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1
CONTENTS
• Be able to describe the simplifications and issues that arise in going from the
description of a real reservoir to a reservoir simulation model.
• Be able to list what input data is required and where this may be found.
• Know the meaning of all the highlighted terms - or terms referred to in the
Glossary - in Chapter 1 e.g. history matching, black oil model, transmissibility,
pseudo relative permeability etc.
• Be able to describe and discuss the main changes in reservoir simulation over
the last 40 years from the 60's to the present - and say why these have
occurred.
• Know all the types of reservoir simulation models and what type of problem
or reservoir process each is used to model.
• Know or be able to work out the equations for the mass of a phase or component
in a grid block for a black oil or compositional model.
2
Introduction and Case Studies
1
CONTENTS
• Be able to describe the simplifications and issues that arise in going from the
description of a real reservoir to a reservoir simulation model.
• Be able to list what input data is required and where this may be found.
• Know the meaning of all the highlighted terms - or terms referred to in the
Glossary - in Chapter 1 e.g. history matching, black oil model, transmissibility,
pseudo relative permeability etc.
• Be able to describe and discuss the main changes in reservoir simulation over
the last 40 years from the 60's to the present - and say why these have
occurred.
• Know all the types of reservoir simulation models and what type of problem
or reservoir process each is used to model.
• Know or be able to work out the equations for the mass of a phase or component
in a grid block for a black oil or compositional model.
2
Introduction and Case Studies
1
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHAPTER 1
This module also contains a Glossary which the student can use for quick reference
throughout the course.
A simulation model is one which shows the main features of a real system, or
resembles it in its behaviour, but is simple enough to make calculations on. These
calculations may be analytical or numerical . By analytical we mean that the
equations that represent the model can be solved using mathematical techniques
such as those used to solve algebraic or differential equations. An analytic
solution would normally be written in terms of “well know” equations or
functions (x2, sin x, ex etc).
dN = α.N
dt (1)
where α is a constant. We now want to solve this model by answering the question:
what is N as a function of time, t, which we denote by N(t), if we start with a bacterial
colony of size No. It is easy to show that, N(t) is given by:
which is the well-known law of exponential growth. We can quickly check that
this analytical solution to our model (equation 1), is at least consistent by setting t
= 0 and noting that N = No, as required. Thus, equation 1 is our first example of a
simulation model which describes the process - bacterial growth in this case - and
equation 2 is its analytical solution. But looking further into this model, it seems
to predict that as t gets bigger, then the number N - the number of bacteria in the
colony - gets hugely bigger and, indeed, as t →∞, the number N also →∞. Is this
realistic ? Do colonies of bacteria get infinite in size ? Clearly, our model is not an
exact replica of a real bacterial colony since, as they grow in size, they start to use
up all the food and die off. This means that our model may need further terms to
describe the observed behaviour of a real bacterial colony. However, if we are just
interested in the early time growth of a small colony, our model may be adequate
for our purpose; that is, it may be fit-for-purpose. The real issue here is a balance
between the simplicity of our model and the use we want to make of it. This is an
important lesson for what is to come in this course and throughout your activities
trying to model real petroleum reservoirs.
In contrast to the above simple model for the growth of a bacterial colony, some
models are much more difficult to solve. In some cases, we may be able to write
down the equations for our model, but it may be impossible to solve these analytically
due to the complexity of the equations. Instead, it may be possible to approximate
these complicated equations by an equivalent numerical model. This model would
commonly involve carrying out a very large number of (locally quite simple) numerical
calculations. The task of carrying out large numbers of very repetitive calculations is
ideally suited to the capabilities of a digital computer which can do this very quickly.
As an example of a numerical model, we will return to the simple model for colony
growth in equation (1). Now, we have already shown that we have a perfectly simple
analytical solution for this model (equation 2). However, we are going to “forget”
this for a moment and try to solve equation 1 using a numerical method. To do this
we break the time, t, into discrete timesteps which we denote by Δt. So, if we have
the number of bacteria in the colony at t = 0, i.e. No, then we want to calculate the
number at time Δt later, then we use the new value and try to find the number at
time Δt later and so on. In order to do this systematically, we need an algorithm (a
mathematical name for a recipe) which is easy to develop once we have defined the
following notation:
Clearly, it is the Nn+1 that we are trying to find. Going back to the main equation that
defines this model (equation 1), we approximate this as follows:
N n +1 − N n
≈ α .N n
∆t (3)
where we use the symbol, "≈", to indicate that equation 3 is really an approximation, or
that it is only exactly true as Δt → 0. Equation 3 is now our (approximate) numerical
4
Introduction and Case Studies
1
model which can be rearranged as follows to find Nn+1 (which is the “unknown” that
we are after):
where we have gone to the exact equality symbol, “=”, in equation 4 since, we are
accepting the fact that the model is not exact but we are using it anyway. This
is our numerical algorithm (or recipe) that is now very amenable to solution
using a simple calculator. More formally, the algorithm for the model would be
carried out as shown in Figure 1.
Set, t=0
Choos e the time step size, ∆t
Specify the initial no. of bacteria at t = 0
i.e. No and set the first value (n=0) of N n to N o
No = No
Print n, t and N (N n)
Set N n = N n+1
n = n+1
t = t + ∆t
Time to stop ?
No
e.g. is t > tmax or n > nmax
Figure 1
Example of an algorithm to
solve the simple numerical Yes
“simulation” model in the
text End
The above example, although very simple, explains quite well several aspects of
what a simulation model is. This model is simple enough to be solved analytically.
However, it can also be formulated as an approximate numerical model which is
organised into a numerical algorithm (or recipe) which can be followed repetitively.
A simple calculator is sufficient to solve this model but, in more complex systems,
a digital computer would generally be used.
EXERCISE 1.
Return to the simple model described by equation 1. Take as input data, that we
start off with 25 bacteria in the colony. Take the value α = 1.74 and take time
steps Δt = 0.05 in the numerical model.
(i) Using the scale on the graph below, plot the analytical solution for the
number of bacteria N(t) as a function of time between t = 0 and t = 2 (in
arbitrary time units).
(ii) Plot as points on this same plot, the numerical solution at times t = 0, 0.5, 1.0,
1.5 and 2.0. What do you notice about these ?
1000
N(t)
500
0 1 2
Time
(i)
(ii)
6
Introduction and Case Studies
1
2 WHAT IS A RESERVOIR SIMULATION MODEL?
L.C. Uren, Petroleum Production Engineering, Oil Field Exploitation, 3rd edn.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York, 1953.
This fine example of old fashioned prose is not so easy on the modern ear but does
in fact “say it all”. And, whatever it says, then it is precisely what the modern
simulation engineer must model!
Let us consider the possible magnitude of the task before us when we want to model
(or simulate) the performance of a real petroleum reservoir. Figure 2 shows a
schematic of reservoir depositional system for the mid-Jurassic Linnhe and Beryl
formations in the UK sector of the North Sea. Some actual reservoir cores from
the Beryl formation are shown in Figure 3. It is evident from the cores that real
reservoirs are very heterogenous. The air permeabilities (kair) range from 1mD to
almost 3000 mD and it is evident that the permeability varies quite considerably
over quite short distances. It is common for reservoirs to be heterogeneous from
the smallest scale to the largest as is evident in these figures. These permeability
heterogeneities will certainly affect both pressures and fluid flow in the system. By
contrast, a reservoir simulation model which might be used to simulate waterflooding
in a layered system of this type is shown schematically in Figure 4. This model
is clearly hugely simplified compared with a real system. Although the task of
reservoir simulation may appear from this example to be huge, it is still one that
reservoir engineers can - and indeed must - tackle. Below, we start by listing in
general terms the activities involved in setting up a reservoir model.
One way of approaching this is to break the process down into three parts which
will all have to appear somewhere in our model:
(i) Choice and Controls: Firstly, there are the things that we have some control
over. For example:
We note that certain quantities such as injection and production rates are subject to
physical constraints imposed on us by the reservoir itself.
(ii) Reservoir Givens: Secondly, there are the givens such as the (usually very
uncertain) geology that is down there in the reservoir. There may or may not
be an active aquifer which is contributing to the reservoir drive mechanism.
We can do things to know more about the reservoir/aquifer system by carrying
out seismic surveys, drilling appraisal wells and then running wireline logs,
gathering and performing measurements on core, performing and analysing
pressure buildup or drawdown tests, etc.
(iii) Reservoir Performance Results: Thirdly, there is the observation of the results
i.e the reservoir performance. This includes well production rates of oil, water
and gas, the field average pressure, the individual well pressures and well
productivities etc.
lain
dp
Floo
Fluvial
SSW v ial/
Flu ay
mud/sand eB
supply L arin
stu
L
E
FC OM/CS TC TC r
SM rrie
OM/CS SM Ba a ce
SM
TF TF o ref
L
CRS
TC Sh
FTD
BM
TS SS SS
SM
TC SS
TF TCI
ETD
Figure 2
Fluvial/Floodplain
km
Conceptual depositional
Facies Asociation .15
12 model for the Linnhe and
FC: Fluvial channel sandstones
CRS: Crevasse channel/splay sandstones
OM/L: Overbank/lake mudstone
Beryl formations from the
CS: Coal swamp/marsh mudstone and coal middle Jurassic period (UK
Estuarine Bay-Fill Block diagram illustrates the gradual infilling of the sector of the North Sea).
Facies Association Beryl Embayment by fluvial/floodplain (Linnhe l),
TC: Tidal channel sandstones estuarine-bay fill (Linnhe ll) and tidal inlet-barrier (G. Robertson in Cores
TF: Lower intertidal flat sandstones shoreline facies sequences (Beryl Formation).
TS: Tidal shoal sandstone from the Northwest
SM: Salt marsh/upper intertidal flat mudstones Coal
BM: Brackish bay mudstones
European Hydrocarbon
Fluvial/crevasse channel-fills
FTD: Flood tidal delta Tidal channel-fills Provence, edited by C D
Tidal inlet-fills
Tidal Inlet-Barrier Shoreline Shoal/bars Oakman, J H Martin and
Facies Association Flood-oriented currents
TCI: Tidal inlet/ebb channel sandstones Ebb-oriented currents P W M Corbett, Geological
SS: Barrier shoreline sandstone Longshore currents
ETD: Ebb tidal delta Society, London. 1997).
8
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Slab 1 Slab 2 Slab 3 Slab 4 Slab 5
Top Top Top Top Top
15855 ft 15852 ft 14591 ft 14361 ft 14358 ft
Medium-grained
Carbonate cemented
sandstone
(φ =14%, ka = 2mD)
- some thin clay and
carbonate rich lamination
Medium-grained
ripple-laminated and
bioturbated carbonate
Figure 3 cemented sandstone
(φ =10%, ka = 1mD)
Cores from the mid-
Jurassic Beryl formation
1m
Producer
Water Injector
Figure 4
A schematic diagram of a
waterflood simulation in a
3D layered model with an
8x8x5 grid. The information
which is input for a single
Inp ∆x ∆y
grid block is shown. φ, ut:
cr
Contrast this simple model ∆z kx, ock,
n
S ky, k et t
w, og
with the detail in a P i krw(z, ros
c (S S s
w) w),
kr
geological model (Figure 2) w(S
w ),
Therefore, at its most complex, our task will be to incorporate all of the above features
(i) - (iii) in a complete model of the reservoir performance. But we should now
stop at this point and ask ourselves why we are doing the particular study of a given
reservoir? In other words, the level of modelling that we will carry out is directly
related to the issue or question that we are trying to address. Some engineers prefer
to put this as follows:
• What is the minimum level of modelling - or which tool can I use - that
allows me to adequately make that decision?
This matter is put well by Keith Coats - one of the pioneers of numerical reservoir
simulation - who said:
“The tools of reservoir simulation range from the intuition and judgement of the
engineer to complex mathematical models requiring use of digital computers. The
question is not whether to simulate but rather which tool or method to use.”
(Coats, 1969).
Therefore, we may choose a very simple model of the reservoir or one that is quite
complex depending on the question we are asking or the decision which we have to
make. Without giving technical details of what we mean by simple and complex,
in this context, we illustrate the general idea in Figure 5 which shows three models
of the same reservoir. The first (Figure 5a), shows the reservoir as a tank model
where we are just concerned with the gross fluid flows into and out of the system. In
Chapter 2, we will identify models such as those in Figure 5a as essentially material
balance models and will be discussed in much more detail later. The particular
advantage of material balance models is that they are very simple. They can address
questions relating to average field pressure for given quantities of oil/water/gas
production and water influx from given initial quantities and initial pressure (within
certain assumptions). However, because the material balance model is essentially
a tank model, it cannot address questions about why the pressures in two sectors
of the reservoir are different (since a single average pressure in the system is a core
assumption). The sector model in Figure 5b is somewhat more complex in that it
recognises different regions of the reservoir. This model could address the question
of different regional pressures. However, even this model may be inadequate if the
question is quite detailed such as: in my mature field with a number of active injector/
producer wells where should I locate an infill well and should it be vertical, slanted
or horizontal ? For such complicated questions, the model in Figure 5c would be
more appropriate since it is more detailed and it contains more spatial information.
This schematic sequence of models illustrates that there is no one right model for
a reservoir. The simplicity/complexity of the model should relate to the simplicity/
complexity of the question. But there is another important factor: data. It is clear
that to build models of the types shown in Figure 5, we require increasing amounts
of data as we go from Figure 5a→5b→5c. It is also evident that we should think
carefully before building a very detailed model of the type shown in Figure 5c, if
we have almost no data. There are some circumstances where we might build quite
10
Introduction and Case Studies
1
a complicated model with little data to test out hypotheses but we will not elaborate
on this issue at this point.
Average Pressure = P
Average Saturations = So , Sw and Sg
Aquifer
Oil Leg
Aquifer
Injector Producer
Figure 5
Schematic illustrations of
reservoir models of
200ft
increasing complexity.
Each of these may be
suitable for certain types of
calculation (see text). 2000ft
We are now aware that various levels of reservoir model may be used and that the
reservoir engineer must choose the appropriate one for the task at hand. We will
assume at this point that building a numerical reservoir simulation model is the
correct approach for what we are trying to achieve. If this is so, we now address the
issue: What do we model in reservoir simulation and why do we model it ? There
are, as we have said, a range of questions which we might answer, only some of
which require a full numerical simulation model to be constructed. Let us now say
what a numerical reservoir simulation model is and what sorts of things it can (and
cannot) do.
(a) Gather and input the fluid and rock (reservoir description) data as outlined above;
(b) Choose certain numerical features of the grid (number of grid blocks, time
step sizes etc);
(c) Set up the correct field well controls (injection rates, bottom hole pressure
constraints etc.); it is these which drive the model;
(d) Choose which output (from a vast range of possibilities) you would like to have
printed to file which you can then plot later or - in some cases - while the
simulation is still running.
Some of the above quantities are shown in simulator output in Figure 7. This field
example is for a Middle East carbonate reservoir where the structural map is shown in
Figure 7(d). Figure 7(a) shows the field and simulation results for total oil and water
cumulative production over 35 years of field life. Figure 7(b) shows the actual and
modelled average field pressure. The type of results shown in Figures 7(a) and 7(b)
are very common but the modelling of the RFT (Repeat Formation Tester) pressure
shown in Figure 7(c) is less common. The RFT tool measures the local pressure at a
given vertical depth and, in this case, it can be seen that the reservoir comprises of
three zones each of ~ 100 ft thick and each is at a different pressure. This indicates that
12
Introduction and Case Studies
1
pressure barriers exist (i.e. flow is restricted between these layers). This is correctly
modelled in the simulation. This is an interesting and useful example of how reservoir
simulation is used in practice.
Note that a vast quantity of output can be output and plotted up and the post-processing
Figure 6 facilities in a reservoir simulator suite of software are very important. There is no
point is doing a massively complex calculation on a large reservoir system with
An example of a 3D
millions of grid blocks if the output is so huge and complex that it overwhelms the
numerical reservoir
reservoir engineerʼs ability to analyse and make sense of the output. In recent years,
simulation model. The data visualisation techniques have played on important role in analysing the results
distorted 3D grid covers from large reservoir simulations.
the crestal reservoir and a
large part of the aquifer
which is shown dipping
down towards the reader.
Oil is shown in red and
water is blue and a vertical
projection of a cross-section
at the crest of the reservoir
is shown on the x/z and
y/z planes on the sides of
the perspective box. Two
injectors can be seen in the
aquifer as well as a crestal
horizontal well. Two faults
can be seen at the front
of the reservoir before the
structure dips down into the
aquifer. The model contains
25,743 grid blocks.
700
Cumulative Production (MMB)
600
3500
13
ure (psia)
3000
Modelled Oil
Cumulative Pro
300
200
(a) Full field history match of cumulative oil and water production
3500
Average Pressure (psia)
3000
2500
Observed Data
Modelled Data
2000
1500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Year of Production
Datum
Observed
Modelled
-100
Depth (ft.)
-200
-300
(c) Match of RFT pressure data by reservoir simulation model at Year 30 Figure 7c
• A Lower Cretaceous
Carbonate Reservoir in the
C Arabian Peninsula
C
C
Drilled
New Location
Injector Location
1 Mile C Convert to Injector
14
Introduction and Case Studies
1
How some of this output might be used is illustrated schematically in Figure 8.
This is an imaginary case where the reservoir study is to consider the best of four
options in Field A: Option 1 - to continue as present with the waterflood; Option 2
- upgrade peripheral injection wells; Option 3 - upgrade injectors and drill six new
injectors; Option 4 - drill four new infill wells. Clearly, it is much cheaper to model
these four cases than to actually do one of them. The important quantities are the
oil recovery profiles for each case compared with the scenario where we simple
proceed with the current reservoir development strategy (Option 1). Of course, we
do not know whether the forward predictions which we are taking as what would
happen anyway, are actually correct. Likewise, we may be unsure of how accurate
our forward predictions are for each of the various scenarios. In fact, an important
aspect of reservoir simulation is to assess each of the various uncertainties which
are associated with our model. This would ideally lead to range of profiles for any
forward modeling but we will deal with this in detail later. We discuss the handling
of uncertainties in rather more detail in Section 3.8. of this Chapter.
(i) The areal plan of the reservoir is given showing injector and producer well
location in Figure 8(a);
(ii) The corresponding stratification/lithology of the field is shown along the well
A-B-C-D transect in Figure 8(b);
(iii) Figures 8(c) and 8(d) show the areal grid and the vertical grid, respectively;
(iv) The forward predictions of cumulative oil for the various options are shown
in Figure 8(f). Note that Option 3 produces most oil (but it involves drilling
six additional injection wells);
(v) The economic evolution of each option using the predicted oil recovery profiles
in Figure 8(f) is shown in Figure 8(g) (where NPV = Net Present Value; IRR =
Interval Rate of Return: these are economic measures explained in the economics
module of the Heriot-Watt distance learning course). Note that option 4 emerges
in the most economic case although it produces rather less oil than option 3.
Injector
Producer
A
Figure 8 B
D
Schematic example of how
reservoir simulation might
be used in a study of four
field development options
(see text). (a) Field A areal plan showing injector and producer well locations; lithology is
given from wells A, B, C and D
Sand 2 A
Sand 3
Sand 4 C
B
D
Figure 8 (b)
(b) Schematic vertical cross-section showing the lithology across the field through
4 wells A, B, C and D
A
C
A
B
C D
B
D
Figure 8 (c)
C
A
B
C D
B
D
A B C
D
NZ = 8 C
A B
D
NZ = 8
Figure 8 (d)
(d) Reservoir simulation vertical cross-sectional grid showing current well locations.
16
Introduction and Case Studies
1
The grid has 8 blocks in the z- direction representing the thickness of the
formation as shown below; NZ = 8. Note that the vertical grid is not uniform.
Periferal Injectors
A
Periferal Injectors
C
Periferal Injectors
B
A D
A C
B C
D
B
D
Infill Wells
Figure 8 (e) (e) Option 1- continue as at present; Option 2 - upgrade peripheral injection wells;
Option 3- upgrade injectors + add 6 new injectors; Option 4 - drill four new infill
wells. Infill Wells Option 4
Option 3
Infill Wells
Cumulative Oil
Option 4
Option 3
Option 4
Oil Oil
Option 3
Continue as at present (do nothing) Option 1
Cumulative
Option 2
Cumulative
Time
Continue as at present (do nothing) Option 1
Option 2
Continue as at present (do nothing) Option 1
Time Option 2
Time
Figure 8 (f)
1 4
2
3
4
or IRR
3
1
or IRR
2
NPV NPV
Option
1
2
Option
Option
Figure 8 (g)
Now consider what we are actually trying to do in a typical full field reservoir simulation
study. There is a short answer to this is often said in one form or another: it is that the
central objective of reservoir simulation is to produce future predictions (the output
quantities listed above) that will allow us to optimise reservoir performance. At the
grander scale, what is meant by “optimise reservoir performance” is to develop the
reservoir in the manner that brings the maximum economic benefit to the company.
Reservoir simulation may be used in many smaller ways to decide on various
technical matters although even these - for example the issue illustrated in Figure 8
- are usually reduced to economic calculations and decisions in the final analysis as
indicated in Figure 8(g).
Appraisal stage: at this stage, reservoir simulation will be a tool that can be used to
design the overall field development plan in terms of the following issues:
• The nature of the reservoir recovery plan e.g. natural depletion, waterflooding,
gas injection etc.
• The nature of the facility required to develop the field e.g. a platform, a subsea
development tied back to an existing platform or a Floating Production System
(for an offshore fileld).
• The sequencing of the well drilling program and the topside facilites.
18
Introduction and Case Studies
1
It is during the initial appraisal stage that many of the biggest - i.e. most expensive
- investment decisions are made e.g. the type of platform and facilities etc. Therefore,
it is the most helpful time to have accurate forward predictions of the reservoir
performance. But, it is at this time when we have the least amount of data and,
of course, very little or no field performance history (there may be some extended
production well tests). Therefore, it seem that reservoir simulation has a built-in
weakness in its usefulness; just when it can be at its most useful during appraisal is
precisely when it has the least data to work on and hence it will usually make the
poorest forward predictions. So, does reservoir simulation let us down just when we
need it most? Perhaps. However, even during appraisal, reservoir simulation can
take us forward with the best current view of the reservoir that we have at that time,
although this view may be highly uncertain. As we have already noted, if major
features of the reservoir model (e.g. the stock tank oil initially in place, STOIIP) are
uncertain, then the forward predictions may be very inaccurate. In such cases, we
may still be able to build a range of possible reservoir models, or reservoir scenarios,
that incorporate the major uncertainties in terms of reservoir size (STOIIP), main
fault blocks, strength of aquifer, reservoir connectivity, etc. By running forward
predictions on this range of cases, we can generate a spread of predicted future field
performance cases as shown schematically in Figure 9. How to estimate which of
these predictions is the most likely and what the magnitude of the “true” uncertainties
are is very difficult and will be discussed later in the course.
"Optimistic" Case
Cumulative Oil Recovery (STB)
"Pessimistic" Case
• Different assumptions about the original oil in place (STOIIP; Stock Tank Oil
Originally In Place).
• Carrying out a history match of the (now available) field production history
in order to obtain a better tuned reservoir model to use for future field performance
prediction
• Using the history match to re-visit the field development strategy in terms
of changing the development plan e.g. infill drilling, adding extra injection
water capability, changing to gas injection or some other IOR scheme etc.
There are many reported studies in the SPE literature where the simulation model is
re-built in early-/mid-life of the reservoir and different future development options
are assessed (e.g. see SPE10022 attached to this chapter).
Late field development: we define this stage of field development as the closing few
years of field production before abandonment. A question arises here as to whether
the field is of sufficient economic importance to merit a simulation study at this stage.
20
Introduction and Case Studies
1
A company may make the call that it is simply not worth studying any further since
the payback would be too low. However there are two reasons why we may want
to launch a simulation study late in a fieldʼs lifetime. Firstly, we may think that,
although it is in far decline, we can develop a new development strategy that will
give the field “a new lease of life” and keep it going economically for a few more
years. For example, we may apply a novel cheap drilling technology, or a program
of successful well stimulation (to remove a production impairment such as mineral
scale) or we may wish to try an economic Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) technique.
Secondly, the cost of field abandonment may be so high - e.g. we may have to remove
an offshore structure - that almost anything we do to extend field life and avoid this
expense will be “economic”. This may justify a late life simulation study. However,
there are no general rules here since it depends on the local technical and economic
factors which course of action a company will follow. In some countries there may
be legislation (or regulations) that require that an oil company produces reservoir
simulation calcualtions as part of their ongoing reservoir management.
• They are all good technical studies that illustrate “typical” uses of reservoir
simulation as a tool in reservoir management (we have deliberately taken all
cases at the middle and the mature stages of field development since much
more data is available at that time);
• They introduce virtually all of the main ideas and concepts of reservoir
simulation in the context of a worked field application. As these concepts
• By choosing an example from the early 1980s, the early/mid 1990s and the late
1990s, we can illustrate some of the advances in applied reservoir simulation
that have taken place over that period (this is due to the availability of greater
computer processing power and also the adoption of new ideas in areas such
as geostatistics and reservoir description).
How you should read the next part of the module is as follows:
• Read right through the SPE paper and just pay particular attention when there
is a Study Note number in the margin;
• Go back through the paper but stop at each of the Study Notes and read
through the actual point being made in that note.
As noted above, all the main concepts that are introduced can also be found
in the Glossary which should be used for quick reference throughout the
course or until you are quite familiar with the various terms and concepts in
reservoir simulation.
Summary: This paper presents a study from the early 1980s where a range of re-
appraisal strategies for a mature carbonate field are being evaluated using reservoir
simulation. For example, possible development strategies include the blowdown
of the gas cap or infill drilling. They explicitly state in their opening remarks that
their central objective is to “optimise reservoir performance” by choosing a future
development strategy from a range of defined options. The structure of the study is
very typical of the work flow of a field simulation study, viz Introduction; Reservoir
Description; Simulation Model; History Matching; Future Performance; Conclusions
and recommendations. Although this paper is almost 20 years old, it introduces the
reader in a very clear way to virtually all the concepts of conventional reservoir
simulation.
Location maps and general reservoir structure shown in Figures 1 and 2 of SPE
10022.
22
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Study Notes Case 1:
1. States explicitly that the objective of the study is to “optimise reservoir performance”
as discussed in the introductory part of this module.
2. Raises the issue of an accurate reservoir description being required and this is
emphasised throughout this paper.
5. Strategy: Previous gas re-injection into the cap + peripheral water injection =>
not very successful. They want to implement a 40 acre, 5-spot water flood; see
Fig. 3. A “5-spot” is a particular example of a “pattern flood” which is appropriate
mainly for onshore reservoirs where many wells can be drilled with relatively close
spacing (see Waterflood Patterns in the Glossary).
6a. They raise the issue of vertical communication between the oil and gas zones.
This is an excellent example of an uncertain reservoir feature that can be modelling
using a range of scenarios from free flow between layers to zero interlayer flow + all
cases in between. Therefore, we can run simulations of all these cases and see which
one agrees best with the field observations (which is what they do, in fact).
6b. The vertical communication - or lack of it - will affect flow between the oil and
gas zones which may lead to loss of oil to the gas cap; see Figure 4.
7. States the structure of the simulation study work flow: Accurate reservoir description
- Develop the simulation model (perform the history match - see below - use model
for future predictions - evaluate alternative operating plans). A history match is when
we adjust the parameters in the simulation model to make the simulated production
history agree with the actual field performance (expanded on below).
8a. A lengthy geological description of the reservoir is given where the depositional
environment is described - reference is made to extensive core data (~7500 ft. of
core).
8b. The impact of the geology/diagenesis in the simulation model is discussed here.
There is evidence of field wide barriers due to cementation with anhydrite which may
reduce vertical flows. This is important since it gives a sound geological interpretation
to the existence of the vertical flow barriers. Therefore, if we need to include this to
9. Figure 5 shows the 6 major reservoir layers where the interfaces between the layers
are low φ, low k anhydrite cement zones. Again, these may be explained from the
depositional environment and the subsequent diagenetic history of the reservoir.
10. 7500 ft. of whole core analysis for the W. Seminole field was available which
was digitised for computer analysis (not common at that time, late 1970s). This is
very valuable information and is often not available.
11. Permeability distributions in the reservoir are shown in Fig. 6 and these data
are vital for reservoir simulation. Dake (1994; p.19) comments on this type of data:
“What matters in viewing core data is the all-important permeability distribution
across the producing formations; it is this, more than anything else, that dictates the
efficiency of the displacement process.”
12. They note that no consistent k/φ correlation is found in this system (which is
quite common in carbonates). Often some approximate k/φ correlation can be found
for sandstones (e.g. see k/φ Correlations in the Glossary).
13. The W. Seminole field does “exhibit a distinctly layered structure” and the
corresponding permeability stratification in the model is shown in Fig. 7.
14c. Distinct evidence was seen for: (a) the presence of a layered system; (b) restricted
communication between layers (ΔP ≈ 200 - 250 psi between layers). This is vital
information since it gives an immediate clue that there is probably not completely free
flow between layers i.e. there are barriers to flow as suspected from the geology.
15. Native state core tests are referred to from which they obtained steady-state
relative permeabilities. These could be very valuable results but no details given
here. NB it appears that only one native state core relative permeability was actually
measured. This is probably too little data but reflects the reality in many practical
reservoir studies that often the engineer does not have important information; however,
we just have to “get on with it”.
16. In this study the reservoir simulator which they used was a commercial Black Oil
Model (3D, 3 phase - oil/water/gas). Modelling carried out on the main dome portion
of the reservoir. This is done quite often in order to simplify the model and to focus
24
Introduction and Case Studies
1
on the region of the field of interest (and importance in terms of oil production). A
no flow boundary is assumed in the model on the saddle with the east dome (justified
by different pressure history). Again, this is supported by field evidence but it may
also be a simplifying judgement to avoid unnecessary complication in the model.
17a. The grid structure used in the simulations is shown in Fig 8. The particular grid
that is chosen is very important in reservoir simulation. An areal grid of 288 blocks
( 16 x 18 blocks) - about 10 acre each is taken along with six layers in the vertical
direction; i.e. a total of 1728 blocks. This would be a very small model by todayʼs
standards and could easily be run on a PC - this was not the case in late 1970s.
17b. They refer to changing the transmissibilities between grid blocks in order to
reduce flows. (See Glossary for exact definition of transmissibility.)
18. The following three concepts are closely related (see Pseudo-isation and
Upscaling in the Glossary):
18a. Grid size sensitivity: Refers to the introduction of errors due to the coarsness
of the grid known as numerical dispersion.
18c. Corresponding coarse and fine grid reservoir models are shown in Fig. 9.
They note that the fine grid model uses rock relative permeabilities while the coarse
grid model uses pseudo relative permeabilities.
19. History Matching: The basic idea of history matching is that the model input
is adjusted to match the field pressures and production history. This procedure is
intended as being a way of systematically adjusting the model to agree with field
observations. Hopefully we can change the “correct” variables in the model to get
a match e.g. we may examine the sensitivity to changes in vertical flow barriers in
order to find which level of vertical flow agrees best with the field (indeed, this is
done in this study). See History Matching in the Glossary.
20a. “Early” mechanism identified as solution gas drive and assistance from expansion.
Some initial discussion of field experience and numerical simulation conclusions is
presented and developed in these points.
20b. They note some problems with data from early field life. (i) Complicated by
free gas production; (ii) channelling due to poor well completions; (ii) no accurate
records on gas production for the first 6 years.
20c. The actual field history match indicates that approx. 8 - 10 BCF of gas must have
been produced over this early period in order to match the field pressures. This is a
use of a material balance approach in order to find the actual early STOIIP (STOIIP
= Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place).
21c. The actual history match of reservoir pressure and production is shown in Fig.
10. This is a good history match but think of which field observable - gas production,
water production or average field pressure - is the easiest/most difficult to match?
23a. Results showed that => strong barrier case is best but some problem high
GOR wells are encountered randomly spaced through the field. They diagnosed
and simulated this as “behind the pipe” gas flow in these wells to explain the
anomalies in the field observations. This is quite a common explanation that
appears in many places.
23b. Layer differential pressures up to 200 - 250 psi can only be reproduced for
the strong barrier case. In simulation terms, this is probably the strongest evidence
that this is the best case match.
24. The strong barrier case was chosen as the base case and this was used for
the predictive runs. The base case predictions refer to the cases which essentially
continue the current operations and these are shown in Fig. 11.
25. The strategies looked at for the future sensitivities are listed as follows: (i) change
rate of water injection; (ii) management of gas cap voidage i.e. increase of gas and
blowdown at different times; (iii) infill drilling.
26a. Outlines the problems/issues for various strategies as follows: (i) shows vertical
communication is very importance - it has a major impact on predicted reservoir
performance; (ii) shows that can avoid high future ΔP between gas cap and oil
zone by high water injection or early blowdown; (iii) shows better development
strategy is to keep low ΔP e.g. increase gas injection or infill drill. Finally, shows
infill drilling is the most attractive option and the forward prediction for this case is
shown in Figure 12.
27a. A brief summary of the best future development option is given which is: (i)
infill drilling as the best option; (ii) water injection increased concurrently with the
drilling program to maintain voidage replacement (but prevent the over-injection of
water).
27b. For completeness, it is explained why other plans are not as attractive; i.e.
blowdown of gas cap before peak in waterflood production rate would significantly
reduce oil recovery.
26
Introduction and Case Studies
1
28. A reasonably good initial forward prediction from 1978 - 1981 is shown in Figs.
13 and 14.
General terms: 5-spot water flood, permeability distribution, k/φ correlation, steady-
state relative permeability, rock relative permeabilities, solution gas drive, material
balance, infill drilling, voidage replacement.
Summary: The Oseberg Field (500x106 Sm3 oil; 60x106 Sm3 gas) comprises of
seven partly communicating reservoirs. Both water and gas are being injected and
modelled in this study and results indicate over 60% recovery in the main reservoir
units. The modelling results indicate that the plateau production will be extended
by the use of horizontal wells. The objective of the simulation study was exactly
this - i.e. to maximise the plateau and improve ultimate oil recovery. This is a very
competent simulation study and - although details are not given - it is stated that
the geological model is updated annually based on information from new wells.
It establishes several aspects of the reservoir mechanics and makes a number of
recommendations for operating practice in the future. In other respects, this is quite
a “conventional” study.
28
Introduction and Case Studies
1
previously). The objective was to formulate a development plan for the LKCF which
would accelerate production from these sands. Stochastic modelling techniques
were integrated into more conventional “deterministic” models and various options
were screened for inherent uncertainty and risks. The study concluded that a phased
water injection scheme was the best way forward with the phasing being used to
manage and offset the considerable geological risks. Ranges of expected recovery
were generated and an incremental recovery of 60 MMstb was predicted increasing
the total reserve of the LKCF by a factor of x2.4. This study also demonstrated the
importance of inter-disciplinary team work to overcome the previously inhibiting
high risks involved.
Summary: The Anguille Marine Field in Gabon has 25 years of production history.
The waterflood performance indicated severe sedimentary heterogeneity as the field
is known to have been deposited in a deep water fan sedimentary environment. This
paper is one of the first to refer to the multi-scale nature of the heterogeneity (5 scales
were studied) and to refer this back to the sequence stratigraphy of the depositional
environment. The sequence stratigraphic approach allowed the field to be divided into
the main types of turbiditic geometries (channels, lobes, slumps, laminated facies).
Fine scale models (> 2 million grid blocks) were generated using geostatistical
techniques and several issues were raised concerning both the geological model
and the upscaling process itself. This is a very good example of an early integrated
geology(sedimentology)/engineering study in reservoir simulation. The multi-scale
nature of the heterogeneity is well related back to the geology.
4. Brief field facts: Discovery 1962; primary depletion commenced in 1966 but reservoir
pressure fell rapidly over the next 2 - 3 years and GOR increased; waterflooding from
1971 restored pressure support but channelling led to early water breakthrough; infill
drilling not very successful due to lack of current understanding of complex reservoir
geology; new approach in 1990 focused more strongly on the reservoir geology of this
heterogeneous low sand/shale ratio system recognising the characteristic geometries
of a tubditic fan - lobes channels, levees, slumps, laminated facies etc.
30
Introduction and Case Studies
1
(or conditioned) to the observed facies and reservoir quality observed at the
wells. Secondly, the smaller scale heterogeneities are “unconditionally” simulated
(synthetically) to yield average properties within the major flow units (see Ref. 2 in
paper). The geostatistical simulation method used was “indicator simulation” (Refs.
