Macadamia Nut

CHAPTER
28
MACADAMIA NUT
(Macadamia integrifolia)
M.K. Verma, Ashok Yadav, Nayan Deepak G., K. Usha and Sunil Kumar
1. INTRODUCTION CONTENTS

The Macadamia nut, is known by several
1. Introduction ...............................................583
names like Queensland nut, Australian nut,
Bopple nut, Bauple nut, popple nut, kindal, 2. History, Origin and Distribution .................584
boombera, burrawang (Hardner et al., 3. Area and Production .................................585
2005) and considered as world finest 4. Taxonomy ...................................................585
nut. The Macadamia nut, M. integrifolia 5. Species ......................................................586
is a relative newcomer among crop plants 6. Cultivars ....................................................588
of the world. It is the first and only native 7. Propagation ...............................................591
food plant of Australia, which has 8. Cultivation .................................................592
achieved the status of a commercial crop. 9. Quality Characteristics and
Maximum commercial development has Maturity Indices ........................................601
taken place in Hawaii during the last 60 10. Harvesting ..................................................601
years (Sharma et al., 2015). It is mainly 11. Yield ..........................................................601
grown in tropical climates of Australia, 12. Post Harvest Management ........................602
Brazil, Indonesia, Kenya, New Zealand 13. Value Addition ...........................................603
and South Africa. Among these Australia 14. Trade and Marketing .................................603
is the largest producer of Macadamia 15. Effect of Climate Change on
nuts; whereas, nut in the Hawaii are the Macadamia Nut .........................................604
most delicious in taste and their delicate 16. Future Research Plan ................................605
flavour and crunchy texture makes them 17. Organic Cultivation ....................................605
a delight to consume. It is a dark green
spreading semi hard wood tree and can grow up to 20 meters (Duke, 2001). Nutritive value
of macadamia nut has been presented in the Table 1.
Macadamia nuts are world’s most delicious nut with small in size, crispy buttery
flavoured nuts. Apart from being delicious, these nuts are good sources of protein and
minerals with sweet in taste and can be eaten either raw from the shell, dry roasted or
584 MINOR FRUITS: NUTRACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE AND CULTIVATION
cooked in oil. Macadamia nuts are a high energy food, commonly used in preparations of
cakes, confectionery, ice cream, salads, roasts and casseroles to enhance the savour.
Macadamia nuts are one of the only food sources that contain palmitoleic acid. Palmitoleic
acid is a beneficiary fatty acid, found higher in human liver. These acid increases insulin
sensitivity by suppressing inflammation, as well as inhibits the destruction of insulin secreting
pancreatic beta cells.
Table 1: Nutritive value of the Macadamia nut
Nutrient Value Nutrient Value Nutrient Value

Energy 718 Kcal Pyridoxine 0.275 mg Manganese 4.131 mg
Carbohydrates 13.82 g Riboflavin 0.162 mg Phosphorus 188 mg
Protein 7.91 g Thiamin 1.195 mg Selenium 3.6 mcg
Total Fat 75.77 g Vitamin A 0 IU Zinc 1.30 mg
Cholesterol 0 mg Vitamin C 1.2 mg Sodium 5 mg
Dietary Fiber 8.6 g Vitamin E 0.24 mg Potassium 368 mg
Folates 11 mcg Calcium 85 mg Phytosterols 116 mcg
Niacin 2.473 mg Copper 0.756 mg ßsitosterol 108 mcg
Pantothenic acid 0.758 mg Iron 3.69 mg
Source: USDA National Nutrient data base (www.nutritionandyou.com)
2. HISTORY, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The macadamia nut has originated in Australia, more precisely in the rain forests of the
southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales whereas he present day
macadamia nut is credited to have developed in Hawaii, and from there the crop further
moved to East Africa. Isolated tree of this nut are found in number of south eastAsian
countries. In the 1850’s, a GermanAustralian physician and botanist called Ferdinand von
Mueller discovered the macadamia nut and decided to name the genus after a colleague.
His name was John Macadam. Von Mueller was a noted chemist and physician who
encouraged macadamia nut cultivation. The macadamia genus consists of eight species,
two of which produce nuts which are a viable food source. This genus of flowering trees
is found in the family Proteaceae, and most of them actually produce poisonous or inedible
nuts. They are mainly found in Australia with a species or two growing in Indonesia and
New Caledonia. Macadamia nuts trees were imported to Hawaii for cultivation in the
1880s for growing as a windbreak and later in 1930; its commercial potential for dessert
nut was developed by university of Hawaii. Nowadays, most macadamia plantations
thrive in Hawaii. It is distribute mainly in tropical climates of Australia, Brazil, Indonesia,
Peru, Fiji, Kenya, Israel, Colombia, Venezuela, New Zealand, South Africa and Tanzania.
MACADAMIA NUT 585
3. AREA AND PRODUCTION
Presently Australia and Hawaii are the largest producing areas of macadamia with others
including eastern and southern Africa, and Central and Latin America. Northern New
South Wales and southeastern Queensland are the region having high production of
macadamia nuts in Australia. Hawaii accounting 70 percent of total macadamia production
worldwide followed by Australia, around 22 percent, rest is produced by other countries
including Malawi, South Africa, Kenya, Guatemala, Mexico, Brazil, Costa Rica, New
Zealand, California and China.
4. TAXONOMY
It belongs to the family Proteaceae of which about 1000 species exist including the
Banksias, Grevilleas, Stenocarpus, Dryandra, Hakea and Telope (Mc Conachie,
1980~ BenJeecov and Silber, 2006). Proteaceae, is an ancient angiosperm family whose
initial differentiation from ancestral forms occurred in the southeast of Australia 90100
million years ago. The family is well known for other genera such as Banksia, Grevillea,
and Hakea. Proteaceae appear to have been a major component of the early angiosperm
dominated rainforests which once covered most of Australia. Macadamia were probably
widely distributed within these early forests as evidenced by macadamia type fossil pollen
recorded in sediments in southeast Australia, central coastal Queensland and New Zealand.
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Proteales
Family: Proteaceae
Genus: Macadamia
Species: (i) integrifolia,
(ii) ternifolia,
(iii) tetraphylla
4.1. Cytogenetic
All three species have the identical somatic chromosome number of 2n = 28. This report
was the first on the chromosome numbers of M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla. These
numbers were determined from root tips of M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla seedlings,
and from dividing microsporocytes in M. tetraphylla. The chromosome number of M.
integrifolia was first reported by Darlington and Wylie (1955) as 2n = 28 (56), as a
previously unpublished number determined by Ukio Urata of the University of Hawaii.
The 56 in parentheses refers to a clone, Y279, which was discovered to be tetraploid.
Later, Urata (1954) published the numbers as n = 14 and n = 28.
5. SPECIES
According to Costello et al. (2008) the genus consists of nine species. The species native
to Australia are Macadamia integrifolia, M. tetraphylla, M. ternifolia, M. jansenii,
M. whelani, M. claudiensis and M. grandis, whereas M neurophylla is native to New
Caledonia and M. hildebrandii is native to Sulawesi in Indonesia. However, only the
smooth shelled (Macadamia integrifolia) and the rough shelled (Macadamia tetraphylla)
are cultivated for their edible nuts (Peace et al., 2003) as M. ternifolia produces tiny nuts
with a bitter flavoured kernel (Mc Conachie, 1980). The two edible Macadamia species
are classified according to among other characteristics, number of leaves in a nodal whorl
(phyllotaxy), leaf type, leaf marginal serrations and colour of new growth (Ryan, 2006).
The Genus Macadamia (familyProteaceae), as presently understood, comprises ten
species of tropical and subtropical evergreen trees (Table 2).
Table 2: List of Macadamia species
S.No. Species Origin

