dragging a body is easier than rolling
3. In which of the following cases, the speed of the ball will be more?
A B
(a) A > B (b) B > A
(c) In both cases speed will be same (d) None of the above
4. The surface of the head of a match stick and sides of a match box are deliberately made
rough to:
(a) increase friction (c) increase amount of heat
(b) decrease friction (d) decrease amount of heat
5. A meteor burns up on entering earth’s atmosphere due to:
(a) atmospheric pressure (b) heat of the earth
(c) solar radiation (d) excessive friction
6. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?
(a) Friction can be reduced by converting sliding friction into rolling friction
(b) Friction in air and water can be reduced by streamlining the shape of the object.
(c) A polished surface will have less friction.
(d) Friction can be reduced to zero
7. In decreasing order of magnitude which of the following is CORRECT?
(a) rolling friction, static friction, sliding friction
(b) static friction, sliding friction, rolling friction
(c) static friction, rolling friction, sliding friction
(d) sliding friction, static friction, rolling friction
8. Four forces are acting on a body. If the body doesn’t change its position or shape, the
forces:
(a) must be of equal magnitude
(b) must be parallel & opposite
(c) must add up to zero when taken as vectors
(d) must be in a single line
9. Two magnets A & B are placed with like poles having one above another. Then :
N S A
N S B
(a) A will stuck to B (b) A will remain as shown in the figure

(c) A will move sideways (d) Can’t say
10. If the weight of body is more than the weight of the liquid displaced by it, then the body
may:
(a) floats (b) sinks
(c) first floats and then sinks (d) none of these
11. The given figure shows the cross section of a dam and its reservoir. The widening of the
wall, towards the bottom is because of ________
Water level
Thickness of wall
(a) increase in pressure with depth of water

(b) decrease in pressure with depth of water
(c) change in density of water
(d) increase in mass of the wall
12. We use a straw (narrow pipe) to drink juice from a glass. This is possible due to
presence of:
(a) liquid pressure (b) atmospheric pressure
(c) gravitational pull (d) all of the above
13. A body submerged in the sea is brought up to its surface. Which of the following graphs
represents correctly the variation of the pressure on the body with increase in the depth?
1 atm 1
Pressure Pressure
Depth in meter Depth in meter

Sea surface Sea surface
(a) (b)
1 1
Pressure Pressure
Depth in meter Depth in meter
Sea surface Sea surface
(c) (d)
14. Which of the following statement is INCORRECT?

(a) A freely falling body is acted upon by gravitational force
(b) Pressure on top of Mt. Everest is much more than 1 atm
(c) S.I. unit of pressure is pascal
(d) The blood vessels in our body maintains the internal pressure equal to the
Atmospheric pressure
16 N
15. A force of 16 N is distributed uniformly on one surface of a cube of edge 8 cm.
The pressure on this surface is:
(a) 3500 Pa (b) 2500 Pa
(c) 4500 Pa (d) 2000 Pa
k 8
cm
SOLUTION TO CBSE ASSINGNMENT
Very Short Answer Type Questions

10. a. False b. True c. True d. False e. False
f. False
Short Answer Type Questions

6. (i) 20 N (ii) 50 N 7. 490 N
8. 15 N 9. 5000 kg m-3
10. No
4. (i) 140 N (ii) 50N (iii) 1.4 × 10-3 m3
5. 1 g cm-3
ANSWERS TO MIND BOOSTER ASSIGNMENT
FOUNDATION BUILDER
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19 (d) 20 (a)
CONCEPT STRENTGENER
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b)
EXPERTISE ATTAINER
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4.(a) 5. (d)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9.(b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14.(b) 15. (b)
SOUND
A sound wave is a pattern of disturbance caused by the
movement of energy travelling through a medium (such as air,
water, or any other liquid or solid matter) as it propagates away
from the source of the sound. The source is some object that
creates waves. Surrounding medium; those particles disturb those next to them, and so on. The
pattern of the disturbance creates outward movement in a wave pattern, like waves of sea water in
the ocean. The wave carries the sound energy through the medium, usually in all directions. Its
intensity decreases as it moves farther from the source.
The idea that sound moves in waves goes back (at least) to about 240 B.C. The Greek philosopher
Chrysippus (c. 240 B.C.), the Roman architect and engineer Vetruvius (c. 25 B.C.), and the Roman
philosopher Boethius (A.D. 480-524) each theorized that sound movement might take a wave form.
SOUND FBC-Phy. [VIII]-20-21
INTRODUCTION
In physics, a wave is a disturbance (an oscillation) that travels through space as time passes. It is
accompanied by transfer of energy.
When a pebble is thrown into still water, circular ripples are formed which spread out in all directions
on the surface of water, from the point where the stone hits the water surface. Thus, the kinetic
energy of the stone is transferred to the water and that energy is distributed to the entire water in the
pond in the form of ripples or waves. To check whether water moves along with ripples produced or
not, we can observe a floating object like cork or a leaf placed on the surface of water. As the ripple
move in all possible direction on the surface of water from the point where the disturbance is
produced, the leaf/cork which is floating on the surface of water vibrates/moves up and down, but
does not have lateral translatory (side ways) motion along the surface of water.
We even observe that the leaf/cork does not start vibrating until the first ripple reaches it from the
point of disturbance. This is the characteristic of the propagation of waves.
The energy is transmitted from one point to another without actual translatory motion or transport of
the particles across the medium. Thus a “wave is a disturbance produced at a point in a medium or
a field and is transmitted to other parts of the medium or the field, without the actual translatory
motion of the particles” The transfer of energy in the form of waves is known as “wave motion”.
SIMPLE PENDULUM
A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m, usually called the bob, suspended from a rigid
support with the help of an unstretchable, mass less string.
A practical simple pendulum has small metallic bob suspended from an unstrechable thread and its
length ‘l’ is the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity of the bob.
A, B, extreme positions, O mean position

When a simple pendulum is set to oscillate it moves to and fro about its mean position between the
two extremes A and B with constant amplitude as shown in the figure.
When we plot the horizontal displacement and the time on a graph paper the curve obtained would
be in the form of a wave.
Each loop of the graph represents one complete oscillation of the pendulum. When the bob is at its
mean position the displacement is zero, and at its extremes the displacement is either ‘+a’ or ‘-a’
corresponding to the amplitude of the oscillation.
Oscillation
Oscillation is the repetitive motion performed about a central point called as mean position.
Example: Pendulum of wall clock oscillating about the lower most point.
Vibration
The to and fro or back and forth motion of an object is called Vibration.
Oscillations and Vibrations are the same.
WAVES
A wave can be described as disturbances that travel though a medium from one location to another.
Classification of Waves
Wave can be classified on the basis of medium of propagation and nature of propagation.
Some wave requires medium to propagate whereas some propagate without any medium i.e. in
vacuum as well. Vacuum is a medium with no matter. It is also referred as ‘no medium’.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MEDIUM OF PROPAGATION
(i) Mechanical Waves: The waves which require medium for their propagation are called
mechanical waves or elastic waves. For example: waves in stretched string or water waves.
(ii) Non Mechanical Waves: The waves which do not require medium for their propagation are
called non-mechanical waves. Light and radio waves, -rays, X-rays etc, are common
examples of such waves.
Now we can further classify waves in two parts on the basis of particle and wave motion.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF PROPAGATION
(i) Transverse Waves: If the particles of medium vibrate about their mean position in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, wave is called transverse wave. For
example: wave produced in a string is transverse in nature.
It propagates in the form of crests and troughs. The particles having maximum upward displacement
are called crests and particle having maximum downward displacement are called troughs. All
electromagnetic waves e.g. light and radio waves are transverse in nature.
(ii) Longitudinal Waves: If the particles of medium vibrate about their mean positions in the
direction of wave propagation, the wave is called longitudinal wave. These are propagated in
the form of compression and rarefaction and also known as pressure or compression waves.
Waves on spring and sound waves in air are common examples of longitudinal waves.
A compression is that part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the medium are closer to
one another than they normally are, and there is a momentary reduction in volume of the medium.
We will see further analysis while studying sound because sound wave is a longitudinal wave.
TERMS RELATED TO WAVE MOTION
The snap shot (photograph of an instant) of a transverse wave can be represented as shown in the
figure
Crest: It is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in upward direction.

Trough: It is the point of maximum displacement of a particle in downward direction.
Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of the particles either upwards or downwards.
Wavelength ( ): It is the distance between any two successive crests or troughs.
1
Wave number: It is the reciprocal of wavelength i.e.

Time period (T): It is the time required for one oscillation.
Frequency (): It is the number of oscillation or vibration made by a particle in one second.
1
 .
T
The S.I. unit of frequency is hertz (Hz)
1 hertz = 1 s-1
Velocity of a wave (v): It is the speed with which the wave propagates in the medium.


T
  n
(i) Wave velocity and velocity of particle are different. Wave velocity is in direction of wave
propagation which remains constant with time for a given medium under same physical
conditions. While particle vibrates about mean position and particle velocity is a function of
time for a particular particle.
(ii) The frequency ‘  ’ of oscillation is characteristic property of wave. When wave goes from one
medium to another medium, its velocity and wavelength changes but frequency remains
same.
Illustration 1: A simple pendulum completes 10 oscillations in 20 sec. Find its time period and
frequency.
Solution : The time period is the time taken to complete one oscillation.
20
Hence time period T =  2sec
10
1
and frequency f   0.5 Hz
T
Illustration 2: The distance between 1st compression and the rarefaction next to 2nd compression in
a longitudinal wave is 15 m. If the frequency of the wave is 200 Hz then find the speed
of wave.
Solution : Distance between two consecutive compression or rarefaction is  and the distance between
neighboring compression and rarefaction is /2. Therefore,
 3
  15   15
2 2
   10m
 v  f
 v  200x10  2000m / s
1. A wave travel as shown in figure. If the time taken to travel from A to B is 0.1 sec. Find
(a) Points which belongs to crest (b) Point which belongs to trough
(c) Amplitude (d) Wavelength
(e) Wave number (f) Time period
(g) Frequency
SOUND
Sound is a type of energy made by vibrations. When any object vibrates, it causes movement in the
air particles. These particles bump into the particles close to them, which makes them vibrate too
causing them to bump into more air particles. This movement, called sound waves, keeps going
until they run out of energy. If your ear is within range of the vibrations, you hear the sound.
Production of Sound
The to and fro or back and forth motion of an object is called vibration. When a tightly stretched
band is plucked, it vibrates and produces sound. When it stops vibrating, it does not produce any
sound. We see that a vibrating object produces sound. In some cases, the vibrations are easily
visible to us. But in most cases, their amplitude is so small that we cannot see them, however, we
can feel them.
All musical instruments have vibrating parts, which produce sound.
In human beings, sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx.
We hear through the vibration of our eardrum, whenever sound reaches our ears.
Sound as Energy
Sound is produced due to vibration and to start vibration energy is required. Therefore, sound is
energy.
Sound as Wave
Going back to the definition of wave, a ’wave’ is a disturbance (an oscillation) that travels through
space as time passes. It is accompanied by transfer of energy. Hence, sound is also a form of
wave.
Sound wave is a longitudinal wave i.e. the sound energy propagates in the direction of vibration of
particle.
PROPAGATION OF A SOUND WAVE (LONGITUDINAL WAVE)

Sound cannot travel through vacuum. It requires a medium to travel. Sound propagation is due to
vibration of the particle of the medium.
The figure on the next page shows a longitudinal sound wave in air. In the Figure, all the regions
marked C are compressions.
Diagram to show the compressions and rarefactions of a longitudinal wave.
A compression is that part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the medium are very close
than normal, and there is a momentary decrease in the volume of the medium.
A rarefaction is that part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the medium are farther apart
than normal, and there is a momentary increase in the volume of the medium.
Propagation of Sound through Solids

You might have done or observed that when we put our ear on a rail track through which trains
generally passes, you can detect a train coming towards you far before it has arrived due to the
propagation of sound through rail track (solid).
Propagation of Sound through Liquid

Place a squeaking toy in a polythene bag and hold it in a bucket of water. Place your ear against the
side of the bucket and squeeze the toy again and you all able to hear its squeak. This activity
shows that sound can travel through liquids as well.
Propagation of Sound through Gases

Fill a balloon with air and press it to your ear, scratch the other end of it with your fingers. You will
note that the sound reaches your ear. This activity shows that sound can also travel through gases.
The velocity of sound is approximately 330 m/s at standard temperature (273.15K i.e. 00C) and
pressure condition (100 kPa i.e. 0.986 atm). It varies with temperature, pressure, humidity and
density of the medium.
Velocity of sound is independent of amplitude, frequency & wave length of the wave. If the temperature
of the medium is constant then velocity of sound becomes independent of pressure too.
Velocity of sound in different media
Medium Speed of sound (in m/s)

Gases
Air 330
Carbon dioxide 260
Hydrogen 1270
Liquids
Alcohol 1210
Turpentine 1325
Water 1450
Solids
Copper 3560
Steel 5100
Glass 5500
Granite 6000
From the above data it can be easily seen that the velocity of sound in solid is greater than its
velocity in water , which is greater than its velocity in air.
Vsolid > Vwater > Vair
Characteristics of Sound
We hear different kinds of sounds in our surrounding. Each sound is different from the other. But
what makes these sounds different?
A sound differs from the other sounds in three fundamental characteristics:
(a) Loudness: Loudness of sound is the degree of sensation of sound produced in ear. This
characteristic property of sound distinguishes a feeble sound from a loud sound. Loudness
depends upon the following factors.
 Response or Sensitivity of the Ear for Sound of that Frequency.
(Loudness of the sound also depends upon the sensitivity of the ears of the listeners.)
 Amplitude of Vibration (Greater the amplitude louder is the sound.)
 Area of the Vibrating Body
(Larger the area of the vibrating body, louder is the sound produced. A large drum
produces louder sound than a small drum.)
 Distance from the Source
(Loudness of sound decreases with an increase in distance of the listener from the
source.)
(b) Pitch: Pitch is the characteristic which determines the shrillness of sound. If we press the keys
of a harmonium one after another, different sounds are heard due to the difference in pitch.
The pitch of a sound depends on the following two factors.
 Frequency of the Vibrating Body
With increase in frequency of the vibrating body, the pitch of sound increases.
 Relative Motion between the Source and the Listener
When the source is approaching or is being approached by a listener, the pitch of the
sound appears to rise and when the source is receding or is goes farther away from the
listener, the pitch of the sound appears to fall.
Pitch is different from frequency. Pitch is a subjective property and cannot be measured quantitatively
whereas frequency is a measurable quantity. A sound of a particular frequency may have different
pitch to different listeners.
(c) Quality or Timber: The characteristic of sound which enable us to distinguish between two
sounds of the same pitch and loudness, produced by two different sources is called its
Quality or Timber.
Illustration 3: Find the frequency and wavelength of a wave whose time period is 0.001 sec and
speed is 200 m/s.
Solution : Relation between frequency and time period   1 / T
T = 0.001 sec
1
   1000 Hz
0.001
speed 200
We also know wavelength   
frequency 1000
  0.2m
Illustration 4: A source produces 12 waves in 4 sec. The distance between a crest and a consecutive
trough is 6 m. Find
(a) frequency (b) wavelength (c) velocity of wave
Solution : Number of waves produced in 4 seconds = 12
Hence number of waves produced per second = 3
thus, frequency of wave is 3 Hz
Distance between crest and consecutive trough = 6 m = /2
Hence wavelength   2  6  12 m
We know wave speed v  
V = 3  12 = 36 m/s.
Illustration 5: Find the wave velocity, wavelength and frequency of wave shown in the figure.
Solution : It is clear from figure

Time period of wave T = 4 milli second = 4  10–3 sec
1 1
 Frequency of wave     250 Hz
T 4  103

Distance between trough and crest is 2m. Hence  2m
2
Wavelength  = 4m
Wave speed = v =   250  4  1000 m/s
AUDIBLE AND INAUDIBLE SOUNDS

Sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per second (20 Hz) cannot be detected by the
human ear. Such sounds are termed as Inaudible. On the other side, sounds of frequencies higher
than about 20,000 vibrations per second (20 kHz) are also not audible to the human ear. Thus, for
human ear, the range of audible frequencies is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
Sound of frequency above than 20 KHz is an Ultrasonic sound and sound below 20 Hz is Infrasonic
sound. The ultrasonic and infrasonic sounds are not audible to humans as they are out of the
human hearing range.
Some animals can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. Dogs have this ability. The
police use high frequency whistles which dogs can hear but humans cannot.
The ultrasound equipment, familiar to us for investigating and tracking many medical problems,
works at frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
NOISE AND MUSIC

Some sounds are pleasant to the ear, whereas some are not.
Do you enjoy the sounds produced by horns of buses and trucks? Such unpleasant sounds are
called Noise. On the other hand you enjoy sounds from musical instruments. Musical sound is one
which is pleasing to the ear. Sound produced by a harmonium is a musical sound. The string of a
sitar also gives out a musical sound.
Noise Pollution: Unwanted sound is noise. These are unpleasant. Loud noise produces noise
pollution, which is harmful and may cause harmful effect of human being as
(a) hearing impairment.
(b) Lack of sleep,
(c) hypertension (high blood -pressure),
(d) anxiety and many more.
A person who is exposed to a loud sound continuously may get temporary or even permanent
impairment of hearing.
Measures to control Noise Pollution

Some methods to control noise pollution are given below:
(i) Noisy operations and industries must be set up away from any residential areas.
(ii) More trees should be planted along the roads and around building to act as noise barrier .
(iii) Airports should be made away from residential areas.
(iv) Good quality silencers should be used in the engine of vehicles and aircraft.
(v) TV, music system, loudspeakers should be run at low volumes.
(vi) Increasing public awareness about harmful effect of noise pollution by providing them factual
information.
(vii) Use of horns in the vehicles should be minimize.
SONIC BOOMS
When an object moves in air with a speed greater than the speed of sound in air, it is said to be
traveling with supersonic speed. For example : Fighter Jets, Bullets etc. often travel with supersonic
speed.
Due to motion of object with supersonic speed, shock waves are produced in air. These shock
waves carry a great amount of energy and travel with speed of sound. These waves consist of a
very high pressure layer followed by a lower pressure layer producing a burst or cracking sound
called ‘Sonic Boom’.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
Sound, like light also gets reflected at the surface where medium changes. Reflection of sound
follows the law of reflection of light.
Real Life applications of Reflection of Sound:

(a) Echoes: If we shout in a big empty hall, we hear again our voice coming due reflection of
sound from wall a little later. This phenomenon is known as Echo.
Minimum distance to hear an Echo

Our ears distinguish two sounds, separately only if there is a minimum time interval of 1/10th of a
second. Now, by knowing the minimum time interval required for an echo to be heard, and the
speed of sound in air, we can calculate the minimum distance from a sound reflecting surface,
which is necessary to hear an echo.
dis tan ce travelled

speed = ….(i)
time taken
Now, speed of sound = 330 m/s
Distance traveled = 2d
Time gap = 1/10
2d = 330  1/10
 from (i), 2d = 330  1/10
d = 16.5 metre
(b) Sonar: The ‘SONAR’ is abbreviated from of ‘Sound Navigation and Ranging’. The SONAR
system is used for detecting the presence of unseen objects under water such as a
submerged submarine, a sea-rock or a hidden iceberg, and locating them accurately.
The SONAR employs ultrasonic waves for working. Due to its very high frequency, ultrasonic
sound has a greater penetrating power than ordinary sound. These waves have frequency
more than 20,000 Hz.
A SONAR apparatus consists of two parts (i) a transmitter (b) a receiver.
A SONAR device is attached to the ship and with its help we can measure the depth of an
object lying at the bottom of sea. To do this, the transmitter sends ultrasonic waves into sea.
This wave is reflected from bottom of see to the ship in the form of an echo. This echo
produces an electrical signal in the receiver part of the SONAR device.
Let the time interval recorded between transmission and reflection of ultrasonic signal be t
and object is at a depth h below water level then
2h  v  t where v  speed of sound waves in water

h = vt /2
In nature too, the principle of the SONAR is used by Bats. A bat can hear ultrasonic sounds
of frequencies upto 120 KHz.
Illustration 6: A person stands in between two walls and claps his hands. He hears two successive
echoes at a time interval of 0.25 sec. If the distance between two walls is d and speed
of sound in air is v, locate the position of person.
Solution : Let the distance of person from the wall a is x.

2x
Let the time taken by sound to travel from P  A  P is t1 =
v
2 d  x
Let time taken by sound to travel from P  B  P is t 2 
v
2  d  2x 
Now t 2  t1  …(i)
v
As, t2 – t1 = 1/4 sec
Hence, form (i) and (ii)
2  d  2x  1

v 4
1 v
x  d  
2 8
Illustration 7: At a location the depth of bottom of ocean from the sea level is 12 km. A ship at
surface sends SONAR signal towards bottom. After how long it is expected to get
reflected signal. (Speed of sound in sea = 1200 m/s)
Solution : Total distance traveled by sonar signal between the ship, the bottom and back
d  2  12  24km  24000m
Time taken by sound to travel this distance,
x 24000
T   20 sec
v 1200
 The reflected signal will reach the ship 20 sec after the signal is sent
1. A list of mediums is given below.

(i) wood (ii) air (iii) water (iv) vacuum
In which of these mediums can sound travel?
(a) i & ii only (b) i, ii & iii only (c) iii & iv only (d) ii, iii & iv only
2. The loudness of sound depends on:
(a) its amplitude (b) its frequency (c) its time period (d) its speed
3. Which of the following statements are correct?
(i) Sound is produced by vibrations.
(ii) Sound requires a medium for propagation.
(iii) Light and sound both require a medium for propagation.
(iv) Sound travels slower than light.
(a) i & ii only (b) i, ii & iii only (c) ii, iii & iv only (d) i, ii & iv only
4. An object is vibrating at 50 hertz. What is its time period?
(a) 0.02 s (b) 2s (c) 0.2 s (d) 20.0 s
5. In order to reduce the loudness of a sound we have to
(a) decrease its frequency of vibration of the sound.
(b) increase its frequency of vibration of the sound.
(c) decrease its amplitude of vibration of the sound.
(d) increase its amplitude of vibration of the sound.

1. In the following statements, tick T against those which are true, and F against those which
are false:
(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T/F)
(b) The number of oscillations per second of a vibrating object is called its time period. (T/F)
(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is feeble. (T/F)
(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. (T/F)
(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch. (T/F)
(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as music. (T/F)
(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing impairment. (T/F)
2. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

(a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is called....................
(b) Loudness is determined by the .........................of vibration.
(c) The unit of frequency is..........................
(d) Unwanted sound is called..........................
(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the................. of vibration.
3. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time period and frequency.
4. The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its wings at an average rate of 500
vibrations per second. What is the time period of the vibration?
5. If 100 sounds waves are produced in 25 sec. what is the frequency in hertz?
6. What is the frequency of sound wave whose time period is 0.5 sec.
7. Sound wave travel with a speed of about 330 m/s what is the wavelength of sound whose
frequency is 5.5 Hz ?
8. Does any part of our body vibrate when we speak? Name the part.
9. A man saw a cracker burst at night at a distance from his house. He heard the sound of the
cracker a little later after seeing the cracker burst. Give reason for the delay in hearing the
sound.
10. Name two musical instruments which produce sound by vibrating strings?
1. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the following instruments:
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute
2. Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the same time and at the same distance from
us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard later. Can you explain?
3. We have learnt that vibration is necessary for producing sound. Explain why the sound
produced by every vibrating body cannot be heard by us?
4. Suppose a stick is struck against a frying pan in vacuum. Will the frying pan vibrate? Will we
be able to hear the sound? Explain.
5. Two astronauts are floating close to each other in space. Can they talk to each other without
using any special device? Give reasons.
6. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.
7. The townhall building is situated close to Boojho’s house. There is a clock on the top of the
townhall building which rings the bell every hour. Boojho has noticed that the sound of the
clock appears to be much clearer at night. Explain.
8. How is sound produced and how is it transmitted and heard by us?
9. Lightning can be seen the moment it occurs. Paheli observes lightning in her area. She
hears the sound 5 s after she observed lightning. How far is she from the place where
lightning occurs? (speed of sound = 330 m/s).
10. A simple pendulum makes 10 oscillations in 20 seconds. What is the time period and
frequency of its oscillation?

1. What is the difference between noise and music? Can music become noise sometimes?
2. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to humans.
3. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been offered one on the roadside and
another three lanes away from the roadside. Which house would you suggest your parents
should buy? Explain your answer.
4. Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own words.
5. Suggest three measures to limit noise pollution in your locality.