1 and 8) which require the average frequency and variogram information.
9. Reservoir zonation: Six unit vertical reservoir zonation shown in Figure 10.
Simulations of lateral continuity within each of the units (five - not Middle Anguille,
Figure 10) performed independently since they correspond to separate sedimentary
phases. For horizontal zonation, Figure11 shows lateral zonation on LA2
and UA2 units showing directional trends and thus variograms with spatially
variable anisotropy direction used in final model. Figures 12 - 15 show resulting
correlation structures of the various units. Ends up with >2 million grid blocks
in the full field 3D model.
10. Flow simulations: Discusses details of upscaling from fine grid stochastic model
(>2 million blocks) to coarse grid simulation model (11,000 grid blocks). 11 vertical
layers are retained to represent the reservoir layering with more blocks being used
in the best reservoir units. Upscaling of absolute permeability at some “aggregation
rate” (e.g. 4x4) is applied leading to areal block sizes of 200m x 200m - see Figure14.
Relative permeabilitiees were upscaled “on a typical block configuration” (details
in Refs. 2 and 4). Additionally: Three major zero-transmissibility faults included in
model; some WOC variation across field; depth varying bubble points assigned; 25
years of injection/production for history matching.
11. Simulation results: Initial pressure depletion results shown in Figure 16 - where
14 out of 17 wells show satisfactory pressure behaviour. Pressure behaviour and
water breakthrough are poorly predicted during injection stage - Figure 17; water
saturations around injectors shown in Figure18 - upscaling has “washed out” the
finer scale strong anisotropy.
12. Model changes: Table 8 lists a number of sometimes quite radical changes to
the model in order to achieve a better fit to observed field performance - Figure 15
shows differences in upscaled permeability maps. Continuing problems with injection
predictions => - is geological model correct? - what is the real effect of upscaling?
13. Partial models: “Thin” model - Figure 19 shows the “thin” partial field model to
verify reservoir geology; well AGM18 good water breakthrough match (Figure 20)
- early breakthrough for well AGM29 (Figure 21). When thin model upscaled as in
full field model (abs. k upscale + rel perm as before) - results in Figures 21 and 22
- breakthrough delayed in both wells but shape of BSW is satisfactory. Conclusions:
Thin model partly validates geological model; Some problems with upscaling not
supressing breakthrough, making reservoir too connected and eliminating strong
anisotropy. Test model - (50 x 20 x 56) model extracted from full field model. Figure
23 shows that an optimum upscaling aggregation rate (2 x 2 x 7) is found - they warn
caution on this point. We note that if very reliable and general upscaling techniques
were available, then this should be eliminated (more work has been done on this
issue since 1992 - much of it at Heriot-Watt!).
• Geostatistical indicator simulation is a good tool for modelling this multi- scale
heterogeneity - trends can also be included
The notes on this SPE paper will not be very extensive and only a few of the main
novel points will be discussed below.
32
Introduction and Case Studies
1
and reconstruction of the slump blocks, advanced reservoir simulation procedures,
visualisation etc.
2. Recommendations: These have been quite clearly established and stated. The
study shows that the key strategies are
4. Structural reinterpretation: Figures 2a and 2b show both the original and current
interpretations of the structure. The original “rubble beds” are reinterpreted as being
techtonically disturbed downslope movements of the youngest sand sequences
resulting in large scale slumping and block sliding. The older interpretation saw
these facies as being essentially “chaotic” whereas they are now thought to be more
ordered and predictable. 3D seismic data is of central importance in the definition
of the structural geometries where the “bedded” and “disturbed” strata are shown
on a seismic section in Figure 4. Several seismic techniques were applied including
attribute analysis, rock physics and amplitude analysis, seismic facies analysis of
time slices and conventional reflector mapping. The resulting 70 internal slump
and fault blocks are shown in Figure 7.
8. History match and forward prediction: Average field pressure and GOR are
history matched - see Figures 15 and 16. Matching field pressure is not so difficult
since Ubit shows good pressure communication (high k - lack of sealing faults).
Some discussion of field management is presented. Figure 22 shows the initial part
of the improved productivity (up to 140 MBD from 37 horizontal wells) and future
predictions. See Recommendations (point 2 ) above.
Computer power: There has been a vast increase in computer processing power
over this period because of :
(a) CPU: The growth of powerful CPU (central procesing units - i.e. chips) especially
as implemented in Unix machines (workstations) and RISC technology and
more recently by the development of modern PCs. The corresponding cost of
computing has fallen dramatically. A graph of processing power (Mflops/s) vs. Figure 10
time and a corresponding graph of maximum practical model size vs. time is
(a) CPU performance
shown in Figure 10:
(Mflops/s) vs. time and (b)
maximum practical model
1000000
size vs. time; Mflop/s =
1000
mega-flops per second =
Gridblocks
100000
100
million floating point
Mflops/s
10 10000
operations per second; from
1
1000 J.W. Watts, “Reservoir
0.1 Simulation: Past, Present
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 100
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
and Future”, SPE Reservoir
Year Year
Simulation Symposium,
(a) State of art CPU performance (b) Maximum practical simulation model size Dallas, TX, 5-7 June 1997.
(b) Parallel Processing: Part of the increase in computing power referred to above
is the growth of parallel processing in reservoir simulation. The central idea
here is to distribute the simulation calculation around a number of processors
( or “nodes”) which perform different parts of the computational problem
simultaneously. A bank of such processors is shown in Figure 11 (from the
34
Introduction and Case Studies
1
work of Dogru, SPE57907, 2000). The general impact of parallel simulation
is shown according to Dogru (2000) in Figure 12. If the problem gets linearly
faster with the number of parallel processors, then it is said to be “scalable” and
the closeness to an ideal line is a measure of how well the process “parallelises”
(reaches the ideal scaling line); an example is shown in Figure 13. Finally,
the type of fine scale calculation that can now be performed using megacell
simulation is shown in Figure 14 where it is shown that there is a lengthscale
of remaining oil that is missed in the coarser (but still quite fine) simulation.
A table of what types of calculation can be performed and some timings for
these is also included (although these numbers will probably be out of date
very quickly!). For further details, see Megacell Reservoir Simulation - A.H.
Dogru - SPE Distinguished Author Series, SPE57907, 2000 and the references
therein.
Figure 11
A cluster of parallel
processors; from “Megacell
Reservoir Simulation” -
A.H. Dogru - SPE
Distinguished Author
Series, SPE57907, 2000.
1.2
1
Parallel Simulators
0.8
Figure 12 0.6
The impact of parallel
0.6
reservoir simulation; from Conventional Simulators
0.2
“Megacell Reservoir
Simulation” - A.H. Dogru 0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1997 1998
- SPE Distinguished Author
Series, SPE57907, 2000.
0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1997 1998
Speedup
16
12
4
Figure 13
A cluster of parallel
0 processors; from “Megacell
0 4 8 12 16
Number of Nodes Reservoir Simulation” -
A.H. Dogru - SPE
Cluster SP2 Ideal
Distinguished Author Series,
SPE57907, 2000.
Figure 14
The type of reservoir
simulation that becomes
more possible with parallel
processing. Comparison
Fig. 7—Comparison of conventional simulation (40,500
cells, 5 layers) and megacell simulation 2.45
( million with fine grid and megacell
cells,67 layers).
Reservoir Model Size History CPU Hours simulation which identifies
(Millions of Gridblocks) Length (Years) On 64 Nodes On 128 Nodes
the scale of remaining oil
in a reservoir displacement
Carbonate 1.2 27 3 1.7
process; from “Megacell
Sandstone 1.3 49 4.5 2.5
Reservoir Simulation” -
Carbonate 3.9 10 - 2.0
(With gas cap) A.H. Dogru - SPE
Carbonate 2.5 2.5 - 4.0 Distinguished Author
Series, SPE57907, 2000.
(d) Integrated software: The availability of more integrated software suites that
handle all the initial data from seismic processing, to petrophysical analysis
and data generation, geocellular modelling and upscaling through to the actual
simulators themselves.
36
Introduction and Case Studies
1
(e) Linked to this increased power, is the ability to handle huge geocellular models
and somewhat smaller but still very large reservoir simulation models.
Both pixed-based point geostatistical techniques and object based modelling have
been developed and applied in various reservoirs.
The basic idea of upscaling has been introduced in the SPE examples. Upscaling is
dealt with in much more detail in Chapter 7.
(b) There have been significant organisational changes in the structure of the
industry given the sucessive rounds of “downsizing” and “outsourcing” that have
occurred. For example, see the short article by Galas, “The future of Reservoir
Simulation”, JCPT, p.23, Vol. 36 (1), January 1997, which is reproduced in
Appendix B. This article has an interesting slant from the point of view of the
smaller consultant and it makes a number of interesting observations;
(c) There have been a number of major mergers and take-overs recently which
have formed some very large companies e.g. BP (BP - Amoco - ARCO), Exxon-
Mobil, Total-Fina-Elf. Likewise, a number of very “low cost” operations have
grown up which may specialise in the successful (i.e. profitable) exploitation of
mature assets e.g. Talisman, Kerr-McGee etc. How these changes will affect
the future of reservoir simulation remains to be seen.
(e) More specific to reservoir simulation is the fact that, in the 1970s, most
companies would have had their own numerical reservoir simulator which was
built (programmed up) and maintained in-house. To this day, a few companies
still do. However, most oil companies use specialised software service companies
to supply their reservoir simulation (and visualisation, gridding etc.) software.
Again, the relative merits and demerits of this will emerge in the coming
years.
38
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Decade Capabilities Technical Advances References
1950’s Two dimensions Aronofsky and Jenkins radial gas model Aronofsky, and Jenkins (1954)
Two incompressible phases Alternating-direction implicit (ADI) procedure Peaceman and Rachford (1955)
Simple Geometry
SPE Reservoir Simulation 1990’s Improved ease of use Code parallelization Heinemann et al (1991)
Geologic models and upscaling Upscaling Palagi and Aziz (1994)
Symposium, Dallas, TX, 5-7 Local grid refinement Voronoi grid
Complex geometry
June 1997; (all references Integration with non-reservoir
computations
are given in Appendix A)
Figure 15
A single forward prediction
of the oil recovery
2000 2005 2010
production profile for a
Time (Year)
given reservoir.
• Lack of knowledge or wide inaccuracies in the size of the reservoir; its areal
extent, thickness and net-to-gross ratios
• Lack of knowledge about the reservoir architecture i.e. its geological structure
in terms of sandbodies, shales, faults, etc.
• Uncertainties in the actual numerical values of the porosities (φ) and permeabilities
(k) in the inter-well regions (which make up the vast majority of the reservoir
volume)
• Inaccuracy in the fluid properties such as viscosity of the oil (μo), formation volume
factors (Bo, Bw, Bg), phase behaviour etc., or doubts about the representativity
of these properties
• Because the representational reservoir simulations model may be poor, e.g. the
numerical errors due to the coarse grid block model may significantly affect the
answer in either an optimistic or pessimistic manner.
The above list of uncertainties for a given reservoir, especially at the appraisal stage,
is really quite realistic and is by no means complete. As we have noted elsewhere,
it is at the appraisal stage when, although the future reservoir performance is at its
most uncertain, we must make the biggest decisions about the development and hence
speed most of our investment money.
At a first glance, the task of doing something useful with reservoir simulation may
seem quite hopeless in the face of such a long list of uncertainties. No matter how
bleak things look, the only two options are to give up or do something, and reservoir
engineers never give up! We must produce an answer - even if it is an educated
guess (or even just a guess) - and some estimate of the sort of error sound that we
might expect.
Before considering what we can do in practice, let us first consider what the answer
might look like for the case above in Figure 15. Figure 16 gives some idea of what
is required:
40
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Most probable case
The results in Figure 16 can be understood qualitatively without worrying about how
we actually obtain them right now. Our single curve in Figure 15 may becomes a
“most probable” (or “base case”) future oil recovery forecast. The closer set of outer
curves is the range of future outcomes that can be expected with a 50% probability.
That is, there is a probability, p = 0.5, that the true curve lives within this envelope
of curves shown in Figure 16. Such results allow economic forecasts to be made with
the appropriate weights being given to the likelihood of that particular outcome. A
company can then estimate its risk when it is considering various field development
options.
In fact, here we will just discuss doing some simple sensitivities to various factors in
the simulation model. We can think of a given calculation as a scenario. Therefore,
we can set up various scenarios based on our beliefs about the various input values
in our model and we simply compare the recovery curves for each of the cases. For
example, suppose we have a layered reservoir as shown in Figure 17 which we think
has a field-wide high permeability streak set in background of 100 mD rock.
INJECTOR
Figure 17
PRODUCER
This shows a layered
1000ft
reservoir where we have
some uncertainties in the 1000ft
klow = 100mD
various parameters such as 100ft
Even with just the three uncertainties in this single model, we can see that there are
3x3x3 = 27 possible scenarios or combinations of input data for which we could
run a reservoir simulation model. Alternatively, we could conclude that some input
combinations are unlikely (e.g. lower permeability with higher value of porosity) and
we could reduce the number. We could simply keep the mean value of two of the
factors while varying only the third factor, leading to 7 scenarios to simulate. Taking
this view, we can take some measure of the oil recovery e.g. cumulative oil produced
(predicted) at year 2010. The notional results could be entered in Table 2
Note: The OIIP will vary somewhat from case to case since the thickness of the high
permeability layer and its porosity both change.
In Table 2, we have noted the % change in the varied parameters relative to its base
case value. Not that different physical quantities such as k and φ, vary by different
percentages for realistic min./max. values. A useful way to plot the variation in recovery
is against this % change in input value since all three factors can be represented on the
same scale in a so-called “spider diagram”. Such a plot is shown in Figure 18.
Porosity
Permeability Figure 18
X Layer Thickness
“Spider diagram” showing
X
% Change in Parameter the sensitivity of the
cumulative oil to various
Change in Recovery From Base Case (STB) uncertainties in the
reservoir model parameters
(khi; ΔZhi; φhi) in Figure 17.
42
Introduction and Case Studies
1
This type of spider plot is very useful since it displays the effect of the different
uncertainties on the outcome. It clearly highlights which is the most important input
quantity (of those considered) and has the most impact on the result. Thus, if we
were going to spend time and effort on reducing the uncertainty in our predictions,
then this tells us which quantity to focus on first. Indeed it ranks the effects of the
various uncertainties.
There are more sophisticated ways to deal with uncertainty in reservoir performance
but these are beyond the scope of the current course. The basic ideas presented above
give you enough to go on with in this course.
The examples presented in the above SPE papers should give you a good idea of
what reservoir simulation is all about. By this point you should also be familiar
with many of the basic concepts that are involved in reservoir simulation from the
study notes and the Glossary. However, the reservoir simulation of say a waterflood
or a gas displacement is a dynamic process. That is, as time progresses, the water
or gas front should be moving through the reservoir interacting with the underlying
geological structure in quite a complicated manner. The pressure distribution through
the system should also be evolving with time. For example, the water may possibly
be advancing preferentially through a high permeability channel between an injector
and producer pair. The sequence of the saturation fronts in the series of “snapshots
in time” shown in Figure 19 give some idea of the progression of the flood with time.
However, this can better be illustrated by looking at an animated sequence of saturation
distributions as the flood front moves through the reservoir. An example of such a
sequence is shown in file Res_Sim_D1.ppt This can be run on your PC from the
CD supplied with this course and double clicking on the PowerPoint presentation.
44
Introduction and Case Studies
1
5 TYPES OF RESERVOIR SIMULATION MODEL
Until now, we have confined our discussion to relative simple reservoir recovery
processes such as natural depletion (blowdown) and waterflooding. However, there
are many more complex reservoir recovery processes which can also be carried out.
Dry gas (methane, CH4) injection, for example, would generally result in the flow
of three phases (gas, oil and water) in the reservoir which is more complicated than
two phase flow. Another process is where we alternately inject water and gas in
repeating sequence - this is water-alternating-gas or WAG flooding. If the injected
gas was carbon dioxide (CO2), then quite complex phase behaviour may occur and
this requires some particular steps to be taken in order to model this. More exotic
Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) processes can also be carried out where we inject
chemicals (polymers, surfactants, alkali or foams) into the reservoir to recover oil
that is left behind by primary and secondary oil recovery processes.
The Black Oil Model: This model was used in the three SPE field case studies above
and is the most commonly used formulation of the reservoir simulation equations
which is used for single, two and three phase reservoir processes. It treats the three
phases - oil, gas and water - as if they were mass components where only the gas
is allowed to dissolve in the oil and water. This gas solubility is described in oil
and water by the gas solubility factors (or solution gas-oil ratios), Rso and Rsw,
respectively; typical field units of Rso and Rsw are SCF/STB. These quantities are
pressure dependent and this is incorporated into the black oil model.
Reservoir processes that can be modelled using the black oil model include:
• Gas injection with oil mobilisation by first contact or developed (multi- contact)
miscibility (e.g. in CO2 flooding).
46
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Component concentrations
ROCK in each phase:
Figure 21 Phase Labels:
GAS
The view of phases and j = 1 = Gas Gas: C11, C21, C31....
Sg
components taken in j = 2 = Oil
j = 3 = Water OIL + GAS
compositional simulation. So
Oil: C12, C22, C32....
The Chemical Flood Model: This model has been developed primarily to model
polymer and surfactant (or combined) displacement processes. Polymer flooding
can be considered mainly as extended waterflooding with some additional effects in
the aqueous phase which must be modelling e.g. polymer component transport, the
viscosification of the aqueous phase, polymer adsorption, permeability reduction
etc. Surfactant, flooding however, involves strong phase behaviour effects where
third phases may appear which contain oil/water/surfactant emulsions. Specialised
phase packages have been developed to model such processes. For economic reasons,
activity on field polymer flooding has continued at a fairly low level world wide
and surfactant flooding has virtually ceased in recent years. However, if economic
factors were favourable (a very high oil price), then interest in these processes may
revive. Extended chemical flood models are also used to model foam flooding.
Examples of reservoir processes that can be modelled using a chemical flood model
include:
Another near-wellbore process that can be modelled using such simulators in water
shut-off using either polymer-crosslinked gels or so-called “relative permeabilty
modifiers”.
Thermal Models: In all thermal models heat is added to the reservoir either by
injecting steam or by actually combusting the oil (by air injection, for example). The
purpose of this is generally to reduce the viscosity of a heavy oil which may have μo
of order 100s or 1000s of cP. The heat may be supplied to the reservoir by injected
steam produced using a steam generator on the surface or downhole. Alternatively,
an actual combustion process may be initiated in the reservoir - in-situ combustion
- where part of the oil is burned to produce heat and combustion gases that help to
drive the (unburned) oil from the system.
• Steam “soaks” where steam in injected into the formation, the well is shut in for
a time to allow heat dissipation into the oil and then the well is back produced
to obtain the mobilised oil (because of lower viscosity). This is known as a
“Huff nʼ Puff” process.
• Steam “drive” where the steam is injected continuously into the formation
from an injector to the producer. Again, the objective is to lower oil viscosity
by the penetration of the heat front deep into the reservoir.
The above more complex reservoir simulation models are really based on the fluid flow
process. However, there are also other types of simulator that are more closely defined
by their treatment of the rock structure or the rock response. These include:
48
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Coupled Hydraulic, Thermal Fracturing and Fluid Flow Models: These simulators
are still essentially at the research stage although there have been published examples
of specific field applications. The main function of these is to model the mechanical
stresses and resulting deformations and the effects of these on fluid flow. This is
beyond the scope of this course although, in the future, these will be important in
many systems.
Simulator Type Processes Modelled Degree of Difficulty Relative Computing Amount of Industrial Example References2
Costs Experience
Black Oil Model • Primary depletion Routine Cheap = 1 • Huge Any of the books on
• Waterflooding • But there are still reservoir
• Immiscible gas challenges with simulation listed in
injection upscaling of large Section 7 (Chapter 1)
• Imbibition models
• >90% of cases
Table 3 Compositional
Model- Near Crit.
• Gas injection near
crit.
Difficult Very expensive
(x5 - x30)
• Low to moderate as above
A full alphabetic list of References which are cited in the course is presented in
Appendix A. Here, we briefly review some good texts which cover Reservoir
Simulation from various viewpoints. The authors have learned something from each
of these and we would recommend anyone who wishes to specialise in Reservoir
Simulation to consult these.
This book is not a specialised reservoir simulation text. However, it offers a good
overview of petroleum engineering and it contexts reservoir simulation very well
within the overall picture of reservoir development. This book is also one of the
earliest proponents of the importance of integrating the reservoir geology within the
simulation model.
Aziz, K. and Settari, A.: Petroleum Reservoir Simulation, Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, 1979.
This is a classic text on the discretisation and numerical solution of the reservoir
simulation flow equations. It is quite mathematical with a focus on the actual difference
equations that arise from the flow equations and how to solve these.
Mattax, C C and Dalton, R L: Reservoir Simulation, SPE Monograph, Vol. 13, 1990.
This is an excellent SPE monograph which covers virtually every aspect of traditional
reservoir simulation. It is has been put together by a team of Exxon reservoir engineers
between them have vast experience of all areas of reservoir simulation.
50
Introduction and Case Studies
1
This book presents an excellent treatment of the mathematical and numerical aspects
of reservoir simulation. It discusses the discretisation of the flow equations and the
subsequent numerical methods of solution in great detail.
SPE Reprint No. 11, Numerical Simulation I (1973) and SPE Reprint No. 20,
Numerical Simulation II (19**).
These two collections present some of the classic SPE papers on reservoir simulation.
All aspects of reservoir simulation are covered including numerical methods,
solution of linear equations, the modelling of wells and field applications. Most of
this material is too advanced or detailed for a newcomer to this field but the volumes
contain excellent reference material. They are also relatively cheap!
APPENDIX A: REFERENCES
NOTE: SPEJ = Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal - there was an early version
of this and it stopped for a while. Currently, there are SPE Journals in various
subjects but reservoir simulation R&D appears in SPE (Reservoir Engineering and
Evaluation).
Acs, G., Doleschall, S. and Farkas, E., “General Purpose Compositional Model”,
SPEJ, pp. 543 - 553, August 1985.
Allen, M.B., Behie, G.A. and Trangenstein, J.A.: Multiphase Flow in Porous Media:
Mechanics, Mathematics and Numerics, Lecture Notes in Engineering No. 34,
Springer-Verlag, 1988.
Appleyard, J.R. and Cheshire, I.M.: “Nested Factorization,” paper SPE 12264
presented at the Seventh SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Francisco,
CA, November 16-18, 1983.
Aronofsky, J.S. and Jenkins, R.: “A Simplified Analysis of Unsteady Radial Gas
Flow,” Trans., AIME 201 (1954) 149-154
Aziz, K. and Settari, A.: Petroleum Reservoir Simulation, Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, 1979.
Clayton, C.A., et al, “The Ubit Field Rejuvenation: A Case History of Reservoir
Management of a Giant Oilfield Offshore Nigeria”, SPE49165, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, 27-30 September
1998.
Coats, K.H., “A Highly Implicit Steamflood Model”, SPEJ, pp. 369-383, October
1978.
Coats, K.H., “An Equation of State Compositional Model”, SPEJ, pp. 363-376,
October 1980a; Trans. AIME, 269.
Coats, K.H., “ In-Situ Combustion Model”, SPEJ, pp. 533-554, December 1980b;
Trans. AIME 269.
Coats, K.H., Dempsey, J.R., and Henderson, J.H.: “The Use of Vertical Equilibrium
in Two-Dimensional Simulation of Three-Dimensional Reservoir Performance,” Soc.
Pet. Eng. J. 11 (March 1971) 63-71; Trans., AIME 251
Crookston, R.B., Culham, W.E. and Chen, W.H., “A Numerical Simulation Model for
Thermal Recovery Processes”, SPEJ, pp. 35-57, February 1979; Trans. AIME 267.
Fantoft, S., “Reservoir Management of the Oseberg Field After Four Years”, SPE25008,
proceedings of the SPE European Petroleum Conference, Cannes, France, 16-18
November 1992.
Giudicelli, C.S., Massonat, G.J. and Alabert, F.G., “Anguille Marine, a Deepse-
Fan Reservoir Offshore Gabon: From Geology Toward History Matching Through
52
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Stochastic Modelling”, SPE25006, proceedings of the SPE European Petroleum
Conference, Cannes, France, 16-18 November 1992.
Harpole, K.J. and Hearn, C.L., “The Role of Numerical Simulation in Reservoir
Management of a West Texas Carbonate Reservoir”, SPE10022, presented at the
International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical Symposium of the SPE, Beijing,
China, 18 - 26 March 1982.
Heinemann, Z.E., Brand, C.W., Munka, M., and Chen, Y.M.: “Modeling Reservoir
Geometry with Irregular Grids,” SPERE 6 (1991) 225-232.
Hove, K., Olsen, G., Nilsson, S., Tonnesen, M. and Hatloy, A., “From Stochastic
Geological Description to Production Forecasting in Heterogeneous Layered Systems”,
SPE24890, the proceedings of the SPE 67th Annual Technical Conference, Washington,
DC, 4-7 October 1992.
Katz, D.L., “Methods of Estimating Oil and Gas Reserves”, Trans. AIME, Vol. 118,
p.18, 1936 (classic early ref. on Material Balance)
Kyte, J.R. and Berry, D.W.: “New Pseudo Functions to Control Numerical Dispersion,”
Soc .Pet. Eng. J. 15 (August 1975) 269-276.
Leonard, A.J., Duncan, A.E., Johnson, D.A. and Murray, R.B., SPE25059:
“Development Planning in a Complex Reservoir: Magnus Field UKCS Lower
Kimmeridge Clay Formation (LKCF)”, SPE25059, proceedings of the SPE European
Petroleum Conference, Cannes, France, 16-18 November 1992.
Mathews, C.W., “Steamflooding”, J. Pet. Tech., pp. 465-471, March 1983; Trans.
AIME 275.
MacDonald, R.C. and Coats, K.H.: “Methods for Numerical Simulation of Water and
Gas Coning,” Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 10 (December 1970) 425-436; Trans., AIME 249.
Meijerink, J.A. and Van der Vorst, H.A.: “An Iterative Solution Method for Linear
Systems of Which the Coefficient Matrix is a Symmetric M-Matrix,” Mathematics
of Computation 31 (January 1977) 148.
Palagi, C.L. and Aziz, K.: “Use of Voronoi Grid in Reservoir Simulation,” SPE
Advanced Technology Series 2 (April 1994) 69-77.
Peaceman, D.W. and Rachford, H.H.: “The Numerical Solution of Parabolic and
Elliptic Differential Equations,” Soc Ind. Appl. Math. J. 3 (1955) 28-41
Prats, M., “Thermal Recovery” SPE Monograph Series No. 7, SPE Richardson, TX,
1982.
Price, H.S. and Coats, K.H.: “Direct Methods in Reservoir Simulation,” Soc. Pet.
Eng. J. 14 (June 1974) 295-308; Trans., AIME 257
Schilthuis, R.J., “Active Oil and Reservoir Energy”, Trans. AIME, Vol. 118, p.3,
1936; (original ref. on Material Balance)
Sheldon, J.W., Harris, C.D., and Bavly, D.: “A Method for Generalized Reservoir
Behavior Simulation on Digital Computers,” SPE 1521-G presented at the 35th
Annual SPE Fall Meeting, Denver, Colorado, October 1960.
Sibley, M.J., Bent, J.V. and Davis, D.W., “Reservoir Modelling and Simulation of
a Middle Eastern Carbonate Reservoir”, SPE36540, proceedings of the SPE 71st
Annual Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO, 6-9 October 1996.
Sorbie, K.S., “Polymer Improved Oil Recovery”, Blakie and SOns & CRC Press,
1991.
SPE Reprint No. 11, Numerical Simulation I (1973) and SPE Reprint No. 20,
Numerical Simulation II (19**).
Spillette, A.G., Hillestad, J.H., and Stone, H.L.: “A High-Stability Sequential Solution
Approach to Reservoir Simulation,” SPE 4542 presented at the 48th Annual Fall
Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Les Vegas, Nevada,
September 30-October 3, 1973.
54
Introduction and Case Studies
1
Stone, H.L. and Garder, Jr., A.O.: “Analysis of Gas-Cap or Dissolved-Gas Drive
Reservoirs,” Soc .Pet. Eng. J. 1 (June 1961) 92-104; Trans., AIME 222.
Thomas G.W. and Thurnau, D.H.: “Reservoir Simulation Using an Adaptive Implicit
Method,” Soc. Pet. Eng.. J. 23 (October 1983) 759-768.
Thomas L.K., Lumpkin, W.B., and Reheis, G.M.: “Reservoir Simulation of Variable
Bubble-point Problems,” Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 16 (February 1976) 10-16; Trans., AIME
261.
Todd, M.R. and Longstaff, W.J.: “The Development, Testing, and Application of a
Numerical Simulator for Predicting Miscible Flood Performance, “ J. Pet. Tech. 24
(July 1972) 874-882; Trans., AIME 253.
Todd, M.R., OʼDell, P.M., and Hirasaki, G.J.: “Methods for Increased Accuracy in
Numerical Reservoir Simulators,” Soc. Pet. Eng. J. 12 (December 1972) 515-530.
Todd, M.R. and Chase, C.A., “A Numerical Simulator for Predicting Chemical
Flood Performance”, SPE7689, proceedings of the SPE Symposium on Reservoir
Simulation, Denver, CO, 1-2 February 1979.
Uren, L.C., Petroleum Production Engineering, Oil Field Exploitation, 3rd edn.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York, 1953.
Van Quy, N. and Labrid, J., “A Numerical Study of Chemical Flooding - Comparison
with Experiments”, SPEJ, pp.461-474, June 1983; Trans. AIME 275.
van Vark, W., Paardekam, A.H.M., Brint, J.F., van Lieshout, J.B. and George, P.M.,
“The Construction and Validation of a Numerical Model of a Reservoir Consisting
of Meandering Channels”, SPE25057, proceedings of the SPE European Petroleum
Conference, Cannes, France, 16-18 November 1992.
Vela, S., Peaceman, D.W. and Sandvik, E.I., “Evaluation of Polymer Flooding in a
Layered Reservoir with Crossflow, Retention and Degradation”, SPEJ, pp. 82-96,
April 1976.
Vinsome, P.K.W.: “Orthomin, an Iterative Method for Solving Sparse Banded Sets
of Simultaneous Linear Equations,” paper SPE 5729 presented at the Fourth SPE
Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, Los Angeles, February 19-20, 1976.
Watts, J.W.: “An Iterative Matrix Solution Method Suitable for Anisotropic Problems,”
Soc Pet. Eng .J. 11 (March 1971) 47-51; Trans., AIME 251.
Watts, J.W., “Reservoir Simulation: Past, Present and Future”, SPE Reservoir
Simulation Symposium, Dallas, TX, 5-7 June 1997.
1. Reservoir Simulation: is it worth the effort? SPE Review, London Section monthly
panel discussion November 1990.
This one pager summarises a panel discussion that was held in London in 1990. Given
the brevity of the article, it is packed with some genuine wisdom - and some things to
disagree with - from a really excellent group of front line “users” of the technology.
Briggs comes closest to capturing the principal authorsʼ particular prejudices!
56
Introduction and Case Studies
1
This very interesting pair of articles gives a very good broad brush commentary
on a range of technical issues in reservoir simulation e.g. gridding, handling wells,
pseudo-relative permeability, error analysis and “consistency checking”. The views
are clearly those of someone who has been deeply involved in applied reservoir
simulation. They are well presented and quite individual although again there are
issues that would provoke disagreement. Read this and decide for yourself what you
accept and what you donʼt.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MATERIAL BALANCE
2.1 Introduction to Material Balance (MB)
2.2 Derivation of Simplified Material
Balance Equations
2.3 Conditions for the Validity of Material
Balance
4. TWO-PHASE FLOW
4.1 The Two-Phase Darcy Law
5. CLOSING REMARKS
• be familiar with the meaning and use of all the usual terms which appear in
reservoir engineering such as, Sw, So, Bo, Bw, Bg, Rso, Rsw, cw, co, cf, kro, krw, Pc etc.
• be able to use a simple given material balance equation for an undersaturated oil
reservoir (with no influx or production of water) in order to find the STOOIP.
• know the conditions under which the material balance equations are valid.
• be able to write down the single and two-phase Darcy Law in one dimension (1D)
and be able to explain all the terms which occur (no units conversion factors need
to be remembered).
• be aware of the gradient (∇) and divergence (∇.) operators as they apply to
the generalised (2D and 3D) Darcy Law (but these should not be committed to
memory).
• know that pressure is a scalar and that the pressure distribution, P(x, y, z) is a
scalar field; but that ∇P is a vector.
• know that permeability is really a tensor quantity with some notion of what this
means physically (more in Chapter 7).
• be able to write out the 2D and 3D Darcy Law with permeability as a full tensor
and know how this gives the more familiar Darcy Law in x, y and z directions when
the tensor is diagonal (but where we may have kx ≠ ky ≠ kz).
• be able to write down and explain the radial Darcy Law and know that the pressure
profile near the well, ΔP(r), varies logarithmically.
2
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
The unit then goes on to consider basic reservoir engineering associated with fluid
flow: the single phase Darcy law (k), tensor permeabilities, k , two phase Darcy Law
- relative permeabilitites (kro , krw) and capillary pressures (Pc).
Note that many of the terms and concepts reviewed in this section are summarised in
the Glossary at the front of this chapter.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is likely that you will have completed the introductory Reservoir Engineering part
of this Course. You should therefore be fairly familiar with the concepts reviewed
in this section. The purpose of doing any review of basic reservoir engineering is
as follows:
(i) Between them, the review in this section and the Glossary make this course more
self-contained, with all the main concepts we need close at hand;
(iii) We would like to review some of the flow concepts (Darcy’s law etc.), in a
manner of particular use for the derivation of the flow equations later in this course
(in Chapter 5).
An example of point (ii) above concerns the complementary nature of Material Balance
(MB) and numerical reservoir simulation. At times, these have been presented as
almost opposing approaches to reservoir engineering. Nothing could be further from
the truth and this will be discussed in detail below. Indeed, a MB calculation will be
done by the student and the same calculation will be performed using the reservoir
simulator.
Exercises are provided at the end of this module which the student must carry out.
Bg Bo
FVF
Bw
P Pb
Rso, Rsw Gas solubility factors SCF/STB Vol. dissolved gas in reservoir
or solution gas oil Rso =
Vol. gas at STC
ratios
Rso
Rso
P Pb
-1
co, cw, cg Isothermal fluid psi 1
ck = 1 ∂ρk =- ∂Vk
compressibilities of
oil water and gas
ρk ∂P Vk ∂P Table 1: Basic reservoir
ρk and Vk - density and volume of phase k; engineering quantities to
k = o, w, g revise
2. MATERIAL BALANCE
4
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
• To demonstrate the complementary nature of MB and reservoir simulation
calculations.
Material balance has been used in the industry for the following main purposes:
2. Calculating water influx i.e. the degree to which a natural aquifer is supporting
the production (and hence slowing down the pressure decline);
3. Predicting mean reservoir pressure in the future, if a good match of the early
pressure decline is achieved and the correct reservoir recovery mechanism has been
identified.
Before deriving the restricted example of the MB equations, we quote the introduction
of Dake’s (1994) chapter on material balance.
Because engineers have drifted away from oilfield material balance in recent years,
the unfamiliarity breeds a lack of confidence in its meaningfulness and, indeed, how
to use it properly. To counter this, the chapter provides a comprehensive description of
various methods of application of the technique and included six fully worked exercises
illustrating the history matching of oilfields. It is perhaps worth commenting that in
none of these fields had the operators attempted to apply material balance, which
denied them vital information concerning the basic understanding of the physics of
reservoir performance.
6
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
-6 -1
Fluid or formation Compressibility (10 psi )
The simple example which we will take in order to demonstrate the main idea of
material balance is shown in Figure 1 where the system is simply an undersaturated
oil, with possible water influx.