1 M. hildebrandii Steenis Celebes
2 M. Rousselii (Veill.) Sleumer New Caledonia
3 M. veillardii (Brongn. and Gris.) Sleumer
4 M. francii (Guill.) Sleumer
5 M. whelani F.M. Bail. Eastern Australia
6 M. ternifolia F. Muell.
7 M. integrifolia Maiden and Betche
8 M. tetraphylla LAS. Johnson
9 M. prealta (F. Muell.) F. M. Bail
10 M. heyana (F. M. Bail.) Sleumer
Description of the Macadamia species
5.1. Macadamia integrifolia (Queensland/Australian nut; bush nut; nut oak;
Bauple nut; smooth shell nut)
Plant: Trees are vigorous with dark green foliage, strong crotches and ascending rather
than spreading branch structure. ‘Kakea’ as well as ‘Keaau’ and ‘Kau’, the most recently
introduced cultivars, have more upright growth habits than Keauhou and ‘Ikaika’, which
have spreading growth habits. A more upright growth habit permits closer planting within
the row and thus more trees per acre. Individuals are often multi stemmed with small
crowns. Leaves: The simple obovate to narrowly oblong leaves are arranged in whorls
of three or opposite, and 5.5cm to 14cm long by 2.5cm to 6cm wide (Stanley and Ross,
2002). Blade tips are rounded and finish in a short sharp point~ the base tapers to petioles
5 to 10mm long. Flowers: Axillary creamy white flowers are arranged in brush like
hanging racemes 10 to 30cm long. Flowering period is August to October with kernel
MACADAMIA NUT 587
maturation from December to March, with mature nuts falling to the ground thereafter.
Fruits: Rounded fruits are green, 2.5 to 3.5cm wide with a hard brown inner shell
protecting the edible nut.
5.2. Macadamia jansenii (Bulburin nut tree)
Plant: The plant are small, single or multistemmed tree 69m tall, with generally smooth
bark dotted with prominent lenticels (Halford, 1997).
Leaves: The leaves are oblanceolate to oblongelliptic and are generally arranged in
whorls of three and 1018cm long with an acute apex, tapered base and wavy margins
(Harden et al., 2006). Net venation on leaf blades is distinct on both surfaces, especially
when held up to the light. Petioles are 214mm long.
Flowers: The flowers are creamy brownish having sepals that are 79 mm long~ flowers
have been observed in July and September.
Fruits: The globose fruit are 2025mm in diameter. The kernel is mildly cyanogenetic and
not edible
5.3. Macadamia ternifolia (Gympie nut, Marcoochy nut, Small fruited
Queensland nut)
Plant: The trees are perennial with 6 m tall, with brown branchlets dotted with raised
lenticels (Hauser and Blok, 1992).
Leaves: The leaves are simple, narrow oblong to narrow elliptical leaves are arranged
in whorls of three, and 1012cm long~ new growth is pinkish red. Blade tips are pointed
and the base tapers to petioles 3 to 13mm long (Stanley and Ross, 2002).
Flowers: Axillary pinkish flowers are arranged in brush like hanging racemes 420 cm
long. Flowering period is August to September with fruiting occurring from March to April
(Hauser and Blok, 1992).
Fruits: Compressed rounded fruits are greyish, 1.52cm long with a hard inner shell
protecting the edible nut. The seed kernel is cyanogenetic (presence of poisonous cyanide
radicals) and not edible.
5.4. Macadamia tetraphylla (Spiny leaf macadamia; rough shell
Queensland nut; bush nut)
Plant: Tree is a perennial 18m tall, with greyish brown branchlets dotted with pale
elongated lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992).
Leaves: The simple oblong lanceolate leaves are arranged in whorls of three to four,
620cm long and 24cm wide. Blade tips are pointed, margins sharply serrated and petioles
are 28m long (Stanley and Ross 2002). New leaves of M. tetraphylla are bright red in
colour, whereas those of M. integrifolia are light green.
Flowers: Axillary pinkish purple flowers are arranged in brush like hanging racemes 15
45cm long. Flowering period is August to September with fruit maturing and falling from
March (Hauser and Blok 1992).
Fruits: The fruit are compressed rounded with greyish green, 23.5cm wide with a hard
inner shell protecting the nut. The seed kernel is edible and not cyanogenetic.
6. CULTIVARS
6.1. Beaumont (Dr. Beaumont)
It is a hybrid (Macadamia integrifolia x M. tetraphylla) commercial variety, widely
planted in Australia and New Zealand. The cultivar was discovered by Dr. J. H. Beaumont.
It is high in oil, but is not sweet. New leaves are reddish, flowers are bright pink, borne
on long racemes. It is one of the quickest varieties to come into bearing once planted in
the orchard, usually carrying a useful crop by the fourth year, and improving from then
on. It crops prodigiously when well pollinated. The impressive, grapelike clusters are
sometimes so heavy they break the branchlet to which they are attached. In commercial
orchards, it has reached 18 kg nuts per tree by eight years old. On the downside, the
macadamias do not drop from the tree when ripe, and the leaves are a bit prickly when