1. In which of three media; air, water and steel, does sound travel the fastest?
(a) Air (b) Water (c) Steel (d) none of these
2. An object oscillates 50 times in one second. What would be its frequency?

(a) 0.2 Hz (b) 0.02 Hz (c) 0.002 Hz (d) 50 Hz
3. In humans, the sound is produced by:

(a) larynx (b) wind pipe (c) vocal cords (d) lungs
4. The voices of men, women and children are different due to difference in:
(a) larynx (b) lungs (c) vocal chords (d) wind pipe
5. Which of the following causes less noise pollution?

(a) loud speaker (b) horn of vehicle (c) explosion (d) television
6. Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. Thunder is heard a few seconds after the
flash is
seen. This is because:
(a) speed of sound is greater than speed of light
(b) speed of sound is equal to the speed of light
(c) speed of light is much greater than the speed of sound
(d) none of these
7. The time period of a simple pendulum is 0.2 sec. What is its frequency of oscillation?
(a) 0.5 Hz (b) 5 Hz (c) 50 Hz (d) 1 Hz
8. Hertz stands for:

(a) second (b) second-1 (c) meter (d) meter-1
9. The speed of sound in vacuum is:

(a) 332 m/s (b) 330 m/s (c) 288 m/s (d) 0
10. A person, pressing his ear on the railway tracks can hear an approaching train earlier then
usual. This is possible due to:
(a) vibration of railway tracks
(b) vibration of air
(c) more speed of sound in solid medium
(d) hearing ability of the man
11. A person can be identified by the quality of sound produced by him. The characteristic of a
sound
can be determined by:
(a) Amplitude (b) frequency (c) loudness (d) all of the above
12. Vibration of air column produces sound in which of the following instruments?
(a) Jaltarang (b) Flute (c) Siren (d) All of the above
13. The difference between a musical sound and noise is:

(a) amplitude (b) loudness (c) vibration (d) all of the above
14. A source is producing 15 oscillations (waves) in 3 seconds. Find its frequency?

(a) 15 Hz (b) 5 Hz (c) 0.2 Hz (d) 0.66 Hz
15. Pitch of sound depends upon:
(a) frequency (b) amplitude (c) loudness (d) distance of source
16. Birds produce sound by using:

(a) vocal chord (b) larynx (c) glottis (d) syrix
17. Which of the following statement is FALSE?
(a) human ear drum senses the vibration of sound
(b) larger the amplitude of vibration, louder is the sound
(c) higher is the frequency of vibration, lower is the pitch
(d) plantations can reduce noise pollution
18. Noise pollution can cause:

(a) insomnia (b) hypertension
(c) hearing impairment (d) any or all of the above
19. The buzzing sound produced by a mosquito is produced by:
(a) its mouth (b) vibration of surrounding air
(c) vibration of wings (d) none of these
20. Quality of sound is used to distinguish between:
(a) Noise and Music
(b) Two different vibrating bodies
(c) Two notes produced by same vibrating body
(d) all of the above
CONCEPT STRENGTHNER (HOME WORK)
1. Which of the following statement is NOT correct?
(a) loudness of sound is determined by the amount of energy received by the ear per unit
time
(b) pitch doesn’t depend upon the amount of energy
(c) loudness changes with change of frequency
(d) pitch changes with change in frequency
2. The speed of sound in solid, liquid and gas can be correctly compared as:
(a) solid > liquid > gas (b) liquid > gas > solid
(c) liquid > solid > gas (d) gas > liquid > gas
3. When we say ‘sound travels in a medium’ we mean _______ .
(a) the particles of the medium travel (b) the source travels
(c) the disturbance travels (d) the medium travels
4. Sound is produced in a bamboo flute because:
(a) air starts vibrating (b) bamboo starts vibrating
(c) air hits the bamboo (d) direction of air is changed
5. Which of the following is NOT correct?
(a) more oscillation per second, higher time period
(b) greater amplitude greater loudness
(c) higher pitch, higher frequency of vibration
(d) more the value of decibel, higher is the noise
6. Loudness or intensity of sound depends upon:
(a) amplitude of sound wave (b) area of vibrating body
(c) distance from the source of sound (d) all of above
7. The membrane of a drum vibrates to produce sound. Similarly the string of a sitar vibrates to
produce sound. Based on these two examples, answer the following question. Which part of
a
whistle vibrates to produce sound?
(a) body of whistle (b) air
(c) mouth of the person (d) all of the above
8. If you go on increasing the stretching force on increasing the stretching force on a wire in a
guitar, its frequency.
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains unchanged (d) none of the above
9. A bomb explodes on the moon. How long will it take for the sound to reach the earth?
(a) 10 seconds (b) 1000 seconds (c) 1 day (d) will not reach at all
10. When a tuning fork was struck and brought near a bucket of water, a wave as shown in
figure was formed on its surface. It the fork is struck much harder and brought near the
surface, what will increase?
(a) frequency (b) wavelength (c) velocity (d) amplitude

11. A vibrating body:
(a) will always produce audible sound
(b) may or may not produce sound if the amplitude of vibration is low
(c) will produce sound which depends upon frequency
(d) none of the above
12. The graph given here shows the frequency of sounds emitted by a source for 30 seconds.
How
many seconds of sound a normal human being be able to hear?
30
25
Freq.x 103Hz
20
15
10
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time second
(a) 10 sec (b) 20 sec (c) 30 sec (d) 05 sec
13. The amplitude of vibration and its frequency can change suddenly in a:
(a) pitch (b) musical sound (c) noise (d) all of the above
14. The frequency of a source is 20 kHz. The frequencies of sound wave produced by it in water
and
air will be:
(a) same as that of source i.e. 20 kHz (b) > 20 kHz
(c) < 20 kHz (d) depends upon velocity
15. Match the following and choose the correct option
A. String vibration 1. Tabla
B. Membrane vibration 2. Bicycle bell
C. Vibration of air 3. Sitar
D. Vibration of plate 4. Flute

(a) A – 1, B – 2, C – 3, D – 4 (b) A – 2, B – 1, C – 4, D – 2
(c) A – 3, B – 1, C – 4, D – 2 (d) A – 4, B – 3, C – 2, D – 1
16. A sound wave travels from east to west, in which direction do the particles of air move
(a) East – West (b) North-South (c) Up-Down (d) None of these
17. A big explosion takes place on mars but can’t be heard on earth because
(a) The explosion produces high frequency sound waves.
(b) Sound waves require a material medium for propagation.
(c) Sound waves are absorbed in atmosphere of mars.
(d) None of these.
18. Of the following properties of a wave, the one that is independent of the other is its:
(a) Amplitude (b) Velocity (c) Wavelength (d) Frequency
19. When sound waves travel from air to water, which of these remain constant?
(a) Velocity (b) Frequency (c) Wavelength (d) All of these
20. Change in temperature of the medium changes

(a) Wavelength of sound waves (b) Frequency of sound waves
(c) Amplitudes of sound waves (d) None of these
1. A sound wave has a frequency of 1 kHz and wave length 25 cm, to travel 2.2 km it takes
3 2 5 4
(a) 2 s (b) 80 s (c) s (d) 8 s
7 5 4 5
2. A source of wave produces 3 crests and 3 troughs in 2 ms, the frequency of the wave is :
(a) 1.5 mHz (b) 3 mHz (c) 1 mHz (d) 0.67 mHz
3. A wave of frequency 1000 Hz travels between X and Y, a distance of 600 m in 2 seconds.

The number of wavelengths there in distance XY :
(a) 3.3 (b) 300 (c) 180 (d) 2000
4. Elastic waves in solid are :

(a) transverse (b) longitudinal
(c) either transverse or longitudinal (d) neither transverse nor longitudinal
5. Which of the following statements is wrong ?

(a) Changes in air temperature have no effect on the speed of sound.
(b) Change in air pressure have no effect on the speed of sound.
(c) The speed of sound in water is higher than in air.
(d) the speed of light in water is lesser than in air.
6. A man stands 66 m in front of a high wall and then blows a whistle. Calculate the time
interval when he hears an echo. Speed of sound is 330 m/s.
(a) 0.2 s (b) 0.3 s (c) 0.4 s (d) 0.5 s
7. The following figure shows the position of a pulse on a rope at two different times. Find the
speed of the pulse.
t = 9 sec
(a) 1 m/s (b) 1.5 m/s (c) 1.6 m/s (d) 2.25 m/s
8. A longitudinal wave is travelling along a spiral spring with a velocity of 1 m/s. If time period of
wave is 0.2s, what is its wavelength?
(a) 0.1 m (b) 0.2 m (c) 0.8 m (d) 1.0 m
9. A source of wave produces 40 crests and 40 troughs in 0.4 s. Find the frequency of the
wave
(a) 50 Hz (b) 60 Hz (c) 80 Hz (d) 100 Hz
10. A body vibrating with a periodic time of 2 ms produces a wave travelling in a medium with a
velocity of 1250 m/s. What is its wavelength?
(a) 1.5 m (b) 1.5 cm (c) 2.5 cm (d) 2.5 m
11. A person drops a stone into a well of depth 55 m. The stone hits the water surface and
produces a sound and the time taken for this sound to reach the person is (velocity of sound
= 330 m s-1)
1 1 1 1
(a) s (b) s (c) s (d) s
2 6 4 3
12. The bob of a simple pendulum is displaced and it crosses mean position 20 times in 5s.
Then its time period is
1 1 1 1
(a) s (b) s (c) s (d) s
2 5 10 20
13. The frequency of a simple pendulum is 1 Hz. Bob is pulled aside and released, after 5
seconds if it is stopped at the same extreme position
(a) It crosses mean position 5 times during this motion.
(b) It crosses mean position 15 times during this motion.
(c) Its time period is 1s and it crosses the mean position 10 times during this motion.
(d) Both (a) and (c)
14. A boat at anchor is rocked by waves whose crests are 100 m apart and whose velocity is 25
m/s. These waves strike the boat every
(a) 2500 s (b) 0.25 s (c) 1500 s (d) 4s
15. Sound wave travelling in a medium with speed of v m/s and frequency f Hz, enter into
another medium where its speed is 2 v m/s. The frequency of wave in new medium is :
f
(a) 2f (b) (c) f (d) 4f
2
ANSWER TO RADICAL TEST – I
1. (a) A, C, E (b) B, D (c) 1m

(d) 5m (e) 1/5 = 0.2
(f) Time periods the time taken between two successive tough or crest.
So, time period = time taken to travel A to C.
 2  0.1  0.2
(g)  = 1/T
= 1/0.2 = 5 Hz
ANSWER TO RADICAL TEST – II
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c)
FOUNDATION BUILDER
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
CONCEPT STRENGHTENER
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)
EXERTISE ATTAINER
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c)
SYNTHETIC FIBRES & PLASTICS
Synthetic fibres are the result of extensive research

by scientists to improve on naturally occurring animal
and plant fibres.
In general, syntheticfibres are created by forcing, usually
through extrusion, fibre forming materials through holes
(called spinnerets) into the air, forming a thread. Before
synthetic fibres were developed, artificially manufactured
fibers were made from cellulose, which comes from
plants. These fibres are called cellulose fibres.
Sir Joseph Swan invented the first synthetic fibre in the
early 1880s. His fibre was drawn from a cellulose liquid,
formed by chemically modifying the fibre contained in
tree bark. The synthetic fibre produced through this
process was chemically similar in its potential applications
to the carbon filament Swan had developed for
his incandescent lightbulb, but Swan soon realised the
potential of the fibre to revolutionise textile manufacturing.
Many materials are used in our daily life. Some are made up of natural material such as
wood, cotton, stones & clay etc. The clothes which we wear are made up of fabrics. Fabrics
are made from fibers obtained from natural or artificial sources. Silk fiber is used for
weaving silk cloths.
Rearing of silk forms in called sericulture. Fibers are also used for making a large variety of
household articles, e.g. Rope, carpets, fishing nets etc.
Cotton is one of the natural fiber.
SYNTHETIC FIBERS AND PLASTICS FBC-Ch. [VIII]-20-21
INTRODUCTION
All natural fibres are used for making fabrics, which are further used for making clothes. Next to
food, the most important need for human beings is clothing. It is not only that clothes are a part of
our moral code and decency, they also protect us from extreme temperature and climate change.
More over these fibres are used for making ropes, fishing nets, carpets, sails for boats, and variety
of other articles of daily use. The common natural fibres used for making cloth are wool, cotton and
silk. They obtained from plants and animals. They are natural polymers. However, the demand for
fibres and fabrics is so large that natural fibres are insufficient to fulfil it. To meet this demand,
scientists have developed artificial fibres, using petroleum products and coal as raw materials.
These artificial fibres are commonly called synthetic fibres or man-made fibres. Rayon, Nylon,
Polyester and Acrylic are some of the synthetic fibres. The clothes which we wear are made up of
fabrics. Fabrics are made from fibres obtained from natural or artificial source. Cotton, jute, wood
and silk are natural fibres while Rayon, Nylon and Terylene, Polythene, Teflon, Dacron are
artificial/synthetic /man made fibres. Fibres are also used for making a large variety of household
articles, e.g. rope, carpets, fishing nets etc. Plant and animal are chief source of natural fibre,
insufficient to fulfill our requirement of fabrics. You must have seen in a necklace of beads joined
with the help of threads, or when we by to join a number of paper clips together to make a long
chain.
WHY SYNTHETIC FIBRES?

Synthetic fibers are made from synthesized polymers or small molecules. The compounds that are
used to make these fibers come from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or
petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent
carbon atoms. Differing chemical compounds will be used to produce different types of fibers.
Synthetic fibers account for about half of all fiber usage, with applications in every field of fiber and
textile technology. Although many classes of fiber based on synthetic polymers have been
evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products, four of them nylon, polyester, acrylic and
polyolefin - dominate the market. These four account for approximately 98 percent by volume of
synthetic fiber production, with polyester alone accounting for around 60 per cent
Types of synthetic fibers:
Depending upon the type of chemical used for manufacturing synthetic fibers, there are four
major type of synthetic fibers (or man-made fibers). These are:
(i) Rayon (ii) Nylon (iii) Polyester (iv) Acrylic
Rayon
Rayon is often regarded as artificial silk. It is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is made
from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp, which is chemically converted into a soluble
compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments which are
chemically solidified, resulting in synthetic fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Because rayon is
manufactured from naturally occurring polymers, it is considered a semi-synthetic fiber. Specific
types of rayon include viscose, modal and lyocell, each of which differs in manufacturing process
and properties of the finished product.
The cellulose required for making rayon is obtained from wood pulp. Wood pulp is dissolved in an
alkaline solution (sodium hydroxide solution) to from a sticky liquid called ‘viscose’. Viscose is
formed to pass through the tiny holes of a metals cylinder into a solution of sulphuric acid when a
silk like thread of rayon is formed.
Properties:
It is a semi-synthetic fiber. It is chemically identical to cotton but it has shine like silk, therefore,
rayon is also called artificial silk. It can be blended with cotton or wool. Rayon is lustrous fiber can
be dyed in a variety of colours.
Uses:
(i) It is used in the textile industry for making fabrics, which are blended with cotton or silk to
make smooth and silky clothes.
(ii) It is blended with wool for making carpet.
(iii) Used for making reinforced tyre.
(iv) For making bandages and surgical dressings.
Why Rayon is used in medical field for making bandages and surgical dressings.
Nylon
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as
aliphatic polyamides, first produced on February 28, 1935. The first approach to produce nylon was
done by combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two
chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. Nylon is made up of the repeating units of
a chemical called an amide. So nylon is a polyamide(Polymer). The chemical compounds used in
making nylon are now obtained from petroleum products called petrochemicals. The NYLON comes
from the fact that it was developed in New York (NY) and London (LON).
Properties
It is one of the strongest, most elastic, lustrous and light weight materials. It remains stable and
strong when wet. It absorbed very little water. It does not get wrinkles. Nylon is not attacked by
moths and ordinary chemicals. Hence they are used for making clothes.
Uses
(i) It is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
(ii) It is used for making fishing nets and parachute ropes.
(iii) It is used for making bristles for brushes.
(iv) It is used for making sarees, socks, neck-ties.
Is nylon fibre really so strong that we can make nylon parachutes and ropes for rock
climbing?
Polyester
Polyester is another synthetic fibre. Polyester is a category of polymers which contain
the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term
"polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as
synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate. Natural
polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.
Polyester is made up of each repeating units of a chemical called an ester which are organic
chemical substances gives fruity sweet smell. The chemical compounds used in making polyester
fibers are made from petroleum produce called petrochemicals.
Properties:
Fabric made from this fibre does not get wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and it is easy to wash. So,
it is quite suitable for making dress material. You must have seen people wearing nice polyester
shirts and other dresses. Terylene is a popular polyester. It can be drawn into very fine fibres that
can be woven like any other yarn.
Uses:
(i) It is used for manufacturing sarees, dress materials, curtains, clothes, etc.
(ii) It is used for making blends with other fibres, e.g., terylene with cotton gives terrycot, with
wool it gives terrywool.
(iii) It is used for making sails doe sail boats.
(iv) It is used making conveyor belts.
My mother always buys PET bottles and PET jars for storing rice and sugar. I wonder what
PET is?
PET is a very familiar form of polyester. It is Poly Ethylene Terephthalate. Can be made into a fiber
or a plastic. PET as a plastic is very lightweight. It is colourless with high transparency. PET is
strong and impact-resistant. As a plastic, PET is replacing material like glass. Unlike glass, PET is
shatterproof. PET is used for making bottles, jars and utensils.
Acrylic Fibres
Acrylic is a synthetic fibre.
Acrylic fibre is made from a chemical called acrylonitrile by the process of polymerization.
Properties
These fibres are very light and soft like wool. They are resistance to weathering. Acrylic fibres are
strong and durable. It absorbs very little water so it has quick-dry quality.
Uses
(i) They are used for making thread for knit sweaters.
(ii) They are also used for making wool like blankets and shawls, which very light and warm.
Why my mother never wears polyester clothes while working in the kitchen?
Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres:

Imagine that it is a rainy day. What kind of umbrella would you use and why?
Synthetic fibres possess unique characteristics which make them popular dress materials.
They dry up quickly, are durable, less expensive, readily available and easy to maintain.
Synthetics fibers are very strong.
These absorb very little water, wrinkle resistant.
These are quit lightweight, extremely fine.
They are not attacked by moths, do not shrink .
Disadvantages of Synthetic Fibres:

(i) Most of sythetic fibers disadvantages relate to their low melting temperature:
(ii) Synthetic fibers burn more readily than natural.
(iii) Prone to heat damage. Melt relatively easily.
(iv) Prone to damage by hot washing.
(v) More electrostatic charge is generated by rubbing than with natural fibres.
Advantages of Synthetics Fibres:

(i) Synthetic fibers possess unique characteristics which make them popular dress material:
(ii) Synthetic fibers do not depend either on an agricultural crop or on animal farming.
(iii) They are generally cheaper than natural fiber.
(iv) Easy to wash and dry up quickly.
(v) More stain resistant than natural fibres.
(vi) Resistant to insects, fungi and rot.
TAKE A BREAK
S.No Code Name Uses
1 PETE Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
2 HDPE High-density polyethylene
3 PVC Poly (vinyl chloride)
4 LDPE Low density polyethylene
5 PP Polypropylene
6 PS Polystyrene
7 Other Mixed polymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), phenolic resins, etc.
Illustration 1: Which one is natural fibre, among the following?

(A) Nylon (B) Cotton (C) Polyester (D) Acrylic
Solution : (B) Cotton
Illustration 2: Match the terms of column A correctly with the phrases given in column B.
Column A Column B
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
Solution : Column A Column B
(i) Polyester (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
(ii) Teflon (c) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(iii) Rayon (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(iv) Nylon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
1. Why are some fibres called synthetic fibres?
2. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are very strong.
3. What is rayon?
4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words :
(i) Synthetic fibres are also called . . . . . or . . . . . fibres.

(ii) Synthetic fibres are synthesized from raw material called . . . . .
(iii) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a
5. What is polyester made upon of?

6. Wool is obtained from ____ of sheep
(a) Skin (b) Toes (c) Fleece (d) All of the above
7. Silk is obtained from ____ of the silk moth
(a) pupa (b) larva (c) cocoon (d) caterpillar
8. Ropes made of this are used in cranes and elements :
(a) rayon (b) nylon (c) acrylic (d) spandex
9. This is known as artificial silk :
(a) nylon (b) polythene (c) rayon (d) plastic

10. Raw materials for most of the natural fabrics are obtained from :
(a) water (b) earth (c) petroleum (d) sky
11. I am the source of synthetic polymers. I am a mixture of a number of carbon compounds

which can be separated by fractional distillation. I am
(a) Petrol (b) Diesel (c) Petroleum (d) Both (a) and (c)
12. _____ is the synthetic analogue of wool and also it is cheaper than wool
(a) Acrylic (b) Terrywool (c) Terrycot (d) Polycot

13. Pre-weighed pieces of cloth of nylon, cotton, silk and wool of equal measurements are taken
and soaked in a beaker filled with water. After a few minutes, the cloth pieces were taken out
of the beaker and weighed again. Which of the following option correctly represents the
order of water absorption capacity?
(a) Wool > Silk > Nylon > Cotton (b) Cotton > Silk > Nylon > Wool
(c) Silk > Wool > Cotton > Nylon (d) Wool > Cotton > Silk > Nylon
PLASTICS
A plastic is a synthetic material which can be moulded (or set) into desired shape when soft and
then hardened to produce a durable article (the term plastic means easy to mould)
Like synthetic fibers plastics are also polymers.
This means that plastics consist of very long molecular made by joining many small molecule
together.
The starting materials for plastics are obtained, poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC), Bakelite, Melamine and
Teflon.
Types of Plastics
Plastics are of Plastics:
(i) Thermosetting plastics (ii) Thermoplastics
Thermosetting Plastics:
A plastics substance which once moulded cannot be remoulded heating. Bakelite, melamine,
formaldehyde are thermosetting plastics. Cabinet of radius, television, telephone sets, water tank
are example of thermosetting plastics. Thermosetting plastics are substable for making handles of
kitchen utensils.
Thermoplastics:
A plastic which can be moulded and reused by giving desired new shapes. PVC, polystyrene, nylon.
Polythene are some common thermoplastics. Thermoplastics are good for making pipes, etc.
Different between thermosetting plastic and thermoplastic
Thermosetting plastic Thermoplastic
1. Thermosetting plastics are the polymers in Thermoplastics are long chain polymers with
which chains get highly cross-linked on no crosslinking. Heating also does not
heating produce any cross-linking between the
chains.
2. Once moulded thermosetting plastics cannot Thermoplastics can be ptocess repeatedly.

be remoulded. Examples: Backelite, Example: Polythene, PVC, Polystyrene,
Melamine-formaldehyde resin. nylon, polyesters, etc.
On the basis of the difference in arrangement plastics are of two types:

(1) Linear: The plastics in which monomers are arranged in a straight line chain are said to
have linear arrangement for molecules. These plastics are generally thermoplastics.
E.g. polyethene
(2) Cross – linked

The plastics in which monomers are arranged in cross-linked are said to have cross-linked
arrangement of monomers. Generally it is known as the thermosetting plastics.
E.g. Bakelite
Plastic articles are available in all possible shapes and sizes as in the given figure. Have you ever
wondered how this is possible? The fact is that plastic is easily mouldable i.e. can be shaped in any
form. Plastic can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets or made into
wires. That is why it finds such a variety of uses.
Various articles made of plastics
CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC PLASTICS

Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre.
All kinds of synthetic plastics can be easily moulded i.e. can be shaped in any form.
Plastic can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets or made into wires, that is why
it finds such a variety of uses. Such plastics that can be drawn into very fine filaments on
spinning form synthetic fibres.
Plastics are non-reactive i.e. it does not react with water and air.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTIC
Chemical resistance: Synthetic plastics are hardly affected by strong chemicals such as acids and
alkalis. While all natural plastics e.g. cellulose, silk, wood are affected by acids and alkalis.
Weather resistant: Synthetic plastics are not biodegradable. Unlike natural plastics such as cotton
and wood.
Light weight : Synthetic plastic materials weight less as natural plastic materials.
Toughness of Tensile Strength: Synthetic plastics can withstand a lot of force without getting
broken is a thread of synthetic plastic.
Insulation : Electric wires are covered with plastic insulation.
Appearance : Synthetic plastic materials can be made as transparent as glass, in any desired
colour or texture and can be used for making a large variety of house hold products.
Illustration 3: Write the characteristic properties of plastics.
Solution : The characteristic properties of plastics are :
(i) They are non-reactive, therefore non-corrosive.
(ii) It is light, strong and durable.
(iii) They are poor conductors of electricity and heat.
The major properties, preparation and uses of some of the plastics are given below:
(a) Polythene (Poly – ethene)
It is prepared by the polymerization of ethane (CH2 = CH2) insoluble in all kinds of solvents.
Not attached by strong chemicals and non biodegradable.
Uses
(i) It is used for making thin films which are used for making carry bags, adhesive tapes etc.
(ii) It is used for making kitchen and laboratory ware such as caps and bottles.
(iii) It is used as insulation for electric wires.
(iv) It is used as anti-corrosion coating on the articles made from iron or copper.
(b) Polypropene
It is prepared by the polymerization of propene gas (CH2CH=CH2) molecules.
Uses
(i) For making ropes, packaging materials and containers.
(ii) For making synthetic carpets
(iii) For making the body of automobile batteries
(iv) For making collapsible toys.
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
It is prepared by the polymerization of vinyl chloride molecules.
Uses
(i) For making hand bags, rain coats
(ii) For making decoration vinyl flooring
(iii) For making soles of shoes
(iv) For making gramophone records.
(v) For making water pipes, water tanks and sanitary fittings.
(vi) Superior insulation of electric wires.
(d) Teflon (Polytetra Fluoroethene)
It is prepared by the polymerization of tetrafluro ethane molecules . It is unaffected by heat
and chemicals.
Teflon is special plastic on which oil and water do not strike.
Uses
(i) It has anti-stick properties so is coated on the surface of baking or frying utensils.
(ii) It is used as a lubricant, especially in those parts of machine were oil cannot be easily
applied.
(e) Polystyrene
It is a lighter polymer of polythene. It can be easily’ moulded on heating. When air is blown
through molten polystyrene, it forms a very light foam which is an excellent insulating and
packaging material.
Uses
(i) It is commonly employed in insulating refrigerators and cold stores.
(ii) It is used for making containers, which are used as ice box.
(iii) It is used for packaging expensive items, such as cell phones, T. V. etc.
PLASTICS AND ENVIRONMENT
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids that
are moldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often
contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived
frompetrochemicals, but many are partially natural
All plastic bags or wrappers ultimately find their way to the garbage.
The disposal of the plastic garbage is a major problem all over the world.
It is because plastic does not get decomposed by material processes such as action of
bacteria.
BIODEGRADABLE AND NON-BIODEGRADABLE
A material which gets decomposed through natural processes, such as action by bacteria, is
called biodegradable. Plants wastes(such as peels of vegetables and fruits, fallen leaves,
left-over food stuffs, etc), animals wastes, paper, cootn cloth, wollen colth, jute and wood,
are all biodegradable materials.
A material which is not easily decomposed by natural processes is termed as non-
biodegradable. Plastics, glass, tin, aluminum cans, and other metal objects are non-
biodegradable.
Type of waste Approximate time Nature of material
taken to
degenerate
Peels of vegetable and fruits, leftover foodstuff, etc 1 to 2 weeks Biodegradable
Paper 10-30 days Biodegradable
Cotton cloth 2 to 5 months Biodegradable
Wood 10 to 15 years Biodegradable
Woollen clothes About a year Biodegradable
Tin. Aluminium and other metal cans 100 to 500 years Non-biodegradable
Plastic bags Several years Non-biodegradable
How to save the environment From Excessive Plastic Wastes

Since the use of plastic articles is not good for the environment, we should take some steps
to save environment from the harmful; effect of excessive use of plastics.
Plastics are very useful material for us, so it is not possible to stop the use plastic articles
altogether.
We can take steps only to minimize the use of plastics, wherever possible.
Some of the steps are:
We should try to reduce (or minimise) the use of plastics by using other material in their
place. For example, we should use bags made of cotton cloth or just for shopping instead of
polythene bags (plastic bags). Paper bags can also be used.
We should reuse the plastic containers which come with jumps, pickles, oil and other packed
food materials for storing salt, spices, tea-leaves, and sugar, etc., in the kitchen. We can
also reuse the plastic carry bags for shopping purposes instead of throwing them as a waste.
Plastic wastes should be recoiled. All the plastic wastes in the homes, shops and industry
should be collected and sent for recycling to plastic making factories.
We should remember the 3R’s to save the environment from the harmful effects for the
excessive use of plastics. The three R’s stand for : Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. This means
that we should reduce the use of plastic articles by using articles made of other suitable
materials; we should reuse plastic articles wherever possible; and we should recycle old and
discarded plastic articles.
Illustration 4: Which material is called biodegradable?
Solution : A material which gets decomposed through natural processes, such as action by
bacteria, is called biodegradable.
1. What are the two types of plastics? Explain

2. Which property of plastic makes it useful in the cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts?
3. Why is it possible to store chemicals and food items in plastics containers?
4. Why is there a plastic covering around the electric wires of various electrical appliances?
5. Which four R’s have been suggested to solve the problem of waste products?
6. Which out of the following is used for making disposable cups?
(a)LDPE (b) PS (c) PP (d) PVC
7. Which of the following is used in automobile battery casings?
(a)HDPE (b) PP (c) PVC (d) Polystyrene
8. The rearing of silk worms for obtaining silk is called :
(a)pisciculture (b) sericulture (c) polyculture (d) arboriculture
9. Nylon is obtained from :
(a)coal (b) air (c) water (d) all of the above
10. Which of the following statement is TRUE?
(a)A nylon thread is stronger than a steel wire
(b)Rayon is a natural fibre made from wood pulp
(c) Cotton is not a polymer
(d)Fabric made from polyester can get wrinkles easily
CONCEPT MAP
CBSE ASSIGNMENT (HOME ASSIGNMENT)

1. Why is polyester suitable for making dress material?
2. What is plastics?
3. Why we should never wear polyester clothes while working in the kitchen for in a laboratory?
4. Why are synthetic fibres more popular than natural fibres?
5. What is PET? What are its uses?
6. Name the units of which cellulose polymer is made?
7. Name the man-made fibre prepared from natural materials.
8. Name the man-made fibre which is regarded as artificial silk.
9. Name the fibre obtained by the chemical treatment of wood pulp (or cellulose).
10. Name the first fully synthetic fibre.
1. What is a polymer? Name the natural polymer of which cotton is made.

2. State the characteristics of synthetic fibers.
3. What is nylon? State the important properties of nylon.
4. Give the important use of nylon.
5. What is polyester? Name a popular polyester.
6. Arrange the following fibres in the order of increasing strength (keeping the fibre of least
strength first): Nylon, cotton, wool, polyester, silk
7. What is PET? State the use of PET
8. What us acrylic? State one important property of acrylic.
9. Write the uses of acrylic fibres.
10. Why should we not wear clothes made of synthetic fibers (like nylon or polyester) while
working in the kitchen?

1. What are the two types of plastics? Explain
2. Which property of plastic makes it useful in the cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts?
3. (a) What is rayon? How is rayon made?
(b) Give any two of rayon.
4. (a) What are synthetic fibres? Name any two synthetic fibres?
(b) Why have synthetic fibres become more popular than natural fibres?
5. (a) Explain why, thermosetting plastics? Give two examples of thermoplastics.
(b) What are thermosetting plastics? Give two example of thermosetting plastics.

1. Silk fibres are made up of
(a) vitamin (b) carbohydrates (c) protein (d) none of the above
2. Nylon is useful because of following properties:

(a) soft, strong and light (b) transparent, light and easy to wash
(c) strong, elastic and light (d) hard, inexpensive and strong
3. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE?

(a) Polymer occur in nature (b) Cellulose is made up of glucose units
(c) Nylon is used to make parachute (d) Cotton thread is stronger than nylon thread
4. PET is a familiar form of

(a) Plastic (b) Polyester (c) Acrylic (d) Rayon
5. Fruits have their characteristic smell because of a chemical known as :

(a) Yeast (b) Aedes (c) Cellulose (d) Esters
6. Which part of the cotton plant yields cotton balls?

(a) Leaf (b) Fruit (c) Seed (d) Flower
7. Jute fiber is obtained from the which part of jute plant

(a) leaves (b) seeds (c) roots (d) stem
8. Why is it not advisable to wear synthetic clothes while bursting fire crackers?
(I) All synthetic fibers are prepared by using raw materials of petroleum origin.
(II) Synthetic fibers catch fire easily.
(III) On heating, synthetic fibers melt and stick to the body of the person wearing it.
(a) (I) only (b) (II) only (c) (I) and (III) (d) (II) and (III)
9. Which of the following has cross-linked polymer chains?

(a) Bakelite (b) polyester (c) polyester (d) acrylic
10. Which of the following is not a thermoplastic polymer?

(a) polyester (b) melamine (c) nylon (d) polyvinyl chloride
CONCEPT STRENGTHENER (HOME WORK)

1. Pick the synthetic fibre out of the following?
(a) Cotton (b) Nylon (c) Jute (d) Wool
2. Which of the following is a source of rayon?

(a) Wool (b) PET (c) Wood pulp (d) Silk
3. Polycot is obtained by mixing

(a) nylon and wool (b) nylon and cotton
(c) polyester and wool (d) polyester and cotton
4. Which is a thermosetting plastic?

(a) Melamine (b) PVC (c) Polythene (d) Nylon
5. The material similar to silk in appearance is

(a) Nylon (b) Rayon (c) Polyester (d) Terylene
6. The most suitable material for the preparation of handles of cooking utensils is
(a) Polythene (b) PVC (c) Nylon (d) Bakelite
7. Which of the following is not a common property of plastics?
(a) Non-reactive (b) Durable
(c) Light in weight (d) Good conductor of electricity
8. Which of the following represents the correct match for items in Column A with those in
Column B.
Column A Column B
I. Nylon (i) Thermoplastic
II. PVC (ii) Thermosetting plastic
III. Bakelite (iii) Fibre
(a) I-(ii), II-(iii), III-(i) (b) I-(iii), II-(i), III-(ii) (c) I-(ii), II-(i), III-(iii) (d) I-(iii), II-(ii), III-(i)
9. Which of the following groups contain all synthetic substances?
(a) Nylon, Terylene, Wool (b) Cotton, Polycot, Rayon
(c) PVC, Polythene, Bakelite (d) Acrylic, Silk, Wool
10. The material which is commonly used for making kitchen containers is
(a) PVC (b) Teflon (c) Acrylic (d) PET
1. Match the phrases of column A correctly with the terms given in column B and select the
correct match from the codes given below :
Column A Column B
(a) Prepared by using wood pulp (i) Polyester
(b) Used for making parachutes and stockings (ii) Teflon
(c) Used to make nonstick cookwares (iii) Rayon
(d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily (iv) Nylon
(a) (a) – (i), (b) – (iii), (c) – (iv), (d) – (ii) (b) (a) – (iii), (b) – (iv), (c) – (ii), (d) – (i)
(c) (a) – (ii), (b) – (iii), (c) – (i), (d) – (iv) (d) (a) – (iii), (b) – (ii), (c) – (iv), (d) – (i)
2. Fill in the boxes with appropriate option
Plastics
(i) thermosetting
Can be Can not be
deformed (ii)
examples
examples
polythene (iii) melamine (iv)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) Non-reactive Formed Bakelite PVC
(b) Thermoplastic Remoulded PVC Bakelite
(c) Cross-linked Manufactured Polycot PVC
(d) Thermoplastic Formed Silk Polywool
3. Match the polymers in column I with their uses in column II and select the correct answer
from codes given below
Column I Column II
(a) Polythene (i) Non-stick pans
(b) PVC (ii) Bags for food storage
(c) Polystyrene (iii) Raincoats, seat covers
(d) Teflon (iv) Plastic cups
(a) (a) – (ii), (b) – (iii), (c) – (iv), (d) – (i) (b) (a) – (i), (b) – (ii), (c) – (iii), (d) – (iv)
(c) (a) – (ii), (b) – (iv), (c) – (iii), (d) – (i) (d) (a) – (iii), (b) – (ii), (c) – (i), (d) – (iv)
4. Bakelite is used in ___

(a) Making car windows (b) Making non-stick utensils
(c) Making electric switches (d) Making strong pipes
5. The plastic which is coated on the uniforms of firemen to make them fire-resistant is:
(a) Bakelite (b) polythene (c) teflon (d) melamine
6. Which of the following is a man-made fibre prepared from wood-pulp?

(a) Flax (b) rayon (c) acrylic (d) rayon
7. The manufacture of one of the following artificial fibres contributes to deforestation. This
fibres is:
(a) nylon (b) rayon (c) terylene (d) acrylic
8. The non-stick coating on frying pans is that of a plastic called:

(a) polyvinyl chloride (b) melamine (c) Bakelite (d) teflon
9. Which of the following plastics is used making electric switches?

(a) teflon (b) melamine (c) PET (d) Bakelite
10. Which of the following are thermosetting polymers?

A. Melamine B. Terylene C. Polythene D. Bakelite
(a) A and B (b) B and C (c) A and D (d) B and D
Foundation Builder
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (b)
CONCEPT STRENTGENER
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (d)
EXPERTISE ATTAINER
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d)
9. (d) 10. (c)
METALS & NON-METALS
METALS & NON-METALS FBC-Ch. [VII]-20-21
Earth is an abundant source of materials. The air we breathe, the water we drink,
stones and rocks, almost everything that is around us, are all useful to man for some
purpose or the other. Gaseous materials like Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide
are found in the atmosphere. Common salt and various other salts of sodium,
magnesium and calcium are found dissolved in water bodies, like the oceans, rivers
and lakes.
The progress of the civilization was first benchmarked by man's increasing

knowledge and usage of metallic deposits in the earth's crust. The first metals to be
found and used were copper, silver and gold as they could be easily extracted. By
2000 B.C. he acquired the knowledge of
extracting iron from its ores by heating and
this period came to be known as "Iron Age".
Bronze was widely used for many years
and this epoch of prehistory became
"Bronze Age". They are essential for the
construction of houses, transportation,
communication, electricity, household
articles, scientific instruments, coins etc.
More than 75% of the known elements are
metals. The word 'metal' derives from the
Greek word 'metallon,' which means to
mine, excavate or extract from the ground
Though the non-metals are only 22 in number, they are the major constituents of
earth, air and oceans. At room temperature, over half of the non-metals are gases,
except bromine, which is a liquid. The most abundant non-metal in the earth's crust
is oxygen, which constitutes about 50% of the earth's crust.
INTRODUCTION
Through there are millions of substances in this world, they are all made up of a limited number of
basic substances, which are called elements.
You have already studied about elements as being pure substances that each are made up of one
kind of atoms only.
For convenience of study, these elements are divided into two broad classes : Metals and non-
metals.
This division of elements is based on the fact that there are certain properties that are found only in
metals and certain others that are found only in non-metals.
But, there are also some elements that show the properties of both metals and non-metals. They
are known as metalloids.
Some common metalloids are arsenic, antimony and silicon. The noble (inert) gases from the fourth
category of elements.
The majority of the elements known to us are metals.
For example gold, silver, platinum, copper, iron aluminium, tin, nickel chromium, mercury, calcium,
magnesium, lithium, sodium, potassium, zinc, and many more.
Why at homes we don’t use cables made up of silver though it is the best conductor of
electricity?
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS AND NON-METALS

METALS
They are generally solids with characteristics such as hardness, malleability ductility high tensile
strength, luster and ability to conduct heat and electricity. Example; Copper, iron, zinc etc.
A solid is considered to be a metal if it has high electrical and thermal conductivity.
The chemical definition of a metal also includes having a characteristic surface luster or shine.
It is characteristic of metals that they are malleable (can be hammered into sheets) and ductile (can
be drawn into wires.)
Usually have 1-3 electrons in their outer shell. Both the high electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity come from the fact that one or more valence electrons is relatively free to travel
throughout the solid materials.
All metals, other than sodium (Na) and potassium (K), have high melting and boiling points.
The melting points of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are below 100C. The melting point of iron is
about 1540C. Metals make a characteristic sound when hit with an object. Thus metals are
sonorous.
Why church bells are made up of metal instead of wood?
NON-METALS
They are generally non-lustrous, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity. Example:
Sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen etc.
Properties of Non-metals
Non-metals are not malleable or brittle: Non-metals cannot be hammered or beaten into thin
sheets without breaking. Non-metals break into pieces when hammered or stretched.
Sulphur, phosphorus are powders and cannot be made into a sheet. Brittleness is a
characteristic property of non-metals.
Non-metals are not ductile: Non-metals cannot be melted and drawn into thin wires. Non-metals
do not have free electrons. Thus the bonds between atoms in the elements are weak and
they snap when stretched.
Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity: In non-metals, the bonds formed are
weak as there are no free electrons to share. Graphite is able to conduct electricity because
of its special crystalline arrangement.
Non-metals have no lustre: Non-metals are in the form of powder or are gaseous. Hence they
cannot be polished and they do not have any lustre. Most of the powders are dull in colour.
Only graphite can be polished to some degree. Iodine shows some luster.
Non-metals are not strong: Due to their non-ductile and non-malleable properties, non-metals are
not strong at all. Their bonds break easily.
Melting and boiling points: All non-metals have low melting and boiling points. The melting point
of sulphur (S) is 115C. Graphite and diamonds have high melting points.
Density of non-metals: Non-metals have low densities as compared to metals, which have high
densities.
Non-Metals are not Sonorous
Non-metals do not make any characteristic sound when hit with an object.
Illustration 1: Explain the meanings of malleable and ductile.
Solution : (i) Metals are malleable, that is, can be hammered (or beaten) in the very thin
sheets with a hammer, without breaking.
ii) Metals are ductile, i.e., can be drawn (or stretched) to form thin wire.
DIFFERENCES IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS
S.No Property Metals Non Metals

Physical Metals are crystalline solids (except Non-metals are either gases
1. State mercury, which is a liquid) or solids [Exception: Bromine
is a liquid]
In their pure state, metals shine. This Non-metals are dull to look at,
2. Metallic property is called metallic lustre. In other i.e., they cannot be polished
lustre words, metals can be polished. [Exceptions: Graphite and
iodine are lustrous].
Metals has high density (except Non-metals have low density
3. Density sodium, potassium and lithium) [Exception: Diamond has high
density].
Metals are hard solids (except Non-metals are not hard. If

4. Hardness sodium and potassium, which are soft solid they are soft and brittle.
and can be cut with a knife). For example, phosphorus and
sulphur are soft solids and
iodine is brittle [Exception :
Diamond is the hardest
natural substance].
Melting Metals have high melting points and high Non-metals have both low
point boiling points melting and low boiling points
5 [Exceptions : Carbon, silicon
and boron have both high
melting and high boiling
points].
Metals are malleable, i.e., they can be Non-metals are non-
6. Malleability hammered into sheets. Gold, silver, malleable. When they are
copper, aluminium and tin can be beaten hammered they turn into a
into very thin sheets called foils. (But powder, i.e., non-metals are of
zinc is brittle, i.e., it breaks into pieces a brittle nature.
when it is hammered).
Metals are ductile, i.e., they can be Non-metals are not ductile
7. drawn into wires. Gold, silver, copper [Exception: Carbon fibre, a
Ductility and aluminium are highly ductile metals, recently developed allotrope
gold being the most ductile of all metals. of carbon, is ductile]
[Exception : Zinc, arsenic & antimony
cannot be drawn into
wires].
8 Tensile Metals have high tensile strength, i.e., Non-metals have low tensile
strength they can bear a lot of strain [Exception : strength [Exception: Carbon
Zinc]. fibre has high tensile
strength].
Thermal and Metals are good conductors of heat and Non-metals are bad
9 electrical electricity. Silver is the best conductor of conductors of heat and
conductivity heat and electricity. electricity [Exceptions:
Graphite is good conductor of
heat and electricity].
Metals produce a twangy sound Solid non-metals do not
10 Sonority when they are struck with a hard produce a sound when they
object, i.e., they are sonorous are struck, i.e., they are not
substances. sonorous substances.
What do you think, why may the physical properties be unreliable for grouping the
substances into metals and non-metals?
METALLOIDS
These elements have characteristics common to metals and non-metals. Example: Arsenic,
tin, bismuth etc.
The semimetals or metalloids include silicon and germanium and other elements which
possess properties intermediate between those of metals and non-metals. Silicon, for
example, possesses a metallic lustre, yet it is inefficient conductor and is brittle. The
intermediate conductivity of metalloids means they tend to make good semiconductors.
Illustration 2: What are metalloids?
Solution : Those elements which have characteristic properties of both metals and non-metals
are known as metalloids Examples germanium, Silicon, tellurium and antimony.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS AND NON-METALS
METALS
1. Reaction of metals with oxygen
(i) In the presence of heat, most metals react with oxygen (or air) to form their respective
oxides. These metallic oxides are of a basic nature. Therefore they are known as
basic oxides. Basic oxides form salt and water when they react with acids.
heat
Metal + Oxygen   Oxide (basic)
2 Cu + O2 
 2 CuO (basic oxide)
(ii) On the other hand, metals like sodium and potassium react vigorously with oxygen
(even in the absence of heat) to form their respective oxides.
E.g.: 2Ca  O 2 
 2CaO
 Calcium   Oxygen   Calcium oxide 
2Li + O2  Li2O
(iii) Metals like magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper and mercury react with
oxygen on heating to from oxides that are basic in nature but insoluble in water, i.e.,
they are not alkaline [but magnesium hydroxide is alkaline in nature].

heat
E.g.: 2Mg  O2   2MgO
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxide
heat
2Zn  O 2   2ZnO
 zinc   oxygen   Zincoxide 
heat
2Cu  O2   2CuO
 Copper   Oxygen   Copper oxide 
Metals like silver, gold and platinum do not react with oxygen even on strong heating.
Therefore they are called noble metals.
2. Reaction of metals with water
Depending upon their level of reactivity, metals react with water or steam to form their
corresponding metallic hydroxides or oxides, along with hydrogen gas.
(i) Metals like sodium and potassium react violently with cold water to form their
hydroxides as well as hydrogen gas.
The reaction is so vigorous that a fire or an explosion can occur. Calcium too reacts
with cold water to from its hydroxide and hydrogen, but the reaction is a moderate
one.
 metallic hydroxide + Hydrogen
Metal + Water 
 cold 
vigorous
E.g.: 2Na  2H2O   2NaOH  H2
 sodium   cold water   sodium hydroxide  hydrogen 
 analkali 
very
2K  2H2O 
vigorous
 2KOH  H2
 potassium  cold water   Potassium hydroxide   hydrogen 
moderate
Ca  2H2O   Ca  OH2  H2
 calcium  coldwater   hydrogen
 calcium
hydroxide 
(ii) Metals like magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron react with steam to from their
respective oxides as well as hydrogen gas.
heat
Metal + Steam   Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
heat
E.g.: Mg  H2O   MgO  H2
 magnesium   steam   magnesium oxide   hydrogen 


3Fe  4H2O 
heat
Fe3 O 4  4H2
 red hot
iron   steam  triferric tetroxide   hydrogen 
Metals like gold, silver, copper and mercury react with neither cold water nor steam.
3. Reaction of metals with mineral acids.
Metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid to produce their
corresponding salts as well as hydrogen.
Nitric acid is not used because, being a strong oxidizing agent, it immediately oxidizes
hydrogen to produce water.
Sodium and potassium react vigorously with dilute acids, with the liberation of a tremendous
amount of heat; magnesium, calcium, zinc and aluminum react only moderately with acids,
whereas iron reacts with acids very slowly.
 Salt + Hydrogen
Metal + Acid (dil) 
2Na  2HC vigorous
  2NaC H2  g 
 sodium   dil. hydrochloric
acid  chloride
sodium
  hydrgoen 
not so vigorous
Zn  H2SO4   ZnSO4  H2  g 
 zinc   dil sulphuric acid   zinc sulphate   hydrogen
Fe  2HC slow
  FeC 2  H2  g 
 iron   dilhydrochloric
acid   ferrous chloride   hydrogen
Lead, copper, Silver and gold do not all react with dilute mineral acids
Metals like Cu, Zn react with concentrated acids.

For example, when Cu react with conc. H2SO4, salt, water an sulphur dioxide gas are produced.