Oil Oil
N (N - Np)Bo Water, Wp
Definitions:
N = initial reservoir volume (STB)
Boi = initial oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB or RB/STB)
Np = cumulative produced oil at time t, pressure p (STB)
Bo = oil formation volume factor at current t and p (bbl/STB)
W = initial reservoir water (bbl)
Wp = cumulative produced water (STB)
Bw = water formation volume factor (bbl/STB)
We = water influx into reservoir (bbl)
cw = water isothermal compressibility (psi-1)
Δ P = change in reservoir pressure, p - po
Vf = initial void space (bbl); Vf = N.Boi/(1- Swi); W = Vf.Swi
Swi = initial water saturation (of whole system)
1 ∂Vf
cf = void space isothermal compressibility (psi-1); c f =
Vf ∂p
(NB: (i) bbl = reservoir barrels, sometimes denoted RB; and (ii) in the figures
above, the oil and water are effectively assumed to be uniformly distributed
throughout the system)
In going from initial reservoir conditions shown in Figure 1 at pressure, po, to pressure,
p, volume changes in the oil, water and void space (rock) occur, ΔVo, ΔVw, ΔVvoid
(ΔVvoid = - ΔVrock). The pressure drop is denoted, Δ P = p - po. The volume balance
simply says that:
__
Oil volume
∆Vchange,
= WΔVBo - We - W.c w .∆ p
w p w
__
∆Vrockchange,
Water volume = - ΔV∆Vvoid = - Vf .c f .∆ p
w
8
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
= Vf.cf. Δ P
Swi .cw + c f __ S .c + cf __
. Bo o++NN
NN..BBoioi −− NN. B p
− N−. BW
p . Bo. B
o
oi + W . B − .∆ P = 0 wi w
e 1 −pS w N . Boi .∆ P = 0
wi
1 − Swi
(5)
Swi .cw + crock __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi S .c + .c∆ P = 0__ __ __
Equation ∆V5 +
is ∆ V
the
N.B − N.B + N .B − N.B + ∆ V
(simplified) = N .1B−
materialwiS+ ( N − fN ).
wbalance B + W
expression
.∆ P = 0 . B −
for W
the − W .c . ∆ P
undersaturated − V .c . ∆ P
oi
o
o
w
p
rock
o oi
oi wi p
o p w e w f f
system given in Figure 1 (as longas it1 − Swi above its bubble point).
remains
S .c + c __
To Nillustrate
. Boi − N . Bthe
o + use
N p . Bof
o +material
N . Boi wibalance
w
in an
rock
.∆ Peven
= 0 simpler Swiexample,
.cw + cf let __
us assume
N . B − N . B + N . B
−1 W
−
o =0) S + W . B
pc w − N . B .∆ P =the0 MB
oi = 0). Therefore,
that there is no oi water oinfluxp (W S .c
or
e wi +
production (W
__
p 1 − Swi
N . Boi −simplifies
equation N . Bo + Neven + N . Boito:
p . Bo further
e
wi w rock
.∆ P = 0
1− S wi
S .c + c __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo − N . Boi wi w __f .∆ P = 0
S .c + c − S
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi wi w S 1rock .∆ P=0 __
wi
wi .cw+ crock
(6)
N . B − N . B + N . B
+ N . 1
B − S . ∆ P = 0
Note that we can divide through equation
oi o p o oi 6Sby.cN +
wi
(the __reservoir oil volume,
c initial
bbl = RB) to Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi wi1 −wSwi rock .∆ P = 0
N .obtain:
S .c1 −+ Scwirock __
N . Boi − N . Bo + N p . Bo + N . Boi wi w .∆ P = 0
1 − Swi
Np Swi .cw + c f __
Boi − Bo + N . Bo − Boi S .c + c .∆ P__= 0
Boi − Bo +N p . Bo − Boi 1wi− Swwi f .∆ P = 0 (7)
N 1 − Swi .c + crock __
N . Boi − N
which rearranges . Bo +to:N p . Bo + N . Boi wi w
easily .∆ P = 0
1 −__Swi
Np Boi Boi Swi .cw + c f
N = 1 − B + Swi .cw + cf .∆ P__= 0
N p = 1 −Bo oi +BB oi 1 − Swi .∆ P = 0
o
N Bo Bo 1 − Swi (8)
where the __quantity (Np/N) is the Recovery Factor (RF) as a fraction of the STOIIP.
∆ p__= 0
It is seen from equation 8 that, at t = 0, Bo = Boi and and therefore (Np/N)= 0, as
∆p=0
expected. Note also in equation 8 that ∆P is negative in depletion ( ∆P = p-po,
where po. is the
Q higherkinitial
∆P pressure
k ∂for
P depletion).
u= =− . = − .
AQ µk L∆P µk ∂∂xP
u= =− . = − .
A µ L µ ∂x
We then identify 1-(Np/N) as the fraction of the initial oil still in place. We can then
plot this quantity vs. - ∆P shown in Figure 2 (we take - ∆P since it plots along the
positive axis, since ∆P is negative).
Figure 2
Plot of remaining oil,
0
Np
-∆P 1 − vs. − ∆P
N
As noted in Figure 2, this decline plot is not necessarily a straight line but for oil water
systems, it is very close in practice. Figure 2 suggests a way of applying a simple
material balance equation to the case of an undersaturated oil above the bubble point
(with no water influx or production). This is a pure depletion problem driven by the
oil (mainly), water and formation compressibilities. Suppose we know the pressure
behaviour of B0 (i.e. B0(P)) as shown in Figure 3.
1.4
Bo(P) = m.P + c
Oil FVF
Bo
1.3
Figure 3
B0 as a function of pressure
4000 P (psi) 5500
for a black oil.
Np X
1-
N
Y
Figure 4
Reservoir depletion on a
0
-∆P plot following equation 9.
10
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
We know Y ( it is ∆P ), we can calculate X (the RHS of equation 9). X is equal to 1-
(Np/N) and we know Np (the amount of oil we had to produce to get drawdown ∆P ).
Hence, we can find N the initial oil in place. An exercise to do this is given below.
Dake (1994, p.78), also points out two “necessary” conditions to apply material
balance in practice as follows:
(ii) we must have the ability to define an average pressure decline trend i.e. the more
“tank like”, the better and this is equivalent to having a large k/(φμc) as discussed
above.
EXERCISE 1.
Exercise:
Suppose you have a tank - like reservoir with the fluid properties given below (and
Np
in Figure 4). Plot a figure of 1 − vs. - ∆P over the first 250 psi of depletion
N
of this reservoir. Suppose you find that after 200 psi of depletion, you have
produced 320 MSTB of oil. What was the original oil in place in this reservoir?
Input data: The initial water saturation, Swi = 0.1. The rock and water
compressibilities are, as follows:
The initial reservoir pressure is 5500 psi at which Boi = 1.3 and the bubble point is
at Pb = 4000 psi where Bo = 1.4. That is, the oil swells as the pressure drops as
shown in Figure 4.
We review the single phase Darcy Law in this section in order to put our own particular
“slant” or viewpoint to the student. This will prove to be very useful when we derive
the flow equations of reservoir simulation in Chapter 5. We also wish to extend
the idea of permeability (k) somewhat further than is covered in basic reservoir
engineering .
∇ texts. In particular, .
∇ we wish to introduce the idea of permeability as
a tensor property, denoted by k . Some useful mathematical concepts will also be
introduced in this section associated with vector calculus; in particular, the idea of
gradient ∇ and divergence ∇ • will be discussed in the context of the generalised
formulation of the single phase Darcy law. Note w + crock
Swi .cthat __ many of the terms
for reference,
N . Boiare− also
discussed here o + N p . Bo + in
N . Bsummarised N .the
Boi Glossary. .∆ P = 0
1− S
wi
3.1 The Basic Darcy Experiment
Darcy in 1856 conducted
N a series of flow
S .ctests through __ packs of sands which he took
w + cf
Boi − experimental
as approximate Boi wiof an
Bo + p . Bo −models P
.
aquifer ∆ for=the
0 ground water supply at
1 − Sexperiment
Dijon. A schematic ofNthe essential Darcy wi is shown in Figure 5 where
we imagine a single phase fluid (e.g. water) being pumped through a homogeneous
sand pack or rock core. (Darcy used a gravitational head of water as his driving force
whereas, inNmodern
p B B S .cw +would
c f normally
__
= 1 −coreoilaboratories,
+ oi wi we
.∆ P = 0 use a pump.)
N Bo Bo 1 − Swi
The Darcy law given in Figure 5, is in its “experimental” form where a conversion
factor, β, is indicated that allows us to work in various units as may be convenient
__
to the problem
∆ p =at0hand. In differential form, a more useful way to express the Darcy
Law and introducing the Darcy velocity, u, is as follows:
Q k ∆P k ∂P
u= =− . = − .
A µ L µ ∂x (9)
where the minus sign in equation 9 indicates that the direction of fluid flow is down
the pressure gradient from high pressure to low pressure i.e. in the opposite direction
to the positive pressure gradient.
∆P
Q Q
k.A ∆P
Q = β. .
µ L
Definitions:
L L Length of cm cm ft. m
system
12
A L2 Cross - sectional cm2 cm2 ft.2 m2
2
∆P
Q Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
Q
k.A ∆P
Q = β. .
µ L
Definitions:
L L Length of cm cm ft. m
system
µ Viscosity cP cP cP Pa.s
Figure 5. # permeability - dimensions L2; e.g. units m2, Darcies (D), milliDarcies (mD); 1 Darcy
= 9.869 x 10-9 cm2 = 0.98696 x 10-12 m2 ≈ 1 µm2.
The single phase Darcy Law
Note on Units Conversion for Darcy’s Law: the various units that are commonly used
for Darcy’s Law are listed in Figure 2 above. Sometimes, the conversion between
various systems of units causes confusion for some students. Here, we briefly explain
how to do this using
k.A the∆examples
P in the previous figure; that is, we go from c.g.s.
Q -=gram
(centimetre . units where β = 1, indeed, the Darcy was defined such
β. - second)
µ L
that β = 1. Starting
k.Afrom
∆Pthe
Darcy Law in c.g.s. units:
Q = β. .
µ L
k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 ) ∆P (atm )
Q (cm 3 / s) = 1.00 .
µ (cp) 2 L ( cm )
k (Darcy) . A (cm ) ∆P (atm )
Q (cm 3 / s) = 1.00 .
µ (cp) L (cm )
Suppose we now wish to convert to field units as follows:
k (Darcy) . A (ft 2 ) ∆P ( psi)
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? .
µ (cp) 2 L ( ft.)
k (Darcy) . A (ft ) ∆P ( psi)
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? .
µ (cp) L (ft.)
k ∆P
bbl 1.58999x10 5 ( mD) . A (ft.2 ).30.482 ( psi)
How do we Q find the
. correct conversion 1000 for these new units? Essentially,
= factor k . 14 ∆
.7we
P
day ( mD)µ. (A
5 the c.g.s. expression
L (βft=.).(1. )
4
convert it unit by unit 8starting
.64 x10 from cp()ft. ).we
where
2 2
.48 that
30know 30
psi.48
bbl 1.58999 x10 1000
14 . 7
We do need Q to know. a few conversion = factors as follows: 1 ft. = 30.48 cm . (exact),
14.7 psi = 1 atm.,day 1 bbl8.64 x10
= 5.615
4
ft3= 5.615 x 30.483 cm µ 3(cp )
= 1.58999 L3,(1ft.).
x 105 cm day30.48
= 24 x 3600 s = 8.64 x 104 s. Thus, we now 4 convert 2 everything in the field units to2
c.g.s. units bbl
Qas follows
for 8cp.
.64which are the same): k ( Darcy) . A ( ft. ) . P( p
x10 . 30.48 ∆
= (except
day 1000 . 1.58999x410 5. 14.27 . 30.48 µ (cp) L (ft
bbl 8.64 x10 . 30.48 k (Darcy) . A (ft.2 ) ∆P( p
Q = .
day 1000 . 1.58999x10 5. 14.7 . 30.48 µ (cp) L (ft
bblEngineering,
Institute of Petroleum Heriot-Watt k (Darcy) . A (ft. ) ∆P( psi)
-3 University
2
13
Q = 1.126722x10 .
day µ (cp) 2 L ( ft.)
∆P psi
k.Ak.A∆P ∆P
Qβ=. 3βµ. . L. k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 ) ∆P (atm )
Q=
µ L
Q (cm / s) = 1.00 .
µ (cp) L (cm )
k (Darcy) . A (cm 2 ) ∆2P (atm )
Q (cm 3 / s3) = 1.00 k (Darcy) . A 2(cm. ) ∆P (atm )
Q (cm / s) = 1.00 ) ). A (ft ) L∆P(.cm
µ (cp
k (Darcy ) )
( psi
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? µ (cp) . L (cm )
µ (cp) L (ft.)
k (Darcy) . A (ft 2 ) ∆P ( psi)
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? k (Darcy) . A .(ft L
2
) (ft∆P ( psi)
Q ( bbl / day) = ?? µ (cp)k . .) 2 ∆P
µ (cp)( mD) . A (Lft.(ft)..)30.482 ( psi)
bbl 1.58999x10 5
1000 14 . 7
Q . = k .
day 8.64 x10 cp.2)).30.482 ∆PL (psi
µ ((ft .48
4
ft.).30
( mD ) . A ( )
bbl 1.58999x10 142.7 ∆P
5
Q . =5
1000 k
( mD ) . A ( ft .2
). . .48
30 ( psi )
day
bbl 8.1.58999
4
64 x10 x10 µ (cp)
Q . = 1000 L (ft.). 30.48
. 14.7
Thus, collecting
day 8.64 thex10 factors togetherµwe
numerical
4
(cpobtain:
) L (ft.).30.48
bbl 8.64 x10 4. 30.482 k (Darcy) . A (ft.2 ) ∆P( psi)
Q = .
day 1000 . 1.58999 5
2 .7 . 30.48
4 x10 . 14 µ (cp)2 L (ft.)
bbl 8.64 x10 . 30.48 k (Darcy) . A (ft. ) ∆P( psi)
Q = .
day 1000 . 1.58999 10 5
. 14. 7 . 30 .48 µ (cp) L (2ft.)
bbl k (Darcy) . A (ft. ) ∆P( psi)
x 4 2
8.64 x10 . 30.48
Q =
bbl k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft .2
) ∆P( psi) .
Q day
= 1000
1.126722 .
x 1.58999
10 -3 5
x10 . 14.7 . 30.48 . µ ( cp ) L ( ft .)
which simplifies
bbl to µ
-3 k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft. ) ∆P( psi )
day ( cp ) 2 L ( ft .)
Q = 1.126722x10 .
day µ (cp) L2 (ft.)
bbl -3 k ( Darcy ) . A ( ft. ) ∆P( psi )
Q = 1.126722x10 .
day µ (cp) L (ft.)
and hence β = 1.127 x 10-3 for these units (as given in Figure 5).∇ .
∇ .
3.2 Mathematical Note: on the Operators “gradient” ∇ and
“divergence” ∇ •
Before generalising the Darcy Law to 3D, we first make a short mathematical digression
to introduce the concepts of gradient and divergence operators. These will be used
to write the generalised flow equation of single and two phase flow in Chapter 5.
∂∂ ∂∂ ∂∂
∇
∇ = = ∂∂x ii +
+ ∂∂y jj +
+ ∂∂z kk
∇ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
∂x ∂y ∂z
where i, ij, and k are the unit vectors which point in the x, y and z directions,
i , jj and
and kk
respectively.
i , j and gradient
The k operation can be carried out on a scalar field such as
pressure, P, as follows:
∂∂P
P i + ∂∂P
P j + ∂∂PP
∇ .
∇
∇P
P =
= ∂
∂Px i + ∂
∂Py j + ∂∂Pz kk
∇P = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
∇ .
∂x ∂y ∂z
where ∇ P∇ is sometimes written as grad P. The quantity ∇ P is actually a vector of
∇PP
the pressure
∇Pgradients in the three directions, x, y and z as follows:
∂∂P P i
∂∂P x i
∂∂xx i
∇ ∂∂P P j
P =
∇P = ∂∂P j
∇P = ∂yy j
∂y
∂∂P P k
∂∂∂Pzz kk
∂z
14
∂∂P ∂P ∂∂P
P
P ii,, ∂P jj,, and
and kk
∂P
i
2
∂x
Basic
∂P Concepts
in Reservoir Engineering
∇P = j
∂y
∂P k
∂z
∇ .
This is shown schematically in Figure 6 where the three components of the vector
∂P ∂P ∂P
∇ P, i.e. i, j, and k , and are shown by the dashed lines.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∆
z P Unit vectors
k i
j
y
∇ .
Figure 6
The definition of grad P or x
∇P
Divergence (or div) is the dot product of the gradient operator and acts on a vector
to produce a scalar. The operator is denoted as follows:
.
∇ = i
∂
∂∂x
. . ∂
∂∂y
j
∂
k
∂∂z
.
.
∇ = i
∂x
. . ∂y
j
∂z
k .
.
For example, taking
∇ = i. .
∂ the divergence
∂
j k .
∂ of the Darcy u i
velocity vector, u, gives the
.. . .
following:
. . . .. z ∂∂ i ∂ j ∂
x
∂∇ u ∂=∂x ∂ i ∂∂y ∂∇j ∂=
.
∇ = i j
∂y ∂∂x ∂z ∂∂y
k k uu yx ij
∂∂zx ∂y ∂z
k
∂x
.
∇ u = i
∂x
. . ∂y
j
∂
.
k u zy kj
∂z u i
∂ u z k
. . . .
x
∂ ∂ ux i
∇ u = i j u x i k ∂ u y j ∂
. . . . .
∂
. . .. .
∂ ∂∂x ∂∂y∇ u ∂= z i x
u i j∂u k ∂uu y j
∇ u
where we∇can = i
∂xexpand
u = ∂the
∂ j ∂ k
y i RHS∂zofj the
∂∂x (3x1)
u ∂
above
∂∂y matrix u∂∂zto
j
.
. .
k x uu zxy ij =
y ∂equation u
a “1x1
k ∂by x ∂z
i i + out
y multiplying
matrix”
y the
.
∂u
j j +first z k k
∂∂uyuyisz kascalar
(1x3) matrix by the second zkobtain ∂∂ux which ∂∂uzz
as follows: .
∇ u = i
∂x
. . ∂y
j . . .
k u zy kj = x i i +
∂z u i ∂x ∂y
jj + .
∂z
k k
∂ u z k ∂u x
.. . .. .. . . . .
x
∂ ∂ ∂uuy i ∂ u
∇i i =u j =j = k ik = 1 j u x i k ∂ u y j =∂ i i∂ + xj j + ∂uz k k
.
∇ u = i
. ..
∂
..
∂∂x
j
∂∂y∇ u ∂= . . . .. .
z ∂u ∂x∂u y k ∂yu∂ujz = ∂zx i i +
k u y j ∂=xui z kxi ∂iy+j
∂ j j + y k k ∂x
z
.
i i∂x= j j =∂ky k = 1 ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
u z k u z k
.. . ∂u x ∂u y ∂u z
.
∇i i =u j =j = k k =+1 +
∂uz
.
where
i i =we . ..
j j∇use
= kthe
∂∂ux
.
uk =relationships,
= 1 x +
∂∂uy
y ∂ . .
i i += j j z= k k = 1 , to obtain:
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
. .
∇P ∇ ∇P∂u x
∇ u = +
∂u y
+
∂u z
.
∇ u =∇P ∇ .
∂u x ∇P∂∂uxy
+
∂∂uy . ∂z ∂u x
+ ∇z u = ∂x + ∂y + ∂z
∂u y ∂u z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂P
∇P ∇ ∇P . ∂x
i
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University ∂
∇P ∇ ∇P . ∂ ∂
.
∇P ∇ ∇P i
∂ ∂P
P
x ∂ P 2
15
∂ P
2
∂
. u = ∂∂x i. . . u j = ∂∂ux i.i + . .
x
∂ ∂ ∂u y ∂u z
∇ j k x
jj + k k
. . .
y
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
i i = j j = k k = 1 u z k
. . .
i i = j j = k k =1
∇ . u = ∂∂ux x
+
∂u y
+
∂u z∂
.
∂y∇ = ∂ z∂x i . ∂
j . ∂
k.
∂y
. ∂z
.. .
∂u ∂u y ∂u z ∇
∇ u = x + +
∇ ∇ ∂x ∂y ∂z
∇P ∇ ∇P. uquantity,
Likewise, we can take the divergence of the grad P vector, ∇ P, to obtain the xi
∇P ∇ ∇P .
∇ • ∇ P, (sometimes denoted div grad
∇ P), u as
∂
= follows:
i
∂
j
∂
.
k uy j . . .
∂x ∂P ∂y ∂z
∂x
i u z k
∂P
∂x
i
∇ . ∇P = i
. .
∂
j∂x
∂
. . . .
∂ ∂P ∂ 2 P
. .
∂2 P ∂2 P
∇ ∂ ∇P =∂ i ∂ j∂P k ∂2 P j ∂=2 P 2 i ∂i2 uP+ i 2 j j + 2 k k
k ∂y j ∂z= ∂iyi + 2 ∂ j xj + xk ∂ky ∂z∂u
. . . . .
∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z 2 ∂u x
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x 2
∇ u = i
∂P ∂x ∂P ∂y j . k
∂z
u y j
. = i i + . y
j j
∂u z
+ .
k k . . .
k k ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂z ∂z u z k
. . .. .
Again
i i = j using
j =i ki k=the
expression:
=j1jrelationships,
= k k =1 . . . .
i i = j j = k k = 1 , we obtain the familiar
∂z
2
∂x ∂y
2
∂y 2
∂z 2
..
k ∇P = k xx
k
yx
k
k xyyy
k xz ∂P ∂P
k yz ∂∂P
k ∇P = k yx k yy k yz ∂∂yx ∂x
P
∂P
k xx + k xy + k xz
∂y
∂P
∂z
k k k ∂ y
kk xx kk xy kk xz ∂P
zx zy zz
. zx zy zz ∂∂P P
∂P
k ∇P = k yx k yy k yz ∂z = k yx + k yy + k yz
∂y ∂x
∂P
∂y
∂P
∂z
k
∂ z
zx k zy k zz ∂P
k zx ∂P + k zy ∂P + k zz ∂P
∂Pz ∂P ∂P ∂P
16
k xx ∂∂xP + k xy ∂∂yP + k xz ∂∂Pz
∂∂Px k xx ∂x + k xy ∂y + k xz ∂z
∇P .
k∇∇PP k ∇P .
Basic Concepts
∂P in
k xx kxyk k xz k
∂Reservoir
P Engineering
∂x ∂x
k
2
. xy ∂P xz
xx
∂P
k ∇Pk = ∇
k
.
k yx k k
P = yyk yx yz kyy ∂yk yz
∂y
zx kzyk k zz k ∂Pk
∂P
zx zy zz
∂P k ∂P + k ∂P + k ∂P
xy
∂x ∂P ∂x k ∂P∂y + k ∂∂Pz + k ∂P
xx xz
k xx k xy k xz xz
xx
∂x xy
∂y ∂z
∂P ∂x ∂P
k .
∇P = k yx kyyk xxk yz k xy k xz =
∂P ∂x ∂P∂y
k yx + k yy ∂P + k yz ∂P
∂∂Pz
k ∇. ∂y
P =kzyk yxk zz kyy k yz = k yx + k yy + k yz
k zx
∂P ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂P
∂z
k k k k zx ∂P + k zy ∂P + k zz ∂P
zx
zy ∂z zz
∂P ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P
∂P ∂P
∂z k zx + k zy + k zz
∂x ∂y ∂z
giving the final
result: ∂P ∂P ∂P
k xx + k xy + k xz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
P ∂ P ∂P
.
∂Pk xx ∂P+ k xy ∂P + k xz
k ∇P = k yx + ∂kxyy + k∂yzy
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂z
k ∇ .
∂P ∂P ∂P
P = k
∂P ∂P ∂P
+ k
k zx yx+ ∂kxzy yy+ k∂zzy yz ∂z
∂x
+ k
∂y ∂z
∂P ∂P ∂P
k zx + k zy + k zz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Using the above concepts from vector calculus (div. and grad), we can extend the
Darcy Law (in the absence of gravity) to 3D as follows by introducing the tensor
permeability, k :
∂P ∂P ∂∂PP ∂P
∂P
k xx ∂P+ k xy +k xxk xz + k xy
∂x ∂x∂x ∂y ∂∂xz ∂y
k xx k xy k xz
k∂xx
P k xy1 k xz∂P
∂P
1
. 1
∇P = 1- k yx k yy k yz1 = - k yx ∂P+ k yy 1 + k yz ∂P
∂P
u= - k
µ u .
= - µkk ∇kP = k- k∂yxy k yyµ k yz∂x = -∂y k yx ∂z +
µ zx zy zzµ ∂P ∂x
∂P
k yy
∂P∂y ∂Pµ ∂P
∂y
k zx k zy kkzz
∂z zx + k zy + k zz
∂ x ∂
P ∂y ∂ P ∂z
∂P
k zx + k zy
∂z
∂x ∂y
which we maywrite
∂Pas:
∂P ∂P
ux k xx + k xy + k xz
∂x ∂ y ∂z
1 ∂P
∂P∂ P ∂P ∂P ∂P
u = u y = - kuyx + k xx + k+yz k xy
k yy + k xz
µ x ∂x
∂y ∂ x ∂z
∂z ∂y
∂P
k zx 1+
∂P ∂P
uz k zy ∂P + k zz ∂P ∂P
u = u y ∂=
yx
x - k ∂y
+ ∂kzyy + k yz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P u ∂P ∂P∂P ∂P ∂P
u x = - k xx z+ k xy k+zx k xz + k zy + k zz
∂x
µ
∂x
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u y = - k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂x 1 ∂∂yP ∂z ∂P ∂P
u =- k + k
xx Heriot-Watt
xy + k xz 17
Institute of Petroleum
x Engineering,
µ ∂x University
∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P ∂P ∂P
k + k + k xz
ux
xx
∂x xy
∂y
∂z
∂P ∂P ∂P
u x k + k + k
1 ∂P x ∂Pz
xx xy xz
∂P y
u = u y = - k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u = u y = - k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂Px ∂∂Py ∂zP
uz k
zx + k zy + k zz
∂x ∂y ∂ z
∂P ∂velocity
P ∂P
u z the three
and we can identify components of the
k zx + k zy + k zz as follows:
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u x = - k xx + k xy + k xz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u x = - k xx + k xy + k xz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u y = - k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u y = - k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u z = - k zx + k zy + k zz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u z = - k zx + k zy + k zz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
If the permeability tensor is diagonal i.e. the cross-terms are zero as follows:
k xx 0 0
k = 0k k0yy 00
xx
0
k = 0 k0yy k0zz
0 0 k zz
then the various components of the Darcy law revert to their normal form and :
1 ∂P
ux = - k xx
µ ∂x
1 ∂P
u x = - 1 k xx ∂P
1 u = -∂µP k xx ∂x
u x = - kxxx µ x
µ u y = -∂1x k yy ∂P
µ ∂y
1 ∂P
u y = - 1 k yy ∂P
1 u = -∂µP k yy ∂y
u y = - kyyy µ 1 ∂∂Py
µ u z = -∂y k zz
µ ∂z
1 ∂P
u z = - 1 k zz ∂P
3.4 1 u = -∂µ P k zz ∂z with Gravity
u z =Simple
- kzzz Darcy µ1 Law ∂zP ∂z
µ u x = -∂of
In the presence z gravity
k xx the-1D gρDarcy Law becomes:
µ ∂x ∂x
1 ∂P ∂z
u x = - 1 k xx ∂P - gρ ∂z
1 u = -∂µP k ∂∂xz - gρ ∂x
u x = - kx∂xxz µ -xxgρ∂x ∂x
µ ∂=x cos θ ∂x
∂x
where, inthe∂zcase of a simple inclines system at a slope of θ, as shown in Figure 7,
∂∂xz = cos θ
∂z , =ascos θ
= cos ∂xθ 1 shown ∂Pin the figure above
and:
∂x u x = - k xx - g.ρ. cosθ
µ ∂x
1 ∂P
u x = - 1 k xx ∂P - g.ρ. cosθ
1 u = -∂µP k ∂x - g.ρ. cosθ
u x = - kxxx 2 πµkhr-xxgdP .ρ∂.xcosθ
µ Q = ∂x
µ dr
18 2 πkhr dP
Q = 2 πkhr dP
Q = dPµ dr
2 πkhr
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
Note that:
∂z
= cos θ
∂x
x
Figure 7
Radial form of the single- θ
which gives:
µQ r
∆P( r ) = µQ ln r
∆P( r ) = 2 πkh ln rw
2 πkh rw
20
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
At steady - state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out,
Qo and Qw, are the same:
∆Po
∆Pw
Qw Qw
Qo Qo
L
Where:
Qw and Qo = volumetric flow rates of water and oil;
A = cross-sectional area;
L = system length;
µw and µo = water and oil viscosities;
k = absolute permeabilities;
ΔPw and ΔPo = the pressure drops across the water and oil phases at
r steady-state
r flow conditions
µthe
Q water
drand
∫
krw and kdP ==
2 πkh r∫w r
oil relative permeabilities
r r
µQ dr
∫ dP = 2πkh ∫ r
ro
rw
NB the Units for the two-phase Darcy Law arerwexactly the same
rw as those in Figure
5.
µQ r
∆P( r ) =form of ln
The differential phase Darcy ∆Law µQ including
r
2 πkh the rtwo
w P( r )in= 1D, again
ln gravity
which is taken to act in the z-direction, is as follows: 2 πkh rw
k.k rw ∂Pw ∂z
uw = - - gρw k.k rw ∂Pw ∂z
µ ∂x ∂x uw = - - gρw
µ ∂x ∂x
k.k ro ∂Po ∂z
uo = - - gρo k.k ro ∂Po ∂z
µ ∂x ∂x uo = - - gρo
µ ∂x ∂x
where we note
∂P that the flow
∂P of the two phases (water and oil, in this case) depends
w
and o ∂P ∂P
∂x gradient
on the pressure phase; i.e. on w and o .
∂inx that
∂x ∂x
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 21
P (S )=P − P
= µQ∫ dr
∫ dP
∫ dP =2kπ.kh
k ∫∂P
r
rw khrwrw wr - gρw ∂z
urw w = - 2 πrw k.k rw ∂Pw ∂z
µ ∂x ∂x uw = - - gρw
µ ∂x ∂x
µQ r r
∆P∆(Pr()r=) k=.kµQln
ro ∂Pln ∂z
u o = - 2 π2khπ orwr-w gρo
kh uo = -
k.k ro ∂Po ∂z
- gρo
µ ∂x ∂x
µ ∂x ∂x
k.k ∂PwP ∂z∂z
u wu ∂=P=-w - k.rwk rw ∂∂P w- gρw
ρ
µand
The phase pressures, P∂and
x o
- g wx
∂ ∂SPw (S
= 1 - ∂SPo), are generally
∂x saturation,
w
P , at a given
∂x µ o ∂∂xx w w oand w
∂x pressure,
∂x as follows:
not equal. However, they are related through the capillary
k.kk.rok ∂P∂oP ∂z∂z
co(S
=- w-)µ= Proo ∂−x Po w- -gρgoρ∂o x
u=
u oP
Pc (Sw ) = Po − Pw
µ ∂x ∂x
More strictly, the capillary pressure is the difference between the non-wetting
∂Pc∂w(Pw)andnon
P S = P ∂P− wett . − Pwett .
phase pressure the Po
∂owetting-phase pressure; Pc (Sw ) = Pnon − wett . − Pwett .. We
of the w and
and ∂x pressure
can think ∂x capillary ∂x as a constraint on the phase pressures. That is, if
∂x
we know kthe capillary pressure function - from experiment , say - then, if we have
w = k k rw
Po at a given saturation, we can calculate Pw. Examples k w =of kcapillary
k rw pressure curves
(SwS) =in=Pthe
are alsoPshown
cP
c ( w) oP −
o
Glossary.
−PwP w
k o = k k ro
o = k k ro
Note that, as in the single-phase Darcy Law, we maykgeneralise the two-phase Darcy
PcP(Swto
expressions ) =
3D.
P Defining− Pthe combination of absolute permeability in its full
c ( )
S = non P − wett . − wett
kw, with non − wett . P.
wett .
tensor form,
k w and k o the phase relative permeabilities gives:
k w and k o
k wk = =k kk rwk
w rw
k ok = =k kk rok
o ro
where k wk and k o are the effective phase permeability tensors of water and oil,
w and k o
respectively. Using this notation, the Darcy velocity vectors for the water and oil, uw
and uo, may be written in 3D as follows:
1
uw = − k w .(∇Pw − ρw g∇z)
µw
1
uo = − k o .(∇Po − ρo g∇z)
µo
This form of these equations is particularly useful in deriving the two-phase flow
equations in their most general form (this will done in Chapter 5).
5. CLOSING REMARKS
- The single-phase Darcy law and its extension using vector calculus terminology
to a 3D version of the Darcy Law including tensor permeabilities;
22
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
- The two-phase Darcy Law and the related concepts that arise in two-phase
flow e.g. relative permeabilities (kro and krw), phase pressures (Po and Pw),
capillary pressure (Pc(Sw) = Po - Pw), etc.
Ideas and concepts developed here will be used in other parts of this course.
A full alphabetic list of References which are cited in the course is presented in
Appendix A. Many excellent texts have appeared over the years covering the basics
of Reservoir Engineering. Some of these are listed below, although this list is far
from comprehensive.
EXERCISE 1:
Np B B Swi + c f
As a reminder equation 8 is 1 − = 1 − oi + oi ∆P
N Bo Bo 1 − Swi
This is shown below
0.997
0.995
(1-Np/N)
0.993
Series 1
0.991
0.989
0.987
0.985
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-∆p (psi)
(ii) Note from the graph (or from your numerical calculation when plotting the
graph) that, at - ΔP = 200 psi, then (1 - Np/N) = 0.991. However, we know by field
observation that this 200 psi drawdown was caused by the production of 320 MSTB.
That is, we know that Np = 320 MSTB. Hence,
Input data: The initial water saturation, Swi = 0.1. The rock and water compressibilities
are, as follows:
The initial reservoir pressure is 5500 psi at which Boi = 1.3 and the bubble point is
at Pb = 4000 where Bo = 1.4. That is, the oil swells as the pressure drops as shown
below:
24
Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
2
1.4
Bo(P) = m.P + c
Oil FVF
Bo
1.3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 3
6. CLOSING REMARKS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter and the associated tutorials the student
should be able to:
Simulation Input
• Identify what questions the simulation is expected to address.
• Identify what data is required as input to perform the desired calculations.
• Format data correctly, taking account of keyword syntax and required units.
Simulation Output
• Select required output of calculations.
• Quality check output data to check for errors in input.
• Identify purpose of each output file and use post-processors to analyse data.
Analysis of Results
• Identify impact of reservoir engineering principles in calculation performed.
• Identify numerical effects and impact of grid block size and orientation on
results.
• Perform simple upscaling calculation to address numerical diffusion.
2
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHAPTER 3
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 3
In this section of the course, we set up a practical 3D, two phase (oil/water) reservoir
simulation model using the ECLIPSE reservoir simulator. This is proprietary
software of Schlumberger GeoQuest. The central objective of this exercise is to
get you actually applying reservoir simulation to a realistic (but quite simple) case.
However, there are also some tasks in the study itself - you can think of these as
the “objectives” if this were a real field case. One of the tasks in the exercise is
as follows: in your calculation, you should observe initial short-term rise in BHP
(bottom hole pressure) in the injection well and drop in BHP in the production well.
You are asked to explain these trends. This is good example of where you may
have run a calculation without necessarily thinking about what was going to happen
to the BHP (or it could be watercut at the producer, or field average pressure etc.).
However, when you study the simulator output - usually as graphs and figures - you
would notice the BHP trends. This would catch the attention of a good engineer
who would not be happy just to note it and move on. She or he would immediately
stop and think and ask a few questions, “What’s going on here?”, “Is this something
physical that I should expect or is there something wrong with the calculation?”.
The engineer would stop and work it out from their basic reservoir engineering
knowledge ... just as you are going to! The engineer would conclude that -
although I possibly didn’t expect it - this behaviour is perfectly understandable
and predictable.
From the above discussion, you can see that it is not just the mechanics of running
a numerical simulator and getting the results out that we want you to achieve in
this course. We want you to be able to formulate the right questions for a given
reservoir application, carry out the appropriate simulations and then interpret the
results correctly. The mechanics of running a simulation - if this was all you did - is
really a technician’s job, the important job of correctly formulating the simulation
problem, understanding the results and predicting reservoir performance is an
engineer’s job and this course is intended for the latter (or for the former strongly
intent on becoming the latter in the future!).
This section will not be very long since there are many excellent examples of
reservoir simulation studies elsewhere in this course e.g. Cases 1 - 3 in Chaper 1, the
SPE field cases. Some generalities on how to set up a reservoir simulation study were
also discussed in Chaper 1. Here, we will lay out more formally, the general procedues
broadly following the workflow of a typical simulation study.