one reaches into the interior of the tree during harvest. Its shell is easier to open than that
of most commercial varieties. Shell medium thick, kernel 40 per cent of nut, with a high
percentage of Grade A kernels.
6.2. Burdick
M. tetraphylla. Originated in Encinitas, Calif. Large nut, averaging 40 per pound. Shell
thin, about 1/16 inches thick, well filled. Kernel recovery averages about 34 per cent of
total nut weight, quality good. It matures in October. Tree bears annually. Not widely
planted these days and has been replaced by better cultivars. Also used as a rootstock.
6.3. Cate
M. tetraphylla. Originated on the property of William R. Cate, Malibu, California. Nuts
medium to large. Shell with average thickness. Kernels 40 per cent of nut, cream colour,
crisp in texture, flavour good to very good. Ripens in late October and November continuing
over a period of 6 to 8 weeks. Tree precocious, moderately hardy, shows no alternate
bearing tendency. The most widely adapted cultivar for commercial use in California.
6.4. Dorado
M. integrifolia. Originated in Hawaii. Introduced by Rancho Nuez Nursery. Mediumsized,
uniform nuts, 7/8 to 1 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 35 per cent of nut, oil content 75 per
cent. Tree medium tall, upright, attractive. Begins to bear after 5 years, selfharvesting, cold
resistant. Very productive, often yielding 65 or more pounds of nuts per year.
MACADAMIA NUT 589
6.5. Elimbah
Originated in Australia. Imported into California by E. Westree. Thin shells. Kernel
averages 4550 per cent of nut. The tree has attractive white flowers, comes into bearing
very quickly, is very productive, and has a relatively thin shell. Variety have tendency to
drop nuts year round.
6.6. James
M. integrifolia. Originated in La Habra Heights, California. Medium sized, uniform nuts,
about 1 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 40 to 42 per cent of nut, quality high, flavor
very well, oil content 75 per cent. Tree very tall, columnar, precocious, often producing
after 2 or 3 years. Self harvesting. Yields more per acre than any other California cultivar,
60 or more pounds per tree when mature.
6.7. Keaau
M. integrifolia. Originated in Lawai Valley, Kalaheo, Kauai, Hawaii. Medium sized nut,
averaging about 80 nuts per pound~ Shell smooth, medium brown, thin. Kernel 4246 per
cent of nut, color light cream, quality good. Season August to November. Tree moderately
vigorous, upright, very productive.
6.8. Keauhou
M. integrifolia. Originated in Kona, Hawaii by W.B. Storey. Medium to large nut,
averaging about 54 nuts per pound. Shell very slightly pebbled, medium thick. Kernel 37
to 40 per cent of nut, quality tends to vary in different locations. Harvest season relatively
short, with most of the crop maturing within about 3 months. Tree vigorous, yields well,
extremely resistant to anthracnose.
6.9. Vista
Hybrid originated in Rancho Santa Fe, California by Cliff Tanner. Small to medium sized
nut, 3/4 to 7/8 inch in diameter. Kernel averages 46 per cent of weight of nut, flavor
excellent, oil content 75 per cent. Shell very thin, can be cracked in an ordinary hand
cracker. Tree medium sized, pyramidal, begins to bear after 3 years. Self harvesting.
Flowers pink. Recommended for both home garden and commercial plantings.
6.10. Waimanalo (M. integrifolia)
Originated at the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Waimanalo, Hawaii. Large nuts,
occasionally with twin halves. Shell relatively thick. Kernel 38 per cent of nut, flavor good,
oil content 75 per cent. Tree medium sized, pyramidal, productive, begins to bear after 5
years. Produces nuts in large clusters. Resistant to frost and disease. Grows well in cooler
climates, particularly near the ocean. Also yields good crops in the inland.
6.11. PA39
One 7 year old tree of this variety gave 33 kg. The kernel is clean and attractive. It gives
95 per cent Grade A kernel, with a crack out of 40 per cent. Another great virtue is that
the nuts drop when ripe. It combines well with Beaumont as a pollinator. It is a small
compact tree, very prickly, and very susceptible to green shield bug. PA39 is one of Brian
Piper’s selections.
6.12. GT1
A good self or cross pollinator which can crop heavily with smaller nuts and may require
extra feeding. The nut is small and of good quality, with a high oil content. The kernel
is clean and attractive, and the crack out is high. The tree is less dense and prone to wind
damage.
6.13. GT2
A Gordon Titirangi selection. This nut has a thin shell, so rat depredation and shield bug
damage are both real problems. Nine year old trees gave 8 kg per tree.
6.14. GT201
A Gordon Titirangi selection, useful as a pollinator for Beaumont, has good nut quality.
6.15. GT207
A Gordon Titirangi selection. Beverly has only just planted this variety, has 100 per cent
grade 1 nut at Woodhill.
6.16. Own Choice