Cu  2H2SO4   CuSO 4  SO2  2H2O .
conc.
NON-METALS
1. Reaction of non-metals with oxygen
Non-metals react with oxygen (air) on heating to form their respective oxides. Most of these
oxides are acidic in nature and they turn moist blue litmus paper red.
heat
Non-metal + Oxygen   Non-metallic oxide
(i) Carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide.
heat
C  O2   CO 2
 carbon   oxygen   carbon dioxide 
(ii) Sulphur burns in oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide

heat
S  O 2   SO2
 sulphur   oxygen   sulphur dioxide 
Some non-metallic oxides are natural e.g., water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
(iii) Hydrogen burns in oxygen to produce water, which is a neutral oxide i.e., it does not
change the colour of indicators.
2H2  O2  2H2O .
 hydrogen  oxygen   water 
2. Reaction of acidic oxides and acids with bases / alkalis

(i) Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide react with sodium hydroxide to produce the salts
sodium carbonate and sodium sulphite respectively, along with water.
Acidic oxide + Base  Salt + Water
CO2  2NaOH 
 Na 2CO3  H2O
carbon
dioxide 
hydroxide
sodium
 carbonate
sodium
  water 
 Na 2SO3  H2O .
SO2  2NaOH 
 sulphur
dioxide 
sodium
hydroxide   sodium
sulphite 
 water 
How many the reaction with oxygen be used to distinguish between a metal
from a non-metal?
3. Reaction with water

(i) Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid.
CO 2  H2O  H2CO3
 carbondioxide   water   carbonic acid
(ii) Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid with water.

SO2  H2O  H2SO3
 sulphur dioxide   water   sulphurous acid
4. Reaction of non-metals with acids

Non-metals do not react with dil. HC  or H2SO4. But they react with concentrated acids.
Some of the reactions are as follows:

C  2H2SO 4   CO 2  2SO2  2H2O
 conc 
S  2H2SO 4 
 3SO2  2H2O
P  5HNO3  H3PO 4  5NO2  H2O
conc.
S  6HNO3  H2SO4  6NO2  2H2O .

conc.
Illustration 3: Write equation for the reactions of:

(i) iron with steam
(ii) Calcium and potassium with water
Solution : (i) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
(ii) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O (l)  2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat energy.
METAL REACTIVITY SERIES
The reactivity of metals depends on the ease with which they lose electrons. The metals are
placed in increasing order of reactivity into a series called Metal Activity Series.
Significance of Metal Activity Series
Metal activity series is a series in which
(a) the metals are arranged in decreasing order of reactivity.
(b) {H} is the demarcating element.
(c) metals above {H} can displace H from an acid.
(d) metals below {H} cannot displace H from an acid.
(e) a more reative metal can displace a less reactive metal from a salt.
Reason for reactivity is that metals higher up in the series loose electrons more easily.
Metals below [H] are found free in nature. Those above [H] are not found free in nature.
Special features of the activity series:
1. The ease with which a metal in solution loses electron(s) and forms a positive ion decreases
down the series i.e., from potassium to gold.
2. Hydrogen is included in the activity series because, like metals do, it too loses an electron and
becomes positively charged (H+) in most chemical reactions.
3. It facilitates the comparative study of metals in terms of the degree of their reactivity.
The reactivity series of metals
Elements Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water Reaction with acid
1. K React with oxygen at React with cold water React explosively with
2. Na ordinary temperature to vigorously (1 &2); reacts dilute acids to give
form oxides (1, 2 & 3) moderately with water (3) hydrogen (1 & 2); reacts
3. Ca
less vigorously (3)
4. Mg Form oxides on heating, Reacts with hot water or React moderately with
5. Al but aluminium reacts at steam (4); react with steam acid, to produce hydrogen
ordinary temperature (4, 6 only to form oxide & (4, 5, 6 & 7)
6. Zn
& 7) hydrogen (5, 6 & 7)
7. Fe
8. Pb Form oxides on very No reaction with hot water Reacts with conc. HCl to
9. [H] strong heating (8, 10 & or steam (8, 10 & 11) give H2(8); do not react
11) with dilute acids (10 & 11)
10. Cu
11. Hg
12. Ag Do not react with No reaction with hot Do not react with dilute
13. Pt oxygen even on strong water or steam (12, 13 & acids (12, 13 & 14)
heating (12, 13 & 14) 14)
14. Au
Figure 1
Illustration 4 : Samples of four metals A, B, C and D were taken and added to the following
solution one by one. The result obtained have been tabulated as follows:
Metal Iron(II) Copper (II) Zinc sulphate Silver nitrate

sulphat sulphate
e
A No reaction Displacement — —
B Displacement — No reaction —
C No reaction No reaction No reaction Displacement
D No reaction No reaction No reaction No reaction
Answer the following questions about metals A, B, C and D:

(i) Which is the most reactive?
(ii) What would you observe when B is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate?
(iii) Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of decreasing reactivity.
Solution : (i) B is the most reactive.
(ii) When B is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate, then B displaces copper from
copper sulphate solution.
B get coated with red brown layer of copper and the colour of copper sulphate solution
fades.
(iii)B  A  C  D.
DISPLACEMENT REACTION OF METALS

It has been found that a more reactive metal always displaces a less reactive metal from the salt
solution. This can be better understood by the following activities.
Some more displacement reactions are as follows:
Zn + CuSO4 
 ZnSO4 + Cu
[Zn is more reactive than Cu]
Mg + FeSO4 
 MgSO4 + Fe
[Mg is more reactive than Fe].
Illustration 5: What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron (II) sulphate? Write the
chemical reaction that takes place.
Solution: Zinc displaces iron from iron (II) sulphate solution to form zinc sulphate and ion metal.
FeSO4 (aq)  Zn(s)  ZnSO 4 (aq)  Fe(s)
Greenish solution Colourless solution
TAKE A BREAK
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
Identify each element as a metal, non-metal or metalloid.
Copper
Oxygen
Boron
Potassium
Silicon
helium
Aluminium
Hydrogen
Calcium
Polonium
List four physical properties of metals, non-metal and methods.
Metals Non-metals Metalloids
USES OF METALS AND NON-METALS

USES OF SOME COMMON METALS
Copper
 Copper was among the first metals discovered by man along with gold and silver. It is
reddish brown in colour.
 It is highly ductile , i.e., capable of being drawn into wires, and also a very good conductor of
heat and electricity.
It is used in making:
(i) Electronic device.
(ii) several electroplating operations.
(iii) electric wires and cables, utensils and semi-precious
ornaments
(iv) coins and statues (in the form of its two alloys, brass
Figure 2
and bronze).
 The use of copper in the electrical goods industry has declined due to the increasing use of
aluminium as its substitute. Also copper is costly.
Iron
 There are three different varieties of manufactured iron, depending mainly on the proportion
of carbon present in it.
These are:
(a) pig iron (or cast iron)
(b) wrought iron
(c) Steel
Figure 3
 Wrought iron is the purest form of iron, since it has the least proportion of carbon present in
it, while pig iron is the most impure form of iron, since it has the highest proportion of carbon
present in it.
 Steel is the most widely used form of impure iron, to the extent of being the very basis of
modern life.
Iron is used in the manufacture of:
(i) radiators, railings, manhole lids, drain pipes [in the form of pig iron].
(ii) tanks, cylinders, smaller pipes, agricultural tools, nails and bolts, furniture, gates, etc. [in
the form of wrought iron].
(iii) bridges, ships, machine parts, automobiles, buildings and utensils [in the form of steel].
(iv) power transmission towers.
Aluminium
 Aluminium is definitely the second most useful metal today, after iron.
 It is silvery white in colour, malleable, ductile, light and strong, and it is a very good conductor of
heat and electricity as well.
 Also it is resistant to corrosion. Therefore aluminum finds wide range applications.
It is used
(i) to make utensils, cans for drinks, furniture, window frames, etc.
(ii) in making electric wires.
(iii) for packaging of food stuffs (in the form of aluminium foil).
(iv) as a paint ingredient (in the form of its powder mixed with
linseed oil, which protects against rusting when applied to
the surface of iron). Figure 4
(v) To make the bodies of aircraft and automobiles, and machine parts and tools.
This is because, in the form of its alloys duralumin and magnalium, it is light and
very strong.
(vi) In making mirrors (as reflector material).
Zinc
Zinc is used
(i) to coat (galvanization) iron sheets so as to prevent them from rusting.
(ii) in the extraction of silver and gold from their ores.
(iii) to make dry cells and electrodes.
(iv) to make alloys like brass and bronze that are used to
make utensils, statues, decoration pieces, etc.
Figure 5
Lead
It is used for:
(i) making pipes and other sanitary fittings, bullet

tips and tin roofs.
(ii) covering underground electric and telephone

cables.
(iii) making solder and type metal.

Figure 6
(iv) the preparation of compounds like lead sulphate, red lead and litharge, which are
used in paint and emulsion products.
(v) making screens that protect against X-rays and other radioactive radiations.
Magnesium
It is used:
(i) in preparing fireworks, since it burns with a

dazzling light.
(ii) in the preparation of alloys like duralumin and

magnalium.
(iii) for making fuse wire.
(iv) in nuclear reactors for the absorption of neutrons.

Figure 7
Tin
It is used:
(i) to make cans for storage of food stuffs.
(ii) for coating of utensils made of other metals so as to

prevent them from corroding.
Figure 8
Calcium
In its various combined states, calcium has wide applications
(i) Calcium chloride is used as a drying agent, i.e., for physical

removal of water.
(ii) Calcium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass,

cement, lime, washing soda etc.
(iii) Marble, a non-crystalline form of calcium carbonate, is used

for building and laboratory purposes. It is used also to make
statues.
(iv) Chalk, another form of calcium carbonate, is used for Figure 9

distempering of walls, in toothpastes and talcum powder, and
in medicines for indigestion etc.
Gold:
Therefore it is used in
(i) the manufacture of electronic devices like telephones,

computers, etc.
(ii) making ornaments and coins.
(iii) dentistry to fill into teeth cavities (in the form of amalgam, an
alloy made of gold, silver and mercury).
Figure 10
Silver
It is used
(i) for making jewellery, since it is fairly scarce and therefore

semi-precious.
(ii) for filling into teeth cavities (in the form of amalgam, an alloy
made of gold, silver and mercury).
(iii) as a water purifier

Figure 11
(iv) for making electrodes and in several electroplating
operations.
(v) in photography (in the form of silver nitrate and silver bromide).
(vi) in the form of silver iodide to seed clouds in order to crate “artificial rain”.
Though silver is the best known metallic conductor of electricity and the most ductile
metal, it is not used for making electric wires. This is because it is rather costly and
not a chemically stable as is required for transmission of electricity.
Mercury
Mercury is a silvery white, liquid metal. It does not moisten glass and it expands a lost on heating.
Therefore it is used in
(i) thermometers (as thermometric liquid)
(ii) barometers and other scientific apparatus.
(iii) dentistry, for filling into teeth cavities in the form of alloys known
as silver amalgam and gold amalgam. Figure 12
Platinum
It is used
(i) for making electrodes and electrolytic cells.
(ii) for making expensive ornaments and watches.
Figure 13
Uses of some common non –metals

 Non-metals too play a vital role in everyday life.
 Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are made mostly of the non-metals carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen.
 We need oxygen to breathe and plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
 Non-metals are also important for the manufacture of a number of industrial substances.
The uses of some commonly known non-metals are discussed below:—

Oxygen
Oxygen is used
(i) For respiration and combustion.
(ii) To weld and cut metals.
(iii) In the manufacture of sulphuric and nitric acids.
Figure 14
(iv) For artificial respiration for patients suffering from breathing problems (in the form of
carbogen, a mixture of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide).
(v) In the extraction of iron and manufacture of steel. Oxygen reacts with the impurities of
the crude iron ores to form ferrous oxides.
(vi) For artificial respiration by people in special occupations. Deep sea divers,
mountaineers, astronauts, miners and firemen carry oxygen cylinders with them.
(vii) For blasting of rocks in the mining industry; carbon dust (carbon mixed with liquid
oxygen) is used as an explosive, a substitute for dynamite.
(viii) As a propellant for spacecraft; liquid oxygen (LOX) helps to burn hydrogen. Oxygen is
carried in containers attached to the spaceships since, in space, there is no oxygen.
Nitrogen
 It is slightly lighter than air. It is neither combustible nor supporter of combustion.
 Nitrogen is an important component of human food nutrients.
(i) Nitrogen plays an important role in controlling the rate of

combustion. It dilutes the oxygen present in the air that we
breathe, otherwise, pure oxygen would burn our lungs.
(ii) It is an important constituent of proteins, which are necessary for

the growth of animals, plants and human beings. Plants convert
nitrogen into proteins.
Figure 15
(iii) It is used in the manufacture of compounds like ammonia and nitric acid.
(iv) It is used to make fertilizers like ammonium salts, urea, potassium nitrate, etc.
(v) It is used to prepare explosives like T.N.T. (Trinitro toluene)
(VI) Because of its inert nature, nitrogen is used for preservation of food. The containers
used for storing foodstuffs are flushed with nitrogen (to remove oxygen) before they
are packed and sealed. The absence of oxygen does not allow for bacterial growth.
Thus food remains fresh for a long time.
During a thunderstorm, when lightning occurs, nitrogen and oxygen in the
atmosphere combine to form oxides of nitrogen, which are washed away with rain (in
the form of nitric acid) into the soil.
Chlorine
Chlorine is used
(i) As a bleaching agent for rough and hand fibres like jute and
cotton.
(ii) As a disinfectant for sterilizing both drinking water and

swimming pool water.
Figure 16
(iii) In the manufacture of mineral acids like hydrogen chloride.
(iv) In the manufacture of chemicals like D.D.T. (Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane),
B.H.C (Benzene hexachloride) and bleaching powder (CaOCl2), which are
used as an insecticide, a pesticide and a disinfectant, respectively?
Sulphur
 Sulphur is yellow solid. It is brittle in nature. In free state it occurs in volcanic regions,
while in combined state it occurs as sulphates, sulphides, etc.
 Substances like garlic, onion, eggs, hair and wool contain sulphur. Sulphur in small
amounts is a vital ingredient for the human body.
Sulphur has wide applications
(i) It is used in the chemical industry for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sodium
thiosulphate (used in photography), gunpowder, dyes, matches and fireworks.
(ii) It is used in the medical industry:
 to prepare skin ointments, since it has excellent fungicidal properties.
 to fumigate disease-infected areas (in the form of sulphur vapour)
 to purify blood (in the form of a colloidal solution).
 to prepare homeopathic and ayurvedic medicines.
 to prepare a range of other medicinal drugs.

Figure 17
(iii) Sulphur powder is used as an insecticide and as a fungicide.
Phosphorus
 In combined state phosphorus occurs as phosphates. It is present in the brain, the
bones and the teeth of animals [in the form of calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] and in
plant cells.
Phosphorous is used
(i) Phosphorus sulphide is used on the sides of safety match
boxes.
(ii) Phosphorus is used in the manufacture of fertilizers,
detergents and fine chinaware.
(iii) White phosphorus is used as rat poison. It is used also in
fireworks because of its inflammable nature. Figure 18
Silicon
 Silicon is one of the most useful elements available to modern man. It does not occur
free in nature.
 In combined state however it ranks next only to oxygen in abundance i.e., as sand. [The
chemical name of sand is silica (SiO2)].
(i) Highly purified silicon is used in making microchips for computers, transistors, solar
cells, rectifiers and other solid state devices that are used extensively in the electronic
and the space age industries.
(ii) Silicon is used in the manufacture of “silicone”, a waterproof material.
(iii) It is used also to prepare silicon carbide, which is the hardest

substance prepared by man. It is used as the grinding agent in
various kinds of grinding tools.
Figure 19
(iv) In the form of sand to prepare concrete, bricks and cement. Sand is the principal
ingredient of glass.
(v) In the form of silicates, silicon is used in enamel, pottery, etc., and for preserving eggs.
(vi) Silicon is an important ingredient in steel, an alloy of iron.
Iodine
It is used
(i) In the form of iodized slat for the healthy growth of the
human body. Iodine deficiency causes goiter and other
thyroid based diseases.
(ii) In Photographic films (in the form of potassium iodide).
(iii) to make tincture of iodine and iodex, which are used as

disinfectant and pain reliever respectively.
Figure 20
Fluorine
(i) Fluorine is used mainly in the production of fluorides

and fluorocarbon compounds.
(ii) In the form of stannous fluoride it is used in toothpastes
to prevent dental decay, especially in children.
Figure 21
(iii) Fluorine is used to prepare a type of plastic known as Teflon. Teflon is thermally
stable and chemically resistant. Therefore, it is widely used as an insulator and as a
lubricant.
Illustration 6 : A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the glitter
of old and dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold bangles to him
which he dipped in a particular solution. The bangles sparkled like new but their weight
was reduced drastically. The lady upset but after a futile argument the man beat a hasty
retreat. Can you play the detective to find out the nature of the solution he had used?
Solution: The solution he has used may be aquaregia which is 3 parts of conc. HCl and 1 part of HNO3.
It can dissolve noble metals such as gold. Aqua-regia dissolved a considerable amount of
gold bangles and hence reduce their weight drastically. The man can recover the dissolved
gold from aqua-regia by a suitable treatment.
1. Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil?
2. Name two metals which are both ductile as well as malleable.
3. The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called

(a) Conductivity (b) malleability (c) Ductility (d) Decorating
4. The metals that produce ringing sounds, are said to be-

(a) malleable (b) sonorous (c) Lustrous (d) hard
5. Gold is used in-

(a) Thermometers (b) Fuel (c) Jewellery (d) Machinery.
6. Name two metals which can form hydrides with hydrogen.
7. When you place an iron nail in copper sulphate solution, the reddish brown coating formed
on the nail is :
(a) Soft and dull (b) Hard and flaky
(b) Smooth and shining (d) Rough and granular
8. What is the product when sulphur reacts with oxygen?

(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Sulphur trioxide (c) Sulphurous acid (d) Sulphur dioxide
9. What is the chemical formula of sulphurous acid-

(a) H2SO4 (b) SO2 (c) SO3 (d) H2SO3
10. Oxides of non metals are _______ in nature

(a) Basic (b) Acidic
(b) Neutral (d) All of these
ORES AND MINERALS

MINERALS
The naturally occurring compounds of metals mixed with earthly impurities like sand, clay, stone,
etc., are called minerals. They are found beneath the earth’s surface as the chemical ingredients of
rocks.
GANGUE
Earthly impurities like sand, clay and mud, when they are present in an ore, are called gangue or
matrix.
ORES
An ore is a mixture of minerals from which elements or compounds are extracted. Generally ores
are not exploited unless it can be done profitably.
Mineral + Gangue = Ore
COMMON ORES AND THE METALS EXTRACTED FROM THEM
Type of ore Ore Chemical formula Metal extracted
Oxide ores Bauxite A  2O3.2H2O A

Haematite Fe2O3 Fe
Magnetite Fe3O4 Fe
Zincite ZnO Zn
Cuprite Cu2O Cu
Sulphide ores Galena PbS Pb
Copper CuS Cu
glance
Iron pyrite FeS2 Fe
Zinc blende ZnS Zn
Cinnabar HgS Hg
Carbonate ores Marble CaCO3 Ca
Magnesite MgCO3 Mg
Siderite FeCO3 Fe
Malachite [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2] Cu
Chalk CaCO3 Ca
Sulphate ores Epsom slat MgSO4.7H2O Mg
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Ca
Halide ores Rock salt NaC  Na

Horn silver AgC  Ag
Fluorspar CaF2 Ca
Cryolite A  F3.3NaF A
Illustration 7: a) Why is sulphide ore converted to its oxide before reduction?

b) What is thermite reaction?
Solution: a) Sulphide ore is converted to first oxide before reduction because oxygen
can easily be removed from metal oxides by reacting it with carbon or
aluminium or by electrolytic reduction.
b) Reduction of certain metal oxide (MnO2, Fe2O3, Cr2O3) to metal by using
aluminium as a reducing agent is known as thermite reaction. For example,
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s)  3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3(s)
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s)  2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s)
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
 The knowledge of metals is very old. Copper was perhaps the first metal to be used by man for
making utensils, weapons and other objects.
 Most metals have a significant role in our daily life. They constitute the mineral wealth of a
country.
 Metals occur in nature in both free (native) and combined states.

NATIVE OR FREE STATE
 Gold and platinum are found exclusively in free state because they are non-reactive elements.
 Also, due to their low reactivity, copper, mercury and silver too occur mostly in native or free
state.
COMBINED STATE
 Most metals occur in nature in combination with other substances, since metals are mostly
reactive.
 Mainly they occur as oxides, sulphides, sulphates, carbonates and silicates.
 The relative abundance of metals in the earth’s crust.
Metal Percentage proportion Metal Percentage proportion

Aluminium 8 Sodium 2.5
Iron 6 Potassium 1.5
Calcium 5 Other metals 2
Magnesium 3
Illustration 8 : Gold and silver often occur in free state, Why?
Solution: Gold and Silver are least reactive, therefore occur in free state.
METALLURGY
 The scientific principles and the physical and the chemical processes that are applied to obtain
pure metals from their ores constitute the science of metallurgy.
The extraction of a metal for its ore depends on:
(a) The type of ore being used,
(b) the nature of the impurities present in the ore,

(c) the degree of the reactivity of the metal that is to be extracted.
Usually the following consecutive steps are involved in metallurgical processes.
1. Ore dressing, i.e., concentration of ore.
2. Conversion of concentrated ore into metal oxide.
3. Reduction of metal oxide to impure metal.
4. Refining of impure metal.
(i). Ore decreasing or concentration of ore:
 The process of removal of gangue (earthly impurities) from an ore is known as
concentration or dressing ore.
 The purified ore is called concentrate. Concentration is done to increase the
proportion of metal in ore.
 It begins with the crushing of the ore in big pulverizers so as to obtain powdered ore.
Some common methods of concentration are:
(i) Hydraulic washing (gravity separation)
(ii) Froath flotation
(iii) Magnetic separation.
Hydraulic washing
 This method exploits the difference in the density of the ore and the density of gangue.
Therefore, it is also known as the gravity separation method.
 The ores of tin and lead are concentrated by this method.
Froth flotation
 This process is based on the difference in the consequences when ore and gangue are wetted
with certain liquids.
 Mainly oil and water are used for this purpose.
 Froth flotation is used to concentrate the sulphide ores of copper, lead and zinc.
Magnetic separation:
 This method exploits the difference in the respective magnetic properties of ore and gangue.
 Impurities of iron ore are removed by this process since, as you known, iron has magnetic
properties.
 Nickel and manganese too are separated using this method from their ores, since they are
ferrous metals.
2. Conversion of the concentrated ore into metallic oxide:
Concentrated ore is converted into metal oxide by either:
i) Roasting ii) Calcination

 The choice of method depends upon the physical and the chemical nature of the ore.
Roasting
 The process of heating concentrated ore to a high temperature in excess air is
known as roasting. Roasting is most commonly carried out on sulphide ores.
 removes water from concentrated ore.
 removes volatile impurities like arsenic and phosphorus from ores.
 converts ore into oxide.
 makes ores porous.
Examples:
roasting
(a) 2CuS  3O2   2CuO  2SO2
 copper sulphide   air   copper oxide   sulphur dioxide 
roasting
(b) 2PbS  3O2   2PbO  2SO 2
 lead sulphide   air   leadmonoxide   sulphur dioxide 
roasting
(c) 2ZnS  3O2   2ZnO  2SO 2
 zinc sulphide   air   zinc oxide   sulphur dioxide 
roasting
(d) 4FeS  7O2   2Fe 2O3  4SO 2
 ferrous sulphide   air   ferric oxide   sulphur dioxide 
Calcination
 The process of strongly heating a concentrated ore in the absence of air to a
Temperature that is insufficient to melt the ore is known as calcination.
 removes moisture and volatile impurities like CO2 from ores.
 converts carbonate ores into metallic oxides.
 makes ores porous.
Examples:
calcination
(a) CuCO3  CuO  CO 2
 copper carbonate   copper oxide   carbon dioxide 
calcination
(b) PbCO3  PbO  CO2
 lead carbonate   lead oxide   carbon dioxide 
calcination
(c) ZnCO3  ZnO  CO2
 zinc carbonate   zinc oxide   carbon dioxide 
3. Reduction of metal oxide to metal (smelting):
 The process of the removal of oxygen from a metallic oxide so as to convert is (the
metallic oxide) into a metal is known as reduction (or smelting).
 This impurity too gets removed either by using a reducing agent or by the process of
electrolysis.
(i) Reduction by electrolysis:

 Highly reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
are extracted by the process of electrolysis, since they do not get reduced by
conventional reducing agents.
(ii) Reduction by conventional reducing agents

 In this process the metallic oxide is reduced to metal by using reducing agents like
carbon (coke or charcoal), carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc.
Mostly, metals like zinc, lead, iron and copper are extracted from their corresponding

oxides this way.
Examples
a) ZnO  C  Zn  CO
 zinc oxide   coke   zinc   carbon monoxide 
b) PbO  C 
 Pb  CO
 lead monoxide   coke  lead  carbon monoxide 
heat
c) Fe 2O3  3CO   2Fe 3CO2
 ferric oxide   carbon monoxide   iron   carbon dioxide 
heat
d) CuO  CO   Cu  CO2
 copper oxide   carbon monoxide   copper   carbon dioxide 
FLUX
 The substance added to the ore to remove its impurities during the reduction of oxidised ore
from primary ore is called flux.
SLAG
 The substance formed by the chemical combination of flux and ore based impurities is called
slag. Since, slag is a fusible compound it gets separated from the ore easily.
(ii) Reduction by thermal decomposition:

 Oxides of metals like mercury and silver get reduced to their corresponding meals on
heating above 300ºC.
 They do not require a reducing agent or electrolytic reduction for this purpose.
4. Refining of impure metals

 Refining of impure metals is the process of the removal of physical and chemical
impurities still present in the metal that has been sorted out (extracted) from its ore.
Such ‘first-stage’ extracted metals mainly contain the following impurities:
i) other metals in pure or impure form.
ii) non-metals.
iii) dissolved gases.
 Some common methods of refining impure metals are distillation, liquefaction,
oxidation, electro-refining, etc.
 However the best method is electro-refining, since it gives highly pure (99% – 99.9%)
metal.
 Electro-refining of impure metal (Refining by electrolysis) is the most widely
used process for purification of impure metals.
 Most commonly the pure forms of copper, zinc, tin, aluminium, nickel chromium,
silver and gold are obtained by this process.
 When electric current is passed through the electrolyte, it (the electrolyte) dissociates
into free metal ions and thus pure metal gets deposited at the negative electrode
(cathode).
 The mass of impurities that settles down in the solution below the anode is known as
anode mud.
Illustration 9 : What are the different steps of metallurgical processes?
Solution : (i) Dressing and concentration of ore.
(ii) Conversion of ore to oxide or desired compound.
(iii) Extraction of Metal.
(iv) Refining of Metal.
1. Which gas produced by piece of burning charcoal?