When run, every reservoir simulator will require input data that defines the system
to be modelled, and should generate output data that represents the results of the
calculations which have been performed. Although different reservoir simulation
codes have different formats for entering data, they all have some basic components
in common. Most will read data from an input file. The input file must therefore
be set up before starting the simulation run. The data file may be set up by
manual editing (if it is in ASCII format), or by using a Graphical User Interface
(GUI). Whichever method is used, most data files will be divided into certain
key sections that define:
• Model dimensions
• Grid and rock properties
• Fluid properties
• Initial conditions
• Output requirements
• Production schedule
Individual parts of the input data may be set up by other programs that may be supplied
by the same supplier as the simulation code, or by other companies. These are referred
to as pre-processors: They are used to perform calculations that set up the model in
4
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
advance of the actual reservoir fluid flow calculation. Typically, a pre-processor is
used to set up the grid and to define the rock properties (permeability, porosity, etc.)
of each cell. Setting up a model with more than a few hundred cells would be very
laborious if performed by hand. These gridding packages are usually designed to
generate output that conforms to the input format of several of the more widely used
simulators. Thus, the reservoir simulation input data file need only refer to these
grid files by means of a simple “include” statement, and no further manipulation of
the grid is required by the flow simulator.
Indeed, any software that is used for setting up a part or the whole of an input
data file is termed a pre-processor.
The output of the reservoir flow calculations usually comes in two forms, which in
both cases results in the creation of files that can be stored and read at a later date. The
first category of output data is typically referred to as “summary” data and the second
type of output consists of grid data. The two types are as follows:
(a) Summary data: this consists of calculated parameters such as oil, water
and gas production rates, well bottom hole or tubing head pressures, etc. These
data may be plotted as line charts, usually as a function of time, either by using
specialised post-processing software, or by using standard graphing software such
as Microsoft Excel or Lotus 1,2,3.
(b) Grid data: in this type of data, values such as pressure or saturation to be
plotted for each cell at a given time step. These files are typically in binary format,
which means that they may only be read by appropriate post-processing software.
The reason that ASCII format is not generally used is one of disk space usage.
For example, a 100,000 cell model, with output data for 20 time steps, would
generate 2 million values of pressure (usually to eight significant figures)
during the course of the simulation, and similarly for every other property
such as phase saturations, etc.
Reservoir and fluid properties, such as layer permeabilities, porosity, oil and water
PVT and relative permeability data, are provided, as are the initial reservoir conditions
and production schedule (proposed injection and production rates).
The input data file, whether generated using a text editor or by GUI, consists of
various sections that incorporate all of these components just described. Here we will
go through the input file, TUT1A.DATA, used for this calculation. TUT1A.DATA
will also be used as a base case for other tutorial sessions associated with this
course. The data format is that required by the Schlumberger GeoQuest Reservoir
Technologies model, ECLIPSE 100, but other than syntactical differences, the style
of data entry is similar for most other simulators.
While the data file may be set up using a GUI, it is useful in the first instance to
set up a simple model using a text editor, thus ensuring by the end of the exercise
that every line of data is familiar and relatively well understood. This file can then
be used as a starting point for other models, which may be set up by modifying
the appropriate parts of this data file.
Figure 1.
A five spot pattern consists
of alternating rows of
production and injection
wells. The symmetry of the
system means that the flow
between any two wells can
Production well
be modelled by placing the
Injection well wells at opposite corners of
a Cartesian grid, and is
Two well quarter referred to as a quarter five-
five-spot grid
spot calculation.
6
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
4.2 ECLIPSE Syntax
Each item of data, such as porosities or relative permeabilities, are identified by use
of set keywords. The individual sections are also designated by keywords. The
syntax, format and function of each keyword may be found in the online manuals.
These also give examples of how the keywords may be used.
There are certain rules governing data entry for any simulator, and effort
must be made at the outset to get these right; otherwise setting up the input
data file can be very frustrating and as time consuming as performing the
calculations themselves.
ECLIPSE uses free format. This means that, with a few exceptions, as many
or as few spaces, tabs and new lines may be used as desired. However,
arranging the file appropriately, such as by lining data up in columns, etc., can
improve readability, reducing unnecessary typographical mistakes, and saving
time in the long run.
To illustrate the use of keywords, data and comments, the following style conventions,
illustrated in Figure 2, will be used here.
Figure 2.
FEATURE EXAMPLE FROM DATA FILE
Example of conventions
used to identify components Comments Number of cells
of input data file. It should NX NY NZ
be noted that the actual
input file should be in
ASCII text format only KEYWORDS DIMENS
(as produced by Notepad,
WordPad or other basic Data (followed by /) 5 5 3/
text editor), and should
not contain italic, bold or 4.3 Model Dimensions
coloured letters. The first step in setting up a model is to define:
• Title of run
• Type of geometry to be used (Cartesian or radial, though Cartesian is
often the default)
• Number of cells in each direction (x, y, z, or r, θ, z)
• Phases to be modelled (oil, water, gas, vapourised oil in the gas, dissolved
gas in the oil)
The model set up in Tutorial 1A consists of a Cartesian grid of 5 x 5 x 3 cells, each cell
having dimensions of 500 ft x 500 ft x 50 ft, as shown in Figure 3.
500 1
500
2
500 3
500 4
500
5
1 50
2 50
3 50
1 Figure 3.
500
500 2 Cartesian grid of 5 x 5 x
500 3 3 cells used to represent
500 4 reservoir system to be
500 5 modelled in Tutorial 1A.
The above information is all that is required for defining the dimensioning data
that goes in the first section of an ECLIPSE data file, referred to as the RUNSPEC
section. The form in which this data should be entered is shown in Figure 4.
The following keywords are used:
8
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
UNIFOUT Unified output file
START Start date of simulation (1st day of production)
TUT1A. DATA
RUNSPEC
TITLE
3D 2-Phase
Number of cells
NX NY NZ
DIMENS
5 5 3/
Phases
OIL
WATER
Units
FIELD
WELLDIMS
2 3 2 1/
If a Cartesian grid is being used, as here, then the size of each cell may be specified by
providing data on the length, width and height of each cell. The current grid has 75
cells (5 x 5 x 3), and thus 75 values must be specified for each property.
Each cell in the model is to be 500 ft long, by 500 ft wide, by 50 ft thick. There are
three layers, the top layer being at a depth of 8,000 ft. All three layers are assumed
to be continuous in the vertical direction, so there is no need to specify the
depths of the second and third layers - the simulator can calculate these implicitly
from the depth of the top layer and the thickness of the top and middle layers.
The formation has a uniform porosity of 0.25, and the layer permeabilities in
each direction are given below.
Permeability (mD)
Layer Horizontal Vertical
X direction Y direction Z direction
1 200 150 20
2 1000 800 100
3 200 150 20
This represents the minimum information that is required for defining the grid and
rock properties for the second section of an ECLIPSE data file, referred to as the GRID
Section. It is useful to output a file that allows these values to be viewed graphically
by one of the post-processors. This enables a quick visual check that the grid data has
been entered correctly. The following keywords are used:
ECLIPSE normally assumes that grid values, such as DY, DZ, PERMX, PORO, etc.,
are being entered for the whole grid. If values are only being entered for a subsection
of the grid, then the BOX and ENDBOX keywords may be used to identify this
subsection (an example is given later). If no BOX is defined, or after an ENDBOX
10
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
keyword, ECLIPSE assumes that cell values are being defined for the entire grid.
The values of each grid property, such as cell length, DX, are read in a certain order.
If the co-ordinates of each cell are specified by indices (i, j, k), where i is in the X
direction, j is in the Y direction, and k is in the Z direction, then the values are read
in with i varying fastest, and k slowest. The first value that is read in is for cell
(1, 1, 1), and the last one is for cell (NX, NY, NZ), where NX, NY and NZ are the
number of cells in the X, Y and Z directions respectively.
Thus, in this (NX=5, NY=5, NZ=3) model, the values of DX (and every other
grid value such as DY, DZ, PERMX, PORO, etc.) will be read in in the order
shown in Figure 5.
No i j k 500 1
1 1 1 1 500
2
2 2 1 1 500 3
3 3 1 1
500 4
4 4 1 1
5 5 1 1 500
5
6 1 2 1
7 2 2 1 1 50
Figure 5. 8 3 2 1 2 50
. . . . 3 50
Order in which cell property . . . .
500 1
values are read in by 24 4 5 1
25 5 5 1 500 2
ECLIPSE, starting at (1, 1, 26 1 1 2 500 3
1), and finishing at (5, 5, 3), 27 2 1 2 500 4
. . . . 5 Y X
with the i index varying the . . . .
500
DX
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 /
Most simulators will allow the definition of multiple cells, each with the same
size, to be lumped together. In ECLIPSE this is done by prefixing the value
(cell size) by the number of cells to be assigned that value, and separating these
two numbers by a “*”. Thus, since all 75 cells in the model have a length of
500 ft, this may be entered as:
DX
75*500 /
Note that the multiplier comes first, then the “*” operator, then the value. There
should be no spaces on either side of the “*”.
If cell depths are only to be defined for the top layer of cells using the TOPS
keyword, then a box must be used to identify this top layer as the only section of the
grid for which depths are being defined. The box that encompasses the top layer is
defined as from 1 to 5 in the X direction, 1 to 5 in the Y direction, but only 1 in the Z
direction. Instead of 75 cells for the whole model, there are only 25 cells in this section
of the model, and thus only 25 values of TOPS need be defined:
BOX
1 5 1 5 1 1 /
TOPS
25*8000 /
ENDBOX
The GRID Section of the Tutorial 1A input data file should be as shown in
Figure 6.
12
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
GRID
DY
75*500 /
DZ
75*50
BOX
1 5 1 5 1 1/
TOPS
25*8000 /
ENDBOX
PERMY
25*150 25*800 25*150 /
PERMZ
25*20 25*100 25*20 /
The densities of the three phases ρoil, ρwater and ρgas are given below. (Note that all three
densities must be supplied, even though free gas is not modelled in the system.)
The oil formation volume factor (Bo) and viscosity (μo) is provided as a function
of pressure (P).
At a pressure of 4,500 psia, the water formation volume factor (Bw) is 1.02 rb/stb,
the compressibility (cw) is 3 x 10-6 PSI-1 and the viscosity (μw) is 0.8 cP. Water
compressibility does not change with pressure within the pressure ranges encountered
in the reservoir, and thus viscosibility (∂μw/∂P) is 0. The rock compressibility at a
pressure of 4,500 psia is 4 x 10-6 PSI-1. Water and oil relative permeability data and
capillary pressures are given as functions of water saturation below.
This data should be inserted in the third section of the ECLIPSE data file, the
PROPS section. The form in which this data should be entered is shown in Figure
7. The following keywords are used:
14
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
SWOF Table relating oil and water relative permeabilities and oil-water
capillary pressure to water saturations
PROPS
Densities in lb/ft3
Oil Water Gas
DENSITIES
49 63 0.01 /
PVDO
300 1.25 1.0
800 1.20 1.1
6000 1.15 2.0 /
PVTW
4500 1.02 3e-06 0.8 0.0 /
Rock compressibility
P Cr
ROCK
4500 4e-06 /
SWOF
0.25 0.0 0.9 4.0
0.5 0.2 0.3 0.8
0.7 0.4 0.1 0.2
Figure 7.
0.8 0.55 0.0 0.1 /
PROPS Section of input
data file.
1) Enumeration. In this method of initialising the model, the pressure, oil and water
saturations in each cell at time = 0 are set in much the same way as permeabilities and
porosities are set. This method is the most complicated and least commonly used. A
failure to correctly account for densities when setting the pressures in cells at different
depths will result in a system that is not initially in equilibrium.
2) Equilibration. This is the simplest and most commonly used method for
initialising a model. A pressure at a reference depth is defined in the input data,
and the model then calculates the pressures at all other depths using the previously
entered density data to account for hydrostatic head. The depths of the water-oil
and gas-oil contacts are also specified if they are within the model, and the initial
saturations can then be set depending on position relative to the contacts. (In
a water-oil system, above the oil-water contact the system is at connate water
saturation, below the contact Sw = 1.)
3) Restart from a previous run. If a model has already been run, then one of the
output time steps can be used to provide the starting fluid pressures and saturations
for a subsequent calculation. This option will typically be used where a model has
been history matched against field data to the current point in time, and various
future development scenarios are to be compared. A restart run will use the
last time step of the history-matched model as the starting point for a predictive
calculation, which may then be used to assess future performance. Time is saved
by not repeating the entire calculation.
In this example the model is being set up to predict field performance from first oil,
and thus there is no previous run to use as a starting point. The equilibration model is
to be used, with an initial pressure of 4,500 psia at 8,000 ft. The model should initially
be at connate water saturation throughout. To achieve this, the water-oil contact
should be set at 8,200 ft, 50 ft below the bottom of the model. The water saturation
in each cell will be set to the first value in the relative permeability (SWOF) table,
which is 0.25. (If any cells were located below the water-oil contact, they would
be set to the last value in the relative permeability table, which would thus have to
include relative permeability and capillary pressure values for Sw = 1.)
An output file containing initial cell pressures and saturations for display should
be requested so that a visual check can be made that the correct initial values of
these properties have been calculated.
This initialisation data should be inserted in the fourth section of the ECLIPSE
data file, the SOLUTION section. The form in which this data should be entered is
shown in Figure 8. The following keywords are used:
SOLUTION Section header
16
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
EQUIL Equilibration data (pressure at datum depth and contact depths)
RPTRST Request output of cell pressures and saturations at t = 0
SOLUTION
EQUIL
8075 4500 8200 0/
Most of the summary keywords consist of four letters that follow a basic
convention.
1st letter:
F - field
R - region
W - well
C - connection
B - block
2nd letter:
O - oil (stb in FIELD units)
W - water (stb in FIELD units)
G - gas (Mscf in FIELD units)
L - liquid (oil + water) (stb in FIELD units)
V - reservoir volume flows (rb in FIELD units)
T - tracer concentration
S - salt concentration
C - polymer concentration
N - solvent concentration
4th letter:
R - rate
T - total
Thus, use of the keyword FOPR requests that the Field Oil Production Rate be output,
and WWIT represents Well Water Injection Total, etc.
Keywords beginning with an F refer to the values calculated for the field as a whole,
and require no further identification. However, keywords beginning with another
letter must specify which region, well, connection or block they refer to. Thus,
for example, a keyword such as FOPR requires no accompanying data, but WWIT
must be followed by a list of well names, terminated with a /. If no well names
are supplied, and the keyword is followed only by a /, the value is calculated for all
wells in the model. An example would be
FOPR
WWIT
Inj /
WBHP
/
In addition, the output Run Summary file (.RSM) should be defined such that it
can easily be read into MS Excel.
The form in which this data should be entered is shown in Figure 9. The
following keywords are used:
18
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
WBHP Well Bottomhole pressure
FOPR Field Oil Production Rate
FWPR Field Water Production Rate
FOPT Field Oil Production Total
FWPT Field Water Production Total
WWCT Well Water Cut
CPU CPU usage
EXCEL Create summary output as Excel readable Run Summary file
SUMMARY
CPU usage
TCPU
Figure 9.
SUMMARY Section of Create Excel readable run summary file (.RSM)
EXCEL
input data file.
A production well, labeled PROD and belonging to group G1, is to be drilled in cell
position (1,1), and a water injection well, INJ belonging to group G2, is to be drilled
in cell (5,5). Both wells will have 8 inch diameters, and should be completed in
all three layers. They both have pressure gauges at their top perforation (8,000 ft).
Both will be open from the start of the simulation, enabling production of 10,000
stb/day of liquid (oil + water) from the system, and pressure support provided by
injection of 11,000 stb/day of water. The simulation should run for 2,000 days,
outputting data every 200 days.
A number of keywords in the SCHEDULE section will be able to read in data that
the user may wish to default or not supply all. This can be done by using the “*”
character, with the number of values to be defaulted or ignored on the left, and the
space to the right left blank. Thus “1* “ ignores one value, “2* “ ignores the next
two values, etc. For example, in the COMPDAT keyword, we may wish to specify
values for items 1 to 6, and item 9 (which is the wellbore diameter), but items 7 and 8
should remain unspecified. This may be achieved as follows:
Completion interval
Well Location Interval Status Well
name I J K1 K2 O or S ID
COMPDAT
Item number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PROD 1 1 1 3 OPEN 2* 0.6667 /
/
These keywords should appear as the last section of the data file as shown in Figure
10. Although not the case in this simple example, this section will typically be the
longest, containing flow rates for each well on a monthly basis for the history of the
field. It should be noted that the time steps input here refer to time intervals at which
20
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
data are output. The simulator will try to use these time step sizes as numerical
time step also, but if the calculations do not converge, it will automatically cut the
numerical time step sizes.
SCHEDULE
RPTRST
BASIC=2 NORST=1 /
WELSPECS
PROD G1 1 1 8000 OIL /
INJ G2 5 5 8000 WATER /
/
Completion interval
Well Location Interval Status Well
name I J K1 K2 0 or S ID
COMPDAT
PROD 1 1 1 3 OPEN 2* 0.6667 /
INJ 5 5 1 3 OPEN 2* 0.6667 /
/
Production control
Well Status Control Oil Wat Gas Liq. Resv BHP
name mode rate rate rate rate rate lim
WCONPROD
PROD OPEN LRAT 3* 10000 1* 2000 /
/
Injection control
Well Fluid Status Control Surf Resv Voidage BHP
Name TYPE mode rate rate frac flag lim
WCONINJ
INJ WATER OPEN RATE 11000 3* 20000 /
/
Having saved the input data file, the GeoQuest Launcher may be used to run
ECLIPSE, and the user will be prompted to locate the input file. The simulation
will then start, and will run by reading every keyword in the order in which
they appear in the input file.
TUT1A.PRT The .PRT file is an ASCII file that is generated for every
successful and unsuccessful run. It contains a list of the keywords, and will
indicate if any keywords have been incorrectly entered. If the simulation fails,
this file should be checked for the cause of the failure. A search for an ERROR
in this file will usually reveal which keyword was the culprit. If the run was
successful, this file will contain summary data such as field average pressure
and water cut for each time step.
TUT1A.GRID The .GRID file is a binary file that contains the geometry of the
model, and is used by post processors for displaying the grid outline.
TUT1A.INIT The .INIT file is a binary file that contains initial grid property
data such as permeabilities and porosities. These may be displayed using a
post-processor to check that the data have been entered correctly, and to display
a map of field permeabilities, etc.
TUT1A.UNRST The .UNRST file is a unified binary file that contains pressure and
saturation data for each time step. These may be displayed using a post-processor,
or may be used as the starting point for an ECLIPSE restart run.
TUT1A.RSM The .RSM file is an ASCII file that can be read into MS Excel
to display summary data in line chart format. This file is only created once the run
has completed. During the run the summary data is stored in file TUT1A.USMRY,
which is a binary file readable only by the GeoQuest post-processors.
The GeoQuest post-processors are Graf and FloViz. During this course FloViz is used
for 3D displays of the model, showing, for example, progression of the water flood
22
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
by displaying saturations varying with time (Figure 11). Excel is used to display line
charts such as water cut vs. time, etc. Both grid and line charts may be displayed in
Graf, which is a powerful though more complicated post-processor than FloViz. The
functionality of Graf is being replaced by ECLIPSE Office, which is a GUI that may
be used for setting up data files and viewing results, and may optionally be used for
subsequent tutorial sessions. However, students are encouraged to use a basic text
editor for pre-processing, and Excel and FloViz for post-processing for Tutorial 1A,
since this will give a better understanding of the calculations being performed.
Figure 11
FloViz visualisation of
water saturation for four
time steps, showing
progression of water flood
in Tutorial 1A. The
injection well is on the left
and the production well on
the right of the 5 x 5 x 3
model.
6. CLOSING REMARKS
In this section of the course, we have presented the working details of how to set up
a a practical reservoir simulation model. We have used the Schlumberger GeoQuest
ECLIPSE software for the specific case presented here. However, the general
procedures are very similar for most other commercially available simulators.
The various input data that are required should be quite familiar to you from the
discussion in the introductory chapter of the course (Chapter 1). However, how
these are systematically organised as input for the simulator should now be clear.
The vast possibilities for simulation output have also been discussed in this section
and you should know be aware of how to choose this output, organise it is files and
then visualise it later. The issue of visualisation was also discussed previously but
its value should be better appreciated by the student.
A.
Prepare an input data file for simulating the performance of a two-phase (water/oil)
three dimensional reservoir of size 2500’ x 2500’ x 150’, dividing it into three layers of
equal thickness. The number of cells in the x and y directions are 5 and 5 respectively.
Other relevant data are given below, using field units throughout:
Permeability in x direction: 200 mD for 1st and 3rd layers and 1000 mD for
2nd layer.
Permeability in y direction: 150 mD for 1st and 3rd layers and 800 mD for
2nd layer.
Permeability in z direction: 20 mD for 1st and 3rd layers and 100 mD for 2nd
layer.
500 1
500
2
500 3
500 4
500
5
1 50
2 50
3 50
500 1
500 2
500 3
500 4 Figure 1
500 5 Schematic of model.
24
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
Water PVT Data at Reservoir Pressure and Temperature.
Pressure Bw cw μw Viscosibility
(psia) (rb/stb) (psi-1) (cp) (psi-1)
Pressure Bo Viscosity
(psia) (rb/stb) (cp)
The oil-water contact is below the reservoir (8,200 ft), with zero capillary pressure
at the contact.
Drill a producer PROD, belonging to group G1, in Block No. (1, 1) and an injector
INJ, belonging to group G2, in Block No. (5, 5). The inside diameter of the wells is
8”. Perforate both the producer and the injector in all three layers. Produce at the
gross rate of 10,000 stb liquid/day and inject 11,000 stb water/day. The producer has
a minimum bottom hole pressure limit of 2,000 psia, while the bottom hole pressure
in the injector cannot exceed 20,000 psia. Start the simulation on 1st January 2000,
and use 10 time steps of 200 days each.
• Initial permeability, porosity and depth data (keyword INIT in GRID section)
• Initial grid block pressures and water saturations into a RESTART file
(keyword RPTRST in SOLUTION section)
Procedure:
2 Activate the ECLIPSE Launcher from the Desktop or the Start menu.
4 When the simulation has finished, use Excel to open the output file
TUT1A.RSM, which will be in the \eclipse\tut1 folder. You will need to
view.
“Files of type: All files (*.*)”
and import the data as “Fixed width” columns.
5 Plot the BHP of both wells (WBHP) vs. time and the field average pressure
(FPR) vs. time on Figure 1.
6 Plot the water cut (WWCT) of the well PROD and the field oil production
rate (FOPR) vs. time on Figure 2.
7 Plot on Figure 3 the BHP values for the first 10 days in the range 3,500 psia
to 5,500 psia.
Explain the initial short-term rise in BHP in the injection well and drop in BHP in
the production well. Account for the subsequent trends of these two pressures and
of the field average pressure, relating these to the reservoir production and injection
rates, water cut and the PVT data of the reservoir fluids.
B.
Make a copy of the file TUT1A.DATA called TUT1B.DATA in the same folder
tut1.
By modifying the keyword TSTEP change the time steps to the following:
15*200
Modify the WCONINJ keyword to operate the injection well at a constant flowing
bottom hole pressure (BHP) of 5000 psia, instead of injecting at a constant 11,000
stb water/day (RATE).
Add field volume production rate (FVPR) to the items already listed in the SUMMARY
section.
Run Eclipse using the TUT1B.DATA file, and then plot the two following pictures
in Excel:
26
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
Figure 4: Both well bottom hole pressures and field average pressure vs.
time, showing pressures in the range 3,700 psia to 5,100 psia.
Figure 5: Field water cut and field volume production rate vs. time.
Account for the differences between the pressure profiles in this problem and Tutorial
1A. To assist with the interpretation, calculate total mobility as a function of water
saturation for 4 or 5 saturation points, using:
and show how this would change the differential pressure across the reservoir as
the water saturation throughout the reservoir increases. From Figure 5, explain the
impact of the WWCT profile (fraction) on the FVPR (rb/day).
C.
Copy file TUT1B.DATA to TUT1C.DATA in the same folder.
This time, instead of injecting at a constant flowing bottom hole pressure of 5000 psi,
let the simulator calculate the injection rate such that the reservoir voidage created
by oil and water production is replaced by injected water. To do this, modify the
control mode for the injection well (keyword WCONINJ) from BHP to reservoir rate
(RESV), and use the voidage replacement flag (FVDG) in item 8. Set the upper limit
on the bottom hole pressure for the injection well to 20,000 psia again.
Note the definitions given in the manual for item 8 of the WCONINJ keyword. Based
on the definition for voidage replacement,
reservoir volume injection rate = item 6 + (item 7 * field voidage rate)
Therefore, to inject the same volume of liquid as has been produced, set
item 6 to 0, and
item 7 to 1.
Run Eclipse using the TUT1C.DATA file, and then run Floviz, to display the grid
cell oil saturations (these displays need NOT be printed).
Discuss the profile of the saturation front in each layer, and explain how it is affected
by gravity and the distribution of flow speeds between the wells.
RUNSPEC
TITLE
DIMENS
OIL
WATER
FIELD
WELLDIMS
START
GRID
DX
DZ
PORO
X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Z1 Z2
BOX
TOPS
?DBOX
PERMX
PERMY
PERMZ
INIT
28
Reservoir Simulation Model Set-Up
3
PROPS
DENSITY
P Bo Vis
PVDO
P Bw Cw Vis Viscosibility
PVTW
P Cr
ROCK
Sw Krw Kro Pc
SWOF
SOLUTION
EQUIL
Block Block Create initial
P Sw restart file
RPTSOL
SUMMARY
RPTSMRY
RPTSCHED
WELSPECS
COMPDAT
WCONPROD
WCONINJ
DAYS
TSTEP
END
30
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
• understand and be able to describe the basic idea of gridding and of spatial and
temporal discretisation.
• be aware of all the main types of grid in 1D, 2D and 3D used in reservoir simulation
and be able to describe examples of where it is most appropriate to use the different
grid types.
• be familiar with more sophisticated issues in gridding such as the use of local grid
refinement (LGR), distorted, PEBI and corner point grids
• given a specific task for reservoir simulation, the student should be able to select
the most appropriate grid dimension (1D, 2D, 3D) and geometry/structure (Cartesian,
r/z, corner point etc.).
• be able to discuss the issues of grid fineness/coarseness (i.e. how many grid blocks
do we need to use) in terms of some examples of what can happen if an inappropriate
number of grid blocks are used in a reservoir simulation calculation.
• be able to describe the basic ideas behind streamline simulation and to compare it with
conventional reservoir simulation in terms of its advantages and disadvantages.
• be familiar with the different types of average used for single phase kA , two phase
relative permeabilities (krp) and for μp and Bp (p = o, w, g phase) when calculating
the block to block flows (Qp) in a reservoir simulator.
• be able to describe the physical justification for using the upstream value of two
phase relative permeabilities when calculating the block to block flows (Qp) in a
reservoir simulator.
• understand the origin of all the pressure drops that are experienced by the reservoir
fluids from deep in the reservoir, through to the wellbore and then to the surface
facilities and beyond
• know what a well model is and what productivity index (PI) is, including knowing
the radial Darcy Law and how this gives a mathematical expression for PI for single
phase flow (know the expression from memory).
• be able to describe the main issues in relating the pressure in the reservoir, Pe, at
some drainage radius, re, to an average grid block pressure and how this leads to the
Peaceman formula (Δr = 0.2 Δx) which is then used to calculate PI.
• be able to extend PI to the concept of multi-phase flow to calculate PIw and PIo.
2
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
• describe a well model for a multi layer system where there is two phase flow into
the wellbore.
• understand and be able to describe the various types of well constraint that can be
applied e.g. injection volume constrained wells, well flowing pressure constraints
and voidage replacement constraints.
This chapter deals with the related issues of grid selection and well modelling in
reservoir simulation.
Well Modelling: All interactions between the surface facilities and the reservoir
takes place through the injector and producer wells. It is therefore very important
to model wells accurately in the reservoir simulation model. The central issue with
a “well model” in a simulator is that it must represent a near singular line source within
(usually) a very large grid block. The basic ideas of well modelling are explained and
how simple well controls are applied is introduced. Modelling of horizontal wells
and the control of well hierarchies are also briefly discussed.
2.1 Introduction
By this point in the course, you will be familiar with the idea of gridding since it
has been discussed in Chapter 1 both in general terms and with reference to the
SPE examples (Cases 1 - 3; Section 1.3). You will also have seen how to set up a
3D grid in Chapter 3. Basically, the gridding process is simply one of chopping the
reservoir into a (large) number of smaller spatial blocks which then comprise the
units on which the numerical block to block flow calculations are performed. More
formally, this process of dividing up the reservoir into such blocks is known as spatial
discretisation. Recall that we also divide up time into discrete steps (denoted Δt) and
this related process is known as temporal discretisation. The numerical details of
how the discretisation process is carried out using finite difference approximations
of the governing flow equations is presented in Chapter 6. However, we would point
out that the grid used for a given application is a user choice - it is certainly not a
In a Cartesian grid, which to date has been the mot common type of grid used, we
denote the block size as Δx, Δy and Δz and these may or may not be equal. This grid
can also be in one dimension (1D), two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D).
Some typical examples of 1D, 2D and 3D Cartesian grids are shown in Figure 1.
This is the most straightforward type of grid to set up and typical application of such
grids are as follows:
- 2D Cartesian grids: 2D cross-sectional (x/z) grids may be used to; (a) study
vertical sweep efficiency in a heterogeneous layered system; (b) calculate water/oil
displacements in a geostatistically generated cross-section; (c) generate pseudo-relative
permeabilites (can be used to collapse a 3D calculation down to a 2D system); (d) to
study the mechanism of a gas displacement process - e.g. to determine the importance
of gravity etc. (Figure 1(e));
2D areal (x/y) grids may be used to; (a) calculate areal sweep efficiencies in a
waterflood or a gas flood; (b) to examine the stability of a near-miscible gas injection
within a heterogeneous reservoir layer; (c) examine the benefits of infill drilling in
an areal pattern flood etc. (Figures 1(c) and 1(d));
- 3D (x/y/z) Cartesian grids are used to model a very wide range of field wide reservoir
production processes and would often be the default type of calculation for a typical
full field simulation of waterflooding, gas flooding, etc. (Figure 1(f)).
Cartesian grids are clearly quite versatile but they are not appropriate for all flow
geometries that can occur in a reservoir. For example, close to the wellbore (of a
vertical well), the flows are more radial in their geometry. For such systems, an r/z
- geometry may be more appropriate as shown in Figure 2. An r/z grid is frequently
used when modelling coning either of water or gas into a producer. The pressure
gradients near the well are very steep and, indeed, we know from the discussion in
Chapter 2, section 3.5 that the pressure varies as ln(r/rw), where rw is the well radius.
For this reason, in coning studies, a logarithmically spaced grid is often used for
the grid block size, Δr; a logarithmic spacing divides up the grid such that (ri/ ri-1) is
constant where Δri = (ri- ri-1) as shown in Figure 2. For example, if we take rw = 0.5
ft and the first grid block size is, Δr1 = 1ft, then this sets (ri/ ri-1) = 3 since r0 = rw =
0.5ft and r1 = 1.5ft.; hence r2 = 3x1.5ft. = 4.5ft. and Δr2 = 3ft., r3 = 13.5ft and Δr3
= 9ft., and so on.
4
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
(a) 1D horizontal grid
∆x
∆z
W1 W3
y
∆z
x
∆x
Perspective view of
a 2D areal (x/y)
∆y reservoir simulation
grid: W = well
∆z
∆x
∆x
(f) a 3D Cartesian grid with variable vertical grid (Δz varies from layer to layer)
∆y
Figure 1
∆z Examples of 1D, 2D and 3D
Cartesian grids
∆x
Q top view
∆r
∆ri
rw
z
h ri
∆zi ri-1
r
Figure 2
r/z grid geometry - more
Notation: r = radial distance from well appropriate for modelling
∆r = radial grid size (can vary ∆r1, ∆r2, ...) flows in the near well
z = vertical coordinate
∆zi = vertical grid size (can vary ∆z1, ∆z2, ...) region even in a
h = height of formation heterogeneous layered
rw = wellbore radius system as shown.
6
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
discuss how to reduce this source of error in our simulations or to make it a minor
effect. The balance, as we will see, is between accuracy (usually by taking more
grid blocks) and computational cost. Ideally, we would like to capture all the main
reservoir processes (e.g. frontal displacement, crossflow, gravity segregation etc.) and
accurately forecast recovery to some acceptable percentage error, for the minimum
number of grid blocks.
A simple schematic of the way that the numerical dispersion error arises is shown
step by step in Figure 3. This figure illustrates a simple linear waterflood and we
imagine that each of the sub-figures shown from (a) to (e) represents a time step, Δt,
of the water injection process. Block i = 1 contains the injector well which is injecting
water at a constant volumetric rate of Qw, and block i = 5 contains the producer. The
system is initially at water saturation, Swc, and this water is immobile i.e. the relative
permeability of water is zero, krw(Swc) = 0. Each block has constant pore volume, Vp
= Δx.A.φ where φ is the porosity. In Figure 3(a), we see that after time, t = Δt, some
quantity of fluid has been injected into block i = 1; the volume of water injected is
Qw. Δt and this would cause a water saturation change in grid block i = 1, ΔSw1 = (Qw.
Δt)/Vp i.e. the new water saturation in this block is now, Swc+ (Qw. Δt)/Vp. Over the
first time step, no fluid flowed from block to block since the relative permeability of
all blocks was zero (krw(Swc) = 0). However, the relative permeability in block i = 1
is now krw(Sw1) > 0. The second time period of water injection is shown in Figure
3(b). Another increment of water, Qw. Δt, is injected into block i = 1 causing a further
increase in water saturation Sw1. However, over the second time period, krw(Sw1) > 0
and therefore water can flow from block i = 1 to i = 2, increasing the water saturation
such that Sw2 > Swc making the relative permeability in this block, krw(Sw2) > 0. In
the third time step, shown in Figure 3 (c), the same sequence occurs except that fluid
can now from block 1 → 2 and also 2 → 3, where for the same reasons as explained,
krw(Sw3) > 0. In the fourth and fifth time steps (Figures 3(d) and 3(e)), flow can
now go from block 3 → 4 and from 4 → 5 where, since krw(Sw5) > 0, then it can be
produced from this block, although the relative permeability in block 5 will be very
small. Hence, after only five time steps to time , t = 5Δt, the water has reached the
producer in block 5 from whence it can be produced (although not a very high rate
because the relative permeability is very small) and this is an unsatisfactory situation.
If we had taken 10 grid blocks, then clearly a similar argument would apply and water
would be produced after 10 time steps - with an even lower relative permeability in
block i = 10 - and this is more satisfactory. Indeed, this underlies why we take more
grid blocks. This simple illustration explains in a quite physical way the basic idea
of numerical dispersion.
krw
Swc = 20% Sor = 30%
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
Water
Injection Oil
Production
Qw Mixing due to numerical dispersion
& relative permeability effects
Time Step
∆x
(a) ∆Sw1 Sw = Swc 1
t = ∆t
i=1 i=2 i=3 i=4 i=5
(b) 2
t = 2.∆t
(c) 3
t = 3.∆t
(d) 4
t = 4.∆t
Figure 3
Effect of grid on water
(e) 5 breakthrough time - numer-
t = 5.∆t
ical dispersion.
The frontal spreading effect of numerical dispersion can be seen when we try to simulate
the actual saturation profile, Sw(x,t), in a 1D waterflood. Under certain conditions,
this may have an analytical solution, e.g. the well known Buckley-Leverett solution
described in Chapter 2, Section 4.2. This often has a shock front solution for the
advancing water saturation profile, Sw(x,t) as shown in Figure 4. Clearly, this sharp
front may be “lost” in a grid calculation since, at time t, the front will have a definite
position, x(t). However, in a grid system with block size Δx, any saturation front
can only be located within Δx as shown in Figure 4. If we take more grid blocks
(Δx decreases), then we will locate the front more accurately. Indeed, taking more
and more blocks we will gradually get closer to the analytical (correct) solution.
Hence, one method of reducing numerical dispersion is to increase the number of
grid blocks. An alternative is to use a numerical method which has inherently less
dispersion in it but we will not pursue this here. Another approach is to use pseudo
functions to control numerical dispersion - as we briefly introduced in Chapter 1
- and this is discussed further below.