A Hawaiian variety produces the best quality nut .The crack out is 32 per cent. Nine year
old trees produced 22 kg per tree, nuts do not drop when ripe. It is a good pollinator for
Beaumont, and appears to be largely self fertile on their orchard. Another good variety
for the domestic garden with good self or cross pollination, large nuts and few prickles.
Tends to crop inconsistently and year round not of much use commercially.
6.17. Maroochy
A pure M. tetraphylla variety from Australia, is cultivated for its productive crop yield,
flavor, and suitability for pollinating ‘Beaumont’. Seven year old trees produced 75 kg.
6.18. Nutty Glen

An Australian hybrid selection. The nut is large and of good quality also popular as a
rootstock.
MACADAMIA NUT 591
6.19. Nelmac I
It is quite a light cropper, a 10 year old tree yielding an average of 8 kg. It is a month
late in flowering, which may be hindering its pollination effect on Beaumont and its own
cropping. However, if the pollination could be corrected, it would be a very good variety
because the nuts drop when ripe. Although the nut is slightly elliptical which makes
cracking awkward, and has a low crack out because of the thick shell, processors like
this variety because of the high quality kernel. It has a bland taste like the Hawaiian nuts,
and high oil content.
6.20. Nelmac II

It is a popular variety because of its pollination of Beaumont, and the yields are almost
comparable. It appears to be susceptible to iron chlorosis, with bleached leaves showing
up in early summer when the tree is under stress. It has a sweet nut, which means that
it has to be cooked carefully so that the sugars do not caramelise. The sweet nut does
not taste good when processed, but people who eat it uncooked relish the taste. The nut
is too big for processors, and has an open micropyle (hole in the shell) which lets in mould.
The crack out percentage is high. Ten year old trees average 22 kg per tree.
6.21. Renown
A M. integrifolia / M. tetraphylla hybrid, this is a rather spreading tree. It is high
yielding (commercially, 17 kg from a 9 year old tree has been recorded), and the macadamias
drop to the ground however it is thick shelled, and with not much flavour. It is often used
as parent in breeding new varieties. Its good characteristics include the yield (17 kg from
9 year old trees), the fact that it drops when ripe, and a kernel of quite good quality. The
nut is elliptical, so is difficult to handle for processing. The crack out is only 33 per cent.
7. PROPAGATION
7.1. Seed propagation
Select fresh, medium sized seeds from the elite trees. Soak the seeds in water for 1 day
and discard the floating ones. Seeds will germinate after 8 weeks of sowing at high soil
temperatures (30 – 35 0 C) and moisture levels (90 %). When temperature falls below
24 0 C, germination time extends. Use sand or organic matter as media for germination and
it avoids water logging. Harden the seedlings before transplanting to the main fields.
Seedlings take 8 to 10 years for start commercial bearing.
7.2. Vegetative propagation

Macadamia can be vegetative propagated by budding, softwood cutting, airlayering and
grafting but, grafting method is common. Grafting methods followed are simple whip, side
graft, tip, wedge or cleft. Grafting has to be done in spring or autumn for better results.
The scion wood as M. integrifolia is preferred for the best nuts production and rootstock
is M. tetraphylla for its resistance to diseases (trunk canker and anthracnose). The
rootstock to be used for grafting should be usually seedlings of 912 months old with at
least a diameter of 11.3 cm. Some grafted varieties of macadamias begin bearing within
2 years, while others not before 7 to 8 years.
7.3. Micro‐propagation
Tissue culture techniques help in easy and rapid introduction of new varieties, production
of disease free plants, ease of propagation and uniformity in plants. Micropropagation
directly from meristem of shoot tips and axillary buds is used for regeneration of trueto
type plant in macadamia nut. Bhalla and Mulwa (2001) developed an efficient micro
propagation system in macadamia nut which would be valuable in facilitating quicker
multiplication of new rootstock and scion varieties. Single node sections along with dormant
axillary buds were taken from the new growth of twoyear old grafted plants of Macadamia
tetraphylla. After surface sterilisation and culture initiation using MS medium for explants
were exposed to different levels of BA (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg l 1 ). The developing
shoots were subcultured every four weeks and the new shoots exceeding 15 mm in
length were taken for studying rooting experiments and the number of shoots produced
at each subculture interval was recorded to determine the total number of shoots produced
per explant in every treatment. Optimum BA level (2 mgl 1 ) from the above experiment
was combined with varying concentrations of GA3 (0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 0.8 and 1.0 mg
l1) to determine an optimum shoot elongation treatment. The regenerated shoots were
exposed to medium containing different levels of IBA (1, 2 and 3 mgl1) for root induction.
Bud break and shoot numbers were significant reduced in the lowest (0.5 mgl 1 ) and
higher (4 and 8 mg l1) concentrations of BA tested whereas bud response and shoot
growth was recorded highest percentage in the medium containing 2 mgl1 BA. Bhalla
and Mulwa (2001) observed increase in shoot lengths with increasing concentrations of
BA in the medium. A maximum mean shoot length of 1.6 cm at 2 mgl 1 BA was obtained.
These shoots were used for rooting experiments. In vitro rooting experiments showed
very inconsistent results due to high incidences of shoot tip necrosis.
7.4. Rejuvenation and Top working
This is usually done at a convenient height, 2 to 4 feet above ground level. This operation
is done to reduce tree height or to change the genotype with desirable one. Grafting is
followed for top working.
8. CULTIVATION
8. 1. Soils and climatic requirements
Macadamia can be grown in wide range of soils but performs well in red soils rich in
manganese with well drainage, deep and fertile (organic matter). Avoid planting in poor
MACADAMIA NUT 593
drained clay soils. The soil pH of 5 – 6.5 is suitable for growth and development. Area
receiving 60120 inches of rainfall per year is ideal and can be grown at an elevation of
15003,500 feet above the sea level. Temperature ranges from 15 0 C to 30 0 C is ideal for
plant growth and flower formation occurs at 18 0 C. At higher temperatures decline in
production and quality of kernel deteriorates. At low temperatures vegetative growth is
seized and if the temperature drops below 1.5 0 C, the trees are killed by frost. Trees won’t
require chilling for flowering and a seasonal change in temperature may help to synchronize
bloom. Avoid planting in extreme windy sites as macadamia wood is brittle in nature. Train
the plants at younger age and use windbreaks like leguminous species or Silver oak to
prevent wind movement. Avoid planting in shady areas.
8.2. Land/ pit preparation
Before orchard selection, soil analysis has to be done for better orchard management. In
some areas there are serious problem of chlorosis which is caused by deficiency of ca
and phosphate, there is need to correct it. So, if the soils are lacking calcium and
phosphate at initial level during planting, there is need to apply lime and phosphate at that
time only. Soil analysis helps in calculation of fertilizer requirement. Clear the land, if slope
is there make it into level. Dig the 60 cm 3 pits three weeks before planting. Pits are dug
in September and October.
8.3. Spacing
Planting should be spaced at 7m apart within row with 35 m between rows for upright
varieties. For spreading cultivar, planting is done at 10m apart within the row with 6m
between the rows. Spacing also depends on soil, variety, climatic conditions, etc.
8.4. Planting
Remove the top soil and mix with manure and other required manures. Select healthy
seedlings free from pest, diseases and abnormalities. After placing the seedling in pit refill
the top soil mixed with the manure to bottom and sub soil on top. Add neem or pongamia
cake into pit where termite problem is there. Finally give stalk to avoid damage from wind
and for better standing. Apply water around the plant.
8.5. Training and pruning
At early stages training is necessary to maintain good framework for future growth.
Macadamia produces several leaders but, need to leave only strong ones and rest has to
be removed. The frame work for a strong, wellbalanced tree can only be established
while the tree is young. Remove shoots growing in rootstocks where grafts are used. It
is desirable to have a spacing of ½ to 2 feet between sets of main branches. Remove
the flowers till plant attains good stature.
Pruning of matured macadamia trees is very important to reduce the amount of
unproductive woods in turn allows new productive vegetative flush. When pruning, suckers
which are on the rootstock that is below the grafting union should be removed during the
months of July to August. If there is no lateral branches after two years of planting, the
head of the tree should be pruned at least 80cm high. Prune the abnormal, pest and
disease infects branches.
8.6. Intercropping
At early stages of planting intercrops can grow in between space. Although macadamia
Arabica coffee intercropping under rainfed conditions has been shown to produce positive
results with irrigation (Perdona et al., 2015).
8.7. Irrigation
Proper and regular irrigation has to be given at early stages of growth and development.
Premature nut drop is a major problem in warm dry regions where, high temperature with
water stress will be there. The critical stage of irrigation is from the beginning of August
until the end of November. Over irrigation from May to July may hinder flowering.
Provide timely irrigation based on soil condition to get quality and quantity yield.
8.8. Weeding
Weeds compete for water, light, space, nutrients and also harbor pests and diseases.
Therefore timely remove weeds either manually or mechanically. By adopting drip or
basin irrigation system there will be reduced weed growth and high water use efficiency.
8.9. Mulching
Organic and inorganic mulch can be applied but organic one is economical. Mulching
suppresses weed growth, retains moisture, maintains micro climate for microorganisms
and also acts as cushion while harvesting fruits. Dry and chopped grass, crop residues
and leaves can be used for mulching and they should be placed in a basin leaving a radius
of 10 to 15cm from the stem and the thickness should be 1015cm again. Barner grass,
macadamia husks, fowl manure and bagasse mulch were compared in a demonstration
trial under 10yearold trees with macadamia decline symptoms. It showed that
the application of macadamia husks resulted in the best response in the trees, with increased
root growth and improved tree health (Anon., 2013).
8.10. Frost Protection