(a) CO2 (b) CO
(c) H2S (d) O2
2. Which substance is present in fuel?

(a) Copper (b) Iron
(c) Gold (d) Carbon
3. Which one of the following enhances the growth of plants?

(a) Industrial gadgets (b) Fertilisers
(c) Automobiles (d) Water boilers
4. A process employed for the concentration of sulphide ore is

(a) Froth Floatation (b) Gravity separation
(c) Calcination (d) Electrolysis
5. The electroyte used in the electro-refining of copper is:

(a) copper nitrate (b) copper chloride
(c) copper sulphate (d) copper acetate.
6. What happens when dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?

(a) Copper sulphate is formed (b) Zinc sulphate is formed
(c) Copper chloride is formed (d) Zinc sulphate is formed
7. Roasting of an ore results in

(a) conversion of ore to oxide (b) metals in it
(c) makes it conducting (d) makes it soluble.
8. Highly electropositive metals can not be reduced by using

(i) Electrolytic process (ii) using carbon
(iii) using CO (iv) using Al powder
(a) all except (i) (b) all except (ii)
(c) all except (iii) (d) all except (iv).

CONCEPT MAP

1. Which one of the following metals does not react with oxygen even at high temperatures?
(i) Calcium (ii) Gold (iii) Sodium
2. Name any one metal which reacts neither with cold water nor with hot water but reacts with
steam to produce hydrogen gas.
3. Write the chemical equation for the reaction of hot aluminium with steam.
4. Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to reactive metal? Write a
chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
5. What type of oxides are formed when non-metals combine with oxygen?
6. Name the iron compound in haematite. Write its chemical formula.
7. What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron(II) sulphate? Write the
chemical reaction that takes place.
8. What is mineral?
9. What is an ore?
10. What is gangue or matrix?
1. Give the reason why copper is used to make hot water tanks but steel (an alloy of iron) is
not.
2. Sodium is more reactive than copper, why?
3. How will you show that silver is less reactive than copper?
4. What is a thermite reaction?
5. Which important properties of aluminium are responsible for its great demand in industry?
6. A solution of CuSO4 was kept in an iron pot. After a few days, the iron pot was found to have
a large number of holes in it. Write the equation for the reaction that took place. Explain the
reaction in terms of reactivity of the metals.
7. The covalent bond in HCl shows ionic character. Give reasons.
8. Which method is used to concentrate bauxite ore?
9. Which method is used to reduce the oxides of highly reactive metals?
10. What is flux?

1. a) What is the nature of the compound when
i) sodium reacts with oxygen
ii) magnesium reacts with chlorine?
b) Arrange the following:
i) NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3 in increasing order of covalent nature.
ii) LiCl, LiBr, LiI in increasing order of ionic nature.
2. a) How many electrons are shared by each atom in the formation of:
i) a double bond
ii) a triple bond?

b) What is a polar covalent bond? Illustrate with one example.
c) Name the type of compounds which are soluble in:
i) non-polar covalent solvents
ii) polar solvents
3. (i) Name an important ore of iron. Write its formula.
(ii) How is this ore concentrated?
4. State reasons for the following:
(i) Aluminium oxide is called an amphoteric oxide.
(ii) Sodium and potassium metals are kept immersed under kerosene oil.
(iii) Hydrogen gas is not evolved when most metals react with nitric acid.
5. Differentiate between metals and non metals?

1. The property due to which a metal can be beaten into sheets is called
(a) Ductility (b) Tenacity
(c) Malleability (d) Density
2. Which is not the property of a metal?
(a) malleability (b) ductility
(c) form acidic oxides (d) conductivity
3. The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called-
(a) malleability (b) Ductility
(c) conduction (d) Expansion
4. Which one of the following is metal?
(a) C (b) N
(c) Na (d) O
5. Which one of the following is non metal?
(a) Zn (b) Al
(c) Fe (d) N
6. All materials shown property of malleability except
(a) Iron (b) Graphite
(c) Aluminium (d) Silver
7. Which one of the following is a good conductor of electricity?
(a) Iron (b) Plastic
(c) Wood (d) Glass
8. Which material show shiny appearance?
(a) Coal (b) Sulphur
(c) Aluminium (d) Carbon
9. The oxide of sodium is of
(a) Acidic nature (b) Neutral nature
(c) Amphoteric nature (d) Basic nature
10. Metals more active than hydrogen, react with dilute mineral acid and displace
(a) Hydrogen gas (b) Nitrogen gas
(c) Carbon monoxide gas (d) Oxygen gas
11. When zinc is added to CuSO4 solution prepared in water, the solution becomes :
(a) Green in colour (b) Blue in colour
(c) Pale yellow in colour (d) Colourless
12. The sulphuric acid turns blue litmus paper into-
(a) Red (b) Green
(c) Yellow (d) Dark blue
13. Sodium metal is stored in-
(a) Water (b) Alcohol
(c) Kerosene (d) Ether
14. The ore of iron is
(a) Bauxite (b) Malachite
(c) Cuprite (d) Haematite
15. On burning metals react with oxygen to produce-
(a) Metal hydroxide (b) Metal chloride
(c) Metal oxide (d) Metal sulphate
16. Which non metal is essential for our life and inhale during breathing?
(a) H (b) O
(c) C (d) N
17. Which one of the following is applied on wounds as an antiseptic?
(a) Metals (b) Non metals
(c) Metalloids (d) All of these
18. Which one of the following metal is used in thermometers?
(a) Copper (b) Mercury
(c) Aluminium (d) Iron
19. Calcination is the process of heating the ore :
(a) in absence of air (b) in the presence of air
(c) in a blast furnace (d) none of these
20. Which one of the following is the good conductor of electricity?
(a) Iron rod (b) Sulphur
(c) Coal piece (d) Wood
21. Aluminium foil are used for wrapping
(a) Food (b) Clothes
(c) Plastic (d) Wires
22. During smelting an additional substance is added which combines with impurities to form a
fusible product. It is known as :
(a) Slag (b) Mud
(c) Gangue (d) Flux
23. Froth flotation is a method used for
(a) carbonate ores (b) hydrated ores
(c) sulphide ores (d) oxide ores.

1. A non-metal which is a good conductor of heat and electricity, is
(a) Phosphorus (b) Silicon
(c) Graphite (d) Sulphur
2. Which metal is found in liquid state at room temperature?
(a) Fe (b) Zn (c) Hg (d) Al
3. When an aluminium strip is kept immersed in freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution
taken in a test tube, the change observed is that
(a) The green solution slowly turns brown
(b) The lower end of the test tube becomes slightly warm
(c) A colourless gas with smell of burning sulphur is observed
(d) Light green solution changes to blue
4. Which of the following will not evolve CO2 upon heating?
(a) CaCO3 (b) MgCO3 (c) ZnCO3 (d) Na2CO3
5. The solution of ash of magnesium ribbon is
(a) Acidic (b) Basic(c) Neutral (d) All of these
6. When sulphur dioxide is dissolve in water then-
(a) Sulphur is formed (b) Sulphur trioxide is formed
(c) Sulphuric acid is formed (d) Sulphurous acid is formed
7. Which one of the following metal reacts vigorously with oxygen and water?
(a) Sodium (b) Potassium
(c) Calcium (d) Magnesium
8. Iron nail were dipped in a solution kept in a test tube. After half an hour, it was observed that
the colour of the solution had changed. The solution in the test tube was that of
(a) Zinc sulphate (b) Copper sulphate
(c) Iron sulphate (d) Aluminium sulphate
9. 10 mL of freshly prepared iron sulphate was taken in each of four test tubes. Strips of
copper, iron, zinc and aluminium were introduced in these tubes. A black residue was
obtained in two of them. The right pair of metals forming the precipitates is :
(a) Copper and zinc (b) Aluminium and copper
(c) Iron and aluminium (d) Zinc and aluminium
10. Four test tube were taken and marked A, B, C and D respectively. 2 mL of solution of
Al2(SO4)3 in water was filled in each of the four test tubes. Clean piece of metal Zn was
placed in test tube A, clean iron nail was put in test tube B, clean copper wire was placed in
test tube C and a clean aluminium wire was placed in test tube D. It was observed that no
change occurred in any of the test tubes. The correct inference drawn is :
(a) Zinc is less active than aluminium (b) Zinc is less active than copper
(c) Copper is less active than aluminium (d) Aluminium is inert in its solution
11. Which metal is found in plants?
(a) Fe (b) Cr (c) Mg (d) Co
12. Zinc replaces copper from-
(a) Zinc sulphate (b) Copper sulphate
(c) sulphuric acid (d) Copper oxide
13. The ores which are generally subjected to roasting are
(a) Carbonates ores (b) Oxide ores
(c) Sulphide ores (d) Chloride ores
14. Gold Ornaments are normally made from :
(a) 24 carat gold (b) 22 carat gold
(c) 16 carat gold (d) 20 carat gold
15. Parts of aeroplanes are generally made from

(a) Phosphor bronze (b) Monel Metal
(c) Magnallium (d) Duralumin
16. The correct order of decreasing reactivity of Zn, Cu, Fe and Al is
(a) Zn > Cu > Fe > Al (b) Al > Fe > Zn > Cu
(c) Al > Zn > Fe > Cu (d) Zn > Al > Fe > Cu
17. Which one of the following is used for decorating sweets?
(a) Aluminium foil (b) Copper foil
(c) Silver foil (d) All of these
18. Which one of the following is in crackers?
(a) metals (b) Semi metals
(c) Non-metal (d) All of these
19. Moist air is the combination of-
(a) H2O, CO2, O2 (b) H2O, CO, O2
(c) H2O, CO2, H2 (d) H2O, O2 , H2
20. All ores are minerals while all minerals are not ores because :
(a) The metal cannot be extracted economically from all the minerals
(b) Minerals are complex compounds
(c) The minerals are obtained from mines
(d) All statements are correct
21. The common method for the extraction of metals from the oxide ore is :
(a) Reduction with hydrogen (b) Reduction with carbon
(c) Reduction with aluminium (d) Electrolytic method
22. Calcination of an ore results in
(i) Removal of moisture (ii) porosity of ore
(iii) removal of volatile impurities (iv) converts carbonate ore to oxide
(v) removes water of crystallization from hydrated ores.
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (iii) and (iv)
(c) (iii) (d) all five options
23. Dressing and concentrating of an ore results in
(a) increase of metal ore concentration (b) decrease in metal ore concentration
(c) conversion of ore to suitable form (d) cleans the ore.
24. Extraction of metal is done by
(i) electrolytic process (ii) using carbon
(iii) using CO (iv) using Al powder
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (i) and (ii)
(c) (i) & (iii) (d) all of the four options
25. A flux has all or some of these benefits except
(a) Lowers melting point
(b) improves conductivity
(c) reacts chemically with impurities like sand.
(d) refines the metal

Straight Objective Type
This section contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (A), (B), (C), (D), out of which ONLY
ONE is correct. Choose the correct option.
1. Bauxite is an ore of
(a) Boron (b) Aluminium
(c) Barium (d) Chromium
2. Which of the following will take place in the
given figure?
(a) Iron displaces oxygen from CuSO4
CuSO4
(b) Iron displaces Cu from CuSO4
(c) Iron displaces S from CuSO4 Iron nails
(d) No reaction takes place
3. Iron and steel are protected from corrosion by coating them with a layer of tin or chromium
metals. This process is called
(a) Galvanisation (b) Electroplating
(c) Greasing (d) Painting
4. Choose the reactions which are not feasible
(I) Iron + Zinc sulphate  Iron sulphate + Zinc
(II) Magnesium + Silver nitrate  Magnesium nitrate + Silver
(III) Copper + dil. Sulphuric acid  Iron + Zinc sulphate
(a) I, II and III (b) III and IV only
(c) I and III only (d) All of these
5. Which among the following is carbonate ore?
(a) Hametite (b) Argentite
(c) Magnesite (d) Gypsum
6. Mona observed the hydrogen gas is evolved in test tube 3 only when it was boiled. Test tube
3 contains only
(a) Zn (b) Na
(c) Mg (d) Cu
7. Which of the following metal is used for making boats because it does not corrode by
seawater?
(a) Cu (b) Ni
(c) W (d) Ti
8. Which of the following is a neutralization reaction?
(a) CuO + H2  Cu + H2O (b) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
(c) 2NH3 + 3Cl2  N2 + 6HCl (d) 2H2S + SO2  2H2O + 3S
9. The property of metals which makes them useful as ringing bells is
(a) Malleability (b) Ductility
(c) Sonority (d) Hardness
10. The percentage of iron in pig iron is about
(a) 50% (b) 30%
(c) 93% (d) 5%
11. Pick up the correct statement
(a) All ores are minerals (b) All minerals are ores
(c) A mineral cannot be an ore (d) An ore cannot be a mineral
12. Most of the metals, which occur in native state in nature
(a) are very reactive (b) do not form ionic compounds
(c) are not reactive (d) have low density
13. Samples of four different oxides were taken and dissolved in water separately to form the
respective oxide solution. The four solutions were then tested for their acidic/basic nature.
When dissolved in water, which of the following oxides, is likely to turn blue litmus red?
(a) SO2 (b) MgO
(c) Fe2O3 (d) CaO
14. Which of the following is a common product formed in the reaction of metals with acids and
in reaction of metals with bases?
(a) H2 gas (b) O2 gas
(c) CO2 gas (d) N2 gas
15. Reactivity order of the above mentioned metal is
(a) Sodium > Magnesium > Zinc > Iron > Copper
(b) Sodium > Magnesium > Iron > Copper >Zinc
(c) Sodium > Magnesium > Zinc > Copper > Iron
(d) Sodium > Magnesium > Copper > Iron > Zinc
ANSWER TO RADICAL TEST-I

1. Sodium is kept immersed in kerosene oil because on exposure to moist air the surface of
sodium is tarnished due to the formation of sodium carbonate layer.
H2O CO2
4Na  O2 
 2Na2O   2NaOH   Na2CO3
2. Gold and Silver.
3. (c)
4. (b)
5. (c)
6. Sodium and Potassium
7. (a)
The deposit on the iron nail is that of copper displaced during the reaction. It is soft and dull
in appearance
8. (d)
9. (d)
10. (b)
ANSWER TO RADICAL TEST- II

1. (b)
2. (d)
3. (b)
4. (a)
Froth floatation is used for the concentration of sulphide ore of metals.
5. (c)
6. (a)
7. (a)
8. (a)
SOLUTION TO CBSE ASSINGNMENT

1. (ii) Gold does not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
2. Iron: 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g).
3. 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)  Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g).

4. Hydrogen gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal.
Fe(s) + 2HCl (aq)  FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
5. Acidic oxides.
6. Fe2O3, Ferric oxide.
7. The solution becomes colourless and iron metal gets deposited.
 ZnSO4  Fe .
Zn  FeSO4 
8. Mineral is a naturally occurring substance from which metal may or may not be extracted
profitably.
9. Ore is a rocky material which contains sufficient quantity of mineral so that extraction of meal
is worthwhile.
10. Gangue or matrix is rocky material present along with the mineral in an ore.

1. Copper is used to make hot water tanks because it is an extremely good conductor of heat.
2. Sodium can lose electrons more easily than Cu, therefore it is more reactive than Cu.
(i) Sodium reacts with water explosively, whereas copper does not react.
(ii) 2Na + CuSO4  Na2SO4 + Cu.
3. Silver cannot displace copper from copper nitrate, therefore, Ag is less reactive than Cu. On
the other hand, copper can displace silver from AgNO3 solution.
4. Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe
is thermite reaction.
5. (i) It is light.
(ii) It is malleable and ductile.
(iii) It does not get corroded.
6. Iron is more reactive (or more electro-positive) than copper. So, when a solution of copper
sulphate is kept in an iron pot, iron gets dissolved. This causes holes in the iron pot. The
reaction between iron and copper sulphate solution is
Fe(s)  CuSO4 (aq)  FeSO4 (aq)  Cu(s)
From the pot
or Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq)  Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

7. When a covalent bond is formed between the atoms of different elements, the bonding
elements are not equally shared by the two atoms. In H—Cl; the shared pair of electrons is
attracted more towards chlorine. Chlorine has 17 protons in its nucleus to attract the shared
pair of electrons. The shared pair is always from hydrogen because it has only proton in its
nucleus. Therefore, chlorine acquires a slight negative charge () and H acquires a slight
positive charge ( ) . Therefore, HCl molecule is polar and exhibits ionic character.
H  Cl .
8. Chemical separation (i.e. leaching) is used to concentrate bauxite ore.
9. Electrolytic reduction is used to reduce oxide of highly reactive metals.
10. The substance added to the ore to remove its impurities during the reduction of oxidised ore
from primary ore is called flux.
1. a) i) Nature of compound is ionic or electrovalent.
ii) Nature of compound is ionic or electrovalent.
b) i) NaCl  MgCl2  AlCl3
ii) LiI  LiBr  LiCl
2. a) i) Two electrons pairs are shared between the two atoms.
ii) Three electron pairs are shared between the two atoms
b) When a covalent bond is formed between two unlike atoms, such that the shared pair of
electrons are not equidistant from each other bonded atom then the covalent bond so
formed is called polar covalent bond.
Example: The covalent bond between hydrogen and chlorine atoms in hydrogen
chloride is a polar covalent bond.
c) i) Covalent compounds are soluble in non-polar solvent, such as alcohol, ether,
benzene etc.
ii) Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents, such as water.
3. (i) Haematite is an important ore of iron. Its formula is Fe2O3.
(ii) It is concentrated by hydraulic washing followed by calcinations so as to remove
moisture and volatile impurities.
4. (i) It reacts with both acid as well as base therefore, it is called amphoteric oxide.
(ii) It is because they are highly reactive and catch fire in moist air.
(iii) It is because nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent.
Foundation Builder
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (c)
Concept Strengthener
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (b) 13. c) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (d)
Expertise Attainer
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
CROP PRODUCTION & MANAGEMENT FBC-Bio. [VIII]-20-21
CROP PRODUCTION &

MANAGEMENT
All the living organisms like man, animals and Have you ever wondered from
plants need food for their growth and survival. where does the food which we
The green plants can synthesize their food by the
eat comes from?
process of photosynthesis by using inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide gas and water in
the presence of sunlight. Man and other animals
cannot make food by photosynthesis from carbon
dioxide gas and water by using sunlight. They
need readymade organic food nutrients like
carbohydrates, fats, proteins etc., for their growth
and development. Man obtains his food from
plants as well as animals. In other words, man
has to grow plants and rear animals (bring up
animals) to meet his requirements of food. This is
done by agriculture. Agriculture is the science, art
and industry of managing the growth of plants What will happen if we use
and animals for our use. excess of pesticides?
India is the world’s largest producer of many fresh

fruits & vegetables, milk, major spices, several
staples such an millets, castor oil seeds etc.
India ranked within the world’s five largest

producers of over 80% of agricultural produce
items, include many cash crops such as coffee &
cotton. India is also one of the world’s five largest
producers of livestock & poultry meat.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture: (Ager means field; culture means cultivation). It is the applied biological science which
deals with the production of plants and raising of animals useful to man, involving soil cultivation
breeding and management of crops and livestock.
Remarkable improvement has taken place in ‘agricultural techniques’ due to new technologies
developed over a time period.
Crop
When same kind of plants are cultivated on a large scale.
Depending upon the climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall, two types of cropping
patterns are followed in India.
Types of Crop
S.No. Kharif crops / Rainy season crops Rabi crops / Winter season crops
1. Are grown during monsoon/ rainy season Are grown during winter season
2. They require warm & wet weather They require cold & dry weather.
3. They are sown in June/July & harvested in They are sown in October/November &
September/October harvested in March/April
4. e.g.,-Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Pea, e.g., Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard,
Groundnut, Urad, Moong etc Potato etc.
Various agricultural practices are performed for crop production.
A. Soil preparation
B. Sowing of seeds
C. Adding manure and fertilizers
D. Irrigation
E. Protection from weeds
F. Harvesting
G. Storage
A. Preparation of Soil
It is the first step before growing a crop.
The soil is prepared for sowing the seeds of the crop by
(i) Ploughing, (ii) leveling, and (iii) manuring,
Ploughing/Tilling: It is the process of loosening and turning of soil.
Why Tilling of soil is important ?
 Allows the roots to penetrate deep into the soil.
 Allows easy breathing of roots.
 Tilling loosens the soil that helps in the growth of earthworms and other microbes which further
turns and loosens the soil.
 Adds humus to the soil.
 Brings about nutrient rich soil to the top, so that plants can use these nutrients.
Leveling : If the soil is very dry, it breaks into large mud ‘crumbs’ during ploughing and also the
ploughed soil is quit loose so it can be carried away by strong winds or washed away by rain
water. To avoid this the ploughed soil is leveled by pressing it with a wooden leveler.
Manuring: It means adding manure to the soil. It is done to increase the fertility of the soil before
seeds are sown into it.
Plough
Levelling of field with planks
Agricultural Implements
Plough
 It is made up of wood and contain two parts –
(a) Plough share (strong triangular strip of iron).
(b) Plough shaft (main wooden axis of plough).
Hoe
 Consists of long rod of wood or iron.
 A strong, broad and bent plate of iron is
present at one of its ends.
 Driven with the help of animals.
Hoe
Cultivator
 A metal device attached at
the back of tractor.
 Use of cultivator saves
labour and time.
Cultivator Cultivator attached at the

back of tractor
B. Sowing of Seeds
 it is the most important aspect of crop production in which seeds are implanted in the prepared
soil and for this healthy, good variety and high yield seeds are selected.
Traditional method of sowing:
 A long pipe is used which has a funnel at its one end and the other end pierce into the soil.
 Seeds are placed into the funnel which when reach the other end of the pipe, gets
implanted into the soil.