8
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
1.0
Numerical Grid block size = ∆x
Analytical
solution
Sw
xf(t1)
Figure 4
The frontal spreading of
a Buckley-Leverett shock
0
front when calculated using ∆x x
a 1D grid block model
The effects on the breakthrough time and in recoveries of these two flow orientations
are shown in Figure 6. The I-P1 orientation tends to lead to somewhat earlier
breakthrough and a less optimistic recovery that the I-P2 orientation. The reasons
for this are intuitively fairly obvious.
"true"
Oil
recovery
recovery
grid Figure 6
aligned
Oil recoveries for “true”,
result
Time
aligned and diagonal flows
in 2D grid
The grid orientation error can be emphasised for certain types of displacement. For
example, in gas injection, gas viscosity is much less than the oil viscosity (μg << μo)
leading to viscous fingering instability. This is exaggerated when flow is along the
grid as in the I-P1 orientations.
Again, as for numerical dispersion, some grid refinement can help to reduce the grid
orientation effect. Alternative numerical schemes can also be devised to reduce this
source of error. In particular, in a 2D grid the flows are usually worked out using the
neighbouring grid blocks shown in Figure 7. The 5-point numerical scheme uses the
neighbours shown in Figure 7(a). If information from the blocks in Figure 7(b) are
used, the 9-point scheme that emerges helps greatly to reduce the grid orientation
error. We will not go into further technical details here.
(a) (b)
Figure 7
5 - point and 9 - point
schemes for discretising the
grid - the latter helps to
reduce grid orientation
effects
LGR options are supported by most major simulation models and the simplest version
is shown in Figure 8 (indeed, this simpler version is sometimes not referred to as
LGR). “True” LGR is shown in Figure 9 where the refined grid is clearly seen.
10
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
Figure 8
A simple version of local
grid refinement where the
grid is finer in the (central)
area of interest in the
reservoir
Figure 9
“True” local grid refine-
ment (LGR) where the
refined grid is embedded in
the coarser grid.
In addition to conventional LGR (Figure 9), we can also define Hybrid Grid LGR
as shown in Figure 10. Hybrid Grids are mixed geometry combinations of grids
which are used to improve the modelling of flows in different regions. The
most common use of hybrid grids are Cartesian/Radial combinations where
the radial grid is used near a well. Hybrid Grid LGR can be used in a similar
way to other LGR scheme.
producer
Coarse grid
in aquifer
Figure 10
A simple example of LGR
Hybrid Grid
and Hybrid Grid structure
An example of a study using PEBI grids is shown in Figure 12 where the particularly
flexible form of this grid is used to model faults in this particular case.
Another way of building distorted grids where the individual blocks retain some
broad relationship with an underlying Cartesian form is using corner point geometry
(Ponting, 1992). This is shown in Figure 13. This scheme is implemented in the
reservoir simulator Eclipse (GeoQuest, Schlumberger) where it has been applied
quite widely. In corner point geometry it appears rather tedious to build up a grid by
specifying all 8 corners of every block (although some are shared with neighbours).
However, if this approach is used, the engineer would virtually always have access to
grid building software although building complex grids can still be time consuming.
The engineer may be reluctant to use corner point geometry if there is a high likelihood
12
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
that the reservoir model will change radically. In future, this may be overcome by
auto-generating the corner point mesh directly from the geo-model (although some
upscaling may also be necessary in this process).
At present, corner point geometry is probably more common in fairly fixed base case
reservoir models that the engineer has fairly high confidence in. The model shown
in Figure 14 is constructed using corner point geometry since it has a major fault in
it between the aquifer and the main reservoir.
Coordinates of
vertices ( )
specified.
Block centres ( )
Figure 14
Complex reservoir model
constructed using corner
point geometry
(iii) Grid Fineness/Coarseness: How many grid blocks do we need to use? This
asks whether a few hundred or thousand is adequate or whether we need 10s or 100s
of thousands for an adequate simulation calculation.
We remind the student of the advice in Chapter 1. This was to carry out the reservoir
simulation calculation keeping firmly in mind the question which had to be answered or
the decision which had to be taken. Therefore, the issues of grid dimension, type and
fineness are directly related to the appropriate question/decision. However, as we will
see, there are several technical considerations that can guide us in these choices.
Essentially, all 3 choices (grid dimension, type and fineness) depend strongly on
the problem we are trying to solve. Consider the issues of grid dimension and type
together. A 2D x/z cross-sectional model (with dip if necessary) may be used to study
the effects of vertical heterogeneity - layering for example - on the sweep efficiency
or water breakthrough time. For a near-well coning study, an r/z grid is usually more
appropriate since it more closely resembles the geometry of the near well radial flow.
2D x/z grids are also used to generate pseudo relative permeabilities for possible use in
2D areal models. For full field simulations, 3D grids are generally used which in most
models are still probably Cartesian with varying grid spacing in all three dimensions.
In recent years, other types of grid such as distorted or corner point grids are being
applied - especially if a geocellular model has been generated as part of the reservoir
description process. Such guides are also applied in some studies to model major
faults in reservoirs. Flow through major faults can lead to communication between
non neighbour blocks and this can be modelled in some simulators by defining non-
neighbour grid block connections as shown schematically in Figure 15.
Fault
L1
L2
L3
L1
L2
L4
L3
Figure 15
Grid system at a fault which
L4
may have non-neighbour
connections
The issue of grid fineness/coarseness, or how many grid blocks to use in a given
simulation, can sometimes be quite subtle as we will show below. However, in
many practical calculations, some “reasonable” and practical number of grid block is
chosen by the engineer. Then, this can be checked by refining the grid and seeing if
the answers are close enough to the coarser calculation. If, as we carry out this grid
14
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
refinement, the answer - e.g. recovery profiles and water etc. - no longer changes, the
calculation is said to be “converged” and is probably quite reliable. By “reliable”,
we mean that the grid errors are probably a small contribution of to the overall
uncertainties of the whole calculation. If the grid is far from being converged, then
comparisons between different sensitivity calculations may be masked by numerical
errors. These various points are illustrated by the two examples below.
The two examples used to show the importance of the number of grid blocks are:
(i) Example 1: the effect of vertical grid fineness (i.e. NZ blocks) on a miscible
water-alternating-gas (MWAG) process.
Example 1: Figures 16(a) and 16(b) shows the recovery results (at a given time
or pore volume throughput) for both a waterflood and an MWAG flood in the same
system each as a function of 1/NZ. The difference between the two calculations is
the incremental oil recovered by the MWAG process. The economics of performing
MWAG depends on how large this difference is. The purpose of plotting this vs.
(1/NZ) is that we can extrapolate this to zero i.e., effectively to NZ → ∞. Taking
the results at NZ = 2 (1/NZ = 0.5) shows an incremental recovery of (72% - 36%)
= 36% of STOIIP which is a huge increase and would make such a project very
attractive. However, as we refine the vertical grid, the waterflood recovery increases
while the MWAG recovery decreases, i.e. the calculations move closer together and
the incremental oil is greatly reduced. Indeed, as we extrapolate to (1/NZ) = 0, we
see that the incremental oil is only (47.5% - 47%) = 0.5% which is well within the
error band of the calculation. So, rather than having a very attractive project, we
appear to have a completely marginal or non-existent improved oil recovery scheme.
Certainly, performing just one coarse grid calculation and taking the results at face
value would be very misleading in this case.
Example 2: The vertical equilibrium (VE) condition in a gas flood is where the
gas if fully segregated by gravity from the oil. This limit has a simple analytical
form (not discussed here) which can be written down without doing a grid block
calculation. However, we can test the numerical simulation by seeing how many
blocks (NZ again) we need to correctly reproduce the VE limit. The answer is rather
surprising as shown by the results in Figure 17. These results show that 200 layers
are needed to fully resolve the gas “tongue” at the top of the reservoir. Clearly, if
we just guessed that 5 vertical blocks would be enough and did not check, then our
calculation would be significantly in error.
The two examples above illustrate how the number of blocks chosen for a simulation
can strongly affect the results. It shows the need to check that a calculation has
converged or that changing the number of grid blocks does not significantly change
the answers.
2
70
100 Process ==> Waterflooding 3 Oil
60
90 Gas
Vertical Grid Refinement NZ
50 is refined 1 --> 0
As vertical gridNX Figure 16
80 NZ Water
1
2 The effect of vertical grid
Recovery
40
70 3 Oil
refinement on recovery in
30 Homogeneous Model, kv/kh = 0.1
Recovery Efficiency,
60
NZkv/kh = Gas
Stratified Model, 1.2 HCPVI, 0.02 (a) a waterflood and (b) a
Extrapolated RE = 27.6%
20 Homogeneous
As vertical grid is refined 1 Model, kv/kh = 0.01
--> 0
50 NZ MWAG displacement in a
10
40 2D cross-sectional model
0
30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 Homogeneous
0.35 0.40 Model, 0.45kv/kh = 0.1 0.55
0.50 0.60
1 Stratified Model, 1.2 HCPVI, kv/kh = 0.02
20
Extrapolated RE = 27.6% /nz grid blocksHomogeneous Model, kv/kh = 0.01
10
Vertical Grid Refinement
100 NX
(b) Extrapolation
0 of Predicted MWAG Recovery Efficiency for 2D Stratified Model
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 1 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
C Sand Base90 Case 1 2
/nz grid blocks
Water
3
80 Oil
%ooIPEfficiency, %ooIP
40
70 Gas
Variable Width Homogeneous Model, side solver
As vertical 1 -->
Extrapolated REgrid is refined
= 35.3% 0Stratified Model, 25% slug, 1.2 HCPVI, kv/kh = 0.02
30 NZ Homogeneous Model, kv/kh = 0.01
Recovery Efficiency,
60
20
50 Process ==> Wiscible Water - Alternating - Gas (MWAG)
10
40 Homogeneous Model, kv/kh = 0.1
Variable Width Homogeneous Model, side solver
0 Extrapolated RE = 35.3% Stratified Model, 25% slug, 1.2 HCPVI, kv/kh = 0.02
30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25Homogeneous
0.30 0.35Model, kv/kh 0.45
0.40 = 0.01 0.50 0.55 0.60
1
20 Process ==> Wiscible/nzWater
grid blocks
- Alternating - Gas (MWAG)
10
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
1
/nz grid blocks
16
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
Gravity Dominated
0.5 Gas
0.45 x x
x x
x x Oil
0.4 x x x
x x
Recovery factor
0.35 x x
Figure 17 x x
x
0.3 x VE Limit
Resolving the gas “tongue” x
0.25 x
in the Vertical Equilibrium x
0.2 x
fine grid : 5 layers
(VE) limit in a gas - oil 0.15
x
fine grid : 25 layers
x
fine grid : 50 layers
displacement by increasing 0.1 x x fine grid : 200 layers
the number of vertical grid 0.05 x coarse grid
Prod
a) Permeability map with an
injector and a producer wells
Inj
b) Solve the pressure field
Figure 18
Schematic of streamline
(c) (d) simulation from the work of
From Gautier et al (1999) Gautier et al (1999)
I1
• IW flows faster in a
direct line between the
wells and slower in
P1
the corners
Streamline simulation has gained some popularity in recent years since 3D streamline
codes have been developed e.g. by (Blunt and coworkers at Imperial College in
London) and are available commercially.
18
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
is not suitable for all types of reservoir calculation. It is strictly for incompressible
flow and compressibility effects can cause some errors. Also, streamline codes tend
not to be as developed in terms of “bells and whistles” as conventional simulators
e.g. complex well models, “difficult” PVT oil behaviour etc.
Applying λ ( ) ( )
T (So ) i −1 / 2 or λ o (So ) i +1 / 2
Darcy’s law to the inter block flow shown in Figure 20 and using the
notation in that figure, we obtain:
(λ (S )) or (λ o (So ))λi +1(/ S
( T 2 o ))i −1/ 2
( T (So ))i −1/ 2 or (λ o (So )
T o i −1 / 2
λ
λ p ∆P λ p Pi − Pi −1
Q p = − kA. . (λ =(S− kA )) . 2 por .(λo∆(Sxoi −)1)i++1/∆2 x i
Bp ∆x T o i −1/ B
Q p2 = − kA . λ p . ∆P = −kA. λp
B (1) λ ∆PB.
x . Q p p= .− kA
Q pp = −∆kA p
Bp ∆x
where thekA
overbar denotes an average of that λ pquantity.
∆P The issue λ phere
is: Pwhich
i − Pi −1
Q = − kA .
average should we take? The twopmain specific .
B questions = −
are:kA . .
p ∆x Bp ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
kA kA
p
( λ T ( S o i −1 / 2 or ( λ o (So ))kA
What isλ the correct average for the permeability-area)) product,
i +1 / 2
? 2
(λ (S ))
T o i −1 / 2
or (λ o (So ))i +1/ 2
λ p ∆P λ p Pi − Pi −1
Q p = − kA. . = − kA. .
∆x i-1 ∆x i
Bp ∆x Bp ∆ x i −1 + ∆x i
Permeability = ki-1 Permeability =λkpi ∆P λ p Pi − Pi −1 2
Q p = − kA. . = − kA. .
Bp ∆x Bp ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
Qp kA 2
∆x ∆x ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
= distance between grid block centres =
2
Ai-1, Ai = areas of the (i-1) and i blocks
∆x (may
+ ∆xnot be equal)
= i −1 i
2 k rp
ki-1, ki = permeabilites of the (i-1) and i blocks (usually not equal)
µp
k
λp = mobility of phase p = rp
µp
krp = relative permeability of phase p
Ai
Ai-1
Pi-1 Q Pi
ki-1
ki
∆xi-1
∆xi
Pi-1
Pressure
P Pf = face pressure Figure 21
Pf
between blocks Single-phase flow between
Pi
blocks to determine the
correct kA average to use in
x
flow simulation.
We now consider flows from Block (i-1) to the interface of the two blocks, where we
denote the interface pressure as Pf (see Figure 21).
20
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
In block (i-1): QkQ k i −1i.−A k .A
1 i −1i −1Pf −
f Pi −1i −1 P −P (2)
=i −=− −
1 .A i −1 Pf −. P.i −1
Q = − i −1 i −1µ. µf
k .A P − P ∆x i −1
Q=− µ . ∆x i −1i∆ −1x i −1
µ ∆x i −1 2
k .A 1 Pf −2Pi −1 2
from which Q =we−cani −1findi −the . pressure 2 difference (Pf - Pi-1):
µ ∆x i −1
k .A P − P 1 ∆x 1
Q = − ( Pi −1 − Pi −1 .) f= 2∆−ix−Q ∆.x i −1i −11 1
((PPf −−(PPPif−1−f)) µP==i −1i)−−−1 =Q ∆µ− x. ∆−1xµ
iQ i −.µ
1
Qµ.2 2 ( k.A )(k(.A
i −1 2 2 1 k.A )i −1
) i −1
2 ( k.A )ii −−11
f i −1
(3)
∆x 1
(Pf − Pi −1 ) = − Qµ. i −1
k k.Ai .A iP P−i − P2 Pf ( k.A )i −1
In block (i): QkkQ =− i− Pi −.Pf. ∆x fi −1 1
=i ..A i i i
(4)
(Q = − )
A
Q f= − i −1µ i=. µi−∆µxQi µf ∆
P − P i . P − P . x∆i x i
µ ∆x i
2 22 ( k.A )i −1
k .A i Pi −2 Pf
from which Q =we−cani find . the2 pressure difference (P - P ):
µ ∆x i i f
k i .A i Pi −2 Pf
Q = − ( P − P. ) = ∆−xQµ∆.x∆i1xi 1 1
((PPi −−(PPPfi))−µi ==Pf )−−f =∆Q xµi−. ∆Qxµi . 1
µ i 2 2 (k(.A
k.)A)i
i f Q 2 22 (( kk..A
.
A ))i
i
∆x i 1 i (5)
(Pi − Pf ) = − Qµ.
2 Q (µk .A ∆)xi∆x i −1 ∆x∆x i
Adding equations( P3i and µ
(PPPii −−−(PPPPifi−)1−)=−P==i −P1−i)−−−1Q)=Q
5 above Q
∆x−to∆eliminate
x .1 i −1the ∆xP+ term i gives that:
µ=.µ
Q µ−. i ∆2.xii −−11 ( k+.A )∆+x ii f ( k.A)
( i i −1 ) 2 .2 (2k .(Ak .)(A k.)A+)i −k1i .−A 1 ( k.A )i i
2 ( k.A )ii −−11 i (( k.A ))ii
Qµ ∆x ∆x
(Pi − Pi −1 ) = − . i −1 + i
2 ( k.A ) ( k.A)
Qµ ∆x i−1 ∆ x i (6)
(Pi − Pi1Q−1 )= =−1 1−. 2 . 2 2 + . iP − P i −1
µ ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
1 2
Q = − . ( k.A )i −1 ( k.A )i .( Pi − Pi −1 )
µ ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
( k.A )i −1 ( k.A )i (7)
But, taking kA as the correct average, then, by definition, the single-phase Darcy
Law is of the form:
kA ( P − Pi −1 )
Q=− . i
µ ∆( xPi −−1 +Pi∆
kA −1 )i
x
Q=− . i (8)
µ ∆xi −12+ ∆xi
2
Comparing identical terms in equations 7 and 8 above gives that:
kA 2
=
1 + ∆xi
∆xi −kA ∆xi −1 2+ ∆xi
=
∆xi −12+ ∆xi (k∆. Axi)−i1−1 (k∆. Axi)i
+
2 ( k . A) i − 1 ( k . A) i (9)
which easily rearranges to:
∆xi −1 + ∆xi
kA =
∆∆ ∆x
xix−1i −1 + Heriot-Watt
Institute of Petroleum Engineering,
kA = + ∆xi i University 21
(k∆. A
xi)−i1−1 (k∆. A xi)i
+
kA ( Pi − Pi −1 )
Q=− .
µ ∆xi −1 + ∆xi
2 (λ T (So ))i −1/ 2 or (λ o (So ))i +1/ 2
∆x i−1 + ∆xi
kA = ∆x ∆x
kA
i −1
+ i
2 λ p ∆P λ p Pi − Pi −1
(k.A=)
∆xi −1 +∆xi i−1 Q
(k.A)
∆xpi −=1 i−kA.∆ xBi . ∆x = − kA. B . ∆(10)
+ p p x i −1 + ∆x i
2 ( k . A) i − 1 ( k . A) i 2
Note: This is an important result and in particular, we observe the following:
1 1 1 1
Bp (λ (S ))
T o i −1 / 2
or (λ o (So ))i +1/ 2
= +
kH 2 ki −1 ki
(11)
∆x
This can be seen for the following example: k1 = 200 mD, k2 = 2 mD ⇒ kHλ = 3.9∆P λ Pi − Pi −1
krp Q p = − kA. p . = − kA. p .
mD. We λwould
p =
µ
expect the flows∆xto be+much
permeability since, = i −1 (
∆xλi T (more )
So ) i −strongly (
or λaffected )
by the
o ( So ) i + 1 / 2
p if one of the permeabilities were zero, then the flow would be
1 / 2
∆x
Blower
p Bp ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
2 2
zero, no matter how large the other permeability was.
µ +µ B +B
kBrpp =overi −1into ithe averaging of kA for multi-phase
(iii) Theµabove
p =
i −1 i
andcarry
arguments
flow. 2 2 Q = − kA. λ p . ∆P = − kA. λ p . Pi − Pi −1
µp
Bp ∆x Bp ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
p
λp 2
EXERCISE 1.
λp Bp∆x
22
Bp ∆x ∆x + ∆x
Q=− kAkA . ( i i −1 )
P−P
2 (λ T (So ))i −1/ 2
=
∆xi −1 +µ∆xi∆xi −1 + ∆∆xxi ∆xi
2 k. A i −1/ 2 k. A(λ o(So ))i +1/ 2 Q = − kA. λ p . ∆P = − kA.
(λ ( S )) + or
i −1
( )i − 1 ( )i
T o
4
2 p B ∆x
p
Gridding And Well Modelling λ
Qp = − kA. B
kA 2 λ p ∆ P λ p Pi − Pi −1
= +p ∆=xi− kA. . = − kA. .
∆xi −=1 + ∆xi∆xi −1Q
kA ∆xi −1 B∆xi ∆x
Bp ∆x i −1 + ∆x i
kA
∆x ∆ x + p
2 i −1
+(k. A)ii −1 (k. A)i 2
( k . A) i − 1 ( k . A) i kA
3.3 Averaging of the Two-Phase Mobility Term, λ p
To recap, the single-phase
kA term is taken as a weighted harmonic average and this
1
leaves us with the 1 1
issue of what 1 averages to take for the two-phase flow term, λ p .
== ∆xi −1++ ∆xi
kA
In fact, it is 2 ∆
kHconvenient kxii −−to11 separate
ki ∆xi the relative permeabilityBterm
p from the viscosity
and consider these separately λ+p as follows:
( k . A) i − 1 ( k . A) i Bp
k ∆ x
λ p = rp Bp
1 µ p1 1 1 (12) ∆x
= + ∆ x + ∆x
kH 2 ki −1 ki = i −1 i
We do this since the relative ∆x permeability of phase p is far more 2 variable than
the phaseµviscosity.
µ + µ
If fact,
B + B ∆x i −1 + ∆x
p =
i − 1 i
andwithout
Bp = further discussion, we will simply note =
i − 1 i that
the viscosity and 2
krp formation volume factors 2 are very accurately calculated as the 2
k rp
arithmeticλaverages,
p = since =
∆
they x usually
i −1 + ∆ xdoi not vary very much from block to block
µp µp
i.e. the averages between grid blocks 2 (i-1) and i are:
k rp
µ + µi k Bi −1 + Bi µp
µ p = i −1 andrp B =
p
2 µp 2 (13)
Qp
Figure 22
Which average should be Which
krp ∆P average??
taken for the relative Qp = - kA. .
µp.Bp ∆x
permeability of phase p in
the averaging of block to
Harmonic average
block flows? Arithmetic averages
Block i is at Sw = (1-Sor) i.e. only water can flow; krw > 0 and kro = 0;
Block (i+1) is at Sw = Swc i.e. only oil can flow; krw = 0 and kro > 0.
1 - Sor
Figure 23
Sw krw > 0 krw = 0
Flow of water from
kro = 0 kro > 0 block i → (i+1) and the
corresponding relative
Swc
permeability values for
Block i Block i + 1 water and oil.
Physically, it is clear in Figure 23 that water can flow from i → (i+1) but oil cannot.
Therefore, for flow in this direction, the average water relative permeability must be
non-zero but the average oil relative permeability must be zero. Let us consider the
different averages that are possible in turn:
Harmonic Average: First consider if the harmonic average can be used since this
was appropriate for the single-phase permeability averaging.
Harmonic average of water relative permeabilities = Harm. Av. {krw i >0; krw i+1 = 0}
=0
Thus, the harmanic average gives zero flow for both water (incorrect) and oil
(correct). Therefore, it cannot be the harmonic average which is correct for the
relative permeability.
Arithmetic Average: Now consider if the arithmetic average can be used since this
is a natural thing to try and it is certainly the simplest.
2 2
So, the arithmetic average could be physically correct for the water phase since it
gives the average krw > 0 and thus allows water to flow.
krw > 0
But, for oil the oil phase, we find that : Arith. Av. {kro i = 0; kro i+1 > 0} > 0 and this is
physically incorrect, since oil cannot flow from i → (i+1).
Therefore, it cannot be the arithmetic average which is correct for the relative
permeability.
What average does this leave? We simply state the answer and then give some
physical justification.
Upstream Value: In fact, it turns out that the physically correct value of the relative
permeability is simply the upstream value. The upstream value refers to the block from
24
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
which the flow is coming i.e. in the flow from left to right in Figure 23. This would
be block i. This can be seen to be consistent with the physical situation since:
Likewise, flowing from i → (i+1), the “average” oil relative permeabilities = Upstream
{kro i } = 0, as required.
Now reversing the flows from (i+1) → i, we find that only oil should flow and this
is again consistent since:
Likewise, flowing from (i+1) → i, the “average” oil relative permeabilities = Upstream
{kro i+1} > 0, as required since only oil can flow in this direction.
Qp
Figure 24
The correct inter-block
krp ∆P Upstream
averages for all terms in Qp = - kA. . value of krp
µp.Bp ∆x
the two-phase block-to-
block flows in a reservoir
Harmonic average
simulator. Arithmetic averages
(i) Formation → wellbore flow, ΔPf→w: where fluids flow from a “drainage radius”,
re, at pressure, Pe, to the wellbore. Figure 26 shows the near-well pressure profile,
in the near-sandface region with bottom hole flowing well pressure (BHFP), Pwf.
Thus the formation → wellbore pressure drop, ΔPf→w , is:
(
∆Pf → w = Pe − Pwf ) (14)
(ii) The pressure drop, ΔPwell, that may occur along the completed region of the
wellborePwf = Pthe
from atm + ∆Pr → s of the well (or the “toe” of a horizontal well) to the
bottom
wellbore just at the top of the completed interval. In very long wells, this pressure
drop along the wellbore due to friction may be quite significant although there will
o = PI
be casesQwhere ( )
Pe −bePwfignored;
it. can
Surface facilities
Q
Well head
o max . = PI .Pe (separator etc...)
To storage /
export
Qµ r
∆P(r ) = ln
2π (k.h) rw
2π (k.h)
Q=
re
(
. Pe − Pwf ) Figure 25
µ. ln
Reservoir showing Fluid flow from Schematic of the fluid flows
rw
two geological layers reservoir layers into a well in a grid
to wellbore
block model of the reservoir
2π (k.h) Well completed
through to their storage or
PI = export from the field.
r in reservoir
µ.ln e
rw
26
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
∆Pwh -> export
Surface facilities
Well head (separator etc...)
To storage / export
(iii) Reservoir → surface pressure drop, ΔPr→s : the pressure drop from the well at
the top of the completed formation just above the reservoir to the wellhead which is
at pressure, Pwh . This ΔP is quite significant and, locally in any sector of the well,
there will be a local pressure drop vs. flow rate/fluid composition relationship. This
may be calculated from models (often correlations) of multi-phase flow in pipes.
As the fluids move up the wellbore, the pressure drops in oil/water production and
free gas may also appear; thus, we can have three phase flow in the well tubular to
the surface and we may have to incorporate this flow rate/pressure drop behaviour
in our modelling.
(iv) There will frequently be further pressure drops as the fluids flow from the
wellhead through the surface facilities such as the separators, various chokes, etc.
We will not consider this in detail here although it can be an important consideration
in some field cases e.g. if the well is feeding into a network gathering system which
other wells are also feeding into. This could be a complex surface gathering system
network or a multiple-well manifold of a subsea production system.
In this section, we will mainly focus on the formation to wellbore pressure drops. Thus,
our main task is to either calculate or set the well flowing pressure (Pwf) although we
will return briefly to the issue of calculating the pressure drops between the reservoir
and the surface in the discussion below.
To set the scene in modelling wells in a simulator, we will first consider a very
simple model well producing only oil into the wellbore. How do we decide what
So, what happens ? Clearly, if this value of Pwf > Pe (the reservoir pressure), then no
oil can beQproduced. (
o = PI . Pe However,
− Pwf ) if Pwf < Pe, then some oil will flow into the well and
we can now calculate how much. As we will see, this will depend on the physical
properties of the system such as the permeability of the rock, the viscosity of the oil,
the preciseQ
∆geometry
P f →w (
o max . == PI Pof
e wf )
.P−ethePwell etc. However, in our simple conceptual well, we will
take all of these quantities as “givens” for the moment. Suppose the well does flow
at a volumetric flow rate, Qo, for reservoir pressure, Pe, and well flowing pressure,
Pwf . We can
PwfP(then r
+Q∆µPar →productivity
=r )P=atmdefine index, PI, of the well as follows:
∆ sln
2π (k.h) rw
( )
Qo = PI . Pe − Pwf (16)
Qµ r
∆P(r ) = ( P − P ) = ln e
e e
be( kbbl/day/psi,
where possible units of PI could2π wf
.h) r for example. The above equation
w
basically states = PImuch
Qo max .how .Pe oil is produced per psi of drawdown. This simple equation
takes us back to our original question on “what/who decides on Qo?”. In our simple
case, the ∆answer
virgin oil Q =
producing
(
Pf → w2π=is(know
P
Q µ
system ( )
.he )− clear;
Pwf i.e. some things are “givens” - e.g. PI and Pe in a
.P e- − )
Prwfsome
and we can set within limits - e.g. Pwf by setting
∆P(r ) = re ln
µ. ln2π (kHowever,
the wellhead pressure. .h) rw you may be able to set a flowrate, Qo, by installing
a downhole Pwfpump
= Patm(an
r
+∆ w
ESP
Pr →-s electrical submersible pump). In that case, you would
set Qo and then calculate Pwf where we are still considering the reservoir pressure
(Pe) as a given. But clearly we cannot Qµ set Qo rto any arbitrarily large value since the
(( ))
∆P
lowest possible( r )2=π
value
( k
P .h −) P = ln e
vacuum),which would then set a maximum value
PIo = ePI
Q . Peeof− PPwfwf = 0 (a2π (k.h) rw
of Qo given by: re wf
µ.ln
rw
Qo max .2=π (PI (17)
k.h.P)e
Q= (
. Pe − Pwf )
re set either a pressure or a flowrate but (a) not both and (b)
So, in summary, µ. we
ln can
in either case, within rQ
w
limits.
µ r
∆P(r ) = ln
2π (k.h) rw
But, can’t we affect the well PI or the reservoir pressure, Pe? We can actually affect
the PI of a well 2by π (“stimulating”
k.h) it possibly by locally hydraulically fracturing the
PI =
well or by acidising it rtoincrease the effective permeability of the near well region.
Qµ re
(re µ)can ( )
e
In addition,
∆Pwe .lnPincrease
Pwf (or more commonly
= − = ln maintain) the reservoir pressure
(which relates to the “reservoir
erw 2π (k.h) to some
rw extent by injecting a fluid - usually
energy”)
water or gas in another injector well. However, the basic well controls are either
setting pressure or flow rate and this must be kept in mind when we model wells in
2π (k.hWe ) elaborate on these ideas in the following section where we
reservoir Q
simulation.
=
introduce the central ridea
(
. Pe − Pwf )
of a well model.
µ. ln e
rw
28
2π (k.h)
PI =
(
∆Pf → w = Pe − Pwf )
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
∆Pf → w = (P − P )e wf
∆P(r ) = ( P − P ) =
wf atm r→s
w
e
ln
P = P + ∆P
wf
e
atm
e
2π (k.h) r
wf
r→s w (19)
Q = PI 2π.((kP.h−) P )
Q= o
.( P − P )
e wf
Q = µ. ln .( P) − P )
( e wf
(a) Q =o PI
2 π.(P
k r
.h−)
P
Q ee wf (b)
e wf Grid block
P e
r
Qo maxµ. .=lnPI .wePe Well at BHFP pressure
Figure 27 Pwf
Q r.wP
= PI
Schematic showing (a) P
o max . e
P
the near well pressure
2π (kQ .hµ) r Pwf
PIP(=r )∆P(r)
∆ = = P(r) - ln Pwf
profiles that occur in a k.r(hek).h) r
2π2(π h
PI = µ.lnQµ rw
radial system and (b) Pwf ∆P(r ) = rw ln
µ.ln2π (ek.h) rw ∆x ∆y
corresponding quantities in
rw r rw re
Qµ r
a Cartesian grid block
(
∆P(re ) = Pe − Pwf = )
ln e
2πQ(kµ.h) rrwe (assume ∆x = ∆y)
P(re ) =be P
which can∆easily ( −
arranged
e Pwf =
to obtain: )
ln
2π (k.h) rw
2π (k.h)
Q=
k.rhe )
. Pe − Pwf ( )
π (
2
Q = µ. ln . Pe − Pwf
rrw
( ) (20)
µ. ln e
rw
and hence from equation 16 above, we can identify the productivity index
2π (k.h)
(PI) of the well as:
PI =
2π (k.rhe )
PI = µ.ln
rrw
µ.ln e
rw (21)
This now demonstrates exactly how the quantities k, h, μ, rw and re affect the well
productivity. All of these factors behave as we might expect them to physically e.g.
as k↑, PI↑; as μ ↑, PI↓ etc.
Now consider how this relates to the pressures in the simulation block shown in Figures
27 and 28. In a grid block, the pressure is thought of as being constant throughout
the block although we know that it should be varying continuously across the block;
we will refer to this as the average block pressure, P . The size of the grid block in
1. what is the relation between re , and the block size (Δx, Δy)?
2. what is the relation between Pe and the average grid block pressure, P ?
Well at BHFP
= Pwf
Grid block
pressure re
=> How do we choose
P Pe
P re e =
re such that Figure 28
Pwf P
h P Pe =P ?? Schematic indicating how
the near well pressures
Relation
∆x ∆y Pwf
re <-> ∆x, ∆y ??
relate to the corresponding
rw r re quantities in a Cartesian
(assume ∆x = ∆y) grid block
re
re is where P(re) =P
∆y
rw and re = re (∆x, ∆y) but
what is the formula ? Figure 29
The relation between re and
the block dimensions, Δx
∆x
and Δy.
The issue is defined quite clearly in Figure 28. From this figure, we would like to
choose re such that Pe coincides with the average grid block pressure, P . The latter
quantity ( P ) is calculated in the simulation itself. In fact, we need to know how to
calculate re from the quantities Δx and Δy as indicated in Figure 29 where we show
the re as function of Δx and Δy, i.e. re(Δx, Δy).
If we know the formula for re(Δx, Δy), then we can calculate the PI (equation 21) and
use this inPthe simulation to couple the quantities Qo (oil flow rate) and P (average
grid block pressure); i.e.
Hence, if we plot the pressure at grid blocks away from the well block vs. the well
re ≈r 0.2 ∆x
block spacing
ln =
2 π( k.h ) Pscale
on a logarithmic
.
(
( r ) −asPshown
wf )
in Figure 31, then we can extrapolate
back to find the
equivalent radius where = P in terms of the well block dimension
rw µ Q P e
(Δx). It turns out that the2 simple2 relation is (for Δx = Δy):
re ≈ 0.14 ∆x + ∆y
P
re ≈ 0.2 ∆x (24)
Q oo = PI.o(.P( P−−PPwfwf) ); Q w = PI w .( P − Pwf )
Therefore, we have a very simple way of calculating the PI or “well connection
r ≈ 0 .14 ∆ x 2
+ ∆ y 2
factor” as it is sometimes called of a well in a simulation grid block.
e
6 r
µ o .ln5 e
4 rw
Figure 30 3
The 2D areal grid used to 2
compare pressures with
PI w =
2πkh.10k rw Sw( )
the expected radial profiles -1 r
(from Peaceman, 1978) µ w .ln-1e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
rw
0.5 • On Edge: i = 0 or j = 0
• On Diagonal: i = j
•i≠j≠0
0.4 (2.2)
(2.1)
(2.0)
qµ / kh
pij - po
0.3 (1.1)
(1.0)
0.2
Figure 31
0.1 Log plot of the pressures
ro / ∆x r Ao / ∆x From areal average pressure from the 2D areal grid used
0 to find re (from Peaceman,
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 3 4 5 6
1978)
Figure 32
1/2 1/2 1/2 Well factors for wells in
ky 2 kx 2
For anisotropic .∆x + .∆y various positions relative
permeabilities kx ky
kx ≠ ky
re = 0.28 to the boundaries; after
ky 1/4 k 1/4
+ x Kuniansky and Hillstad
kx ky
(1980)
32
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
We may find that, in a given simulation of a field case, that we input all the known
or estimated data but the well in our simulation does not perform like the real case.
It may produce more (higher PI) or it may produce less (lower PI) than expected.
The former case may be due to the well being stimulated and the second case may
be due to well damage. Within limits, we may adjust the calculated well PI in the
simulation model in order to reproduce the observed field behaviour. However,
we should think carefully before making such changes since the simulated well
productivity may be wrong because some (or several) other aspects of the reservoir
simulator input data are wrong.
Well radius = rw
P Qw Qo
P
P
PI.( P − Pwf )
Q o = Saturation
Q o = SPI ( P −SoPwf )
w .and
Q o = PI.( P − Pwf h )
r 2 π( k.h ) ( P( r ) − Pwf )
ln = .