Young trees are more prone to frost than mature ones. Wrap the young plants with plastic
over a frame around. As the trees get larger, they are more difficult to cover, but they
also become more tolerant of mild frosts.
MACADAMIA NUT 595
8.11. Fertilizer management

Apply fertilizer after plant attaining a year, broadcast in the drip area that is 1520cm from
the stem. This fertilizer should be applied following rains. In case of non rainy period
artificial irrigation has to be given after fertilizer application. N.P.K should be applied in
split applications particularly during the months of November to December. Soil and leaf
analysis provides clear indication of nutrients requirement.
Table 3: Fertilizer application recommendations for Macadamia (g/tree)
Option 1 Option 2
Age of tree CAN Triple Muriate of Compound Muriate of
(Year) superphosphate potash (15520) potash
1 100 20 125 185 65
2 200 40 250 370 130
3 300 60 375 555 190
4 400 80 500 740 260
5 500 100 625 925 320
6 600 120 750 1,110 380
7 700 140 875 1,295 450
8 800 160 1,000 1,480 510
9 900 180 1,125 1,665 570
10 1,000 200 1,250 1,850 630
11 1,100 220 1,500 2,035 700
12 1,200 240 1,625 2,220 760
13 1,300 260 1,750 2,405 830
14 1,400 280 1,875 2,590 890
15 1,500 300 2,000 2,775 950
16 1,600 320 2,000 2,960 1,020
(Source: Anon., 2012)
8.12. Insect‐ pests and their management

Macadamia nut is infested by various pest during it life cycle. For better management of
pest, weekly monitoring of the pests during flowering and fruiting should be done. Macadamia
pests are infesting the tree at three different stages
A. Flowering stage: Flowers are damaged by Black citrus aphids (Toxoptera aurantii),
Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus), Blue butterfly (Morpho peleides), and
Loopers (Anacamptodes fragilaria). The pests can be controlled by insecticides
like Endosulfan 35EC, Propineb 50 EC, etc.
B. Fruit formation stage: At this stage Yellow spotted bug (Bathycoelia rhodaini),
Mosquito bug (Heloppeltis species) and Coreid bug (Leptocaria sordida) are noticed.
These insectpests are controlled by spraying with Endosulfan 35 EC, Fenitrothion 50
EC, etc.
C. Nut maturity stage: Macadamia nut borer (Cryptophlebia batrachopa), False
codling moth (Cryptophlebia leucotreta), Litchi moth (Cryptophleabia peltastica)
and carob moth (Spectrobates ceratoniae) are important at nut maturity stage. The
pests are controlled by insecticides like Cypermerthrin 20 EC, etc.
8.12.1. Nut borer

Nut borer can bore into the green husks of nuts or it feed on the kernels. Susceptibility varies
in cultivars depending on hardness and thickness of the shell. The infected nut can be identified
by a small hole in the husk surrounded by excreta. Affected nuts, especially young developing
nuts, usually drop as a result of damage to the husks. However, it can be avoid by growing
fairly resistant cultivars (Nelmak 1, Nelmak 2 and the Hawaiian cultivars).
8.12.2. Stinkbugs
In Africa, stinkbugs are the most important pest on macadamias causing losses up to 80
pre cent. The damage is caused by 20 different type’s stinkbugs among them the important
types are: twospotted stinkbug, green vegetable stinkbug, small green stinkbug, coconut
stinkbug, spotted stinkbug, yellowspotted stinkbug and yellowedged stinkbug. Stinkbugs
can be controlled chemically through cypermethrin and endosulfan. For reduction of the
original population size of stink bug spraying of cypermethrin must be given after flowering.
Majorly stinkbugs have four generations per year and each generation causes a
different type of damage to the nuts.
S. No. Stinkbugs generation Occurrence Damage of plant part

1 Spring generation August to September Occur during or after flowering and
can cause extensive flower and fruit
drop.
2 Summer generation December It causes damage at the time of fruit
development and just before the fruit
reaches to mature size.
3 Autumn generation February to March It mainly feeds on the nuts before
and during harvest. Although it
causes lesions on the nut kernel, no
fruit drop occurs
4 W inter generation December end to January It doesn’t cause problems because
most nuts are harvested, hardness
of the shell prevent stinkbug feeding
and also they are not very active
during this season
MACADAMIA NUT 597
8.12.3. Southern Green Stinkbug (Nezara viridula)