Seed drill method
 Its a machine used for sowing with the help of a
tractor.
 Its advantage is that seeds are sown uniformly at
proper distance and depths, to avoid overcrowding of
plants.
 This method also ensures that the sown seeds get
covered by the soil. Seed drill machine
 Seed drill saves time and labour.
C. Adding of Manure and Fertilizers
 When crops are grown in the fields, they use all the nutrients present in the soil, so these
nutrients have to be replenished for further cropping.
 Manure and fertilizers are therefore added to the soil for healthy growth of plants.
Manure
 Organic products which are obtained by decomposition of dead plants and animals.
 Use of manure improves the texture of the soil and also increases the water holding
capacity of the soil.
Manure are of three types –
(i) Farmyard manure : Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine
of the farm animals along with litter and left over material from roughages or fodder fed to
the cattle.
(ii) Compost : A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost. The
compost made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds and other plants
and other waste is called farm compost.
(iii) Green manure : Green, undecomposed plant material used as manure is called green
manure. It is obtained in two ways: growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf
(along with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring
is frown in the field plants usually belonging to leguminous family and incorporating into the
soil after sufficient growth. The most important green manure crops are sunhemp,
dhaincha, pillipesara, clusterbeans and Sesbania rostrana.
Advantages of Manure
 makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy.
 low cost
 reduces the soil erosion.
 enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.
 increases the number of friendly microbes.
 increases organic matter in soil.
Disadvantages of Manures
 Bulky with less nutrient content in comparison to fertilizers.
 Nutrients from manure are released slowly, not keeping pace with the rapid demand needed by
improved varieties of crops.
 Not nutrient specific, therefore, not of much use when a particular nutrient is required in the soil.
Fertilizers
 Chemicals that are produced in factories and are inorganic products.
 Fertilizers commonly used are Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, Potash, NPK (Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium).
Advantages of Fertilizers
 They are water soluble so can be applied and absorbed by the plants easily.
 Required in small quantities.
 They are nutrient specific.
Disadvantages of Fertilizers
 They can cause eutrophication in nearby water bodies
 Fertilizers can change the chemical composition of soil.
 They cause water pollution.
Differences between Manure and Fertilizer
Manure Fertilizer
 Natural substance obtained by decomposition  Artificial inorganic chemicals, rich in a
of cattle dung, human and plant waste. particular nutrient.
 Prepared in the fields.  Prepared in factories.
 Provides lot of humus content to the soil.  Does not provide any humus content to the
soil.
 Contains only small amount of essential plant  Highly rich in plant nutrients like nitrogen,
nutrients. phosphorus and potassium.
 Nutrients present in the manure are absorbed  Being soluble in the water, it is easily absorbed
slowly by the crop. by the crop plants.
 Not nutrient specific  Nutrient specific.
What will happen if we grow wheat crop for many years in a particular field?
CROPPING PATTERN
(i) Crop Rotation
 If the same crop is grown in a field year after year, it results in the deficiency of certain nutrients
in the soil.
 In crop rotation, one pulse crop (beans, dals) is grown in between two cereal (wheat, rice) crops.
 Pulse crops or legumes are grown as their roots have nodules which contain nitrogen fixing
bacteria(e.g.,-Rhizobium), these convert free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and increase the
fertility of the soil.
Rotating crops is one of the key principles of conservation agriculture. It has many advantages:
 It improves the soil structure : Some crops have strong, deep roots. They can break up
hardpans, and tap moisture and nutrients from deep in this oil. Others have many fine,
shallow roots. They tap nutrients near the surface and bind the soil. They form many tiny
holes so that air and water can get into the soil.
 It increases soil fertility : Legumes (such as groundnuts and beans) fix nitrogen in the soil.
When their green parts and roots rot, this nitrogen can be used by other crops such as
maize. The result is higher, more stable yields, without the need to apply expensive
inorganic fertilizer.
 It helps control weeds, pests and diseases : Planting the same crop sea-son after season
encourages certain weeds, insects and diseases. Planting different crops breaks their life
cycle and prevents them from multiplying.
 It produces different types of output Growing a mix of grain, beans, vegetables and
fodder means a more varied diet and more types of pro-duce to sell.
 It reduces risk A single crop may fail because of drought. It may be attacked by pests. Or
its market price may be low when time comes to sell it. Producing several different crops
reduces these risks.
In some ways, crop rotation takes the place of ploughing the soil: it helps aerate the soil,
recycles nutrients, and helps control weeds, pests and diseases.
(ii) Intercropping
Examples : Planting alternating rows of maize and beans, or growing a cover crop in between
the cereal rows. This means growing a two or more crops in the same field at the same time. It
is possible to do this in different ways :
(a) Mixed : Broadcasting the seeds of both crops, or dibbling the seeds with-out any row
arrangement. This is called mixed intercropping. It is easy to do but makes weeding,
fertilization and harvesting difficult. Individual plants may compete with each other
because they are too close together.
(b) Row : Planting both the main crop and the intercrop in rows. This is called row
intercropping. The rows make weeding and harvesting easier than with mixed
intercropping.
Illustrations 1: Name the nitrogen-fixing bacteria present in root nodules of leguminous plants.
Solution : Rhizobium
Illustrations 2 : State one advantage of growing a leguminous crop between two cereal crops.
Solution : Roots of leguminous plants have nodules which contain nitrogen fixing bacteria, these
convert free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and increase the fertility of the soil.
Illustrations 3 : Define manure. What are the advantages of manure?
Solution : Organic products which are obtained by decomposition of dead plants and animals.
Its advantages are:
It makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy, low cost, It reduces the
soil erosion, It enhances the water holding capacity of the soil etc.
Fallowing
 Sometimes continuous growing of crops makes the soil infertile.
 To regain its nutrients it should be left uncultivated for some time.
 This process of leaving soil uncultivated for one crop season is called fallowing.
D. Irrigation
 Watering the crops in the fields is called irrigation.
 Irrigation should be done in a way in which water does not
get wasted.
 Common sources of irrigation are wells, tube wells, ponds,
rivers.
Tube Well
Types of Irrigation System:
(i) Traditional methods of irrigation
 Moat (Pulley system),
 Dhekli
 Rahat
 Chain pump
Moat
Dhekli Rahat Chain Pump

(ii) Modern methods of irrigation: Helps us to use water economically.
(a) Sprinklers
 Works fountain.
 Long perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles at
the top.
 When water is supplied, it comes out of these rotating
nozzles which sprinkle water in all directions.
 It controls wastage of water due to limited outflow of
water.
 This method is more suitable for uneven and sandy
soil. Sprinklers
(b) Drip System
 It allows water to flow drop by drop at the roots of the
plants.
 It has a main pipe with side pipes containing small
nozzles for the outflow of water.
 Nozzles are placed in such a way that they emit water
at the roots of the plants, thus saving water.
 This technique is best suited for watering fruit plants,
garden and trees, where availability of water is less. Drip System
 This method is also known as ‘trickle irrigation’ or
‘micro-irrigation’.
Examples of some common needs are : Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Convolvulus, Hlild oat, Grass.
Illustrations 4: What is the fallowing?

Solution : The process of leaving soil uncultivated for one crop season so as to regain its
nutrients is called Fallowing
Illustrations 5: Name two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

Solution : Sprinkler system & Drip irrigation system.
Are there some plants in nature which can affect the growth of other plants?
E. Protection from Weeds
 Unwanted plants growing along with the main crop are called
weeds.
 The removal of weeds is called weeding.
 Weeding is necessary because weeds compete with crop
plants for water, nutrients and light.
 The best time for the removal of weeds is before they
produce flowers and seeds.
 Some weeds interfere even in harvesting and may be
poisonous for animals and human beings.
Manual removal of Weeds
Examples of some common weeds are : Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Convolvulus, Wild oat and Grass.
Weeding methods :
(i) Manual method:
Physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting them close to
the ground, from time to time with the help of a khurpi.
(ii) Mechanical method :
 Weeds are removed with the help of ‘seed drill’, before
sowing a crop which uproots and kills the weeds. Khurpi
(iii) Chemical method :
 It includes using of ‘Weedicides’ which are chemicals that kill
the weeds selectively without causing any harm to the crop.
 Commonly used weedicide is 2,4-D (2,4-dichloro phenoxy
acetic acid), which is diluted with water as per the
requirement and then sprayed in the fields with a sprayer.
 Weedicides are toxic chemicals therefore farmers spraying
them should cover their nose and mouth with cloth.
F. Harvesting
 Cutting of crop along with the stalks is called harvesting.
 Grains are then removed from the harvested crop.
 Harvesting is either done manually by sickle or by a machine
called harvester.
 Process of separation of grains from chaff is called threshing.
Sickle
 Both harvesting and threshing is carried out with a machine
called combine. It has a sharp edge for cutting off the tops of
grain plants. Then it separates the grains from the stalk.
Harvester Threshing Combine
 Winnowing is a method to separate grain and

chaff, manually.
 Grains are thrown from a height in the direction of
air.
 Air carries away chaff, dried stems and leaves
which are lighter and the grains which are heavier
drop down in the form of a heap.
Winnowing
Illustrations 6: Name the machine which does the cutting of standing crops and recovers the
grain too.
Solution : Combine
Illustrations 7: What is threshing?
Solution : Process of separation of grains from chaff is called threshing.
TAKE A BREAK
Given below is a list of the various agricultural practices in a sequential manner. Take a gallery walk and write in
short about them and their significance .Also mention the implements used for each one of them.
S.No. Agricultural Practice Description and significance Implements used
1. Preparation of the soil :
(a) Ploughing :
_________________
_________________
(b) Levelling :
_________________
Agricultural Practice Description and significance Implements used
(c) Applying Fertilizers
_________________
2. Selection and sowing of seeds
_________________
3. Irrigation
_________________
_________________
4. Weeding
___________________
5. Crop Protection
_________________
_________________
6. Harvesting
_________________
7. Threshing
Q1. An earthworm is generally considered as a farmers friend. Can you think of the reasons, why?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Why is it important to sow seeds at appropriate distance from one another?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Q3. What is water logging? How does it harm the crops? How can it be prevented?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Why is Indian agriculture called rain fed agriculture?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Some revolutions which revolutionized food production in India
When the British left India in 1947, India continued to be haunted by memories of the Bengal Famine. It was therefore natural that
food security was one of the main items on free India's agenda. This awareness led to the Green Revolution in India. The Green
Revolution, spreading over the period from1967/68 to 1977/78, changed India’s status from a food-deficient country to one of the
world's leading agricultural nations. There were three basic elements in the method of the Green Revolution.
 Continuing expansion of farming areas
 Double-cropping in the existing farmland
 Using seeds with improved genetics.
Using seeds with superior genetics was the scientific aspect of the Green Revolution. The Indian Council for Agricultural Research
(which was established by the British in 1929) was reorganized in 1965 and then again in 1973. It developed new strains of high yield
variety seeds (HYV), mainly wheat and rice and also millet and corn.
The Green Revolution was a technology package comprising material components of improved high yielding varieties of two staple
cereals (rice and wheat), irrigation or controlled water supply and improved moisture utilization, fertilizers, and pesticides, and
associated management skills
Father of Green
Complete the following table of Major Agricultural Revolutions: Revolution –
1. Green revolution Norman-e-Bourlog
Dr. M.S.
2. White Revolution (Operation Flood ) Swaminathan
3. Blue Revolution Father of White
4. Yellow Revolution Revolution in
5. Golden Revolution India – Prof.
Verghese Kuerin
6. Silver Revolution
You can imagine and add to the list ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
G. Storage
The process of keeping seeds safe from spoilage due to moisture, insects, rats and micro-
organisms for a long time.
Why grains are stored ?
 Grains are stored so that they last for a long period between the two harvesting seasons.
 To ensure that there is no shortage of food grains in case of crop failure.
 Grains stored for emergency is called buffer stock.
Factors Responsible for Loss of Grains During Storage:
(a) Biotic (living) factors: Insects, rodents, birds, mites etc.
(b) Abiotic (nonliving) factors:
 Temperature
 Moisture
 Humidity
 Material of the container in which grains are stored
Small scale storage of grains Large scale storage of grains
 Jute bags.
 Silos.
 Metallic big containers
 Granaries
Storage of grains in gunny bags Storage of grains in silos
Why some people put dried neem leaves in the containers used for storing grains?
Preventive Measures:
 Before storing, the grains should be dried properly in the sun to reduce the moisture in them as
it prevents the attack by insect.
 Maintenance of hygiene.
 Repair of cracks in the storages houses.
Food from Animal sources :

 Milk obtained from cows, buffaloes, goat and camel.
 Meat obtained from chicken, goat and sheep.
 Eggs obtained from chicken and ducks.
Animal Husbandry
 Rearing of animals which include feeding, breeding and disease control on a large scale?
Illustrations 8: What is ‘animal husbandry’?

Solution : Rearing of animals, which includes feeding, breeding and disease control on a large
scale.
Illustrations 9: What are the factors responsible for the loss of grains during storage?
Solution : The factors are biotic and abiotic
Biotic (living) factors: Insects, rodents, birds, mites etc.
Abiotic (nonliving) factors:
 Temperature
 Moisture
 Humidity
 Material of container in which grains are stored
Illustrations 10: State some preventive measures for storage of grains?
Solution : Preventive Measures are:
(i) Before storing, the grains should be dried properly in the sun to reduce the moisture in them as
it prevents the attack by insect.
(ii) Maintenance of hygiene.
(iii) Repair of cracks in the storage houses.
TAKE A BREAK (CLASS WORK)

Complete the concept map given below to check your understanding:
Concept map:
Agriculture Cropping
Crops Patterns
1.________
________
2.________
________
3.________
A. Preparation of soil: _______
1.__________________
2. _________________
3.___________________
Crop Seasons 4. __________________
B . Selection and Sowing

of seeds
C. Application of Types of Chemical

Examples: Examples:
Fertilizers :
1.
___________________
Types of Manures : 2.
1._________________ ___________________
2._________________
3._________________
Measures Taken : F. Crop Protection
_________________ Types of Irrigation
Systems :
_________________ 1. _____________________
_________________ G. Harvesting
2. ___________________
_________________ D. Irrigation 3.____________________
_________________ 4. ___________________
_ H. Threshing 5. ___________________
6. ___________________
7.____________________
8. ___________________
I. Winnowing
E. Weeding Animal Husbandry
J. Storage
_____________ Define weeds
Methods : Food from various animal sources
:_____________
___________________ ________________________
___________________ _
___________________ ________________________ 1___________________
___________________ _ 2___________________
___________________ Methods of weeding : 3___________________
___________________ 1.___________________ 4___________________
___________________ 2. ___________________ 5___________________
___________________ 3. ___________________
__
Q1.A farmer grew wheat crop in his field for several years. He realised that the productivity of land
per hectare has decreased with years . What steps would you suggest him so that he is able to get a
better yield ?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Q2. Give one word for :

(a) Watering of plants ___________________
(b) Chemicals that destroy pests _____________________
(c) Farmer’s friend _____________________________
Q3. Depict mixed cropping pattern using dots .
RADICAL TEST (CLASS WORK)
1. Why tilling of the soil is carried out before sowing of seeds?

2. What are the advantages of sowing the seeds using drill instead of traditional method?
3. Farmers in Northern India grow Legumes as fodder in one season and wheat in the next season
(a) What is this practice known as?
(b) How does this practice help in the replenishment of soil?
4. Why is it is necessary to dry the harvested food grains before storage?
5. A student lists the following agricultural practices for crop production:
Irrigation; Removal of weeds; Preparation of soil; Storage of food grains; Sowing; Adding
manure and fertilisers.
Which agricultural practice is missing from the above list?
6. Why do farmers carry out leveling of the ploughed fields?
7. Explain why, the seeds should be sown at right spacing?
8. What precautions should be taken while spraying weedicides? Why?
9. Which is the best technique of watering the fruit plants and trees?
10. What kind of irrigation system is preferred for the uneven land?
CONCEPT MAP
Crop
Soil Preparation Same kind of plant cultivated on large scale
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Sowing of Seeds
Various Agriculture Practices
Irrigation
Water the crops in the fields
Various Agriculture Implements
Weeds
Unwanted plants, grown along with the
Plough Hoe Cultivator
crops
Harvesting
Cutting of crop along with stalk Manures
Organic product obtained by
decomposition of plant and animals.
Threshing
Removal of grain from chaff
Fertilizers
Chemical, produced in factories and are
Storage of grains inorganic products
Animal husbandry Crop Rotation

Rearing of animals

1. Which agricultural practice is carried out with the help of a sickle?
2. Which crop is generally grown between two cereal crops in crop rotation to restore the fertility
of soil?
3. Name the places where grains are stored on large scale.
4. Some grass is growing in a wheat field. What will it be known as?
5. What name is given to that branch of agriculture which deals with feeding, shelter, health and
breeding of domestic animals?
6. Name the major food nutrient provided by fish.
7. For what purpose is a hoe used?
8. Name one crop which can tolerate standing water (water-logging) in the field and one which
Can not.
9. What is the best time for the removal of weeds?
10. Name any three commonly used fertilizers.

1. Describe the sprinkler system of irrigation. State its advantages.
2. Give any four differences between manure and fertilizers.
3. Match items in column- A with those in column B.
A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle
(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilizers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv)Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize
4. Explain why, the frequency of irrigation crops is higher in summer season?
5. How many crop seasons are observed in India? Name three crops cultivated during each crop
season.
6. What are weeds? Name any one weed found in a crop field.
7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.
8. Describe briefly, how soil is prepared for sowing the seeds.
9. Explain how, soil gets affected by the repeated growing of crops in the same fields.
10. How growth of weeds can be controlled?
1. Explain the factors which are responsible for loss of grain during storage.
2. Name the implements which are used for the following agricultural practices.
(a) Tilling of the soil (b) Sowing of the seeds (c) Irrigation of fields
(d) Weeding (e) Harvesting (f) Threshing
3. Write the correct sequence of steps undertaken for farming.
4. What are good quality seeds? You are given a sample of wheat seeds. How will you select
good, healthy seeds for sowing?
5. What is irrigation? Why is irrigation necessary?
6. What is meant by ‘sowing’? What are the various methods of sowing the seeds?
7. What are the advantages of manure and fertilizers?
8. Explain the various harmful effects of fertilizers.
9. What is crop rotation and why it is done?
10. What is meant by harvesting? Name two tools used in India for harvesting.
FOUNDATION BUILDER (HOME WORK)

1. First step before growing crops is
(a) Sowing of seeds (b) Preparation of soil (c) Manuring (d) Weeding
2. Cutting and gathering of mature crop is called :
(a) Threshing (b) Weeding (c) Harvesting (d) Irrigation
3. Animal that is called as ‘friends of farmers’:
(a) Dog (b) Snakes (c) Birds (d) Earthworms
4. Process of beating grains to separate them from crop plants is called
(a) Winnowing (b) Threshing (c) Harvesting (d) Manuring
5. Before sowing the seeds, the soil is loosened so that
(a) More seeds can be sown (b) Less water will be required
(c) Allows roots to breath easily (d) Easy to carry out seeding
6. Machine which is both a harvester and thresher
(a) Combine (b) Mixer (c) Separator (d) Winnower
7. Leaving soil uncultivated for one crop season is called as
(a) Crop rotation (b) Threshing (c) Harvesting (d) Fallowing
8. Which is modern method of irrigation?
(a) Chain pump (b) Dhekli (c) Sprinkler (d) Rahat (Lever System)
9. When should weedicides be sprayed?
(a) At the time of sowing (b) At the time of manuring
(c) At the time of harvesting (d) At the time of irrigation
10. Which among the following is a Rabi crop?
(a) Maize (b) Paddy (c) Cotton (d) Wheat

1. The agricultural tool use to sow seeds is
(a) Wooden plank (b) Drill (c) Leveller (d) Plough
2. Which of the following crops would enrich the soil with nitrogen?
(a) Banana (b) Wheat (c) Potato (d) Pea
3. Rotation of crop is essential for
(a) Getting variety of crops (b) Removal of weeds
(c) Increasing fertility of soil (d) Removal of insects and pests
4. Ploughing helps in
(a) Loosening of soil (b) Providing organic material to the soil
(c) Removal of pests (d) Removal of weeds
5. Removing chaff from grain is
(a) Weeding (b) Threshing (c) Harvesting (d) Winnowing
6. Animal husbandry deals with
(a) Increase in milk production (b) Utilization of animal waste in farming
(c) Production of animals against disease (d) All of these
7. Which of the following method will not help in replenishment of soil with nutrients completely ?
(a) Fallowing (b) Crop rotation
(c) Addition of fertilizers (d) Tilling
8. Which of the following is not a kharif crop?
(a) Paddy (b) Mustard (c) Maize (d) Groundnut
9. Fish liver oil rich in:
A. Vitamin A B. Vitamin B C. Vitamin C D. Vitamin D
(a) A and B (b) B and C (c) A and D (d) only D
10. Which of the following cannot be provided to the soil by a chemical fertilizer?
(a) nitrogen (b) humus (c) potassium (d) phosphorus
EXPERTISE ATTAINER (CLASS WORK)
1. The Rhizobium bacteria present in the root nodules of pea plants can fix one of the following
from the atmosphere. This one is:
(a) hydrogen (b) oxygen (c) nitrogen (d) halogen
2. The unwanted wild plants growing along with the crop plants are called:
(a) weeds (b) seedling (c) minor crops (d) grasses
3. Which one of the following does not cause plant disease?
(a) Viruses (b) Bacteria (c) Protozoa (d) Fungi
4. Which one of the following is traditional method of irrigation?
(a) Moat (b) Chain pump (c) Rahat (d) All of these
5. Chemicals which are used for removal of weeds are
(a) Insecticides (b) Pesticides (c) Weedicides (d) None of these
6. In which of the following storage structure food grains are stored?
(a) Silos (b) Jute bags (c) Granaries (d) All of these
7. Fertilizers are harmful to soil because:
(a) they increase soil fertility (b) they cause the soil pollution
(c) provides the nutrients (d) they are inorganic salt
8. Which one of the following is a Kharif crop?
(a) Wheat (b) Maize (c) Gram (d) Mustard
9. Which one of the following is the advantage of soil preparation?
(a) It increase soil fertility (b) It makes soil compact
(c) Soil become loose for roots to penetrate (d) All of these are correct
10. The food obtained from animals is very rich in:
(a) fats (b) carbohydrates (c) minerals (d) proteins

FOUNDATION BUILDER
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a)

7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
CONCEPT STRENGTHENER
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d)

7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
EXPERTISE ATTAINER
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d)

7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
MICRO-ORGANISMS: FRIENDS & FOE
We cannot see them, we cannot hear them but they are with us. Have you ever
There are about 100 trillion micro-organisms in and around our wondered why fruits
bodies. The fact is that without micro-organisms we would not
survive. lose their taste,
shape and colour?
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which
may be a single cell or multicellular organism. The study of
micro-organisms is called microbiology, a subject that began
with Anton Van Leeuwenhoek discovery of micro-organisms in
1675, using a microscope of his own design.
Micro-organisms are very diverse; they include all of

the prokaryotes, namely the bacteria and archaea and various
forms of eukaryotes, comprising the protozoa, fungi, algae,
microscopic plants (green algae), and animals such as rotifers Why our elders
and planarians. suggest us to wash
our hands before
Some microbiologists also classify viruses as micro-organisms, eating food?
but others consider these as nonliving.
Micro-organisms live in every part of biosphere. Although many

micro-organisms are harmful, they are also very useful to
humans and environment.
Recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role

in precipitation and weather.
Microbes are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in

traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern
technologies based on genetic engineering. However there are
many pathogenic microbes which are harmful and can even
cause death in plants and animals.
MICRO-ORGANISMS : FRIENDS & FOE FBC-Bio. [VIII]-20-21
INTRODUCTION
A microorganism is a living organism that is so small that it can only be seen with the aid of
microscope but fungus that grows on the bread can be seen with a magnifying glass.
Bacterial cells are about one hundredth of the size of a human cell and viruses are much more
smaller.
Though we cannot see the micro-organisms around us, we become aware of the presence of micro-
organisms through their actions like spoiling our food and causing diseases. Thus, some of the
micro-organisms are harmful to us.
Some of the micro-organisms are also useful to us. For example, the micro-organisms like certain
bacteria help in making food products such as curd and cheese.
While it is true that micro-organisms are responsible for a large number of human diseases, they
also bring cycle of chemical exchange between organisms and their environment. The decision as
to whether bacteria are friend or foe becomes more difficult when both the positive and negative
aspects of the relationship between human beings and micro-organisms is considered. However, it
can be concluded that bacteria can survive without us but we would not be able to live without them.
 The study of micro-organisms is known as microbiology.
 The main micro-organisms are protozoa, algae, fungi, bacteria and viruses.
WHERE DO MICRO-ORGANISMS LIVE?