Figure 33 rw 2 π(µk.h ) (∆xP( r )Q− Pwf ) ∆y
ln r = 2 π( k.h ) . ( P( r ) − Pwf )
Near well two-phase flows ln rw = µ . Q
in a Cartesian grid block. rw µ Q ∆x = ∆y)
re ≈ 0.2 ∆x (assume
r ≈ 0.2 ∆x
We now apply
re ≈ the
0.2 same
∆x 2ideas as were developed above for the single phase case.
e
From the rradial two phase Darcy Law, the volumetric production rates of oil and
e ≈ 0.14 ∆x + ∆y
2
re ≈ 0.14 ∆x + ∆y
Q o = PI o .( P − Pwf ); Q w = PI w .( P − Pwf )
(26)
Q o = PI o .( P − Pwf ); Q w = PI w .( P − Pwf )
where theQPIo 0=and .(wPare
PI oPI wf );oil and
− Pthe .( P − Pwf ) indices, respectively, and
= PI wproductivity
Q w water
2 πkh .k ro (So )
PI o =
2 πkh .kror(eSo )
PI o = 2µ .kror(So )
o .ln
πkh
PI o = rw
µ o .ln re
µ o .ln rwe (27)
r
and 2πkh.k rww(Sw )
PI w =
2πµkh .krwr(eSw )
PI w = 2π kh.krwr(Sw )
w .ln
PI w = rw
µ w .ln re
µ w .ln rwe
rw (28)
Clearly, there are additional issues in this system since all four layers may be
producing both oil and water and the proportions of each phase may be changing
as the saturations (and hence relative permeabilities) change. In addition, there is
also a gravitational potential in each layer which we may have to take into account.
Using the notation in Figure 34, we note that the oil flows in layer k (k = 1, 2, 3, 4,
in this example) are:
( )
where we have taken the mean block pressure and also the well flowing pressure in
Q Tk = (Q ok + Q wk ) = ( PI ok + PI wk ) Pk − Pwf
(
the same for both oil ( )
o i , j, k = PI o i , j, k . P i , j, k − 2
layer k asQbeing Pwf )
πand j, k ro (So )
i ,khk
water phases. Again, in the layered case,
Q ok = the
we can specify (
PI oktotal
Pk flow )
− Pwfkor = the flowing bottom
(r
k
)
Pk − pressure
hole Pwfk and then we can
calculate the other one using the above µ .lnrelations. (In fact, we can also specify
the flow of i , j, k =B
Q oeither PIQ
phase (
o i , j,-k .oil
P ior water)
, j, k − Pwf i ,oj, k
- and
ek
then
r
find the flow of the other and the
inj = + Q w For example, suppose
o o
bottom holeQ wflowing w
Bpressure).
w
we specify the total flow, QT.
We need to decide how this total flow is made up - i.e. what are the separate Qo and Qw
3 Bo Q o
(QT = Qo +QQ ) and
= how this +QQflow is3allocated from each of the layers in the system.
Q w
For simplicity,
T
w
=
inj
∑ (
weBmakeQ
BQw
+ ∑
w =
ok the assumption
wk ) (PIthat ( PI wkis) P
ok +there ) − Pwfkwell flowing pressure,
a ksingle
Q >
k =1 o o
+ Q k =1
Pwf (i.e. Pwf1w=injPwf2 =BPwf3 = Pwf4w). Hence, for each layer, k :
w
B Q
Q wTkinj=>(Q oko +oQ+wkQ) w= ( PI ok + PI wk )( Pk − Pwf )
Bw (31)
Everything is known in the above equation which allows us to determine the allocation
of all fluids i , j, k = each
Q o from ( , j, k −we
j, k . P i and
PI o i , layer )
Pwfcan
i , j, k calculate the corresponding bottom hole
Bo Q o
Q w inj > + Qw
34 Bw
Gridding And Well Modelling
4
Well
completion Layer
1
2
3
4
(a) (b)
QT = Qo + Qw
Qo1
Qw1 k1, h1, P1, Sw1
Qo2
k ,h ,P ,S
Qw2 2 2 2 w2
h
Figure 34 Qo3
Qw3 k3, h3, P3, Sw3
Well modelling of two-
phase flow in a multi- Qo4
Qw4 k4, h4, P4, Sw4
2 π( khk ro (So ))k
layered system
Q ok = PI ok ( Pk − Pwfk ) = (P k − Pwfk )
r
µ o .ln ek
4.4 Modelling Horizontal Wells rw
Figure 35 shows the trajectory of a “horizontal” well in a reservoir simulation
model. This is not well represented by the purely radial r/z model grid discussed
3 3
∑
the well connection factors calculated ∑ (
in Section 2.1 above in the context of a vertical well. Hence, it is less likely that
Q T = (Q ok + Q wk ) = ( PI ok + PI wk ) Pk − Pwfk
as shown in previous sections will apply for
)
k =1 k =1
a horizontal well. This is broadly true although the basic principle is very similar.
That is, each well sector intersects a grid block (i,j,k) even although the well may
be Q Tk = (Q ok + Q wk ) = ( PI ok + PI wk ) Pk − Pwf
going (
through this block in say the x(i) direction and the flows between the well)
sector and the grid are given by an expression of the form:
(
Q o i , j, k = PI o i , j, k . P i , j, k − Pwf i , j, k ) (32)
that the x-direction well is very close to the z-boundaries since Δz is often smaller
than Δx or Δy.
B Q
Q w inj > o o
+ Qw
Bw
36
ok ok ( k wfk ) r
( k wfk )
µ o .ln ek
rw
k =1
Gridding
3 And Well Modelling
Q T = ∑ (Q ok + Q wk ) = ∑ ( PI ok + PI wk )( Pk − Pwfk )
k =1
4
Q Tk = (Q ok + Q wk ) = ( PI ok + PI wk )( Pk − Pwf )
( )
and water in our simulation is currently, Qo and Qw. What volume of injected water
2 π khk ro (So ) k
must Q
we inject ( )
to exactly replace the reservoir
ok = PI ok Pk − Pwfk =
volume (
Pk − Pof )
these two phases? This is
o i , j, k =
now quiteQstraightforward PI o i , j, k .since
P i ,(j , k −
and,
P from
µ o .ln
r
wf i , j, kek
the )
above
wfk
discussion,
Q (in stb/day) is given by:
it is evident that the
quantity of water that must be injected, rw inj w
B Q
Q w3inj = o o + Q w 3
B
Q T = ∑ (Q ok + wQ wk ) = ∑ ( PI ok + PI wk )( Pk − Pwfk ) (33)
k =1 k =1
Hence, we would gradually adjust the volume of water injected in the simulation
Bo Q o
on>what
Q w inj
model based + Q wjust produced (at the last time step say) to the above
we have
(Q okto+voidage
Q Tkin=order
quantity QBwwk ) = replace.
(PI ok + PI the) producer,
Atwk (
Pk − Pwf the most common option would )
be to constrain by bottom hole flowing pressure as described above.
In this section, the student has been presented with a largely non-mathematical
description of gridding and well modelling in reservoir simulation. A more
mathematical treatment of these issues will be given as we develop the flow equations
and consider their numerical solution in Chapter 5 and 6, respectively.
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
4 CLOSING REMARKS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Note that in this chapter, there are a number of lengthy derivations of the flow equations.
The student should work through all of these in detail and understand each step in the
process. In the learning objectives below, we clarify what parts of this the student
should know and be able to reproduce and/or apply in an exam question and what
parts need only be appreciated or understood at a general level.
• know that the central principles in deriving the flow equations in porous media
are (a) to apply material balance to the flow and accumulation terms; and (b) to then
apply Darcy’s Law.
• know how to apply material balance to a control volume with flow and accumulation
terms, recognising the difference between mass flow rates and volumetric flow
rates.
• understand be able to describe the basic physics of single phase compressible flow
through porous media.
• be able to derive the (pressure) equation for single phase compressible flow.
• know physically, in the context of the single phase compressible flow equation,
what a non-linear partial differential equation (PDE) is and why it is difficult to
solve.
• be able to work through all of the simplifying assumptions on the single phase
compressible flow equation to arrive at the much simpler pressure equation (linear PDE)
for slightly compressible flow involving the hydraulic diffusivity, Dh =k/(μφcf)
• appreciate (but not memorise) the use of the gradient (∇) and divergence (∇.)
operators from vector calculus in writing the multi-phase flow equations.
• be able to apply conservation + Darcy’s law in the two phase case to arrive at the
two phase flow equations for compressible fluids and rock.
• follow the argument on how the full two phase pressure equation is derived.
• be able to identify the relation of each of the terms in the two phase pressure
equation to viscous, gravity and capillary forces.
• be able to reproduce (in words and diagrams) the outline solution scheme for the
two phase pressure equations for both the full equations and for the simplified pressure
and saturation equations.
2
The Flow Equations
5
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHAPTER 5
The central activity of reservoir simulation is the numerical solution of the multi-
phase flow equations in real reservoir systems. This chapter introduces the underlying
equations of flow through porous media which are solved in a reservoir simulation
code. We start with the single phase flow equation for a compressible fluid and go on
to develop the two-phase flow equations. The same principle is used in the derivation
of these equations viz. the application of mass (material) balance between flow and
accumulation and then the application of Darcy’s Law.
We show that the flow equations are non-linear partial differential equations (PDEs)
which can usually not be solved analytically. However, some simplified cases of the
equations are considered in order to establish some important physical insights into
these equations.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the course so far, we have used many of the concepts of day to day numerical
simulation as it is applied in reservoir engineering. However, we have not yet
studied the mathematical equations which underpin the whole subject of reservoir
simulation. This section will introduce you to these equations in a step-by step manner.
You should be able to follow all the details of the derivations of these equations since
only elementary undergraduate mathematics is involved.
The general approach to the flow equations is basically the same for both single and
two-phase flow. We first derive a mass balance between the flows and the accumulation
(local mass build up or decline) in a local control volume. A control volume can be
thought of as a typical isolated grid block in the system, as will be evident below.
We note that the mass balance equation that we will set up must be correct. That is,
it is simply a mathematical way of expressing something that is a fact. Mass balance
simply states that over a given time period (say, Δt), then the sum of all the mass that
flows into (+) the system and out of it (-) is the change of mass in that block. Once
we have set up the mass balance between the flows and the accumulations, we then
need some expressions to describe these mass flows. We do not usually think of fluid
flow laws as being mass flow laws. Within a porous medium, the principal flow law
is Darcy’s law (either for one or two phases) which is a volumetric flow law. That
is, in Darcy’s law, the volumetric flow rate, usually denoted Q, is proportional to the
pressure gradient; Q ~ -(dP/dx) for a single one dimensional system oriented along the
x- direction. (Note the minus sign here since fluids flow down the pressure gradient,
from high P to low P). So, to derive the flow equations we simply use mass balance
+ Darcy’s law. This is shown schematically for single phase fluid flow in Figure 1,
where the operator, Δt, implies the difference in the quality (pφΔxΔyΔz) between
times t and t + Δt (of course, only the p and φ quantities can change).
Although we can obtain the single-phase pressure equation for a compressible fluid/
rock system in 1D, it turns out to be a non-linear partial differential equation (PDE).
There is no known analytical solution to this equation for the general case. That is,
even the apparently simple single phase pressure equation cannot be solved using
“well known” mathematical functions. You may remember that we discussed the
idea of an analytical model in the opening section of this course (Chapter 1 Section
1). If we are faced with this difficult non-linear PDE for the pressure there are two
things we might do to solve it as follows: (i) we could possibly use a numerical
method to solve it; or (ii) we may be able to simplify the equation by making various
assumptions that then allow us to solve the equation analytically. In fact, we will take
the latter course of action at this point. (We return to the topic of numerical solution
of the flow equation in Chapter 6). Section 2 describes how we simplify the full
equation for a compressible fluid in order to obtain an equation that we can solve.
Indeed, the simplified equation that arises is none other than the main equation used
in single phase well testing.
In the two-phase equations, we also have a pressure equation but, in addition, there
is also a saturation equation. Other features are also different from single phase flow,
4
The Flow Equations
5
such as the capillary pressure, Pc (Sw), leading to two different phase pressures,
Po and Pw (where Pc (Sw) = Po-Pw). The two-phase Darcy law also introduces the
concept of relative permeability into the flow equations. These concepts have been
fully reviewed in Chapter 2 and they are also explained in the Glossary.
Figure 2
(a) Schematic of a long
thin “reservoir” containing (b) t=t1 t=t2 t=t3
compressible fluid and rock, Pin
which we can consider as
being essentially
one-dimensional (1D); (b) P
pressure profile along the
system at various times Po Pout = Po
from t = 0, t1 , t2 etc.
- this shows the pressure 0 x L
disturbance travelling t=0
(“diffusing”) along the
system. Now consider what happens to the pressure profile if we cause the pressure
to rise suddenly at Well 1, say by injecting fluid (identical to that already
in the reservoir).
On the other hand, suppose we simply pumped into Well 1 at constant rate q1(now
fixed) and we held the bottom hole pressure of Well 2 to be constant at P(x =L) = Po (the
original reservoir pressure). What would happen for this case? With a little thought,
you can probably visualise that the sequence of events would be as follows:
• Firstly, at early times up to t2 and a little later, nothing would happen at Well 2.
It would still have pressure Po and would not be flowing;
• The pressure “wave” would propagate or “diffuse” through the reservoir as shown
in Figure 2b; the “speed” of this wave is governed by the “diffusivity” which is
quantified by k/(cfφμ) as we will show later in this chapter. Note that the larger the
fluid compressibility (cf) or porosity (φ), the “slower” the wave propagates.
• At a certain time, denoted, t3, the pressure disturbance just reaches the produced
Well 2 as shown in Figure 2b;
• At t = t3, Well 2 must start to flow in order to maintain the pressure at P = Po (this
works like a back-pressure regulator);
• As time proceeds (t → ∞), the pressure wave starts to be felt all across
the reservoir such that the flowrate at Well 1 is (still fixed) at q1 and the pressure
settles to a constant value P1;
6
The Flow Equations
5
EXERCISE 1.
Can you explain the sequence of events that would occur in the simple 1D system
of Figure 2 if both wells were pressure constrained to Pin (Well 1) and Po (Well 2)
with Pin > Po?
Let us now apply the mass conservation conditions as were applied in the introductory
section of this chapter. Mass conservation states that:
Llikewise:
x ∆x
∆x
Notation:
Therefore, the change in mass of fluid in block i over time Δt is given by:
Change in mass
over Δt in block i = (qρ)i - 12 .∆t - (qρ)i + 12 .∆t (3)
= [(qρ) i − 12
− (qρ)i+ 1 .∆t
2 ]
= − [(qρ) i + 12
− (qρ)i - 1 ]∆t
2
Thus, equation 3 expresses the change in mass due to flow that occurs in block i
using quantities – volumetric flow rates and densities – defined on the boundaries.
Note that we have changed the signs consistently in the final step of equation 3 for
convenience below. Which quantity do you think we mean when we refer to ρi-1/2 :
the density “on the boundary”, i-1/2? This seems a bit strange. However, you can
think of ρi-1/2 being some sort of “average” density between ρi-1 and ρi, the densities
in blocks (i-1) and i, respectively. In fact, we have discussed this matter of grid block
to grid block average in Chapter 4.
We now turn to the alternative way of expressing the mass of fluid in a grid block
i at the different times, t and t+Δt. This is shown in Figure 4 where we denote the
mass of fluid in grid block i at times t and (t + Δt) by (ρφΔxA)t and (ρφΔxA)t+Δt ,
respectively. Therefore:
8
The Flow Equations
5
The change of mass of fluid
in block i over the time from = The mass at - The mass
t to t+Δt (t + Δt) at t
= [(ρφ)t+Δt - (ρφ)t].ΔxA (4)
where we have used the fact that Δx and A are constants in equation 4.
Ro
ck
Po
Sp re
ac
e Area = A
∆x
[(ρφ ) t + ∆t ] [
− ( ρφ )t .∆xA = − (qρ )i+ 1 − (qρ )i- 1 .∆t
2 2 ] (5)
qρ qρ
−
[(ρφ ) t + ∆t
- ( ρφ )t ] =−
A i+ 1 2 A i − 1 2
(6)
∆t ∆x
where we have taken the (constant) area, A, to the inner parenthesis on the
RHS of equation 6.
[(ρφ) t + ∆t
- (ρφ)t ] = − [(u.ρ) i+ 1 2
- ( u.ρ)i- 1
2 ] (7)
∆t ∆x
Clearly:
Lim. [(ρφ ) t + ∆t
- ( ρφ )t ] =
∂( ρφ )
(8)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∂t
and
Lim.
−
[
(u.ρ )i+ 12 - (u.ρ )i − 12
= −
]
∂( u.ρ )
(9)
∆x → 0 ∆x ∂x
and therefore:
∂(ρφ) ∂( u.ρ)
= − (10)
∂t ∂x
Equation 10 is the differential form of the conservation equation and again, it is
“exact” in the sense discussed above. Before going on to use Darcy’s law (for u),
look at the structure of equation 10; in particular look at the symmetry between ρ and
φ. These two quantities appear in an identical manner in the LHS of this equation.
Hence, if the mass in a grid block stayed the same with time, i.e. ∂(ρφ)/∂t = 0, then
this could be because the fluid density went down (the fluid expands) and the rock
porosity went up (the rock contracts or compresses).
k ∂P
u=- . (11)
µ ∂x
(as given in the Glossary etc.). We may substitute this form of the Darcy law directly
into equation 10 (taking care with the signs) to obtain:
∂(ρφ) ∂ ρk ∂P
= (12)
∂t ∂x µ ∂x
This equation is now inexact, in that its validity depends on whether Darcy’s law
is or is not a good assumption. However, it was necessary to use a flow law such as
Darcy’s law since pressure (i.e. P(x,t)) does not explicitly appear in equation 10. Thus,
Darcy’s law is our “link” between fluid velocities and pressure gradients. Equation
12 still does not have pressure (P(x,t)) explicitly shown on the LHS; it simply has a
term ∂(φρ)/∂t. However, we know that φ and ρ depend locally only on pressure i.e.
they can be written ρ(P) and φ(P). We therefore manipulate the LHS of equation 12
as follows using the chain rule of differentiation:
∂(ρφ) ∂(ρφ) ∂P
= . (13)
∂t ∂P ∂t
10
The Flow Equations
5
Thus, substituting equation 13 back into equation 12 we obtain a “true” single phase
pressure equation as follows:
∂( ρφ ) ∂P ∂ ρk ∂P
. = . (14)
∂P ∂t ∂x µ ∂x
where we can consider the term ∂(φρ)/∂P as a generalised fluid and rock compressibility,
term, C(P). Equation 14 would then become:
∂P ∂ ρk ∂P
C( P ). = . (15)
∂t ∂x µ ∂x
(ii) Following on from point (i) above, such equations can only usually be
solved by one or two approaches:
(iii) Going back to equation 10, we could include gravity effects by taking the
Darcy equation with gravity as follows:
k ∂P ∂z
u=− − ρg (16)
µ ∂x ∂x
(instead of equation 11). If the 1D system is at constant incline, z(x), then (∂z/∂x) =
cos θ where θ is the angle of incline, therefore, we obtain equation 17 below:
k ∂P
u=− − ρg cos θ (17)
µ ∂x
∂( ρφ ) ∂ρ ∂ ρk ∂ρ
. = − ρg cos θ (18)
∂P ∂t ∂x µ ∂x
In fact, to make clear what is happening to the LHS of the equation we start from
equation 14, which is repeated below:
∂( ρφ ) ∂P ∂ ρk ∂P
. = . (14)
∂P ∂t ∂x µ ∂x
We first list the assumptions which we will make in the above equation and then we
will go on to examining their consequences.
Simplifying Assumptions
12
The Flow Equations
5
∂ρ ∂P k ∂ ∂P
φ . = ρ (19)
∂P ∂t µ ∂x ∂x
which rearranges quite simply to:
µφ ∂ρ . ∂P = ∂ ρ. ∂P
(20)
k ∂P ∂t ∂x ∂x
Now expand the RHS of equation 20 as follows using the product rule:
∂ ∂P ∂ρ ∂P ∂2 P
ρ =
. + ρ 2 (21)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
and use the fact that ρ is a function of pressure only, i.e. ρ(P), to further expand the
(∂ρ/∂P) in equation 21 as follows:
∂ ∂P ∂ρ ∂P ∂P ∂2 P
ρ = . . + ρ 2 (22)
∂x ∂x ∂P ∂x ∂x ∂x
Equation 22 can be then simplified as follows:
2
∂ ∂P ∂ρ ∂P ∂2 P
ρ = . + ρ 2 (23)
∂x ∂x ∂P ∂x ∂x
Now use Assumption 3 to eliminate the first term on the RHS of equation 23 above
2
∂P
(i.e. ≈ 0 ) to obtain:
∂x
µφ ∂ρ ∂P = ρ ∂ P
2
2 (24)
k ∂P ∂t ∂x
Note that we can divide both sides of 24 by ρ and use the fact that the fluid has
constant compressibility, cf (assumption 4), to obtain:
µφc f ∂P = ∂ P
2
2 (25)
k ∂t ∂x
This is more commonly written with the constant on the RHS as follows:
∂P k ∂ P
2
= .
∂t (µφc f ) ∂x 2
(26)
where the constant in this form is normally referred to as the hydraulic diffusivity,
Dh=k/(μφcf).
∂P ∂2 P
= D h (27)
∂t ∂x 2
(iii) In its radial form (i.e. in radial coordinates, r, rather than x) equation 27 becomes
the following:
∂P D h ∂ ∂P
= r (28)
∂t r ∂r ∂r
which is a well known equation of well testing (Stanislav and Kabir, 1990). Likewise,
this equation has a number of well known analytical solutions for various boundary
conditions.
(iv) The reason these equations have many ready-made analytical solutions
available is because these diffusion equations are well-known and are identical
in form to the equations of heat conduction which have been studied for many
years (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959).
14
The Flow Equations
5
NOTATION
i, j control volume
i - 1/2 = (i-1) → i
i + 1/2 = i→ (i+1)
j - 1/2 = (j-1) → j
Well j + 1/2 = j→(j+1)
y (j) Mij
x (i)
i-1 i,j+
,j 1
i,j
i,j-1 i+1 Thickness = h
,j
Note for the control volume, block (i,j), the flow areas in the x and y directions,
Ax and Ay are given by:
h
Figure 5
Are
The 2D x/y Grid Showing x.h ∆x a, A
=∆ ∆y x=
Ay ∆y
the Control Volume, Block a, .h
Are
(i,j)
Change in mass in block (i,j) over time Δt due to flows across boundaries and the
well
[ 2 2 ] [
= (qρ )i − 1 − (qρ )i + 1 .∆t + (qρ ) j − 1 − (qρ ) j + 1 ∆t + q ij ρij ∆x∆y.h.∆t
2 2 ]
(the x - flows) (the y - flows) (well source / sink term)
(30)
[(φρ ) t + ∆t ]
− (φρ )t ∆x∆y.h
[ 2 2 ] [
= − (qρ )i + 1 − (qρ )i − 1 .∆t − (qρ ) j + 1 − (qρ ) j − 1 .∆t + q˜ ij ρij ∆x∆y.h∆t
2 2 ]
(32)
[(φρ) t + ∆t
− (φρ)t ] = − [(qρ) i + 12
− (qρ)i − 1
2 ] − [(qρ) j+ 12
− (qρ) j − 1
2 ] + (q˜ ρ)
∆t ∆x.A x ∆y.A y ij
(33)
where we have used the fact that ΔxΔyh = ΔxAx and ΔxΔyh = Δy.Ay. The flow
areas, Ax and Ay, may then be divided into the q’s to give Darcy velocity terms (e.g.
qρ
(uρ)i + 12 = ) as follows:
Ax i+ 1
] = − [(u.ρ) ] − [(u.ρ) ]
2
[(φρ) t + ∆t
− (φρ)t i + 12
− ( u.ρ)i − 1
2 j+ 12
− ( u.ρ) j − 1
2
+ (q˜ ρ)ij
∆t ∆x ∆y
(34)
∂(φρ)
=−
∂( u xρ)
−
∂ u yρ (q˜ ρ)
+
( ) (35)
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂(φρ)
=−
∂ u yρ ( ) −
(
∂ u y .ρ ) −
∂( u z .ρ)
+ (q˜ ρ) (36)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
As before, the pressure P(x,y;t) (in 2D) or P(x,y,z;t) (in 3D) does not yet appear. We
must manipulate the LHS of equation 35 (or 36) to yield, exactly as before:
∂(φρ) ∂(φρ) ∂P
= . (37)
∂t ∂P ∂t
And on the RHS of equation 35 (or 36) we must use Darcy’s law.
k x ∂P ∂z
ux = − − ρg (38a)
µ ∂x ∂x
16
The Flow Equations
5
k y ∂P ∂z
uy = − − ρg (38b)
µ ∂y ∂y
k z ∂P
uz = − − ρg (38c)
µ ∂z
where we note that the permeability may be anisotropic i.e. kx ≠ ky ≠ kz. Using the
above expressions (equations 38a-c) for the Darcy velocity along with equation 37
for the LHS in the 3D equations 36 gives:
∂(φρ) ∂P ∂ ρk x ∂P ∂z ∂ ρk y ∂P ∂z
. = − ρg + − ρg
∂P ∂t ∂x µ ∂x ∂x ∂y µ ∂y ∂y
∂ ρk z ∂P
+ − ρg + (q˜ ρ)
∂z µ ∂y
(39)
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇.V = x + y + x
∂V∂x ∂V∂y ∂V∂z
∇.V = x + y + x
∂x ∂y V ∂z
x
V
where vector V = V
x y
where vector V = V
Vy z
z
V
(ii) The gradient operator, ∇, on a scalar, such as pressure, P
∂P ∂P ∂P
∇P = i + j + k
∂ P∂x ∂ P∂y ∂ P∂z
∇P = i + j + k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(φρ)
= −∇.(ρu) + (q˜ ρ) (40)
∂t
or expanding the LHS of equation 40 as before:
∂(φρ) ∂P
= −∇.(ρu) + (q˜ ρ) (41)
∂P ∂t
After the Darcy law has been used – as in equation 38 – the vector calculus version
of this equation becomes:
∂(φρ) ∂P ρ
. = ∇. k.(∇P − ρg∇z) + (q˜ ρ) (42)
∂P ∂t µ
We will not expand on equation 42 here but it can be seen that it does give a compact
way of writing the 3D pressure equation. This approach can also be used to write
the 3D multi-phase flow equations, as we will develop below.
Exercise 2
The following equation is the full 2D equation for a compressible fluid (in the absence
of gravity and with no well terms):
∂(φρ) ∂P ∂ ρk x ∂P ∂ ρk y ∂P
= . +
∂P ∂t ∂x µ ∂x ∂y µ ∂y
Simplify this equation as far as possible by making all the Assumptions (1) - (4) in
Section 2.3 but keep kx ≠ ky (although both are constant).
18
The Flow Equations
5
Key Concepts: Ensure you are familiar with the following main ideas on two-phase
flow (where we assume oil/water in the examples below):
• The two-phase Darcy Law (with gravity) and relative permeabilities, krw(Sw)
and kro(So)
k k ro ∂Po ∂z
uo = -
µo ∂x − ρo g ∂x
k k rw ∂Pw ∂z
uw = -
µw ∂x − ρw g ∂x
• Phase pressures, Po and Pw, and the concept of capillary pressure, Pc (Sw) = Po–Pw,
as a constraint of the phase pressure difference at various saturations, Sw.
Exercise 3
Calculate the mass of oil and water phases for the control volume (grid block) shown
using the usual notation.
Ans:
Mass oil =
Volume of oil x density of oil
Ro = (∆x∆y∆z φ So) x ρo
∆z c k
Oil
,S Mass oil = ∆x∆y∆z ( φSoρo) = ∆x∆y∆zρosc (φ So/Bo)
Wa o
ter
,S
∆x w Likewise:
∆y Mass water = ∆x∆y∆z (φSwρw) = ∆x∆y∆zρwsc (φ Sw/Bw)
Definition: A very useful quantity to define is the oil flux, Jo, and the water flux, Jw.
The oil (water) flux is the mass rate of flow of oil (water) per unit cross sectional area.
Dimensions are M.L-2.T-1 and possible units would be kg.m-2.s-1 or lbs.ft-2.day-1.
The oil flux, Jo (and Jw) can easily be related to other more familiar quantities as
follows: consider the flow area across the block area shown below.
z ρ .q ρosc.uo
y.∆ Jo= oA o = Bo
A =∆
a,
Are
il ∆z Figure 6
tr ic Oe ∆y Definition of oil (water)
e at ∆x
olum w R flux, Jo .
V Flo
qo
The volumetric flow rate of oil, qo, can be used to obtain an expression for the flux,
Jo. Clearly:
∆y
i-1
∆z
Are i
=A a
=∆ i+1
z. ∆ Oil
y
Wa S
te r o
∆x S
w
Bo ∆x Oil
un Wa
(i-1 dary te
x /2) ∆x r
Bo
un Flu
(i+ dary id
1/2 (φ)
)
Pe Figure 7
r
Po mea Control Volume (block i) for
ros bili
ity ty = Two-Phase Flow
=φ k
qρ u ρ
∴ Mass flow rate of oil per unit area = o o = u oρo = o osc (44)
A Bo
But, by definition the above quantity is the flux, Jo (Figure 6). (Where we note that
qo/A = uo, the Darcy velocity of oil). Thus, the flux expressions are:
J o = ( u o ρo ) ; J w = ( u w ρw ) (45)
20
The Flow Equations
5
However, we wish to work with reference to standard conditions (sc ⇒ standard
conditions; 60°F and 14.7 psia; ~15.6°C and 1 bar). Therefore, introducing the
densities of oil and water at standard conditions, ρosc and ρwsc, we obtain (by definition
above):
u ρ
J o = o osc
Bo
(46)
u ρ
J w = w wsc
Bw
Now use the flux expression to perform the mass balance on control block i in Figure
7.
Mass of oil flowing out of block i over time step Dt = (Jo.A.Δt)i-1/2 (48)
[
Change in mass of oil in block over ∆t due to flow = − ( J o )i+ 1 - ( J o )i- 1 A.∆t (49)
2 2 ]
(where we note in Figure 7 that A = ΔyΔz)
The accumulation - i.e. change in static mass of oil in block i - is calculated. The
expression for this is given in the Exercise above:
[
= ( ∆x∆y∆zφSo ρo )t + ∆t − ( ∆x∆y∆zφSo ρo )t = (φSo ρo )t + ∆t − (φSo ρo )t ∆x∆y∆z ]
(50)
[(φS ρ )
o o t + ∆t ] [
− (φSoρo )t ∆x∆y∆z = - ( J o )i + 1 − ( J o )i- 1 A.∆t (51)
2 2 ]
Divide through the above equation by ΔxΔyΔzΔt to obtain:
[(φS ρ )
o o t + ∆t − (φSoρo )t ] = - [(J )
o i+1
2
− ( J o )i- 1
2 ] (52)
∆t ∆x
∂(φSo ρo ) ∂J
= − o (53)
∂t ∂x
ρosc
Using the fact that ρo = in the LHS of the above equation gives:
Bo
∂ φSo ρosc ∂J o
= − (54)
∂t Bo ∂x
u oρosc
Substituting for J o = gives:
Bo
∂ φSoρosc ∂ u oρosc
= − (55)
∂t Bo ∂x Bo
However, ρosc is a constant reference density (at standard conditions) which cancels
to yield:
∂ φSo ∂ uo
= − (56)
∂t Bo ∂x Bo
Likewise,
∂ φSw ∂ uw
= − (57)
∂t Bw ∂x Bw
The above equations are the (exact) differential forms of the oil and water mass
conservation equations. They involve no assumptions; they simply arise as a result
of the definition of the various terms. However, the equations are of little practical
use in this form since they do not mention pressure, and it is this that we measure
most directly in a reservoir – not local (spatially distributed) velocities, uo and uw.
Clearly, it is now time to introduce Darcy’s Law.
The expressions for the two phase Darcy Law are reviewed at the start of this sub-
section. Substituting for uo and uw in equations 56 and 57 above gives:
∂ φSo ∂ k k ro ∂Po ∂z
=
∂t Bo ∂x µ o Bo ∂x − ρo g ∂x (58)
∂ φSw ∂ k k rw ∂Pw ∂z
= − ρ g (59)
∂t Bw ∂x µ w Bw ∂x ∂x
w
22
The Flow Equations
5
These equations now express mass conservation of oil and water, on the assumption
that the 2-phase Darcy Law applies. These are our “working equations” for the two
phase flow (in their 1D form).
At a first glance, it appears that equations 58 and 59 present us with two equations
in four unknowns. So, Sw, Po and Pw. But, as we have noted above in the review
of key concepts, there are two constraints on these quantities; viz So + Sw = 1 and
Pc(Sw) = Po – Pw. Thus, only two of these quantities e.g. Po, Sw or So, Pw etc. are
truly independent. It is now clear why we described the Pe as a constraint equation
earlier in this chapter.
The above equations still require some manipulation since we would like to have a
pressure equation which was free of terms of the type (∂So/∂t) and (∂Sw/∂t). This is
derived in the next section.
Next we expand the LHS of the oil equation (equation 58) as follows:
∂ φSo ∂ 1 φ ∂So So ∂φ
= φSo + +
∂t Bo ∂t Bo Bo ∂t Bo ∂t
∂ 1 ∂Po φ ∂So So ∂φ ∂Po
= φSo . + . + . . (60)
∂Po Bo ∂t Bo ∂t Bo ∂Po ∂t
φ ∂So ∂ 1 So ∂φ ∂Po
= + φSo +
Bo ∂t ∂Po Bo Bo ∂Po ∂t
where the underlined term is the one we wish to eliminate. Likewise, for the LHS
of the water equation (equation 59):
Note that the underlined terms in equations 60 and 61 are to be eliminated and the
following terms are essentially of the form = (compressibility terms) x (∂P/∂t).
To eliminate the time derivative terms of the saturations above, then note that
∂Sw ∂So
+ = 0 (62)
∂t ∂t
∂Sw ∂So
by definition (since Sw + So = 1∴ + = 0)
∂t ∂t
Now ADDING the above equations 63 and 64, we see that the ∂S/∂t terms vanish
(equation 62) as follows:
∂ 1 ∂ 1 1 ∂φ ∂Po
= BoSo . + BwSw . +
∂Po Bo ∂Po Bw φ ∂Po ∂t
(65)
The expression above (equation 65) is now equal to the RHS of equation 58 multiplied
by Bo/φ + RHS of equation 61 multiplied by Bw/φ. First, we simplify a little by denoting
all of the compressibility terms above by, α(So,Po) - that is:
∂ 1 ∂ 1 1 ∂φ
α(So ;Po ) = BoSo . + BwSw . + (66)
∂Po Bo ∂Po Bw φ ∂Po
Therefore:
∂P B ∂ k k ro ∂Po ∂z B ∂ k k rw ∂Pw ∂z
α(So ;Po ) o = o − ρo g + w − ρ w g
∂t φ ∂x µ o Bo ∂x ∂x φ ∂x µ w Bw ∂x ∂x
(67)
24
The Flow Equations
5
∂P B ∂ k k ro ∂Po ∂z
α(So ;Po ) o = o − ρo g
∂t φ ∂x µ o Bo ∂x ∂x
Bw ∂ k k rw ∂Po ∂Pc ∂z
+ − − ρ w g (69)
φ ∂x µ w Bw ∂x ∂x ∂x
This is the 1D pressure equation for a two-phase compressible (fluids and rock)
system. Each of the terms is physically interpretable and we expand this out to see
each of the contributions more clearly.
∂P ∂ k k ∂P ∂ k k rw ∂Po
φα(So ;Po ) o = Bo . ro o + Bw .
∂t ∂x µ o Bo ∂x ∂x µ w Bw ∂x
OIL FLOW WATER FLOW
∂ k k roρo g ∂z ∂ k k ρ g ∂z
− Bo . − Bw . rw w
∂x µ o Bo ∂x ∂x µ w Bw ∂x
GRAVITY TERMS
∂ k k rw ∂Pc
− Bw .
∂x µ w Bw ∂x
CAPILLARY PRESSURE TERM (70)
Notes on equation 70
(i) The two-phase pressure equation for the fully compressible system is clearly
very complex. Again, it is a non-linear partial differential equation (PDE)
which cannot be solved analytically for the general case;
(ii) Despite its complexity, all of the terms in equation 70 have a clear physical
interpretation in terms of viscous, gravity and capillary forces;
(iii) Following from (i) above, our two alternatives are either to use numerical
methods to solve equation 70 or to simplify it greatly such that an analytical
solution may be possible. We will consider the simplified pressure equation
in the next section;
(iv) Recall that in two-phase flow, the dependent variables (the unknown we
want to find) were chosen to be:
Therefore, once we solve the pressure equation 70, we must then calculate the
saturation. In fact, ideally we would like to solve the pressure equation at the same
time as solving for the saturation. Where is our saturation equation in any case? In
fact, we have already met this – as equation 59 above.