Its attack leads to premature nut drop and kernel damage. The stinkbug inserts its hollow
needlelike mouthpart into the nut and injects saliva into the kernel. Enzymes in the saliva
damage the tissue around the tip of the mouthparts and the bug consumes the liquid. This
feeding activity causes pitting of the kernel. Nuts infested on the ground may also have
white or brown discoloring. The damage can be seen yearround but majorly damage is
observed from July to September. The variation in infestations is due difference in
environmental conditions. The stinkbugs reproduction and development stages occur on
the weeds while it feeds on macadamia tree if their primary food plants become unavailable.
It can be control by spray of endosulphan and malathion.
8.12.4. Litchi Fruit Moth (C. ombrodelta)

It bores into the nut causing premature nut fall and damaging the kernel. Nut quality is
diminished and production is decreased. The damage mainly occurs during the oil
accumulation period whereas the insects are prevalent yearround. Heavy premature nut
drop results from May to mid of the August. It effectively controlled by spray of
Azadirachtin.
8.12. 5. Red‐banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus)

It damages is mainly restricted to the outer surface of nuts having no impact on maturation,
nut drop or nut quality. In severe infestation bronzing symptom appears on the leaf. Pest
pressures from this pest may be greater at lower elevations. It mainly occurs in end of
the harvest season, but they are present in orchards yearround. In the nursery it affects
the development of rootstock and grafted macadamia nut seedlings by suppressing seedling
growth during the first six months where seedling height will be 1012 inches tall (when
growth is normally slow). It can be chemically controlled by malathion.
8.12.6. Red & Black Flat Mites (Brevipalpus phoenicis) & Broad Mites
(Polyphagotarsonemus latus)
The both flat and broad mites are abundantly found in macadamia growing areas feeding
on the foliage, flowers and nuts. The damage flowers and infested flowers do not set nuts.
They are most prevalent during growth flushes which occur after a period of dry weather.
The infection by broad mites results in silvering of husks whereas flat mites results
bronzing of husks. They can be chemically controlled by spaying with Microthiol.
8.12.7. Hawaiian flower thrips (Thrips hawaiiensis)

It is widespread throughout macadamia growing areas. It is chemically controlled by spray
of Malathion.
8.12.8. Secondary pests
In spite of major pests, numerous other insects are associated with macadamia nut production.
The secondary pests which are commonly found in macadamia nut are broad mite, red
banded thrips, Hawaiian flower thrips, black citrus aphid, katydids, various scales and whiteflies,
and flat mite. The secondary pests’ seriousness varies dramatically in orchards due to
abnormality in cultural practices (fertilizer application and pruning), weather conditions
(temperature & humidity), alternate host plants surrounding the orchard, or pesticide use.
8.13. Diseases and their control measures

8.13.1. Macadamia Root Rot (C.O. Armillariella mellea)
Due to the soil borne nature of fungus, the infection starts from the root system which
later extends toward upwards resulting into complete death of the plants. Root rottening
results due to covering of white mycelial growth on the roots. Spread of the disease from
tree to tree occurs by root contact. The temperatures varying from 8 o C to 22 o C along
with wet soils having a high proportion of woody debris facilitates rapid spread of the
fungus and again. Before digging holes for planting, all woody roots debris must be
removed and burnt.
8.13.2. Blossom Blight (C.O. Botrytis cinerea)

It is a fungal disease which is prevalent especially in the winter months. High humidity and
temperature about 16 o C to 22 o C favours the development of the blossom blight disease. Old
orchards and high density planting are most susceptible because of reduced air circulation.
The affected flowers becomes blighted having grey to brownish powdery substances and do
not develop into mature fruits. It can be controlled by spraying Benomyl 50 EC or Propineb
50 EC which can also be used with Endosulfan 35 EC or Endosulfan 47.5 EC
8.13.3. Anthracnose (C.O. Glomerella cingulata)
The fungal pathogen mainly affects the leaves, twigs and the nut. Leaves dropping and
die back of the twigs takes place with the advancement of the disease. The disease is
spread by wind and infected leaves and twigs which fall of the plant acting as a source
of inoculums in the following season. Removing and burning all dead twigs, branches and
leaves may results in control of the disease.
8.13. 4. Husk spot (C.O. Pseudocercospora macadamiae)

Initially chlorotic to yellow flecks symptom appear on the husks which enlarge and
develop tan brown in the centres. Later the lesions coalesce and develop diffuse bright
MACADAMIA NUT 599
yellow halos and may develop inside the husk but shells and kernels remain unaffected.
The spores are spread from infected husks by water splash and diseased husks may
produce spores for up two years. Remove the old and diseased husks from the tree to
reduce inoculum levels.
8.14. Physiological disorders
8.14.1. Tree Decline
It is a major disorder in macadamia nut. So many factors like low organic matter levels
in soil, deficit nutrients, drought, root exposure due to soil erosion, root death in shallow
marginal soils, heavy crop loads, pests and diseases are responsible for this disorder.
8.14.1.1. Management practices
● Good orchard management.
● Pruning – Prune affected parts to generate new flush. Apply foliar fertilizers at
regular intervals for new leaves.
● Mulching – Based on availability and cost, apply organic or inorganic mulch just 50
cm away and around the trunk. Don’t apply mulch near to trunk because mulch hosts
for pests and there may be chances of trunk canker infestation and pest attack.
● Apply recommended dose of organic and inorganic fertilizers, and go for regular soil
and leaf analysis.
● To prevent soil erosion, adapt drip or channel irrigation system for watering.
● Avoid planting in shallow lands or after mounding go for planting.
● Regular checking and management of pests and diseases.
8.14.2. Abnormal vertical growth (AVG)