 They are found in all living beings, plants and animals. Micro-organisms can live in the air, in
land, and in fresh or salt water environment. However, most microbes need water to survive,
therefore, wherever there is water there are microbes.
 There is not one place on earth that does not have bacteria or some other microorganism living
there.
 Micro-organisms are able to bear the extremes of temperature and other conditions. They are
found everywhere from hot springs to snow of polar region.
MAJOR GROUPS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS

 Protozoa
Protozoa is a group of single celled micro-organisms found in ponds, lakes, dirty water
drains, rivers, sea water and damp soil. Most of them are obligate aquatic microbes.
Examples: Amoeba and Paramecium.
 Algae
Algae are a large group of simple, plant-like organisms. They occur in variety of habitats like
fresh water, hot water streams, sea, on moist land (on damp soil).They contain chlorophyll
and produce food by photosynthesis just like plants. Algae however differ from plants
because they do not have proper roots, stems and leaves. Examples: Chlamydomonas and
Spirogyra
 Fungi
They are non-green plants which lack chlorophyll and cannot synthesize their own food.
Fungi cannot prepare their own food like green plants. Some of them, depend on dead and
decomposed organic matter and are known as saprophytes. Some fungi are parasitic also.
Example: Penicillium and Aspergillus.
 Bacteria
Bacteria are very small, single-celled micro-organisms. Bacteria are found in large numbers
everywhere: in air; soil and water; on every surface around us; on our bodies and even
inside our bodies. Examples: Lactobacillus and Rhizobium.
 Viruses:
Viruses are the smallest micro-organisms which can develop only inside the cells of the host
organism which may be animals, plants or bacterium.
Viruses are micro-organisms that are so basic that they are not even classified as living
cells. Viruses consist of only genetic material (either DNA or RNA), wrapped around inside a
protein covering. They cannot survive by themselves, so they need a host cell that will
enable the virus to multiply.
Flagella
Mitochondria Vacuole
Eye Spot
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Chlamydomonas
Paramoecium
Bread Mould
HIV Virus
Bacterial colony
Bacteriophage
(Virus that infects bacteria)
Illustration 1 : How are viruses different from other micro-organisms?

Solution : Viruses consists of only genetic material (either DNA or RNA), wrapped around
inside a protein covering. They cannot survive by themselves, so they need a host
cell that will enable the virus to multiply.
Illustration 2 : What is the mode of nutrition in fungi?
Solution : They are non-green plants which lack chlorophyll and cannot synthesize their own food.
Fungi cannot prepare their own food like green plants. Some of them, depend on dead and
decomposed organic matter and are known as saprophytes. Some fungi are parasitic also.
TAKE A BREAK (CLASS WORK)
Micro-organisms and us
Friendly Micro-organisms
There are a number of micro-organisms that are useful to us.

(i) Lactobacillus for the production of curd (yogurt) from milk.
(ii) E.coli bacteria are used for the production of drugs such as insulin and antibiotics, after
genetically modifying the bacteria.
(iii) Nitrosomonas is used for sewage treatment.
(iv) E.coli produces vitamin K and vitamin B6 and B12 in our digestive tract which are essential
nutrients for our body.
(v) Streptomyces bacteria are used in making antibiotics.
(vi) Fungus Penicillium revolutionized medicine with the discovery of penicillin antibiotic obtained
from it.
(vii) Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi act as decomposers in the ecosystem,
decomposing dead plants and animals. Through the decay process, elements such as carbon,
nitrogen and sulphur are released into the soil, making it more fertile.
(viii) Many vaccines are prepared from micro-organisms to protect them from diseases like
tuberculosis, polio etc.
(ix) Yeast is used in preparation of dough to make bread & cakes porous and spongy.
(x) Yeast is also used to convert natural sugars present in grains into alcohol.
Illustration 3 : Which bacterium is responsible for curdling of milk?
Solution : Lactobacillus is responsible for the production of curd (yogurt) from milk.
Illustration 4 : State some uses of microorganism in our lives?
Solution : Production of curd (yogurt) from milk. Eg. Lactobacillus
Production of drugs. E.g. E.coli
Sewage treatment. E.g Nitrosomonas.
Preparation of dough of bread and cakes. E.g. Yeast
Fermentation
 Louis Pasteur discovered the process of
fermentation.
 The process of converting sugar into
alcohol is called fermentation.
 Yeast convert the natural sugars present
in grains into alcohol.
 Wine is also produced by fermentation.
Louis Pasteur
Yeast Cells showing
budding
Antibiotics
 Medicines used to cure a variety of diseases caused by bacteria,
protozoans. However, antibiotics are not effective against diseases
caused by virus.
 Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in
1929 from the fungus Penicillium.
 Some commonly used antibiotics which are produced from bacteria
and fungi are streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin.
Alexander Fleming
Illustration 5 : How does our body fights when a disease carrying microbe enters our body?
Solution : By producing antibodies against it.
What do vaccines, which are given to infants, contain?
Vaccination
 When microbes enter our body, there is production of antibodies to

fight against them.
 Vaccine is prepared by inactivating the disease causing microbes so
that it can produce antibodies but not the disease.
 Several diseases like hepatitis, chicken pox, tuberculosis etc can be
prevented by vaccination.
 Small pox has been completely eradicated from the world.
Edward Jenner
Illustration 6 : Name the scientist who discovered the vaccine for smallpox.
Solution : Edward Jenner
1. Can micro-organisms be seen with naked eye? If not, how can they be seen?
2. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking antibiotics?
3. Explain five major groups of micro-organisms.
4. How the following organisms are useful to us?
(a) E. coli (b) Lactobacillus (c) Yeast (d) Nitrosomonas
5. Why are antibiotics not effective against ‘common cold’ and ‘flu’?
Harmful Micro-organisms
 Pathogens are disease causing micro-organisms. They thrive

under unhygienic conditions.
 Micro-organisms cause diseases like typhoid, cholera,
tuberculosis, chicken pox, swine flu etc., which can spread from
an infected person through air, water, food or physical contact.
 Some micro-organisms also cause plant diseases like rust of
wheat (by fungi) and citrus canker (by bacteria).
RBC infected by Plasmodium
 Bacteria and fungi cause food poisoning by producing toxic

substances in the food.
 Bacteria and protozoans cause pollution of water and make it unfit for drinking.
 Anthrax caused by a bacterium, is a dangerous human and cattle disease.
 Foot and mouth disease is caused by a virus in cattles.
 Bird flu is caused by virus.
 Some insects like housefly and mosquitoes acts as carriers for diseases caused by microbes.
 Housefly transfers pathogens from contaminated food to uncovered food. Therefore, food should
always be kept covered.
 Female Anopheles mosquito is a carrier for

malarial parasite Plasmodium.
 Female Aedes mosquito acts as a carrier for
dengue virus.
 Mosquitoes breed in stagnant water. Hence, we
should not allow water to collect any where to
prevent mosquitoes from breeding.
 Common human diseases caused by viruses
include the common cold, influenza. Female Anopheles Mosquito infecting
 Serious diseases caused by viruses are chicken a man with Plasmodium
pox, Jaundice, AIDS, SARS, Herpes, Swine flu,
mumps etc.
 Most of the viral diseases are contagious and spread from person to person.
 Many pathogens attack crop plants like sugarcane, wheat, rice, potato and reduce their yield.
Some Common Human Diseases caused by Micro-organisms
Human Causative Mode of Preventive measures
Disease Microorganism Transmission (General)
Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete isolation. Keep the
Measles Virus Air personal belongings of the patient away from
those of the others. Vaccination to be given at
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
suitable age.
Polio Virus Air/Water
Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene and good sanitary
Typhoid Bacteria Water habits. Consume properly cooked food and
boiled drinking water. Vaccination.
Hepatitis A Virus Water Drink boiled water. Vaccination.
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito Use mosquito net and repellents. Spray
insecticides and control breeding of mosquitoes
by not allowing water to collect in the
surroundings.
Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Micro-organisms
Plant Micro- Mode of

Diseases organism Transmission
Citrus canker Bacteria Air
Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds
Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (Okra) Virus Insect

Illustration 7 : Name the microbe which causes malaria disease.
Solution : Plasmodium
FUN TIME
E I R T E P Y T I N U M M I N
I M H P A I Y R T P C E L C I
N I P N G C N A S A E U S T V
I S R N L I O G A T A E I E A
L R U D O T I A E H U M E R C
L F E N O O T T Y O M I P V C
I E R E T I A P T G N C I D I
C D U O S B L U B E E R D I M
I I T M D I U N B N U O E S A
N E L I A T C I E S T B M H T
E C U O O N O R E P P E I H I
P T C T T A N S T N R N C S O
B A C T E R I A E S E E H C N
R U B O I T A S I N U M M I E
Z E E I N F E C T I O U S T H
Word list
BACTERIA VIRUSES FUNGI
INFECTIOUS PATHOGEN IMMUNITY
VACCINATION INOCULATION TOADSTOOL
EPIDEMIC MICROBE CULTURE
ANTIBIOTIC PENICILLIN CHEESE
YEAST AGAR BALANCED
PETRI DISH DISH
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food is preserved from the attack of micro-

organisms by the following methods:
 Chemical method: Preservatives like sodium
benzoate are added to pickles, jams and squashes
to prevent the growth of micro-organisms.
Chemical methods of preservation of jams and
squashes use preservatives like sodium benzoate
and sodium metabisulphite.
 Preservation by common salt: Meat and fish are
preserved by covering them with dry salt. It is also
used to preseve pickles, tamarind etc. Common Preserve Food
salt absorbs moisture from food, making it dry and
uninhabitable for microbes.
 Preservation by sugar: Excess of sugar prevents the growth of micro-organisms by reducing

moisture content in the jams, jellies, squashes, murabba etc.
 Preservation by oil and vinegar: Bacteria cannot survive in the presence of oil or vinegar (due
to its acidic nature). Therefore, many vegetables, fish and meat are preserved by this method.
Illustration 8 : Name two food material which are preserved by using common salt in our
homes.
Solution : Pickles, Chutney.
Heat and Cold Treatment
 Louis Pasteur discovered the process of pasteurization. During pasteurization of milk, it is first
heated to about 70º C for 15 to 30 minutes and then suddenly chilled to prevent growth of
microbes.
 Boiling and freezing are the two other methods used to preserve food.
Pasteurisation process
Food is very important for our survival, can it harm us also?
Food Poisoning
 Food, if left outside for a long time gets spoiled
due to infection by micro-organisms.
 These micro-organisms produce toxic
substances which make the food poisonous.
 Consumption of such spoilt food causes food
poisoning which causes serious illness.
Illustration 9 : What is food poisoning? How is food poisoning caused?

Solution : The disease caused due to the presence of a large number of micro-organisms
(like bacteria and fungi) in the food, or due to the presence of toxic substances in food formed
by the action of micro-organisms, is called food poisoning. Food poisoning occurs due to the
consumption of food spoilt by some micro-organisms.
Nitrogen Fixation
 Nitrogen is needed by the plants for their growth. They cannot absorb nitrogen directly from the
air. There are micro-organisms like some bacteria and blue green algae in the soil that take
nitrogen from the air and make nitrogenous compounds. Thus, they enrich the soil with
nitrogenous compounds and make it fertile.
 The circulation of nitrogen between organisms and the atmosphere is called the nitrogen cycle.
 Bacteria play a key role in making soil fertile.
They convert nitrogen in earth’s atmosphere into
nitrogen compounds which plants need to grow.
Bacteria are the only organisms that are able to
carry out the process of nitrogen fixation
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria usually live in association
with plants.
 For example: Rhizobium, a nitrogen fixing
bacteria, form nodules on the roots of beans and
other plants in the legume family.
Nodules containing Rhizobium in the
roots of Leguminous plant
Nitrogen cycle
Illustration 10: What is Nitrogen fixation? Name the micro-organisms which are used in this
process.
Solution : The process of converting nitrogen gas of atmosphere (or air) into compounds of nitrogen
(which can be used by the plants)is called nitrogen fixation.Example:
Rhizobium.

1. Name one ‘biological nitrogen-fixer’.
2. Name two fruits which are preserved:
(a) in the form of pickles (b) in the form of jams
3. What is the mode of transmission of the following diseases?
(a) Rust of wheat (b) Citrus canker (c) Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (Okra)
4. State the causative micro-organisms and modes of transmission of the following human
diseases:
(i) Tuberculosis (ii) Measles (iii) Chickenpox (iv) Polio
(v) Cholera (vi) Typhoid (vii) Hepatitis B (viii) Dengue
5. After consuming a dish of mutton, a person complained of nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and
pain in the abdomen.
(a) What type of disease is he suffering from?
(b) What causes this disease?
6. Match the micro-organisms in column A with their action in column B:
A B
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing cholera
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing malaria
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(viii) Penicillium (g) Producing antibiotics
7. To which category of micro-organisms do the following belong?
Amoeba, Lactobacillus, Chlamydomonas, Penicillium, Yeast, HIV
8. The mosquito P is a carrier of virus and spreads a disease Q. Another mosquito R is the
carrier of protozoan S and spreads a disease called T.
(a) Name (i) mosquito P, and (ii) disease Q
(b) Name (i) mosquito R, (ii) protozoan S, and (iii) disease T.
(c) What is the sex of mosquito P?
(d) What is the sex of mosquito R?
CONCEPT MAP
CBSE ASSIGNMENT (Home Work)

1. Which micro-organisms are not affected by antibiotics?
2. What are pathogens?
3. What will you observe if you keep moist bread outside in open for few days?
4. Which group of micro-organisms cause malaria?
5. Name the instrument (or device) which is needed to see the micro-organisms.
6. What is the name of micro-organisms which reproduce only inside the living cells of other
organisms?
7. What are the major groups of micro-organisms?
8. Name the micro-organism which is used for the large scale production of alcohol.
9. Name an antibiotic extracted from fungus (mould). Name the fungus.
10. Name two common insects which act as carriers of disease-causing micro-organism (or
disease-causing microbes).
1. What is fermentation and who discovered this process?
2. Why yeast is used in baking industry?
3. Name three substances that are used for commercial production of alcohol and wine by
fermentation.
4. How can we prevent mosquitoes from breeding?
5. Some micro-organisms live in the roots of leguminous plants. Are they harmful or useful to
plants and why?
6. Microbes help us to keep our environment clean, how?
7. Which micro-organisms produce alcohol? Name the group to which these micro-organisms
belong?
8. Name two diseases caused by protozoans.
9. Which micro-organisms are used in agriculture and why?
10. Name two common carriers of disease causing microbes.
1. How can infection by micro-organisms be checked in poultry?
2. (a) Why should we not let water collect anywhere in the neighborhood?
(b) Name one animal disease each caused: (i) by virus (ii)by bacteria (iii) by fungus
3. Name the micro-organism used in bread-making which makes the bread-dough rise. How
does it make the dough rise?
4. (a) What is meant by food preservation? Name any five methods of preserving food.
(b) How do you preserve cooked food at home?
5. Describe the method of pasteurization for the preservation of milk.
6. (a) What is meant by communicable disease? Name any two communicable diseases.
(b) What are the various ways in which communicable disease can occur and spread?
7. (a) Name any five human diseases caused by micro-organisms. Also name the causative
micro-organisms and mode of transmission for each of these diseases.
(b) State the various ways of preventing the occurrence and spreading of communicable
diseases.
8. (a) What is a vaccine? How does a vaccine work?
(b) Why are children given vaccination?
9. What is meant by “nitrogen fixation’? State two ways in which nitrogen gas of the atmosphere
can be ‘fixed’ in nature to get nitrogen compounds in the soil.
10. Draw a neat, labeled diagram of nitrogen cycle in nature. Which natural phenomenon
occurring in the sky is responsible for nitrogen fixation?

FOUNDATION BUILDER (Class Work)
1. Which microorganism causes diseases like measles, mumps, and hepatitis B?
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus
(c) Protozoans (d) Fungi
2. Micro-organisms are
(a) Both living and nonliving organisms we cannot see.
(b) Both living and non living organisms we can see with the help of microscope.
(c) Non living organisms that can only be seen through microscope.
(d) Living organisms that can only be seen through microscope.
3. Tuberculosis is caused by
(a) Virus (b) Protozoan
(c) Blue green algae (d) Bacteria
4. Viruses can reproduce in
(a) Water (b) Air (c) Soil (d) Plants and animals
5. Which of the following microorganism has the ability to fix nitrogen?
(a) HIV (b) Plasmodium
(c) Penicillium (d) Rhizobium
6. What will happen to a person who eats spoilt food?
(a) Malaria (b) Flu (c) Food poisoning (d) Measles
7. Which one is an example of communicable disease?
(a) Common cold (b) Diabetes (c) Rickets (d) Arthritis
8. Carrier for dengue fever is
(a) Housefly (c) Anopheles mosquito
(c) Aedes mosquito (d) Ticks
9. Medicines that kill or stop the growth of disease causing bacteria are
(a) Antigens (b) Antibiotics
(c) Antibodies (d) Vaccine
10. The vaccine for smallpox was discovered by :
(a) Alexander Fleming (b) Edward Jenner
(c) Louis Pasteur (d) Robert Koch
CONCEPT STRENGTHENER (Home Work)
1. Process by which yeast produces CO2 during baking is

(a) Fermentation (b) Oxidation (c) Preservation (d) Vaccine
2. What is Edward Jenner’s contribution in the field of medicine?
(a) Discovered compound microscope (b) Discovered bacteria
(c) Created vaccination for small pox (d) Created vaccination for polio
3. What are pathogenic micro-organisms?
(a) Microorganism growing inside a plant cell
(b) Microorganism growing inside an animal cell
(c) Microorganism causing disease
(d) Microorganism carrying out nitrogen fixation
4. Which one of the following sets includes the bacterial diseases?
(a) Cholera, typhoid, mumps (b) Tetanus, tuberculosis, measles
(c) Malaria, typhoid, chicken pox (d) Diptheria, typhoid, tuberculosis
5. The term antibiotic was first used by
(a) Fleming (b) Pasteur (c) Waksman (d) Jenner
6. Amoebic dysentery is transmitted by
(a) Sneezing (b) Using contaminated water
(c) Direct contact (d) Mosquito
7. Pasteurisation is a method used for preserving
(a) Milk (b) Jams (c) Pickles (d) Grains
8. Anthrax in cattle is caused by
(a) Fungi (b) Virus (c) Bacteria (d) Algae
9. Fermentation is the process used for making
(a) Curd (b) Cheese (c) Idlis (d) Chappatis
10. This disease has been eradicated from the world
(a) Small pox (b) Polio (c) Mumps (d) Rabies
EXPERTISE ATTAINER (Home Work)

1. Citrus canker disease is caused by bacteria in
(a) Plants (b) Cattles (c) Humans beings (d) Insects
2. Alcohol from sugar is produced by
(a) Rhizobium (b) Plasmodium (c) Lactobacillus (d) Yeast
3. Which one is a food preservative?
(a) Streptomycin (b) Alcohol
(c) Milk (d) Sodium metabisulphite
4. The bread dough rises because of:
(a) heat (b) grinding (c) growth of yeast cells (d) kneading
5. Yeast is used in the production of :
(a) sugar (b) alcohol (c) hydrochloric acid (d) oxygen
6. Which of the following is an antibiotic?
(a) sodium bicarbonate (b) streptomycin (c) alcohol (d) yeast
7. The first antibiotic called penicillin was extracted from:

(a) a bacterium (b) a protozoan (c) a fungus (d) an alga
8. Which of the following can be used as food preservative?
(a) sodium metabisulphite (b) typhoid
(c) tuberculosis (d) measles
9. The micro-organisms which can reproduce and multiply only inside the cells of other organisms
are:
(a) protozoa (b) fungi (c) bacteria (d) viruses
10. Which of the following is not a use of micro-organisms?
(a) preparation of medicines (or drugs) (b) preparation of food by photosynthesis
(c) recycling of materials in nature (d) increasing the fertility of soil.
FOUNDATION BUILDER
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c)

7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b)

7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
EXPERTISE ATTAINER
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b)

7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (b)
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs but not
Animals are supposed
every man’s greed.”
to live in forests then
By- Mahatma Gandhi why do we keep them
in zoo?
Our planet has rich variety of life (Plants and Animals). They
are essential for the well being & survival of the mankind but
it is under threat because humans are using up more and
more of the earth’s resources, producing more wastes and
causing more pollution.
Plants and animals are disappearing or becoming

endangered species at an alarming rate. Every few years,
the international conservation union updates a list of
species that are in danger of becoming extinct.
Many animal species have either become extinct or are on

the verge of extinction. This is because of continuous and We have seen
constant exploitation by man. dinosaurs in movies but
we do not see them in
Conservation of plants and animals is the practice of forests or zoo. Why?
protecting them and their habitats. Wild life conservation
ensures that nature will be around for future generations to
enjoy and recognize the importance of wild life. This helps
to implement policies designed to protect wild life. Wild life
conservation has become increasingly important due to the
negative effects of human activity on wild life.
Many species of wild life are disappearing fast and

conservation measures are needed to prevent animals and
plants from vanishing. Conservation is planned
management of a particular ecosystem or natural resources
to prevent exploitation, pollution, destruction and to ensure
the future usability of the resources.
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS FBC-Bio. [VIII]-20-21
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘conservation’ means ‘the process of keeping and protecting something from damage’. So,
the conservation of plants and animals means that plants and animals which occur in the forest
should be kept in a way that they remain protected in the natural environment in which they are
found.
Deforestation
Reckless cutting of trees for unnecessary reasons is referred to as deforestation. Deforestation
creates threat to the ecosystem and survival of animals by harming the forests.
Causes for deforestation
Man-made causes:
1. Procuring land for cultivation
2. Building houses, factories, roads, dams
etc.
3. Using wood as a fuel
4. Making furniture
5. Overgrazing of animals
Deforestation
Natural causes
Forest fires: Can burn down all the trees and vegetation of forest and cause deforestation
Severe drought: Can lead to death of trees because of lack of water.
What will happen if we will cut all the trees of a particular area, such as, forest?
Consequences of deforestation
(i) Deforestation will lead to a shortage of wood and other forest products:
It causes shortage of wood and other useful products of forests such as honey, gum, wax,
resins etc.
(ii) Deforestation will cause an increase in temperature of earth’s atmosphere leading to
global warming:
Trees (and other plants) use carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere for the process of
photosynthesis. When a lot of trees are cut down during deforestation, then lesser number of
trees will use up less carbon dioxide due to which the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere will increase. Carbon dioxide gas causes green house effect by trapping heat rays
which increases the temperature of earth’s atmosphere leading to global warming.
(iii) Deforestation will cause soil erosion making the soil infertile and lead to desertification:
The roots of trees bind the particles of top soil together. Due to this binding of soil particles, the
wind and water are not able to carry away the top soil easily. In this way, trees prevent soil
erosion. When the forest trees are cut down during deforestation, there are no roots of trees
which can bind the soil particles together and prevent them from being carried away by strong
winds or flowing rain water.
Desertification
The removal of top layer of soil during soil erosion, exposes the
lower, hard and rocky layer of soil. The lower layer of soil has
less humus and it is less fertile. Plants do not grow well in this
less fertile soil. Gradually, the fertile land gets converted into a
desert. The process by which fertile land becomes desert is
called desertification.
Desertification
All over the world deserts are spreading. Hot deserts and semi desert region already occupy 1/5th of
world’s land surface. It is believed that more than 200 square kilometers of land become desert
every year.
The process by which fertile land becomes desert is called as desertification. Desertification
threatens about 1/3rd of the world’s land surface and affects the lives of millions of people.
(iv) Deforestation will cause frequent flooding of rivers leading to loss of life and property
The roots of forest trees help in absorbing some of the rain water and make it percolate into the
ground. When the forest trees are cut down, the percolation of rain water into soil is reduced. A
lot of rain water from deforested soil rushes into the rivers quickly, causing floods. In this way,
deforestation decreases the water holding capacity of soil which leads to floods.
(v) Deforestation affects the water cycle leading to decrease in rainfall. The decrease in
rainfall lowers the groundwater level and could cause droughts:
The source of most of the moisture and water vapour that constitutes the clouds that bring rain
(in continental regions) is the water vapour transpired by plants. Forests act as large
transpiration zones and contribute greatly to the atmospheric moisture. In their absence, the
water of the soil just seeps down or flows away and thus they cannot contribute to rain
(vi) Deforestation leads to the extinction of many wild animals and plants:
Forests are the natural habitats of many wild animals, birds as well as plants. When forest trees
and other forest plants are cut down, the natural habitat of wild animals and birds get destroyed.
These homeless wild animals fall prey to human beings and get killed. Moreover, in the absence
of forest trees and plants, the wild animals and birds do not get enough food and starve to
death.
Fun Time
TASTE THE RAINFOREST! HAVE YOU EVER TRIED...?
Directions: Unscramble each of the clue words. Take the letters that appear in circles and unscramble them to discover
a surprising fact!
♦Did you know that tropical
DAOVAOC rainforests are the most diverse
ecosystems on earth? More than
OCNOUTC 50%
of even- plant and animal species
GFSI on
the planet makes their home in the
RONAESG 7% of our world that is
covered in rainforest.
NOMEL ♦ While you may never have visited
the rainforest, your everyday life
RUPITGFRAE wouldn't be the same without it. An
astonishing amount of the food we
eat originated in the rainforest. The
NANAAB Kola nut, which provided the original
flavor for soda-pop, comes from the
VUGAA rainforest. And can you imagine life
without chocolate? Plus, there are
PILPEPNEA many tasty treats that haven't made
it
GOMNA yet to our grocer)- stores - today we
eat about 200 rainforest fruits while
TATOMO indigenous peoples eat over 2,000!
♦ Besides food, many of our most
CONR important modern medicines are
derived from plants found only in
TOTOPA the
rainforest. For example, 25% of the
CERI active ingredients in today's cancer-
fighting drugs come from rainforest
organisms. And since less than 1%
SAMY of rainforest plants have even been
tested by scientists so far; who
HAOCOLTEC knows
what cures remain to be discovered!
NCIANMNO ♦ Unfortunately, 500,000 trees are
cut
SOCLEV -
down even hour in tropical rainfor-
ests, and we lose 20,000 to 100,000
GEGRIN species a year... Unless we can
pro-
GARUS NECA tect the rainforest we may never
dis-
FFOECE cover many important medicines,
not
to mention your next favorite snack!
NILVAAL
SACWEHS
Answers: avocado, coconut, figs, oranges, lemons grape fruit, banana, guavas, pineapple, mango, tomato, corn, potato, rice,
yams, chocolate, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, sugar cane, coffee, vanilla, cashews.
Can deforestation reduce rainfall on one hand and lead to floods on the other?
CONSERVATION OF FORESTS AND WILDLIFE

We should conserve forests and wildlife to preserve biodiversity (variety of species), to prevent
endangered species from becoming extinct, and to maintain ecological balance in nature. Some of
the measures which can be taken for the conservation of forests and wildlife are:
(i) Poaching (killing) or capturing of any wild animal should be banned.
(ii) Reckless cutting of trees should be stopped.
(iii) The natural habitats of wild animals should be preserved by establishing conservation areas
such as Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks where the wild animals
can flourish in natural surroundings protected from the outside world.
Can we construct our own forest to conserve wildlife?
There are three types of protected areas established by the governments for the conservation of
forests and wild life: Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks.
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
A Biosphere reserve is a large, protected area of land meant for the conservation of wildlife,
biodiversity, and the traditional lifestyle of the tribal people living in the area.
It is divided into three zones: core zone, buffer zone and transition zone.
Biosphere Reserves are open to tourist up to the buffer zone. No tourists allowed in its core zone.
Design of Biosphere Reserve

A Biosphere reserve may also contain other protected areas in it. For example, Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve, located in Madhya Pradesh, Contains two wildlife sanctuaries (Bori Sanctuary &
Pachmarhi sanctuary) and one national park (Satpura National Park). There is also a reservoir
called ‘Tawa Reservoir’ in this biosphere reserve.
Role of Biosphere Reserves
(i) They help to maintain the biodiversity (wild animals and plants) of the area.
(ii) They preserve the natural ecological conditions (or ecosystems) in the area.
(iii) They help to maintain the lifestyle (or culture) of the tribal people living in the area.
(iv) They provide opportunities for scientific research, environmental education and tourism.
There are 14 Biosphere Reserves in India

Some important Biosphere Reserves of India
Name Location
1. Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve Andaman and Nicobar
2. Kaziranga Biosphere Reserve Assam
3. Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve West Bengal
4. Kanha Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh
5. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Tamilnadu, Kerala, Karnataka
6. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu
7. Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Meghalaya
8. Simlipal Biosphere Reserve Odisha
What is flora and fauna?