In fact, we can write the two equations for pressure and saturation in the following
schematic way:
∂P ∂ k k ∂P
PRESSURE φα(So ;Po ) = Bo .
ro
o + gravity terms + cap. terms
etc. ∂t ∂x o o ∂x
µ B
(70)
∂ φSo ∂ k k ro ∂Po ∂z
SATURATION = − ρ g (58)
∂t Bo ∂x µ o Bo ∂x ∂x
o
Clearly, these two equations are coupled. That is, the coefficients in the pressure
equation e.g. ko, etc. depend on So which is the unknown we are trying to find.
Likewise, in the saturation equation, flow terms appear with (∂Po/∂x) in them – we
are also trying to find Po. Hence, if we solve these equations “one at a time”, we face
the problem that there are unknowns which we don’t yet know. We will go into more
detail in Chapter 6 where we discuss the numerical solution of the flow equations.
However, we will just think in general terms about how we may go about solving
the pair of pressure/saturation equations above.
Think of the unknowns in our grid block i, Poi and Soi. We imagine the time levels n
meaning time = t or now where we know Poi and Soi. We denote this as follows:
n Time level n (time = t) (KNOWN)
Poin
Poi Time level n (time = t) (KNOWN)
n
Soi
n
Soi
We are trying to find Poi and Soi at the next time, t = t +Δt or n + 1 denoted
n+1
Soi
n+1
Soi
The problem is shown schematically if Figure 8 below as follows:
Figure 8
Rock Rock Schematic showing update
n n Solve equations 70 n+1 n+1
S oi P oi S oi P oi of the pressure and
and 59 to find ⇒
n n n+1 n+1 saturation in a grid block (i)
(S wi ) (Pwi ) (S wi ) (Pwi )
over a time step, Δt.
26
The Flow Equations
5
Now the pressure equation has lots of terms that depend on So, so strictly we need to
n +1
know Soi to solve the pressure. BUT suppose we try the following strategy:
(a) Use Snoi i.e. the known saturation value to calculate all the coefficients in the
pressure equation (equation 70).
(c) Now solve the saturation equation (equation 58) using the latest Poin +1 for
n +1
the pressure dependent flow terms, to get ⇒ Soi
(d) We now have Poin +1 and Soin+1 as we required – but we may be able to do a
bit better than this by going back to step a and using our (from this step) to
get a better solution to the pressure equation, and hence an “improved” Poin +1
(e) Clearly, we could iterate through steps a to d until our process “converges”
i.e. the newly calculated Soin+1 and Poin +1 don’t change any more (or change
only by a tiny amount). We would then accept these as our “accurate” new
time level values and then go on to the next time level.
For the two-phase flow case, we will make some slightly different assumptions
when we simplify the equations as follows.
Assumptions:
1 The viscosity of the oil and water are constant μo and μw (with x and P);
2 Both the rock and the fluids are incompressible (φ constant; Bo = Bw = 1);
3 We neglect both capillary pressure (Pc = 0; Po = Pw = P) and gravity (g = 0).
∂ φSo ∂ k k ro ∂P
= (71)
∂t Bo ∂x µ o Bo ∂x
∂ φSw ∂ k k rw ∂P
= (72)
∂t Bw ∂x µ w Bw ∂x
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 27
Now using Assumptions 1 and 2, we obtain:
∂S ∂ k k ro ∂P
φ o = (73)
∂t ∂x µ o ∂x
∂S ∂ k k rw ∂P
φ w = (74)
∂t ∂x µ w ∂x
Clearly, it is now very simple to eliminate the (∂S/∂t) terms since we simply need to
add the above two equations to obtain the simplified pressure equation:
∂ k k ro ∂P ∂ k k rw ∂P
+ =0 (75)
∂x µ o ∂x ∂x µ w ∂x
∂ ∂P
∂x
( λ o + λ w ) = 0
∂x
(76)
k k ro k k rw
λo = and λ w = (77)
µo µw
These phase mobilities are strong functions of the saturation So (So = 1 – Sw) through
the relative permeabilities i.e. λo(So); λw(So). Indeed, we can define the total mobility,
λT(S0), as:
λ T ( So ) = λ w + λ o (78)
∂ ∂P
λ T ( So ) = 0 (79)
∂x ∂x
The simplified saturation equation is simply equation 73 above which, in the
above notation, becomes:
∂So ∂ ∂P
φ = λ o ( So ) (80)
∂t ∂x ∂x
In summary, the simplified (incompressibility no Pc, no gravity) two-phase pressure
and saturation equations are as follows:
∂ ∂P
∂x
λ T ( S o ) ∂x
=0 (81)
28
The Flow Equations
5
∂S ∂ ∂P
φ o =
∂t ∂x
λ o ( S o ) ∂x
(82)
It is probably clearer for these equations how we would apply our schematic strategy
(Section 3.4) to these two equations. We illustrate this in the flowchart in Figure 9.
n n
Time level n ⇒ KNOW Soi P i
Calculate mobilities at these
n n n
λT( So )=λo(So )+λw(So )
n
Use Pin +1 and λo(So )
To solve SATURATION equation
∂S ∂ ∂P n+1
φ o = λ o (Sno )
∂t ∂x ∂x
⇒obtain Soin +1
Figure 9
Schematic Strategy for the NO YES
n+1 n+1
Iterative Solution of the Are these P i ; S oi
satisfactory?
(simplified) Pressure and
(i.e. converged)
Saturation Equations for
Two-Phase Flow
4. CLOSING REMARKS
The purpose of this module is to familiarise the student with the fundamental
flow equations of single- and two-phase flow. We have shown that these can be
derived in a unified way by applying:
In the two-phase case, the mass conservation equation was applied to each of the two
phases – oil and water, in the example here. There is also a little more “two-phase
physics” to be dealt with due to capillary pressure and relative permeability.
For both single- and two-phase flow, the resulting full equations for the compressible
system were non-linear PDE’s (indeed, 2 non-linear, completed PDE’s for two-phase
flow). These could not be solved analytically but, in simplified form, they illustrate
some interesting features of the processes. The numerical solution of these equations
is discussed in some detail in Chapter 6.
µφ ∂P k ∂ P k ∂ P
k f ∂t µφkckxx ∂∂2x2PP22 + kkkyy ∂∂2y22P22 k ∂2 2 P k
c
µφkccff ∂∂∂PPt =
µφ == kkxf ∂∂x 2µφ ++ c (
k=∂PP )
k + k y /∂zP y ∂ P
2
k ∂t kk ∂x∂t2 = kkf ∂∂yyx222 x=+ xky ∂y2 2+ 2
y x
30
5
The Flow Equations
Having worked through this chapter the student should be able to:
• write down from memory simple finite difference expressions for derivatives,
(∂P/∂x), (∂P/∂t) and (∂2P/∂x2) explaining your spatial (space) and temporal (time)
n n +1 n +1 n +1
notation ( Pi , Pi , Pi +1 , Pi −1 etc. ); for (∂P/∂x), the student should know the
meaning of the forward difference, the backward difference and the central difference
and the order of the error associated with each, O(Δx) or O(Δx2).
• write a simple spreadsheet to solve the explicit numerical scheme for a simple
PDE for given boundary and initial conditions and be able to describe the effect of
time step size, Δt.
• show how the implicit finite difference scheme applied to a simple linear PDE
leads to a set of linear equations which are tridiagonal in 1D and pentadiagonal in
2D.
• describe a solution strategy for the non-linear single phase 2D pressure equation
where the fluid and rock compressibility (and density, ρ, and viscosity, μ) are functions
of the dependent variable, pressure, P(x,y,t).
• write down the discretised form of both the pressure and saturation equation for
two-phase flow given the governing equations (in simplified form in 1D), and be able
to explain why these lead to sets of non-linear algebraic equations.
• outline with an explanation and a simple flow chart the main idea behind the IMPES
solution strategy for the discretised two-phase flow equations.
• write down the expanded expressions for a set of linear equations which, in compact
form are written A.x = b, where the matrix A is an nxn matrix of (known) coefficients
(aij; i = rows, j = columns), b is a vector of n (known) values and x is the vector of n
unknowns which we are solving for.
• explain clearly the main differences between a direct and an iterative solution
method for the set of linear equations, A.x = b.
• write down the algorithm for a very simple iterative scheme for solving A.x = b,
and be able to describe the significance of the initial guess, x(0) , what is meant by
iteration (and iteration counter, ν), the idea of convergence of x(ν) as ν → ∞; and be
able to comment on the number of iterations required for convergence, Niter.
2
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
• explain how to apply (without derivation) the Newton-Raphson method for
solving a single non-linear algebraic equation, f ( x ) = 0 ; Newton-Raphson scheme
f ( x (ν ) )
=> x (ν +1) = x (ν ) − .
f ' ( x (ν ) )
• extend the application of the Newton-Raphson to sets of non-linear algebraic
equations such as those arising from the discretisation of the two-phase pressure and
S
saturation equations; F( X ) = 0, where X = and S and P are the (unknown)
P
vectors of saturation and pressure; (given the Newton-Raphson expression,
[ ]
X (ν +1) = X (ν ) − J ( X (ν ) ) .F( X (ν ) )).
−1
• understand, but not be able to reproduce the detailed derivation of, the more
mathematical explanation of numerical dispersion.
As noted in Chapter 5, the multi-phase flow equations for real systems are so complex
that it is not remotely possible to solve them analytically. In practice these equations
can only be solved numerically. The most commonly applied numerical methods
are based on finite difference approximations of the flow equations and this approach
will be followed in this chapter.
In the numerical solution of the multi-phase flow equations, we need to solve for
pressure and flow. An outline of how this is done is presented but we do not go into
great detail.
1. INTRODUCTION
At the very start of this course, we considered a very simple “simulation model” for a
growing colony of bacteria. The number of bacteria, N, grew with a rate proportional
to N itself i.e. (dN/dt) = α.N, where α is a constant. We saw that this simple equation
α.t
had a well-known analytical solution, N( t ) = N o .e , where No is the number of
bacteria at time, t =0. This exponential growth law provides the solution to our
model. However, we also introduced the idea of a numerical model where, even
although we could solve the problem analytically, we formulated it this way, in any
case. The numerical version of the model came up with the algorithm (or recipe)
N n +1 = (1 + α.∆t ).N n . In the exercise in Chapter 1, you should have compared the
results of the analytical and numerical models and found out that, they get closer as
In Chapter 5, we already met the equations for single-phase and two-phase flow of
compressible fluids through porous media. These turned out to be non-linear partial
differential equations (PDEs). Recall that a non-linear PDE is one where certain
coefficients in the equation depend on the answer we are trying to find e.g. Sw(x,t),
P(x,y,z,t) etc. For example, for single phase compressible flow, the equation for
pressure, P(x,t), in 1D is given by:
∂P ∂ k.ρ ∂P
c( P) =
∂t ∂x µ ∂x
(1)
In this equation, both the generalised compressibility term, c(P) (of both the rock and
the fluid), and the density, ρ(P), terms depend on the unknown pressure, P, which
we are trying to find. As noted previously, such non-linear PDEs are very difficult
to solve analytically and we must usually resort to numerical methods. The main
topic of this module is on how we solve the reservoir flow equations numerically.
This process involves the following steps:
(i) Firstly, we must take the PDE describing the flow process and “chop it up” into
grid blocks in space. This is known as spatial discretisation and, in this course,
we will exclusively use finite difference methods for this purpose.
(ii) When we apply finite differences, we usually end up with sets of non-linear
algebraic equations which are still quite difficult to solve. In some cases, we do
solve these non-linear equations. However, we usually linearise these equations
in order to obtain a set of linear equations.
(iii) We then solve the resulting sets of linear equations. Many numerical options
are available for solving sets of linear equations and these will be discussed below.
This is often done iteratively by repeatedly solving them until the numerical solution
converges.
This module will deal successively with each of the parts of the numerical solution
process, (i) - (iii) above.
4
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
dx ∂t ∂x
2
Approximation 1 -Forward Differences (fd): we may take the slope between Pi and
Pi+1 as being approximately dP at xi to obtain:
dx i
dP = Pi +1 − Pi
dx i fd ∆x (2)
Approximation 2 -Backward Differences (bd): we may take the slope between Pi-1
and Pi as being approximately
dP at x to obtain:
dx i
i
dP = Pi − Pi −1
dx i bd ∆x (3)
dP = 1 dP + dP = 1 Pi +1 − Pi + Pi − Pi −1
dx i cd 2 dx i fd dx i bd 2 ∆x ∆x
dP P −P
= i +1 i −1
dx i cd 2.∆x (4)
P(x)
Pi
Pi-1
∆x = constant
∆x ∆x
xi-1 xi xi-1 Figure 1
x
Notation for the application
Notation:
∆x = the x- grid spacing or distance between grid points of finite difference methods
(i - 1), i, (i + 1) = the x - label (subscript) for the grid point or block numbers
for approximating
Pi-1, Pi, Pi+1 = the corresponding function values at grid point i-1, i, i+1 etc.
derivatives.
dP
Each of the above approximations to is shown graphically in Figure 2.
dx i
You may wonder why we bother with three different numerical approximations to
dP
dx i and ask: which is “best”? There is not an unqualified answer to this question
just yet, but let us take a simple numerical example where we know the right answer
and examine each of the forward, backward and central difference approximations.
The values given in Figure 3 will illustrate how the methods perform. Firstly, simply
calculate the values given by each methods for the data in Figure 3:
The quantity in square brackets after each of the finite difference approximations
above is the error i.e. the difference between that method and the right answer which
is 2.7183. As expected from the figure for this case, the forward difference answer
is a little too high (by ≈ +0.14) and the backward difference answer is a little too
low (by ≈ -0.13). The central difference approximation is rather better than either
of the previous ones. In fact, we note that the fd and bd methods give an error of
order Δx, the grid spacing (where, as engineers, we are saying 0.14 ≈ 0.1 !). The
cd approximation, on the other hand, has an error of order Δx2 (where again we are
6
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
saying 0.005 (0.1x0.1 = 0.01). More formally, we say that the error in the fd and bd
approximations are "of order Δx" which we denote, O(Δx), and the cd approximation
has an error "of order Δx2" which we denote, O(Δx2).
∂2 P
2
Now consider the finite difference approximation of the second derivative, ∂x
∂P
Going back to Figure 1, the definition of second derivative at ∂x xi is the rate of
change of slope (dP/dx) at xi. Therefore, we can evaluate this derivative between xi-1
and xi (i.e. the bd approximation) and then do the same between xi and xi+1 (i.e. the
fd approximation) and simply take the rate of change of these two quantities with
respect to x, as follows:
dP − dP
∂ P
2 dx i fd dx i bd
2 ≈
∂x ∆x
Pi +1 − Pi − Pi − Pi −1
∆x i fd ∆x i bd
≈
∆x
∂2 P ( Pi +1 + Pi −1 − 2 Pi )
2 ≈
∂x ∆x 2 (6)
∂2 P
2
Calculating the numerical value of ∂x for the example in Figure 3 (where again
∂2 P
2 = 2.7183 since the example is the exponential function), gives:
∂x
Thus, we can see that the error in this case (err ≈ 0.0017 ≈ 0.12) is actually O(Δx2).
In the introductory section of Chapter 1, we already applied the idea of finite differences
(although we didn’t call it that at the time) to the simple ordinary differential equation
dN
(ODE); = α .N .
dt
Here, N (number of bacteria in the colony) as a function of time, N(t), is the unknown
we want to find. Denoting Nn and Nn+1 as the size of the colony at times t (labelled
n) and t+Δt (labelled n+1), we applied finite differences to obtain:
dt ∆t
N n +1 ≈ (1 + α .∆t ) N n (8)
This gave us our very simple algorithm to explicitly calculate Nn+1. We then took
this as the current value of N and applied the algorithm repeatedly.
dP Pi+1 - Pi-1
=
dx i cd 2.∆x
Pi+1
P(x)
dP Pi+1 - Pi
=
Pi dx i fd ∆x Figure 2
Pi-1 Graphical illustration of the
dP Pi - Pi-1 finite difference derivatives
=
dx i bd ∆x calculated by backward
∆x ∆x differences (bd), forward
xi-1 xi xi+1 differences (cd) and central
x ∆x = constant
differences.
Pi+1 3.0042
P(x)
Pi 2.7183
Pi-1 2.4596
Figure 3
A numerical example where
0.1 0.1
the function values and
0.9 1.0 1.1 derivative values are known
x
(P(x) = ex)
8
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
EXERCISE 1.
dy = 2. y 2 + 4
dt
where, at t = 0, y(t = 0) = 1. Take time steps of Δt = 0.001 (arbitrary time units) and
step the solution forward to t = 0.25. Use the notation yn+1 for the (unknown) y at
n+1 time level and yn for the (known) y value at the current, n, time level.
∂P k ∂2 P
=
∂t cφµ ∂x 2
(9)
k
where the constant cφµ is the hydraulic diffusivity, which we denoted previously
by Dh. As we noted in Chapter 5, this PDE is linear which has known analytical
solutions for various boundary conditions. However, we will again neglect these
and apply numerical methods as an example of how to use finite differences to solve
PDEs numerically. To make things even simpler, we will take Dh = 1, giving the
equation:
∂P ∂ P
2
= 2
∂t ∂x
(10)
This is the pressure equation for a 1D system where 0 ≤ x ≤ L, where L is the length
of the system. We can visualise this physically - much as we did in Chapter 5, Section
2.1 - using Figure 4. After the system is held constant at P = Po, the inlet pressure is
raised (at x = 0) instantly to P = Pin while the outlet pressure is held at Pout = Po.
t = t1 t = t2
P Figure 4
Physical picture of pressure
Po Pout = Po propagation in a 1D (com-
t=0 pressible) system described
0 x L
by. ∂P ∂ 2 P
= 2
∂t ∂x
These pressures, Pin and Pout, represent the constant pressure boundary conditions
(Mathematically these are sometimes called Dirichlet boundary conditions). In other
words, these are set, as if by experiment, and the system between 0 < x < L must “sort
itself out” or "respond" by simply obeying equation 10 above. We now approach
this problem using finite differences as follows:
• fix the boundary conditions which, in this case, are as follows (see Figure
4):
∂P P n +1 − Pi n
≈ i
∂t i ∆t (11)
and
∂2 P Pi ??+1 + Pi ??−1 − 2 Pi ??
2 ≈
∂x i ∆x 2 (12)
10
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
∂2 P Pi n+1 + Pi n−1 − 2 Pi n
2 ≈
∂x i ∆x 2 (13)
Equating the numerical finite difference approximations of each of the above derivatives
as required by the original PDE, equation 10 (i.e. equating the expressions in equations
11 and 13) gives:
Pi n +1 − Pi n Pi n+1 + Pi n−1 − 2 Pi n
≈
∆t ∆x (14)
which easily rearranges to obtain an explicit expression for, Pi n +1, the only
unknown in the above equation:
∆t
Pi n +1 = Pi n +
∆x 2
( Pi n+1 + Pi n−1 − 2 Pi n )
(15)
Equation 15 gives the algorithm for propagating the solution of the PDE forward in
time from the given set of initial conditions.
We now consider how to set the initial conditions. The initial conditions are the values
of all the P0i (i = 1, 2, 3 ... , NX) at t = 0. From Figure 4, these are clearly:
P10
P10
P1 = 1 for all time (boundary condition)
Pi 00
Pi 0 = 0 at time t = 0 for 2 < i < NX-1
Pi
0
PNX 0
= Po for all time (boundary condition)
PNX 0
PNX
Let us now apply the above algorithm to the solution of equation 10. For this
problem, suppose we take the following data:
0 ≤ x ≤ 1.0
Δx = 0.1 => implies 11 grid points, P1 , P2 , P3, .... , P11 (NX = 11).
Δt = 0.001
n +1
The problem is then to calculate the solution, P(x,t), - that is Pi for all i (at all
grid points) and all future times up to some final time (possibly when the equation
comes to a steady-state as will happen in this example). This can be done by filling
in the “solution chart” Table 1 - see Exercise 2 below.
Time
x= 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t n (BC↓) (BC↓)
i= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 0 P0
i
→ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(IC)
0.1 100 P100
i 1 0
EXERCISE 2.
∆t
2 ( i +1
Pi n +1 = Pi n + P n + Pi n−1 − 2 Pi n )
∆x
Hint: make up a spread sheet as above and set the first unknown block (shown grey
shaded in table above) with the above formula. Copy this and paste it into all of the
cells in the entire unknown area (surrounded by bold border above).
12
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
The assumption we made in equation 12 was that the spatial derivative was taken at
the n (known) time level. This allowed us to develop an explicit formula for Pi n +1
(for all i). This method is therefore known as an explicit finite difference method.
We can learn about some interesting and useful features of the explicit method
which is encapsulated in equation 15 by simply experimenting with the spreadsheet
CHAP6Ex2.xls. Three features of this method can be illustrated by “numerical
experiment” as follows:
(ii) the effect of refining the spatial grid size, Δx (or number of grid cells, NX);
EXERCISE 3.
• Sensitivity to Δx: the effects of grid refinement are that, as the grid blocks get
smaller (i.e. Δx → 0 or NX → ∞). The answer should get more accurate although,
to make this happen, you need to reduce the time step as well.
∂P ∂2 P
= 0, which implies => 2 = 0
∂t ∂x
But the “curve” with a zero second derivative (i.e. a first derivative which is constant)
is a straight line. Therefore, this result is physically reasonable and our numerical
model appears to be behaving correctly.
n n n
Time P i-1 Pi P i+1
∆x ∆x
Time level n
i-1 i i+1 Figure 5.
∆t Schematic of the explicit
finite difference algorithm
Time level n + 1
n+1 n+1 n+1 for solving the simple
P i-1 Pi P i+1
pressure equation (a PDE).
∂P P n +1 − Pi n
≈ i
∂t i ∆t (16)
∂2 P Pi n+1+1 + Pi n−1+1 − 2 Pi n +1
2 ≈
∂x i ∆x 2 (17)
As before, we now equate the numerical finite difference approximations of each of the
above derivatives (as required by the original PDE, equation 10) to obtain:
Pi n +1 − Pi n Pi n+1+1 + Pi n−1+1 − 2 Pi n +1
≈
∆t ∆x (18)
n +1
This equation shouldPibe compared with equation 14. In the previous case, this could
easily be rearranged intoPi +1 an explicit equation for Pi n +1 (equation 15). However,
n
equation 18 above cannot be rearranged to give a simple expression for the pressure
n +1 n +1
at the new time step P i −1 , Pi
(n+1), .and Pi n+1+1 there now appear to be three unknowns at
Indeed,
Pi n−1+1 , Ptoi n +be
time level (n+1), viz. Pi n−1+1 , Pi n +1 and Pi n+1+1 . This appears
1 n +1
a bitPiof
and +1 a paradox:
how do we find three unknowns from a single equation (equation 18 above)? The
answer is not really too difficult: Basically, we have an equation - like equation 18
- at every grid point. We will show below that this leads to a set of linear equations
where we have exactly the same number of unknowns as we have linear equations.
14
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
Therefore, if these equations are all linearly independent, then we can solve them
numerically. This is a bit more trouble than our earlier simple explicit finite difference
method. Because, we do not get an explicit expression for our unknowns - instead
we get an implicit set of equations - this method is known as an implicit finite
difference method.
To see where these linear equations come from, rearrange equation 18 above
to obtain:
∆x 2 n +1 ∆x 2 n
Pi n−1+1 − 2 + P
i
n + 1 + P n +1
= − P
∆t Pi
i +1
∆t i (19)
where all the unknowns ( Pi n−1+1 , Pi n +1 and Pi n+1+1 ) are on the LHS of the equation
and the term on the RHS is “known”, since it is at the old time level, n. We
can write this equation as follows:
∆x 2 ∆x 2 n
and where ai −1 = 1; ai = − 2 + ; a
i +1 = 1 and bi = − P
∆t ∆t i
are all constants. The ai do not change throughout the calculation but the quantity bi is
updated at each time step as the newly calculated Pn+1 is set to the Pn for the next time
step. We can see how this works for the 5 grid block system in Figure 6 below:
1 2 3 4 5
n n n n n
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Time level n ∆x
∆t
Time level n=1
Figure 6.
P n+1
1
P n+1
2
P n+1
3
P n+1
4
P n+1
5
Simple example of a 5 grid
block system showing how
Boundary Boundary
the implicit finite difference condition condition
scheme is applied (fixed) (fixed)
At each grid point, then (a) we know the value from the boundary condition (i =
1 and i = 5), (b) it uses a boundary condition (i=2 and i=4) or (c) it is specified
completely by equation 20 (only i = 3, in this case - but it would be most points
for a large number of grid points).
∆x 2 n
i=3 P2n +1 + a3 P3n +1 + P4n +1 = b3 = − P
∆t 3
∆x 2 n
P3n +1 + a4 P4n +1 + P5 = b4 = − P
∆t 4
i=4
∆x 2 n
=> P3n +1 + a4 P4n +1 = − P − P5
∆t 4
Therefore there are only three unknowns in the above set of linear equations
( P2n +as
( P2n +1 , P3n +1 and P4n +1 ) which can be summarised
1
,P n +1
and P4n +1 )
follows:
3
∆x 2 n
i = 2: a2 P2n +1 + P3n +1 = − P − P1
∆t 2
n +1 n +1 n +1 ∆x 2 n
i = 3: P2 + aP 3 3 + P 4 = − P
∆t 3
n +1 n +1 ∆x 2 n
i = 4: P 3 + aP 4 4 = − P − P5
∆t 4
(21)
Note that the set of linear equations above can be represented as a simple
matrix equation as follows:
∆x 2 n
− P2 − P1
P2n +1 ∆t
a2 1 0
∆x 2
n +1
a3 P3 = − P3
n
1 1
∆t
0 1 a4 n +1
P4
− ∆x P n −
2
P5
∆t 4
(22)
16
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
The structure of this matrix equation
P1 and Pis clearer when there are more equations
12
involved. For example, it is quite easy to show that, if we take 12 grid points instead
of the 5 above, we obtain 10 equations (using the two fixed boundary conditions,
P1 and P12 ) for the quantities, P2n +1 , P3n +1 , P4n +1 ....P11n +1, of the form:
− ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P2n − P1
n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 P2n +1
P2a2 , P
13 ,0P 4 0 ....P110 0 0 0 0 0 n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P3n
1 a3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P3
n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P4n
0 1 a4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P4
P n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P5n
0 0 1 a5 1 0 0 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 1 a6 1 0 0 0 0 P6n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P6n
n +1 =
0 0 0 0 1 a7 1 0 0 0 P7 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P7n
0
0 0 0 0 1 a8 1 0 0 n +1
− ( ∆x 2
P8 ∆t ) P8n
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a9 1 0 P n +1
9 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P9n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a10 1 P10n +1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a11 n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P10n
P11
− ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P11n − P12
(23)
− ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P2n − P1
P2n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P3n
n +1
a2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P3 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P4n
1 a3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n +1
P4 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P5n
0 1 a4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P n +1
0 1 a5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P6n
0 P6n +1
0 0 0 1 a6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P7n
P7
0 0 0 0 1 a7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − ( ∆x 2
n +1 ∆t ) P8n
0 0 0 0 0 1 a8 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P8
P n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P9n
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9
P10n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P10n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
n +1 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a11 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P11 −( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P11n
n +1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 − ( ∆x 2
0
P12 ∆t ) P12n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a13 1 0 0 0 0 0 P n +1
− ( ∆x 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a14 1 0 0 0 0
13 ∆t ) P13n
P n +1
− ( ∆x 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a15 1 0 0 0 14 ∆t ) P14n
P15n +1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a16 1 0 0 − ( ∆x 2
n +1 ∆t ) P15n
P16
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a17 1 0 − ( ∆x 2
0
n +1 ∆t ) P16n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a18 1 P17
− ( ∆x 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a19
P n +1 ∆t ) P17n
18
P19n +1 − ( ∆x 2 ∆t ) P18n
( ∆t ) P19 − P20
− ∆x 2 n
(24)
(i) It is tridiagonal - that is, it has a maximum of three non-zero elements in any
row and these are symmetric around the central diagonal;
(ii) It is very sparse - that is, most of the elements are zero. In an MxM matrix,
there are only 3M non-zero terms but M2 actual elements. If M = 100, then the
matrix is only (300/1002)x100% = 3% filled with non-zero terms.
18
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
THE THOMAS ALGORITHM
subroutine thomas
c Thomas algorithm for tridiagonal systems
+ (N ! matrix size
+ ,a ! diagonal
+ ,b ! super-diagonal
+ ,c ! sub-diagonal
+ ,s ! rhs
+ ,x ! solution
+ )
c----------------------------------------
c This program accompanies the book:
c C. Pozrikidis; Numerical Computation in Science and Engineering
c Oxford University Press, 1998
c------------------------------------------------
c Coefficient matrix:
c | a1 b1 0 0 ... 0 0 0 |
c | c2 a2 b2 0 ... 0 0 0 |
c | 0 c3 a3 b3 ... 0 0 0 |
c | .............................. |
c | 0 0 0 0 ... cn-1 an-1 bn-1 |
c | 0 0 0 0 ... 0 cn an |
c------------------------------------------
Implicit Double Precision (a-h,o-z)
Dimension a(200),b(200),c(200),s(200),x(200)
Dimension d(200),y(200)
Parameter (tol=0.000000001) this is a measure of how close to coverage we are
c prepare
Na = N-1
c reduction to upper bidiagonal
d(1) = b(1)/a(1)
y(1) = s(1)/a(1)
DO i=1,Na
i1 = i+1
Den = a(i1)-c(i1)*d(i)
d(i1) = b(i1)/Den
y(i1) =(s(i1)-c(i1)*y(i))/Den
End DO
c Back substitution
x(N) = y(N)
DO i=Na,1,-1
x(i)= y(i)-d(i)*x(i+1)
End DO
c Verification and alarm
Res = s(1)-a(1)*x(1)-b(1)*x(2)
If(abs(Res).gt.tol) write (6,*) “ thomas: alarm”
DO i=2,Na
Res = s(i)-c(i)*x(i-1)-a(i)*x(i)-b(i)*x(i+1)
If(abs(Res).gt.tol) write (6,*) “ thomas: alarm”
End DO
Figure 7. Res = s(N)-c(N)*x(N-1)-a(N)*x(N)
The Thomas algorithm for If(abs(Res).gt.tol) write (6,*) “ thomas: alarm”
the solution of tridiagonal c Done
matrix systems. 100 Format (1x,f15.10)
Return
End
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 19
Finally, we note that the implicit finite difference method can be viewed as shown
in Figure 8 below. The choice of the (n+1) time level for the spatial discretisation
leads to a set of linear equations which are somewhat more difficult to solve than the
simple algebraic equation that arises in the explicit method (equation 15). However,
there are exactly the same number of linear equations as there are unknowns and so
it is possible to solve these.
n n n
Time P i-1 Pi P i+1
∆x ∆x
Time level n
i-1 i i+1 Figure 8.
∆t
Schematic of the implicit
finite difference algorithm
Time level n + 1
n+1 n+1 n+1 for solving the simple pres-
P i-1 Pi P i+1
sure PDE
(iii) the issue of non-linearity for a compressible system e.g. c(P) is clearly a
function of P(x,t), which is the “unknown”.
cµφ ∂P ∂ ˜ ∂P ∂ ∂P
= kx + k̃ y
k ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y (25)
k˜ x and k˜ y cφµ
k
cφµ k˜ x and k˜ y
(a
k simplified form of equation 39, Chapter 5) where the term k is a constant
which we will denote as β below, k is an average permeability of the entire
reservoir and k˜ x and k˜ y are the local permeabilities normalised by k ; i.e.
k non-linearities for
k˜ x = k x / k and k˜ y = ky / k. Note that we have avoided the
the moment (the quantities c(P), μ and ρ usually depend on pressure). However, the
k k˜ x = k x / k and k˜ y = ky / k.
20
k˜ x = k x / k and k˜ y = ky / k.
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
system may be anisotropic (kx ≠ ky) and heterogeneous (the permeability may vary
from grid block to grid block).
i, j + 1
(j + 1/2)
∆y
i - 1, j i, j i + 1, j
(j - 1/2)
Figure 9. i, j - 1
y (j)
Discretisation and notation
∆x
for the 2D pressure 1/ )
(i - 2 (i + 1/2)
equation. x (i)
∂P ∂ ∂P ∂ ∂P
β = k˜x + k˜y
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
(26)
we obtain:
˜ ∂P ∂P ˜ ∂P ∂P
− k˜ x k y − k˜ y
k x ∂x
n +1
P −P
n
i +1/ 2 ∂x i −1/ 2 ∂y j +1/ 2 ∂y j −1/ 2
β ≈ +
∆t ∆x ∆y
(27)
where the (i ± 1/2) and (j ± 1/2) subscripts refer to quantities at the boundaries as
shown in Figure 9. We can now expand these boundary flows as follows:
(˜ ) (˜ ) (˜ )
where the quantities k x i +1/ 2 , k x i −1/ 2 , k y j +1/ 2 and k y j −1/ 2 are some type of (˜ )
average permeabilities between the two neighbouring grid blocks - as discussed in
Chapter 4. Note also we have chosen the spatial discretisation terms at the new (n+1)
time level making the this an implicit finite difference scheme.
We can rearrange equation 28 above by taking all the unknown terms (at n+1) to the
LHS and the known terms (at time level n) to the RHS. This gives the following:
−
( )
k˜ x
i −1 / 2
P n +1
−
( )
k˜ x
i +1 / 2
P n +1
+
( )
k˜
x
i −1 / 2
+
( )
k˜ x
i +1 / 2
+
( )
k˜ y
j −1 / 2
+
( )
k˜ y
j +1 / 2
−
β n +1
Pi , j
i −1, j i +1, j
∆x 2 ∆x 2 ∆x
2
∆x 2 ∆y 2 ∆y 2 ∆t
−
( )
k˜ x
j −1 / 2
P n +1
−
( )
k˜ y
j +1 / 2
Pi ,nj++11 =
β n
Pi , j
i , j −1
∆y ∆y ∆t
2 2
(29)
Since the coefficients in equation 29 above are constants, then this defines a set of
linear equations similar to those found in 1D. However, here we have up to five
non-zero terms per grid block to deal with rather than the three we found for the
1D system. The matrix which arises in this 2D case is known as a pentadiagonal
matrix. This set of linear equations can be written as follows:
ai −1, j .Pi n−1+,1j + ai +1, j .Pi n+1+,1j + ai , j .Pi ,nj+1 + ai , j −1 .Pi ,nj+−11 + ai , j +1 .Pi ,nj++11 = bi , j
(30)
where the constant coefficients, ai −1, j , ai +1, j , ai , j , ai , j −1 and ai , j +1 , are given by the
coefficients in equation 29; bi, j is also a (know) constant.
22
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
j=5 m = 17 m = 18 m = 19 m = 20
j=4 m = 13 m = 14 m = 15 m = 16
j=3 m=9 m = 10 m = 11 m = 12
j=2 m=5 m=6 m=7 m=8
j=1 m=1 m=2 m=3 m=4
i=1 i=2 i=3 i=4
Notation:
NX = maximum number of grid blocks in x - direction, i = NX;
Figure 10. NY = maximum number of grid blocks in y - direction, j = NY
Numbering system for 2D m = grid block number in the natural ordering scheme shown
m = (j - 1).NX + i
grid conversion from (i,j) →
e.g. for i = 3, j = 4 and NX = 4, m = (4 - 1).4 + 3 = 15 (as above)
m counter.
where the ãm are the reordered coefficients where the subscript is calculated from
the m-formula in Figure 10. For example:
Note that, when we apply the above equation numbering scheme to the example in
Figure 10 (NX = 4, NY = 5 and therefore, 1 ≤ m ≤ 20), certain “neighbours” are
“missing” since a block is at the boundary (or in a corner where two neighbours are
missing). For example, for block (i = 3; j = 3), that is block m = 9, the “j-1 block” is
not there. Therefore, the coefficient Am-1 =0 in this case. This is best seen by writing
out the structure of the 20 x 20 A-matrix by referring to Figure 10; the A-matrix
structure is shown in Figure 11.
Note that the A-matrix structure in Figure 11 is sparse and has a maximum of five
non-zero coefficients in a given row - it is a pentadiagonal matrix.