The cause for this disorder is not yet unknown may be due to genetic factor. This disorder
has observed in dry areas of Queensland and New South Wales, and deep well drained
red soils. HAES 344 is the most susceptible variety.
Symptoms – Upright branch growth, reduction in flowering which leads to low yield.
8.14.2.1. Management practices
● Avoid planting in dry regions or after correcting the possible factors like limit water
infiltration, water retention and root growth go for planting.
● Go for suitable irrigation system.
● Avoid planting susceptible varieties or plant spreading varieties.
● Maintain optimum soil conditions, regular application of manures and fertilizers.
8.15. Use of plant growth regulators
8.15.1. Auxin
Williams, (1980) tested for reducing immature fruit drop of macadamia but no effects were
found on the initial or final numbers of fruit set per raceme when an auxin, i.e. naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA) was used at different concentration (1, 10, or 100 mg L 1 ).
8.15.2. Gibberellins
Gibberellins also play important role in flower and fruit development, and fruits often
contain high level of endogenous gibberellin concentrations (Wilkie et al., 2008; Ayele et
al., 2010). Trueman, (2010a) found that immature macadamia fruits contain very low
gibberellin levels and are, unlikely to respond to gibberellinsynthesis inhibitors. Fruit drop
is also unaffected by GA 3 application which tends to indicate that the processes involved
in macadamia fruit retention are not sensitive to gibberellin concentrations
8.15.3. Cytokinin
Cytokinin application to flowers or immature fruit of macadamia increases initial fruit set
and delays fruit abscission, without affecting final fruit set (Trueman, 2010). Several plant
growth regulators have been tested for their ability to reduce abscission of macadamia
flowers and immature fruits but only the cytokinin, benzyladenine (BA), has shown any
promise of increasing fruit retention (Williams, 1980; Trueman, 2010a). The cytokinin,
benzyladenine, increases fruit retention for up to 8 weeks after anthesis but does not
increase fruit set beyond the major abscission period at 10 weeks postanthesis (Trueman,
2010a). Endogenous cytokinin levels are very high in macadamia fruits around 10 weeks
postanthesis, which suggests that fruits may be, in effect, cytokininsaturated and insensitive
to applied cytokinins at this stage (Trueman, 2010b).
8.15.4. Ethylene
The benefits resulting from Ethephon reduced harvest length and time, less pressure on
dehusking shed, less nuts per harvest round and improved in nut quality has been observed
(Jim and Kevin . 2012).
8.15.5. Uniconazole
Nagao et al. (1999) studied the effect of uniconazole (0.2 g a.i. per cm trunk diameter)
on 2 yearold potted macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche) trees and
they found that uniconazole significantly reduced tree height and trunk diameter 1 year
after initial treatment, and suppressed shoot extension for the duration of the study. In
case of flowering, there is similar and normal flowering in treated and control tree during
1 st year but in 2 nd year in treated plant there was increase in flowering as compare to
MACADAMIA NUT 601
untreated plant. Subsequently, no differences in flowering were observed until the fifth
year, when flowering was significantly less in treated trees, probably due to reduced shoot
and trunk growth and tip dieback.
9. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND MATURITY INDICES
For better quality, macadamia nut kernels should have light cream colour, spherical in
shape, high oil content, free from rancidity, decay, insect damage, blemishes and
discoloration. Highest quality kernels contain 72 to 78 per cent oil and 1.5 per cent
moisture whereas for fully developed macadamia kernels should contain 72 per cent oil
or more. Oil content is a major quality factor which varies from cultivar to cultivar and
also with maturity.
After the prolonged flowering season, macadamia nuts are mature over a long period
from late summer to late spring. Kernels are mature when oil accumulation is completed.
The rapid drying, oil content and electrical impedance of the nut are the other maturity
indices of the macadamia nut. Sometimes shakeharvesting is employed to facilitate the
harvest while minimizing the amount of immature nuts are harvested.
10. HARVESTING
Macadamia nuts are mainly ready for harvest during late May to July, but variety to
variety it varies also and it may go on unto late November. Nuts are picked by hand or
swept up mechanically from the orchard floor, depending on the variety of tree. A long
pole can be used to carefully knock down mature nuts that are out of reach. A reasonably
good tree will produce 3050 pounds of nuts at 10 years age and gradually increase for
many years. If mechanically harvesting, attention needs to be paid to the efficiency of
harvesting machinery and the evenness of the soil surface. Harvest containers and
machinery equipment must be cleaned before use otherwise it may increase the risk of
contamination of the nuts and also risk of spreading diseases.
11. YIELD
Orchards in New Zealand have returned yields of 46 tonnes per hectare (http://
www.macadamia.co.nz/growingmacadamias). In optimum conditions an 8 year old tree
can produce 8 kg of nutinshell (NIS). The largest producer of macadamia nuts worldwide
is Australia with 40% of total world production. The United States is the second largest
producer followed by South Africa, Guatemala, Brazil and Costa Rica. In the United
States, Hawaii dominates production with 95% of domestic macadamia nut production.
Tree age 5 6 7 8 11 25

Tree yield (Kg/tree) 2 5 8 10 15 55
(Source: http://www.macnut.co.nz/macadamiainfo/macadamianutgrowersguidemacnutfarms)
12. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT
12.1. Dehusking
Dehusking the macadamia nuts must be done within 24 hours of harvest, after which
followed by the drying process. Freshly fallen nuts contain about 25 per cent kernel
moisture, although nuts that have remained on the ground for extended periods may have
as little as 10 to 15 per cent moisture.
12.2. Drying
The object of drying is mainly to produce nuts firm, crisp, light in colour and free from
blemishes. Drying should begin with ambient air, followed by a gradual increase in
temperature that will not exceed 60 0 C at the final stage of drying. The moisture content
of kernel must be reduced to 1.5 per cent for processing this can also be done by hanging
the nuts in onion sacks for 8 12 weeks depending on the ambient temperature and
humidity. It is necessary to protect the dry kernels from moisture and oxygen because
dryer the nut, higher the quality and net return.
12.3. Storage
The hard, unshelled nuts have protection against insects during storage whereas the
kernels of shelled nuts are susceptible to infestation. So it would be better to store them
unshelled. The shelled nuts must be kept in cold storage because they are susceptible to
insect damage. They can then immediately be placed in a cold store at 0 to 4 °C. Cold
storage prevents fungal growth and rancidity. This method is also recommended for the
longterm storage of unshelled nuts. Cold storage is normally not necessary for shortterm
storage but might be desirable for extended periods. Frozen storage (18 °C) can be very
effective in extending shelflife.
12.4. Packaging
The nuts should be packed into cartons as soon as possible after shelling. Packaging is
done mainly to avoid exposure to light, moisture and oxygen which enhances or increase
the final taste of the nuts, and also increases the shelf life.
12.5. Grades, Sizes, and Packaging
In U.S. there are no grades are made for macadamia nuts, but Hawaii state has standards
and grades for shelled macadamia nuts, inshell macadamia nuts, and roasted macadamia
nuts (Hawaii Department of Agriculture 1984). The standards grade consists of eight
styles:
MACADAMIA NUT 603
Style I Wholes
Style II Wholes and halves
Style III Cocktail
Style IV Halves and pieces
Style V Large diced
Style VI Chips
Style VII Bits, dice
Style VIII Fines
For the wholesale market shelled nuts are mainly packed in 11.4 to 22.7 kg (25 to 50
lb) vacuumpacked or nitrogenflushed foil bags but sometimes larger nitrogen flushed
containers are used.
13. VALUE ADDITION
The kernel is the main product from the macadamia nut tree. Macadamia nut kernels are
mainly used in confectionaries including chocolate bar, chocolate covered candy, ice
cream and other baking products. Macadamia nut kernel are also used for making
macadamia butter and also used in the form of roasted/fried kernel and snacks. The oil
produced by macadamia nuts can be used for cooking and in the long term could be
processed for beauty products. In cosmetics industry, oil of the kernel is used in shampoos,
sunscreens, soaps and others. The shell and husk also have uses. Shells can be used as
mulch, fuel for processing macadamia nuts and planting medium. Husks are used as fuel,
fertilizer (after composting) and mulch whereas the remaining press cake can be used for
animal feed.
14. TRADE AND MARKETING
The domestic market consumes about 35% of total production, 90% of which is sold as
kernel. The promotion of health benefits is a support driver of demand and, combined with
new market penetration, is expected to underpin further industry growth. In 2013 kernel
exports were spread relatively evenly between the USA, Japan, Europe and other Asian
markets. Asian markets are showing the greatest growth driven by increasing trade
interest and consumer awareness. In the last few years market development campaigns
have supported the product in Taiwan and Korea. On the basis of Geographical region,
global market of macadamia nut is lies in North America, Latin America, Western Europe,
Eastern Europe, Asia Pacific excluding Japan and Middle East and Africa (Table 4). In
present North America and Western Europe had higher market share for macadamia.
The global macadamia market on the basis of application is broadly segmented into food
industry, and cosmetics industry.
Table 4: Global Macadamia Market Regions and countries belonging to macadamia nut
S.N. Global Macadamia Market Regions Countries