Flora: Plants found in a particular area.
Fauna: Animals found in a particular area.
Species
It is a group of population which is capable of interbreeding. This means that members of a species
can produce fertile offspring only with the members of their own species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species have common characteristics. Example of some species are
Tiger, Dog, Cat, Human etc.
Endemic Species
Endemic species are those species ( plants and animals) which are found exclusively in a particular
area. These species are not found naturally anywhere else. For example Sal & Wild Mango are
endemic flora and Bison, Indian giant squirrel & flying squirrel and endemic fauna of the Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve.
Wild Mango
Sal
Giant Squirrel Bison
Wildlife Sanctuary
A wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area of a land which is created for the protection of wild animals
in their natural environment like forests (in which hunting is permitted). It provides protection and
suitable living conditions to the wild animals in their natural habitat. It does not allow any human
activity which disturbs the wild animals or their habitat. Some of the threatened wild animals which
are protected and preserved in our Wildlife Sanctuaries are: Black buck, White-eyed buck, Elephant,
Golden cat, Gharial etc
Elephant Gharial
India has more than 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries. Some Wildlife Sanctuaries are specifically named Bird
Sanctuaries their major inhabitants are birds.
Some important Wildlife Sanctuaries of India
Name Location
1. Sanjay Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary Maharashtra
2. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamilnadu
3. Nagarjunsagar Wildlife Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh
4. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
5. Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary Harayana
6. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka
7. Thattekad Bird Sanctuary Kerala
8. Satkosia Basipalli Wildlife Sanctuary West Bangal
Is there a difference between a Wildlife Sanctuary and a Zoo?
Wildlife Sanctuary Zoo
1. In a Wildlife Sanctuary, the wild animals In a Zoo, the wild animals and birds live in
and birds live in their natural habitat in the artificial setting such as cages and enclosures.
forest.
2. A Wildlife Sanctuary contains wild animals A Zoo contains wild animals and birds brought
and birds found locally. from the different parts of the country and from
various other countries of the world.
3. A Wildlife Sanctuary is not open to public A zoo is open to public for a fixed time
freely like a zoo. Public can visit a Wildlife everyday.
Sanctuary only when accompanied by the
forest guards.
4. Wild animals and birds are very Wild animals and birds are not comfortable
comfortable in the natural environment of living in the artificial environment of zoo.
a Wildlife Sanctuary.
National Parks
A National Park is a relatively large area of scenic beauty, protected and maintained by the
Government to preserve flora and fauna (plants and animals), landscape, historic objects of the
area and places of scientific interest. Another purpose of establishing National Parks is to provide
human recreation and enjoyment. People are allowed to enter National Park (under certain
conditions) to see wild animals roaming about in their natural environment, and historic objects of
the area for recreational, enjoyment, inspirational and educative purposes.
India has more than 80 National Parks.
Some important National Parks of India
Name Location
1. Corbett National Parks Uttarakhand
2. Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh
3. Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan
4. Gir National Park Gujarat
5. Kaziranga National Park Assam
6. Sunderbans Nationals Park West Bengal
7. Bandipur National Park Karanataka
8. Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir
9. Sariska National Park Rajasthan
10. Satpura National Park Madhya Pradesh
Satpura National Park (located in Madhya Pradesh) is the first Reserve Forest of India. The finest
Indian teak is found in this forest. It has large species of wild animals in it such as Tiger, Gaur(Indian
Bison), Sloth bear, Cheetal, Hyena, Rhesus Monkey etc.
Hyena Sloth bear

Rhesus Monkey
Project Tiger
Tiger is one of the many wild life species (or wild animals) which
are slowly disappearing from our forests. ‘Satpura Tiger
Reserve’ in the Satpura National Park is part of Project Tiger.
Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation project which was
launched by the Government of India in 1972 to protect the tigers
in the country. The objective of this project was to ensure the
survival and maintenance of the tiger population in specially
constituted ‘Tiger Reserves’ throughout India. There are 28 Tiger
Reserves in India at present which are governed by ‘Project Tiger
Tiger’.
Extinct Species
The species which no longer exist anywhere on the earth are
called extinct species. A species becomes extinct when the last
living member of that species dies. Some of the examples of
extinct species of animals are: Dinosaur, Dodo, Cave lion etc. And
Plants are Annularia, Sigillaria etc
Dodo
Endangered species
Endangered species are defined as a population of living being

that is at the danger of becoming extinct because of several
reasons such as adverse environmental conditions or predators.
e.g., Indian Rhinoceros, Great Indian bustard, musk deer, blue
whale, Brow antlered deer etc.
Indian Rhinoceros
Vulnerable species
Species which are present in sufficient number today in their

natural habitat but may become endangered species if
unfavorable conditions persists. e.g., crab eating macaque, black
buck , chinkara deer etc.
Chinkara Deer
Rare species
Species that are not endangered or vulnerable but are at risk, e.g., Indian egg eating snake, Indian
pied horn bill, golden cat etc.
Golden Cat
Red Data Book

Red Data Book is the ‘book’( or publication) which keeps a record of all the endangered animals,
plants and other species. Actually, Red Data Book contains a list of species which are in danger of
becoming extinct. There are different Red Data Books for plants, animals and other species, Red
Data Books are being published in many different countries and provide useful information on the
threat status of the various species. There is also a Red Data Book of India. Some of the
endangered species of animals listed in the Red Data Book of India are: Flying squirrel, Indian giant
squirrel, Barasingha, Black buck, Himalayan musk deer, Great Indian rhinoceros, Snow leopard and
Tiger. The advantages of maintaining Red Data Book is that we come to know which species of
animals, plants, etc. are very small in number and facing the danger of extinction so that timely
remedial steps can be taken by the Authorities concerned to prevent their extinction.
FUN TIME (HOME WORK)
Find the Endangered Animals

B M P B O R S N O W L E O P A R D R E N
E L N A A G E L A H W A G U L E B Y L O
P F A K N C N T V I C U N A L A E E T R
O R E C O G T I A T K I B E X L G E R T
L I S E K M O R D E I O P A L V R Z U H
E L A L E F O L I H T H A O O E C N T E
T L I A L C O D I A A N W L G B H A X R
N E N H A H S O O N N E A I A A I P O N
A D R W H E P V T D Y C T T L G N M B F
X L O K W E R S L E R R A U N N C I N U
A I F C E T E G D D D A A M B A H H R R
D Z I A U A Y P T G T F G E E M I C E S
D A L B L H E E S I B W E O B L L G T E
A R A P B N N T A B M O W R N R L U S A
J D C M G E F T L B L E M V R S A M A L
A N I U G N E P R O R E P M E E K L E M
G P I H P R E T S N O M A L I G T I O M
U N I R A M A T N O I L N E D L O G W P
A F R I C A N E L E P H A N T 1 N D R I
R A M E R I C A N B I S O N A R W H A L
Addax Antelope Emperor Penguin Lemurs
African Elephant Emu Lion
American Bison Frilled Lizard Mangabey
Bactrian Camel Genet Narwhal
Beluga Whale Giant Ant Eater Northern Fur Seal
Black Footed Ferret Gila Monster Osprey
Blue Whale Golden Lion Tamarin Pangolin
California Sea Humpback Whale Polar Bear
Cheetah Ibex Snow Leopard
Chimpanzee Indri Tiger
Chinchilla Jaguar Vicuna
Dingo Kiwi Wombat
Eastern Box Turtle Koala Yellow Eyed Penguin
Elephant Seal Komodo Dragon
Migration
The process of a bird (or animals) moving from one place
to another according to the season, is called migration. In
the other words, when a bird (or other animals) moves
from one place to another in one season and returns in a
different season, it is called migration. Migration of birds
(or other animals) is an adaptation to escape the harsh
and cold conditions of their normal habitat in winter so as
to survive.
When the winter sets in cold regions of the earth, the
climate becomes extremely cold in those regions. Siberian Crane
The birds, which normally live in these regions, migrate (fly off) to far flung warmer places on earth
to escape the extremely cold winter climate and survive. And when the winter season is over, these
birds fly back to their original habitats in the cold regions.
One of the most common migratory bird which comes to India every year for a few months is the
Siberian crane.
Recycling of paper
Paper is made from wood pulp that is produced from the wood of forest trees. It has been estimated
that 17 full grown trees are needed to make 1 ton of paper. So, many trees have to be cut down
from the forests to make paper. We should save paper to save the forest trees.
We should ‘save paper’, ‘reuse paper’ and ‘recycle paper. The term ‘recycling of paper’ means to
process the waste paper (to make new paper) so that it can be used again. Paper can be recycled
five to seven times for use.
Reforestation
The planting of trees in an area in which forest were destroyed is called reforestation.
Reforestation
Advantages of Reforestation
(i) Reforestation will lead to decrease in global warming by reducing the amount of carbon
dioxide gas in the atmosphere.
(ii) Reforestation increases rainfall in an area. This will raise groundwater level and prevent
droughts
(iii) Reforestation prevents soil erosion and floods.

Illustration1: What are biosphere reserves?
Solution : A Biosphere reserve is a large, protected area of land meant for the conservation of wildlife,
biodiversity, and the traditional lifestyle of the tribal people living in the area.
Illustration2: What are the objectives of Project Tiger?
Solution : The objective of this project is to ensure the survival and maintenance of the tiger population in
specially constituted ‘Tiger Reserves’ throughout India.
Illustration3: Write four important causes of deforestation.
Solution : Causes of Deforestation:
(i) Procuring land for cultivation
(ii) Building houses, factories, roads, dams etc.
(iii) Using wood as a fuel
(iv) Making furniture
Illustration4: What is desertification?
Solution : The process by which fertile land becomes desert is called desertification.
Illustration 5: Name three types of protected area which have been earmarked for the conservation of
forests and wildlife?
Solution : Three types of protected area are:
(i) Biosphere reserve (ii) Wildlife Sanctuary (iii) National Parks

Illustration6: For what purpose are National Parks in our country established?
Solution : A National Park is a relatively large area of scenic beauty, protected and maintained by the
Government to preserve flora and fauna (plants and animals), landscape, historic objects of
the area and places of scientific interest. Another purpose of establishing Nationals Parks is to
provide human recreation and enjoyment.
Illustration7: Name the first Reserve Forest of India.
Solution : Satpura National Park
Illustration8: Name any five endangered species of animals listed in the Red Data Book of India.
Solution : Five endangered species of animals listed in the Red Data Book of India are: Flying squirrel,
Indian giant squirrel, Barasingha, Black buck, Himalayan musk deer.
Illustration9: What is the difference between ‘flora’ and ‘fauna’?
Solution : Flora: Plants found in a particular area.
Fauna: Animals found in a particular area.
Illustration10: What is meant by ‘species’? Give any five examples of species.
Solution : A species is a group of same kind of organisms which can interbreed to produce fertile
offspring. e.g. Human, Tiger, Dog, cat, Cow etc.
RADICAL TEST (CLASS WORK)
1. Name one Wildlife Sanctuary and one National Park of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.
2. What name is given to those species:
(a) that are on the verge of vanishing from earth?
(b) that have died out completely.
3. Fill in the following blanks with suitable words:
(a) Deforestation increase the level of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in the atmosphere.
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as _ _ _ _ _ _ _ species.
(c) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
(d) Satpura National Park is a part of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Biosphere Reserve.
(e) Red Data Book contains a record of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ species.
4. Large scale deforestation leads to the decreases in the amount of gas A in the atmosphere
whereas the amount of gas B increases. The increased amount of gas B in the atmosphere
causes an effect C which leads to excessive heating of the earth and its atmosphere producing
an undesirable phenomenon D. What are A, B, C and D?
5. What is ‘Project Tiger’? What was the objective of this project?
6. The species P and Q of wild animals are found exclusive in a ‘particular area’. The species R of
wild animals is listed in Red data book of India whereas species S of wild animals no longer
exists anywhere on the earth.
(a) What name is given to species like P and Q?
(b) What are the species like R known as?
(c) Name one species like R.
(d) What is the special name of species like S?
(e) Name one species like S.
7. By taking the example of snakes, explain how by killing small animals, we are actually harming
ourselves.
8. Consider the following animals species:
Dodo, Yak, Deer, Black buck, Tiger, Crow, Kashmir stag, Dinosaur, Elephant, Lion tailed
macaque, peacock, Snow leopard.
Which of these animals are:
(a) Endemic to mountain habitats?
(b) Endangered species?
(c) extinct species?
9. Explain how, recycling of paper helps in the conservation of forests?
10. X is a human activity which will cause an increase in temperature of earth’s atmosphere leading
to global warming. It can cause soil erosion making the soil infertile and lead to desertification. It
can cause decrease in rainfall but increase the flooding of rivers. It can also affect water cycle
and lead to the extinction of many wild species. What is X?
CONCEPT MAP

1. What do you mean by the term conservation?
2. Which biosphere reserve is located in Assam?
3. Name a biosphere reserve that contains other protected areas in it.
4. What is meant by extinct species?
5. What is reforestation?
6. Why some animals migrate?
7. How does the fertility of soil decreases due to deforestation?
8. What will happen if the top layer of soil is exposed?
9. In what way some tribals depend on forests?
10. In which book endangered species are listed?

1. What is the significance of Red Data Book?
2. How deforestation and decreased rainfall are related?
3. Write four main reasons for which trees in the forest are cut?
4. What is the difference between afforestation and reforestation?
5. How are endangered animals different from endemic animals?
6. What is global warming? Name the gas which is responsible for causing global warming?
7. Which of the following belongs to ‘fauna’ and which belongs to ‘flora’ of the Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve?
Sal, Arjun, Cheetal, Teak, Lopard, Fern, Blue Bull, Barking deer, Mango, wolf.
8. Name two man-made causes of deforestation and two natural causes of deforestation.
9. What is National Park? Name any two National Parks of India. Where are these National
Parks located?
10. What is meant by the migration of birds? Why do birds migrate?

1. What is the difference between zoo and wild life sanctuaries?
2. What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?
3. State the role of Biosphere Reserves.
4. What is a Wildlife Sanctuary? Name any two Wildlife Sanctuaries in India. Where are these
Sanctuaries located?
5. With the help of a labeled diagram, describe the basic design of a Biosphere Reserve.

1. Growing new trees in forests is known as:
(a) Deforestation (b) Desertification (c) Reforestation (d) Global warming.
2. How many biosphere reserves are there in India?
(a) 10 (b) 5 (c) 14 (d) 20.
3. All type of plant life is known as
(a) Fauna (b) Flora (c) Forest (d) Wild life
4. When no member of a species exists it is known as:-
(a) Endemic species (b) Endangered species
(c) Extinct (d) Non-existent species.
5. Snow leopard is a:
(a) Vulnerable species (b) Endangered species
(c) Extinct (d) Endemic species.
6. A species found only in one particular place is known as:
(a) Endemic (b) Epidemic (c) Endangered (d) Extinct.
7. The first National part in India is
(a) Bardipur National Park (b) Kaziranga National Park
(c) Corbett National Park (d) Satpura National Park.
8. Conversion of fertile land into desert is called as:
(a) Deforestation (b) Desertification (c) Conservation (d) Soil erosion
9. The variety of life on earth is commonly referred to as:-
(a) Biodiversity (b) Biosphere (c) Afforestation (d) Fauna
10. Deforestation is a major threat to ecosystem which of the following activities does not lead to
deforestation?
(a) using wood for making furniture (b) constructing biosphere reserves
(c) clearing land for agriculture (d) using word as fuel.
1. Deforestation has adverse effects on the ecosystem. Which of the following statements
about deforestation is incorrect?
(a) It results in soil erosion
(b) It leads to global warming
(c) It increases the occurrence of floods
(d) It increases the water-holding capacity of soil.
2. Which of the following statement about Wild life sanctuaries is correct?
(a) Place where tradition of tribals are conserved
(b) Place where human activities are permissible
(c) Place where animals are kept in enclosures
(d) Place where poaching is prohibited.
3. The primary objective of Project Tiger is to :-

(a) Increase the population of tigers as they are endangered species.
(b) Increase the population of tigers as they are threatened species.
(c) Protecting tigers by keeping them in zoos.
(d) Protect tigers by changing their habitat.
4. The population of animal ‘X’ has drastically gone down. Any further decline in its population
could wipe off this species from the surface of earth. Thus, animal ‘X’ belongs to the
category of
(a) Extinct species (b) Endemic species
(c) Threatened species (d) Endangered species.
5. Which of the following statement about “Red Data Book” is correct?

(a) It contains the records of all the endangered plants and animals species
(b) It contains the records of all extinct plant and species
(c) It contains the list of all endemic animal species
(d) It contains the list of all endemic plant species.
6. Dead organisms are transformed into petroleum and natural gas in the
(a) Absence of air (b) Presence of air
(c) Presence of sunlight (d) Absence of sun light.
7. Useful substances obtained from petroleum and natural gases are called as:
(a) Chemicals (b) Petroleum products
(c) Petrochemicals (d) Lubricants.
8. Which of the following is not a fossil fuel?

(a) Coal (b) Petroleum (c) Natural gas (d) Biogas.
9. What is called as black gold?

(a) Petroleum (b) Coal (c) Coaltar (d) Natural gas.
10. Burning of fossil fuel causes:

(a) Air pollution (b) Water pollution (c) Global warming (d) (a) and (c)

1. Petroleum is formed from:-
(a) Domestic animals (b) Organisms is sea (c) Wild animals (d) Forest trees.
2. Which of the following is not due to deforestation?

(a) Wild life extinction (b) Water pollution
(c) Flash floods (d) Soil erosion
3. Which of the following processes does not cause the extinction of animals?
(a) Pollution (b) Poaching (c) Afforestation (d) Constructing dams.
4. Which protected area maintains the traditional life of tribals?

(a) National park (b) Zoological park (c) Biosphere reserve (d) Wild life sanctuies
5. Which of the following is not a part of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve?

(a) Bori Wildlife Sanctuary (b) Satpura National Park
(c) Bandipur National Park (d) Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary
6. The National Park which is located in Rajasthan is:
(a) Corbett National Park (b) Kanha National Park
(c) Satpura National Park (d) Sariska National Park
7. Which of the following wild animal is not listed in the Red Data Book of India?
(a) Black buck (b) Flying Squirrel (c) Tiger (d) Leopard
8. The Siberian crane comes to India every year in winter for a few months:
(a) to escape the severe summer (b) to escape the severe winter
(c) to escape the heavy rains (d) to escape from predators
9. One of the following is not part of the fauna of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. This one is
(a) Yak (b) Leopard (d) Blue bull (d) Barking deer
10. The indiscriminate killing of which of the following animals can lead to loss in the production
of food grains?
(a) Birds (b) Snakes (c) Grasshoppers (d) Rats

FOUNDATION BUILDER
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a)

7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
EXPERTISE ATTAINER
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d)
7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)

Science - Module-1 (Class Viii)

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Science - Module-1 (Class Viii)

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S.No. Topics Page No.

1. Force, Friction and Pressure 1 - 25

 Force, Friction & Pressure 2-15

METALS & NON-METALS

A force is any influence that causes an object to

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of

For example: A football set into motion by kick(force).

Muscular force holding a ball

Friction force acts when we push a body

Under the influence of magnetic force of attraction,

Under the influence of gravitational force, earth attracts stone.

 SI unit of force is newton (N)

 CGS unit of force is dyne

 Another unit commonly used is kilogram force (kgf).

 1kgf = 9.8 N (It is the gravitational force acting on 1kg of mass)

MASS AND WEIGHT

SI unit of mass is kilogram (Kg)

Weight of a body is measured by a spring balance.

A diagram showing how friction opposes the motion

Magnified viewof the surfaces

Friction is of three types:

Sliding friction is the friction acting when one

Rolling friction acts when body rolls over another rough

Static friction > sliding friction > Rolling friction

Friction due to liquid and gases

ii)Polishing – making the surface smooth.

iii)Wheels – due to rolling friction is very less.

iv) Lubricants – makes the surface smooth.

RADICAL TEST – I (CLASS WORK)

1. List the things that force can do?

2. Name the contact and non-contact force

3. What is the difference between Mass and Weight?

4. Is static friction always less than rolling friction?

5. What are the factors that can affect friction?

THRUST AND PRESSURE

Barometer used to measure the

Measurement of liquid pressure

Why the tip of needle is always kept so sharp.

Application of Pascal’s Law

A particle whether floats or sink is solely dependent on buoyant force

Cause of Buoyant Force:

Factors Affecting Buoyant Force

(i) Volume of the Solid object immersed in the liquid

BUOYANT FORCE HELPING A BOAT TO FLOAT OVER WATER

Buoyant force acting on an object = weight of the displaced fluid

This rule is also applicable for solids immersed in gases.

Weight of the liquid displaced = Weight of the body or B = W

DENSITY, APPARENT WEIGHT AND RELATIVE DENSITY

Density of the subs tance

Massof the substance Volume of water

Mass of the substance

RADICAL TEST – II (CLASS WORK)

1. Why is it difficult to use a pair of scissors with blunt blades?

3. What is the necessary condition to float a body?

4. Name the factors on which buoyant force depends?

5. What is the value of atmospheric pressure at the surface of earth?

CBSE ASSIGNMENT (HOME WORK)

Very short Answer Type Questions

3. Which type of force is exerted by a static charge?

4. Which force tends to slow down objects?

6. What is the force per unit area?