1 North America US and Canada
2 Latin America Brazil and Argentina
3 W estern Europe EU5, Nordics and Benelux
4 Asia Pacific Australia and New Zealand (ANZ), Greater
China, India, and ASEAN
5 Middle East and Africa GCC Countries, Other Middle East, North Africa
and South Africa
Exports of macadamia nuts to various regions of the world from 2007 to 2011
(Source: Quantec Easydata)
In present companies are investing through promotional activities in order to increase
the footprint of macadamia worldwide. So there is a high potential to increase share of
market of macadamia in terms of revenue in countries like Mexico, China, South Africa
and others. The key element in global macadamia market are Mauna Loa Macadamia
Nut Corp., Hamakua Macadamia Nut Company, Wondaree Macadamias, MacFarms,
NAMBUCCA MACNUTS Pty Ltd, Golden Macadamias, Kenya Nut Company Ltd.,
Royal Macadamia (Pty) Ltd. and MWT Foods Australia.
15. EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MACADAMIA NUT
In 21 st century, climate change is the greatest concern in macadamia as well as in
horticulture crops. Change in climate results in development of the physiological disorder,
attack of pest and serious disease. The effect of change in climate are global warming,
MACADAMIA NUT 605
drought, excessive rain, melting of ice, change of seasonal pattern, flood, rising sea level
etc. leading to decrease in yield potential. The air temperature for growing of macadamia
nut varies from 20 to 25°C while 30°C is the upper threshold for productivity. Prolonged
high temperature in macadamia nut results into leaf damage, bud damage and dieback
whereas; if low temperature doesn’t met as the requirement floral initiation is affected.
During drought flowering results into reduced water potential in racemes causes damage
to perianths, affecting pollination while during later stages of nut maturation it results into
nut drop and less percent of kernel development. Climatic conditions are also having
strong influence on oil accumulation and the subsequent impact of husk spot on premature
abscission.
16. FUTURE RESEARCH PLAN
● To increase productivity and quality nuts.
● To make available planting material commercially.
● Reduce the crop losses due to immature nuts and moldy / rotten nuts
● To solve the problem of inadequate valueaddition and processing.
● To develop the variety resistant to biotic and abiotic stress.
● Use of molecular techniques for germplasm characterization and marker assisted
selection should be a high priority.
● Use of biotechnology tools applications should be prioritized to yield maximum practical
benefits in the shortest possible time.
17. ORGANIC CULTIVATION

Organic cultivation in macadamia nut aim to achieve a totally integrated production with
a balanced soil ecosystem encourage plant and animal health and also to minimize inputs
in macadamia nut cultivation. The main form of organic fertilizer used in macadamia
growing is broiler litter. This is the major source of nitrogen for trees. It must be composted
before use in an organic orchard. Composting will reduce the levels of food pathogens
to acceptable levels and destroy antibiotic residues. Before starting organic cultivation of
macadamia nut, those variety or cultivar must be selected which are resistant to biotic and
abiotic stress. Mowing must be undertaken down and across the rows, especially when
trees are young. This is due to strong and vigorous grass growth, which requires mowing
in both directions for control. When growing macadamias organically the use of trap crops
(example(for sting bug trap crop used are triticale, vetches and crimson clover) is also
an option which results in monitoring crop of plants that are more susceptible to insects,
and which lures the pests away from the macadamia crop.
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CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION CONTENTS

Nutrient Value Nutrient Value Nutrient Value

2. HISTORY, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

S.No. Species Origin

6.16. Own Choice

6.18. Nutty Glen

6.20. Nelmac II

7.2. Vegetative propagation

8.10. Frost Protection

8.11. Fertilizer management

8.12. Insect‐ pests and their management

8.12.1. Nut borer

S. No. Stinkbugs generation Occurrence Damage of plant part

8.12.3. Southern Green Stinkbug (Nezara viridula)

8.12.4. Litchi Fruit Moth (C. ombrodelta)

8.12. 5. Red‐banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus)

8.12.7. Hawaiian flower thrips (Thrips hawaiiensis)

8.13. Diseases and their control measures

8.13.2. Blossom Blight (C.O. Botrytis cinerea)

8.13. 4. Husk spot (C.O. Pseudocercospora macadamiae)

8.14.2. Abnormal vertical growth (AVG)

Tree age 5 6 7 8 11 25

S.N. Global Macadamia Market Regions Countries

17. ORGANIC CULTIVATION

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