All implicit methods for discretising the pressure equation lead to sets of linear
equations. These have the general matrix form:
A.x = b (34)
where A is a matrix like the examples shown above, x is the column vector of unknowns
(like the pressures) and b is a column vector of the RHSs. This is just like equation
31 but it is in shorthand form. We will discuss methods for solving these equations
later in this chapter. For the meantime, we will just assume that it can be solved. We
next consider when the PDEs describing a phenomenon are non-linear PDEs.
∂P ∂ kx ρ ∂P ∂ ky ρ ∂P
c( P) = +
∂t ∂x µ ∂x ∂y µ ∂y
(35)
where the non-linearities arise in this equation due to the dependence of the generalised
compressibility, c(P), the density, ρ(P) and the viscosity, μ(P), on pressure, P(x,t). It
is the pressure that is the main unknown in this equation and, hence, if these quantities
depend on it, then they introduce difficulties into the equations. In fact, we will see
shortly that the equations that arise are not linear equations - they are non-linear
algebraic equations.
24
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
Proceeding as before, we can discretise the above equation as follows:
kx ρ ∂P kx ρ ∂P ky ρ ∂P k ρ ∂P
− − y
P n +1 − P n µ ∂x i +1/ 2 µ ∂x i −1/ 2 µ ∂y j +1/ 2 µ ∂y j −1/ 2
c( P) = +
∆t ∆x ∆y
(36)
where we have not yet decided on the time level of the non-linearities (i.e. the time
level of the pressure, Pn or Pn+1, at which we evaluate c, ρ and μ). The most difficult
case would be if these were set at the “unknown” time level Pn+1 and this is what we
will do as follows:
k ρ n +1 ∂P k ρ n +1 ∂P
x − x
P n +1
− P n
µ ∂x µ ∂x i −1/ 2
c( P n +1 ) =
i +1 / 2
∆t ∆x
ky ρ n +1 ∂P ky ρ n +1 ∂P
−
µ ∂y j +1/ 2 µ ∂y j −1/ 2
+
∆y
(37)
∂P ∂P
Now expanding up the and terms gives:
∂x ∂y
n +1 n +1
kρ kρ Pi ,nj+1 − Pi ,nj+−11
+ y 2
µ.∆y j +1/ 2
(
Pi ,nj++11 − Pi ,nj+1 ) − y 2
µ.∆y j −1/ 2 ∆y
(39)
α in−+11, j .Pi n−1+,1j + α in++11, j .Pi n+1+,1j + α in, +j 1 .Pi,nj+1 + α in, +j −11 .Pi,nj+−11 + α in, +j +11 .Pi,nj++11 = βin, +j 1
(41)
where the elements of theA-matrix (now denoted α in−+11, j , α in, +j −11 , α in, +j 1 , α in++11, j and α in, +j +11 )
are not constants since they depend on the (unknown) value of Pn+1.
(i) We can actually use a numerical equation solver which is specifically designed
to solve more difficult non-linear problems. An example of this type of approach
is in using the Newton-Raphson method. We will return to this method later (once
we have seen how to solve linear equations).
(i) We can choose to apply a more pragmatic algorithms such as the following:
(a) Although our α-terms in equation 41 are strictly at time level (n+1), simply
take them at time level n, as a first guess. So we approximate equation 41 by the
following first guess:
α in−1, j .Pi n−1+,1j + α in+1, j .Pi n+1+,1j + α in, j .Pi,nj+1 + α in, j −1 .Pi,nj+−11 + α in, j +1 .Pi,nj++11 = βin, j
Pi ,nj+1 α in−1, j , α in+1, j , α in, j , α i(42)
n
, j −1 , α i , j +1 and β i , j
n n
n +1
Pi , at
where the quantities α in−1, j , α in+1, j , α in, j , α in, j −1 , α in, j +1 and βin, j are evaluated j the
[(
α iν, j = α i , j Pi,nj+1 )]
ν
(P )
n +1 ν
i, j
(43)
26
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
Pi ,nj+1
ν
(c) Use the latest iterated values of the α i , j to solve the (now linear) equations to
(P ) n +1 ν
( )
ν +1
go from i, j to Pi ,nj+1 .
∑ (P ) n +1 ν +1
( )
ν
Err = i, j − Pi ,nj+1
all i , j (44)
The algorithm outlined in (ii) above for solving the non-linear pressure equation
is represented in Figure 12.
( )
n ν
values of pressure = Pi , j
[(
α iν, j = α i , j Pin, j+1 )]
ν
where ν = current iteration number.
( )
ν +1
to obtain Pin, j+1 = Pin, j+1
Calculate
∑ (P ) n +1 ν +1
( )
ν
Err = i, j − Pi ,nj+1
all i , j
No - continue iterations
Err < Tol ?
Figure 12.
Algorithm for the numerical Yes (the method has converged)
solution of the non-linear
Stop
2D pressure equations:
From Chapter 5, we use the highly simplified form of the 1D pressure and saturation
equations, where we choose to solve for ⇒ P(x,t) and So (x,t) as shown in Chapter
5, equations 81 and 82. Note that we have taken zero capillary pressure (therefore
P = Po = Pw) and zero gravity which gives:
∂ ∂P
PRESSURE EQUATION λ T ( So ) = 0 (45)
∂x ∂x
∂S ∂ ∂P
SATURATION EQUATION φ o = λ o ( So ) (46)
∂t ∂x ∂x
The quantity λ T ( So ) is the total mobility and is the sum of the oil and water mobilities;
λ T ( So ) = λ o ( So ) + λ w ( So ) . The above two equations are clearly coupled together since
the oil saturation appears in the non-linear coefficient of the pressure equation. Likewise,
λ T ( So ) in
the pressure appears (So ) + λterm
= λthe
o flow w
(Soon) the RHS of the saturation equation.
We can now apply finite differences to each of these equations in the same
way as discussed above to obtain, for the pressure equation (see notation in
Figure 8):
∂P ∂P
λ T ( So ) ∂x − λ T ( So )
∂x i −1/ 2
i +1 / 2
=0
∆x (47)
Pi n+1+1 − Pi n +1 Pi n +1 − Pi n−1+1
λ ( S
T o )
∆x
− λ ( S
i +1/ 2 T o
)
∆x
i −1 / 2
=0
∆x (48)
28
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
(λ (S )) T o i +1 / 2
and λ T (So ) ( ) i −1 / 2
6
(λ (S )) ( )
n +1
T o and λSTo(So )
i +1 / 2 i −1 / 2
(λ ((λS (S)) ))
n +1
(λ ( S ))
( )
n +1 nT+1 o
( ) n +1 o i +1 / 2
λ
(λ (S )) ∆x ( P − P ) − ∆x ( P − P ) = 0
S
n +1 T o
T i +1 / 2 n +1 n +1 T o
i −1 / 2 n +1 n +1
i +21 / 2 i +1 i 2 i i −1
T o
i −1 / 2
(λ (S )) n +1
(λ (S ))
o
n +1 (49) T i −1 / 2
T o
i −1 / 2
The above equation can now be arranged into the usual order as follows:
(λ (S ))
T
n +1
o
i −1 / 2
P n +1
−
T (
λ ( Son +1 ) ) i −1 / 2
+
(λ (S )) T
n +1
o
i +1 / 2
P n +1 + T o
(
λ ( S n +1 ) ) i +1 / 2
Pi n+1+1 = 0
i −1
∆x 2
∆x 2 ∆x 2
i ∆x 2
(50)
n +1 n +1 n +1
P i −1 , Pi and P i +1
This is a non-linear set of algebraic equations for the unknown pressures,
Pi n−1+1 , Pi n +1 and Pi n+1+1 , but the coefficients depend on the - also unknown - saturations,
Son +1. Note that equation 50 represents one of a set of equations since there is one
at each grid point (and at the ends of the 1D system the values may be set by the
Son +1
boundary conditions).
We now consider the discretisation of the saturation equation 46. Finite differences
may be applied to this equation as follows:
∂P ∂P
λ o ( So ) ∂x
n +1
− λ o ( So )
∂x i −1/ 2
S −S n
i +1 / 2
φ =
oi oi
∆t ∆x (51)
Again, we can expand the derivative terms at the (i+1/2) and (i-1/2) boundaries (Figure
9) and we can take the mobility terms at the (n+1) time level to obtain:
Soin+1 − Soin λ o ( So )
n +1
( ) (
λ ( Son +1 ) )
φ
∆t
=
∆x 2
i +1 / 2
(P n +1
i +1 − Pi n +1
) − o ∆x 2 i −1 / 2
(P
i
n +1
−P n +1
i −1 )
(52)
The above non-linear algebraic set of equations can be written in various ways. Two
particularly useful ways to write the above equations are as follows:
∆t λ o ( So )
n +1
( ) (
λ ( Son +1 ) )
Sn +1
oi =S +
n
φ
oi
∆x 2
i +1 / 2
(P n +1
i +1 − Pi n +1
) − o ∆x 2 i −1 / 2
(P
i
n +1
−P n +1
i −1 )
(53)
or Form B:
∆t λ o ( So )
n +1
( ) (
λ ( Son +1 ) )
n +1
Sn +1
oi −S −
n
φ
oi
∆x 2
i +1 / 2
(P n +1
i +1 − Pi n +1
) − o ∆x 2 i −1 / 2
(i
P n +1
− Pi −1 ) = 0
(54)
The reason for writing the above two forms of the saturation equation is that each is
useful, depending on how we intend to approach the solution of the coupled pressure
(equation 45) and saturation (equation 46) equations.
As with the case of the solution of the non-linear single phase pressure equation for
a compressible system, we have two strategies which we can use to solve the two-
phase equations above, as follows:
(i) We can actually use a numerical equation solver which is specifically designed to
solve more difficult non-linear problems; e.g. the Newton-Raphson method. We will
return to this method later (once we have seen how to solve linear equations).
(i) We can again choose to apply a more pragmatic algorithm and this is the subject
of section 4.2 below.
Pressure:
(λ (S ))
T
n +1
o
i −1 / 2
P n +1
−
(
λ ( Son +1 )
T ) i −1 / 2
+
(λ (S ))
T
n +1
o
i +1 / 2
P n +1 + T o
(
λ ( S n +1 ) ) i +1 / 2
Pi n+1+1 = 0
i −1
∆x 2
∆x 2 ∆x 2
i ∆x 2
(50)
Saturation:
(
∆t λ o ( So )
n +1
) λ ( Son +1 ) ( )
n +1
Soin+1 + Soin −
φ ∆x 2
i +1 / 2
( i +1 i ) − o ∆x 2
P n +1
− P n +1 i −1 / 2
(i
P n +1
− Pi −1 )
(53)
30
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
Pressure equation 50 would be a set of linear equations if the coefficients were
known at the current time step (n), rather than being specified at the (n+1) - i.e. the
unknown - time level. However, we could solve equation 50 above as if it were
Pi n−1+1 , Pi n +1 and Pi n+1+1
a linear system of equations by time-lagging Pi n−1+1as
the coefficients n +1
, Pbefore and
P 1 n +nthe
n +(see
P +i1 1+1 and Pi n+1+1
i i −1 , iP
algorithm in Figure 13). This would give us a “first guess” (or first iteration) to find
Pi n−n1++11, Pi nn++11and Pi n+n1++11
the unknowns i.e. the quantities Pin−+11 , Pi and Pi +1 . The same problem exists
P
forPthen +1saturation
, P n +1 equation
and P n +1 53, if wei had the first guess at the Pi n +1 (by thePprocedure i
n +1
i −1 i i +1
just mentioned), then we could use Pi nthese
+1 latest values of pressure and still time lag
n +1
the coefficients (the oil mobility Sterms)Pni +1 and use the saturation equation 53 as if it
+1
werePi n an
o
+1 explicit expression. This would give us an updated Sonvalue of Son +1 which
could then be used back in the pressure Sonn++11 equation and the whole process could be
So n +1 νpreviously.
( ) ( )
iterated until convergence, as discussed
( () ) ( ) A flow chart of this procedure
ν ν
Pi −1 , Pi n +1 and Pi n+1+1 .n +1 ν n +1n +ν1 ν n +1n +ν1 ν
hasSalready been outlined in Chapter 5 (Figure 9) but is elaborated
o
n + 1
( ) (( ))
P i −1 ,herePi Pin
i −1
Figure
and, Pi Pi +1 and.
( P ) , ( P ) and ( P )
i −n1 +1 ν i n +1 ν i +n1 +1 ν
( P as) the
known i −1 , ( PIMPES
n +1 ν
) and
i ( P ) which stands for IMplicit(Sin Pressure,
n +1 ν
approximation,
n +1 ν
i +1
i i +1
) , (S(S Explicit
) )etc.
, ( S ) etc.
i
n +1 ν n +1n +ν1 ν
i +1i
n +1 ν
i +1
in Saturation. This can be iterated(until
S )it,converges
((SS )) etc.
n +1 ν n +1 ν
although there are limitations in
( S ) , i n +1 ν
etc. i +n1+1 ν
the size of time step, Δt, which can be taken. If Δt is too large, the IMPES method
i i +1
may(Sbecome
i ) , (Sunstable
n +1 ν
) etc.and give unphysical results like the example in Exercise 3
n +1 ν
i +1
above.
PRESSURE EQUN. Set the total mobilities ⇒ λ T (Soν )i +1/ 2 and λ T (Soν )i −1/ 2
obtain the linearised pressure equation:
(λ (S ))
T
ν
o
λ (Soν )
Pin−+11 −
T
i −1 / 2 i −1 / 2
+
( )
λ T (Soν ) (
i +1 / 2 n +1
Pi +
λ T (Soν ) )
i +1 / 2
Pin++11 = 0
( )
∆x 2
∆x 2
∆x 2
∆x 2
Solve this linear implicit pressure equation for pressure at iteration, ν, to
obtain:
SATURATION EQUN. Now update the saturation equation as if it were explicit by taking
ν ν
(i) the oil mobility terms at the latest iteration, ν ⇒ λ 0 (So )i λ 0 (So )i +1 , etc.
(ii) the latest values of the pressures just calculated implicity ⇒ ( Pin−+11 ) , ( Pin +1 ) and ( Pin++11 )
ν ν ν
(
∆t λ o (So ) i +1/ 2
ν
) (
λ (Soν ) )
Soin+1 = Soin +
φ ∆x 2
(
(Pin++11 ) − (Pin +1 )
ν ν
) − o
∆x 2
i −1 / 2
(
(Pin +1 ) − (Pin−+11 )
ν ν
)
ν = ν +1
NX NX
Err. = ∑ ( Pin +1 ) − ( Pin +1 ) + ∑ (Sin +1 ) − (Sin +1 )
ν ν −1 ν ν −1
i =1 i =1
Figure 13.
Note that the Err. term above would have some scaling factors weighing the IMPES Algorithm for the
pressure and saturation terms because of the units of pressure.
numerical solution of the
two-phase pressure and sat-
No - continue iteration Yes
uration equations (IMPES
Is Err. < Tol ? Stop
⇒ IMplicit in Pressure,
Explicit in Saturation)
32
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
5 THE NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
where the aij and bi are known constants and the xi (i = 1, 2, ... , n) are the unknown
quantities which we are trying to find. The xi in our pressure equation, for example,
would be the unknown pressures at the next time step.
and the set of linear equations can be written in very compact form as follows:
A.x = b (58)
4. x1 + 2. x2 + 1. x3 = 13
1. x1 + 3. x2 + 3. x3 = 14
2. x1 + 1. x2 + 2. x3 = 11 (59)
How do we solve these? In the above case, you can do a simple trial and error
solution to find that x1 = 2, x2 = 1 and x3 = 3, although this would be virtually
impossible if there were hundreds of equations. Remember, there is one equation for
every grid block in a linearised pressure equation in reservoir simulation (although
there are lots of zeros in the A matrix). This implies that we need a clear
numerical algorithm that a computer can work through and solve the linear
equations. The overview of approaches to solving these equations is discussed
in the next section.
34
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
Basically, there are two main approaches for solving sets of linear equations involving
direct methods and iterative methods as follows:
(i) Direct Methods: this group of methods involves following a specific algorithm
and taking a fixed number of steps to get to the answer (i.e. the numerical values
of x1, x2 .. xn). Usually, this involves a set of forward elimination steps in order to
get the equations into a particularly suitable form for solution (see below), followed
by a back substitution set of steps which give us the answer. An example of such
a direct method is Gaussian Elimination.
(ii) Iterative Methods: in this type of method, we usually start off with a first guess
(or estimate) to the solution vector, say x(o) . Where we take this as iteration zero,
v = 0. We then have a procedure - an algorithm - for successively improving this
guess by iteration to obtain, x(1) → x(2) → x(3) .... → x(ν) etc. If it is successful, then
this iterative method should converge to the correct x as ν increases. The solution
should get closer and closer to the “correct” answer but, in many cases, we cannot
say exactly how quickly it will get there. Therefore, iterative methods do not
have a fixed number of steps in them as do direct methods. Examples of iterative
methods are the Jacobi iteration, the LSOR (Line Successive Over Relaxation)
method, etc.
The following two sections will discuss each of these approaches for solving
sets of linear equations in turn.
A.x = b (60)
Remember that any mathematical operation we perform on one of the linear equations
(e.g. multiplying through by x2) must be performed on both sides of the equation i.e.
The C-matrix above is in upper triangular form i.e. only the diagonals and above
are non-zero (cij ≠ 0, if j ≥ i) and all elements below the diagonal are zero (cij = 0,
if i > j), as shown above. Now consider why this particular form is of interest in
solving the original equations. The reason is that, if we have formed the augmented
matrix correctly (i.e. doing the same operations to the A and b coefficients), then the
following matrix equation is equivalent to the original matrix equation:
Therefore,
This matrix equation is very easy to solve, as can be seen by writing it out
in full as follows:
36
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
c11 . x1 + c12 . x2 + c13 . x3 + c14 . x4 + c15 . x5 ... + c1n . xn = e1
cn −1, n −1 . xn −1 + cn −1, n . xn = en −1
cnn . xn = en
(65)
We can easily solve this equation by back-substitution, starting from the equation n
which only has one term to find xn, this xn is then used in the (n-1) equation (which
has 2 terms) to find xn-1 etc. as follows:
e − c .x
cn −1, n −1 . xn −1 + cn −1, n . xn = en −1 => xn −1 = n −1 n −1, n n use xn −1 , xn in ..
cn −1, n −1
cn − 2, n − 2 . xn − 2 + cn − 2, n −1 . xn −1 + cn − 2, n . xn = en − 2
e - cn − 2, n −1 . xn −1 − cn − 2, n . xn
=> xn − 2 = n − 2 etc.
cn − 2, n − 2
(66)
Hence, by working back through these equations in upper triangular form, we can
calculate xn, xn-1, , xn-2.... back to x1.
Solve
4 x -the1following
x − 2 x simple
+ 1example
x + 1ofx an
= upper
5 triangular matrix:
1 2 3 4 5
4 x1 - 1x2 − 2 x3 + 1 x 4 + 1x 5 = 5
2 x 2 − 2 x3 + 1x4 + 2 x5 = 12
2 x2 − 2 x3 + 1x4 + 2 x5 = 12
3 x3 + 4 x4 + 1x5 = 30
3 x3 + 4 x4 + 1x5 = 30
2 x4 − 1x 5 = 3
2 x 4 − 1x 5 = 3
3 x5 = 15
3 x5 = 15
Answer
Answer:
Answer
x1 = ..........; x2 = ..........; x3 = ..........; x4 = ..........; x5 = ..........
x1 = ..........; x2 = ..........; x3 = ..........; x4 = ..........; x5 = ..........
Our simple scheme starts with the longhand version of a set of linear equations and,
for our purposes, we will just take a set of four linear equations as follows:
38
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
1
x1 =
a11
[
b1 − ( a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4 )]
1
x2 =
a22
[
b2 − ( a21 x1 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 ) ]
1
x3 =
a33
[
b3 − ( a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a34 x4 ) ]
1
x4 =
a44
[
b4 − ( a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 ) ]
(68)
The resulting equations are precisely equivalent to the original set although, if
anything, they look a bit more complicated. Why would we deliberately complicate
the situation? In fact, the above reorganised equations forms the basis for an
iterative scheme, which we can use to solve the equations numerically. Firstly, we
need to introduce some notation as follows:
Notation:
(ν )
xi
xi(v) - the solution for xi at iteration ν; where ν is the iteration
counter.
Using the above notation in equations 68 above, gives the following simple iteration
scheme:
x2(ν +1) =
1
a22
[
b2 − ( a21 . x2(ν ) + a23 . x3(ν ) + a24 . x4(ν ) ) ]
x3(ν +1) =
1
a33
[
b3 − ( a31 . x1(ν ) + a32 . x2(ν ) + a34 . x4(ν ) ) ]
x4(ν +1) =
1
a44
[
b3 − ( a41 . x1(ν ) + a42 . x2(ν ) + a43 . x3(ν ) ) ] (69)
(ii) Update the solution to the next iteration ν+1 using equations 69
4
Err. = ∑ xik +1 − x ki
(iii) Estimate an Error term (Err.) by comparing the latest with the previous
i =1
iteration of the unknowns, e.g.:
4
Err. = ∑ xiν +1 − xiν
i =1
If yes - the scheme has converged; if no - go back to step (ii) and continue
the iterations.
Example: Solve the following set of equations using the iterative scheme above.
40
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
(0) (0) (0) (0)
Take the first guess: x1 = 2, x2 = 2, x3 = 2, x4 = 2
(
x1(ν +1) = (1 / 3.1) * 13.92 - (- 0.32 x2(ν ) + 0.5 x3(ν ) + 0.1x4(ν ) ) )
(
x2(ν +1) = (1 / 2.1) * 5.63 - (0.20 x ( ν + 1)
1 + 0.33 x3(ν ) + 0.21x4(ν ) ))
(
x3(ν +1) = (1 / 4.0) * 15.19 - (0.23x (ν +1)
1 - 0.32 x2(ν +1) + 0.30 x4(ν ) ))
(
x4(ν +1) = (1 / 5.2) * 16.76 - ( 0.42 x (ν +1)
1 + 0.22 x2(ν +1) + 0.5 x3(ν +1) ))
EXERCISE 5.
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
First guess = 0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
In some First
cases, it may
guess = 0be possible
2.0 to develop
2.0 improved
2.0 iteration 2.0 schemes by using
the latest information 1that is available. For
4.309677 1.97619 example, in
3.6925the above iteration scheme,
2.784615
we could use the very latest value of x1
2 4.008926 (ν+1)
when we are calculating x2(ν+1) since we
1.411795 3.498943 2.436331
3 3.993119 1.505683
already have this quantity. Likewise, we can use both 3.497206
x1(ν+1) 2.503112
and x2(ν+1) when we
4 4.000937 1.500783 3.500617 2.500584
calculate x3 (ν+1)
etc as shown below:
5 3.999963 1.499755 3.499965 2.499832
6 3.999986 1.500026 3.499995 2.500017
7 4.000003 1.5 3.500002 2.500001
8 4 1.499999 3.5 2.5
Converged ⇒ 9 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
10 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
(
x2(ν +1) = (1 / 2.1) * 5.63 - (0.20 x ( ν + 1)
1 + 0.33 x3(ν ) + 0.21x4(ν ) ))
(
x3(ν +1) = (1 / 4.0) * 15.19 - (0.23x (ν +1)
1 - 0.32 x2(ν +1) + 0.30 x4(ν ) ))
(
x4(ν +1) = (1 / 5.2) * 16.76 - ( 0.42 x (ν +1)
1 + 0.22 x2(ν +1) + 0.5 x3(ν +1) ))
x1(ν +1) , x2(ν +1) , x3(ν +1) => underlined terms, imply they are at the latest time
available).
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
First guess = 0 2 2 2 2
1 4.309677 1.756221 3.540191 2.460283
2 4.021247 1.495632 3.501408 2.498333
3 3.999376 1.500005 3.500161 2.500035
4 3.999973 1.499974 3.499997 2.500004
5 3.999998 1.5 3.5 2.5
Converged ⇒ 6 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
7 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
8 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
9 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
10 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
Clearly, comparing this table with the previous one using the simple point iterative
method, we see that this method does indeed converge quicker. Although this
is just one example, it is generally true that using the latest information in an
iterative scheme improves convergence.
Notes on iterative schemes: there are several point to note about iterative
schemes, which we have not really demonstrated or explained here. However,
you can confirm some of these points by using the supplied spreadsheets.
These points are:
(i) Iterative solution schemes for linear equations are often relatively simply to apply
- and to program on a computer (usually in FORTRAN). If you study the supplied
spreadsheets (CHAP6Ex5.xls), you can see that they are quite simple in structure
for this set of equations.
42
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
(ii) The convergence rate of an iterative scheme may depend on how good the initial
guess (x(0)) is. If you want to demonstrate this for yourself, run the spreadsheet
(CHAP6Ex5.xls) with a more remote initial guess. Here is the same example as
that presented above with a completely absurd initial guess:
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
First guess = 0 900 -2000 456 23000
1 -1017.45 -2454.69 -1932.95 -28.7
2 63.79526 406.2002 -131.922 375.1144
3 55.59796 -20.1756 4.491703 -6.43019
4 1.890636 -2.67691 -0.53117 0.84584
5 4.326953 2.668945 3.538073 3.234699
6 4.090824 1.389409 3.519613 2.420476
7 3.987986 1.49622 3.491895 2.495457
8 4.001064 1.502872 3.500729 2.50191
9 4.000117 1.499593 3.500025 2.499722
10 3.999963 1.500013 3.499982 2.500005
11 4.000004 1.500006 3.500003 2.500004
12 4 1.499999 3.5 2.499999
Converged ⇒ 13 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
14 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
15 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
(iii) We cannot tell in advance how many iterations may be required in order to
converge a given iterative scheme. Clearly, from the results above, a good initial
guess helps. In reservoir simulation, when we solve the pressure equation, a good
enough guess of the new pressure is the values of the old pressures at the last
time step. If nothing radical has changed in the reservoir, then this may be
fine. However, if new wells have started up in the model or existing wells have
changed rate very significantly, then the “pressure at last time step” guess may
not be very good. However, with a very robust numerical method, convergence
should still be achieved.
(iv) It helps in an iterative method to use the latest information available. This was
demonstrated in the iterative schemes in spreadsheet CHAP6Ex5.xls.
EXERCISE 6.
Which is best method (i.e. that requiring the lowest amount of computational work),
BAND or LSOR, for the following problems?
44
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
We can summarise our comparison between direct and iterative methods for solving
the sets of linear equations that arise in reservoir simulation as follows:
(i) A direct method for solving a set of linear equations has an algorithm that
involves a fixed number of steps for a given size of problem. Given that the
equations are properly behaved (i.e. the problem has a stable solution), the direct
method is guaranteed to get to the solution in this fixed number of steps. No first
guess is required for a direct method.
(ii) An iterative method on the other hand, starts from a first guess at the solution (x(o))
and then applied a (usually simpler) algorithm to get better and better approximations
to the true solution of the linear equations. If successful, the method will converge
in a certain number of iterations, Niter, which we hope will be as small as possible.
However, we cannot usually tell what this number will be in advance. Also, in some
cases the iterative method may not converge for certain types of “difficult” problem.
We may need to have good first guess to make our iterative method fast. Also, it
often helps to use the latest computed information that is available (see example
above).
(iii) Usually the amount of “work” required for a direct method is smaller for
smaller problems but iterative methods usually win out for larger problems. For
an iterative method, the amount of work per iteration is usually relatively small
but the number of iterations (Niter) required to reach convergence may be large and
is usually unknown in advance.
The linear equations which arise in reservoir simulation may be solved by a direct
solution method or an iterative solution method. Fill in the table below:
Give a very
brief description
of each method
Main advantages 1. 1.
2. 2.
Main 1. 1.
disadvantages
2. 2.
46
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
In this section, we will introduce the general idea of solving sets of non-linear equations
numerically and indicate how this can be applied to the two-phase flow equations.
We will do this in a simplified manner that shows the basic principles without going
into too much detail. Firstly, compare the difference between solving the following
two sets of two equations, a set of 2 linear equations:
2 x1 + x2 = 10
3 x1 − x2 = 5 (72)
x1 + 2 x2 .e − x1 = 2
x2 .( x1 )2 − x1 .( x2 ) = −5
2
(73)
It is immediately obvious that the second set of non-linear equations is more difficult.
The first set of linear equations can be rearranged easily to show that x1 = 3 and x2 =
4. However, it is not as straightforward to do the same thing for the non-linear set
of equations. As a first attempt to solve these, we might try to develop an iterative
scheme by rearranging the equations as follows
(ν )
x1(ν +1) = 2 − 2 x2(ν ) .e − x1
(ν +1)
x2(ν ) .( x1(ν ) )2 +5
x =
x1(ν )
2
(74)
The actual solution in this case is, x1 =2.51068, x2 = 3.144089. Applying the above
iterative scheme with a first guess, x1(0) = x2(0) = 1.0, gives the results shown in Table
2 below (where we have removed some of the intermediate iterations).
Table 2: Non-linear scheme applied to solution of equations 73 using the point iterative
scheme of equation 74 (spreadsheet, CHAP6Ex5.xls - Sheet 3)
You can check the results in Table 2 or experiment with other first guesses using
Sheet 3 of spreadsheet CHAP6Ex5.xls. We note that the convergence rate in Table
2 is not very fast but, in this case, it does reach a solution. In general, it is usually
very difficult to establish for certain whether a given scheme will converge for non-
linear equations although there is a large body of mathematics associated with the
solution of such systems (which is beyond the scope of this course).
x 2 .e − x = 0.30 (75)
which has the solution x = 0.829069 (you can verify this by calculating x 2 .e − x
and making sure it is 0.30 - to an accuracy of ~ 4.6x10-8). This equation can be
represented as:
and the solution we require is the value of x for which the function f(x) is zero.
Expand f(x) as a Taylor series as follows:
δx 2 ' '
f ( x ) ≈ f ( xo ) + δx. f ' ( x0 ) + . f ( x0 ) + ...
2 (77)
where we have neglected all the second order and higher terms. Since we require
the solution for f(x) = 0, then we obtain:
48
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
which can be rearranged to the following algorithm to estimate our updated guess,
x(ν+1) as follows:
f ( x (ν ) )
x (ν +1) = x (ν ) −
f ' ( x (ν ) ) (80)
This equation is the basis of the Newton-Raphson algorithm for obtaining better and
better estimates of the solution of the equation, f(x) = 0. Note that we need both a first
guess, x(0), and also an expression for the derivative f ' (x(ν)) at iteration ν. In the simple
example in equation 76, we can obtain the derivative analytically as follows:
df ( x )
= f ' ( x ) = 2 x.e − x − x 2 .e − x
dx (81)
( x (ν ) )2 .e − x (ν ) − 0.30
x ( ν + 1)
=x (ν )
- (ν ) − x ( ν )
− ( x (ν ) ) .e − x
2 (ν )
2 x .e
(82)
The point iterative method of the previous section and the Newton-Raphson method
of equation 82 have both been applied to the solution of equation 75 (see Sheet 4
of spreadsheet CHAP6Ex5.xls for details). The results are shown in Table 3 for a
first guess of x(0) = 1.
Table 3: Comparison of the point iterative and Newton-Raphson methods for solving
non-linear equation 75; (see spreadsheet CHAP6Ex5.xls - Sheet 4 for details)
ν Point Newton-
Iteration Raphson
method method
x(ν) x(ν)
0 1 1
1 0.903042 0.815485
2 0.860307 0.825272
3 0.84212 0.82806
4 0.834497 0.828805
5 0.831322 0.829
6 0.830003 0.829051
7 0.829456 0.829064
8 0.82923 0.829068
9 0.829136 0.829069
10 0.829097 0.829069
11 0.82908 0.829069
12 0.829074 0.829069
13 0.829071 0.829069
14 0.82907 0.829069
15 0.829069 0.829069
16 0.829069 0.829069
F1 ( x1 , x2 ) = 0
F2 ( x1 , x2 ) = 0 (83)
where, in the case of equation 73 above, these functions would be given by:
F1 ( x1 , x2 ) = x1 + 2 x2 .e − x1 − 2
F2 ( x1 , x2 ) = x2 .( x1 )2 − x1 .( x2 ) + 5
2
(84)
The problem is then to find the values of x1 and x2 that make F1 = F2 = 0. In this
section, we present Newton’s method for the solution of sets of non-linear equations.
Basically, we will simply state the Newton-Raphson algorithm without proof (although
it will resemble the simple form of the Newton-Raphson method above) for sets of
non-linear equations. We will then illustrate what this means for the example of the
set of two non-linear equations above (equation 73).
Definitions:
As before,
(ν )
x (νx) and andx (νx+(ν1)+1=) the solution vectors at iteration levels ν and (ν+1)
F(Fx((ν)x) =) =0 0forforthe
the"true"
"true"solution
solutionofofthe
thesetsetofofnon
non - linearequations
- linear equations
x
50
F( x ) = 0 for the "true" solution of the set of non - linear equations
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
That is:
F1 ( x1ν , x2ν , x3ν ,....., x νN )
F2 ( x1ν , x2ν , x3ν ,....., x νN )
F3 ( x1ν , x2ν , x3ν ,....., x νN )
F( x ) =
(ν )
.....
.....
F ( x ν , x ν , x ν ,....., x ν )
N 1 2 3 N
(85)
[ J ( x )]
−1
(ν )
= the inverse of the Jacobian matrix. (Recall that the inverse of a
matrix A is denoted by A-1 and by definition, A-1 .A = I, where I is the identity matrix
- all diagonals 1 and all other elements zero - see below). The above matrix is also
an NxN matrix with the property:
[ J ( x )] .[ J ( x )] = I, the identity matrix
−1
(ν ) (ν )
1 0 0 0 0 ...... 0
10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...... 0 0
......
0 1 0 0 0 ......
0 0 1 0 0 ...... 0 0
00 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 ...... 0 0
......
[ ] [
That is → J ( x (ν ) ) . J ( x (ν ) ) = I = ]
−1
0 0 0 1 0 (87)
0 0 0 0 1 ...... 0 0
......
[ ] [
J(x ) . J(x ) = I = ]
−1
(ν ) (ν )
0 .......
0 0 0 1 ...... 0
.......
.......
.......
0 0 0 0 0 ...... 1
0 0 0 0 0 ...... 1
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 51
Using all of the above definitions, the Newton-Raphson algorithm for a set of non-
linear equations, F( x ) = 0, is given by the following expression:
[ ]
x (ν+1) = x (ν) − J ( x (ν) ) .F( x (ν) )
−1
(88)
We first demonstrate how this is applied to a simple example (equations 73) before
going on to show how it is applied to the more complicated non-linear sets of
equations which arise in the fully implicit discretisation of the reservoir simulation
equations.
F1 ( x1 , x2 ) = x1 + 2 x2 .e − x1 − 2
F2 ( x1 , x2 ) = x2 .( x1 )2 − x1 .( x2 ) + 5
2
(89)
F1 ( x1 , x2 ) x1 + 2 x2 .e − x1 − 2
F( x ) = =
F2 ( x1 , x2 ) x2 .( x1 )2 − x1 .( x2 ) + 5
2
(90)
∂F1 ( x (ν ) ) ∂F1 ( x (ν ) )
∂x1 ∂x2
J(x ) =
(ν )
∂F2 ( x (ν ) ) ∂F2 ( x (ν ) )
∂x1 ∂x2
(91)
(
1 − 2 x (ν ) .e − x1(ν )
2 ) (2.e )
− x1( ν )
J ( x (ν ) ) =
(
2 1 (2 )
2 x (ν ) . x (ν ) − x (ν ) 2
) (( x ) − 2x
(ν ) 2
1
(ν )
1 . x2(ν ) )
(92)
52
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
( ) (2.e )
−1
1 − 2 x (ν ) .e − x1(ν ) − x1( ν ) x (ν ) + 2 x (ν ) .e − x1(ν ) − 2
2
1 2
x ( ν + 1) = x ( ν ) −
(
2 1
(2 )
2 x (ν ) . x (ν ) − x (ν ) 2
) (( x ) − 2x
(ν ) 2
1
(ν )
1 . x2(ν ) )
x2(ν ) .( x1(ν ) )2 − x1(ν ) .( x2(ν ) ) + 5
2
(93)
[ ( )]
−1
(ν )
which we could solve if we knew how to invert the Jacobian matrix to find J x
This is a detail which we don’t need to know for this course but it can be done.
Indeed, for a 2x2 matrix - such as in the above case - it is quite easy to work out the
inverse. The inverse of a simple 2 x 2 matrix A given by:
A = a b
c d
is well known to be
A-1 = 1 d − b
( ad − bc) − c a
This can easily be proven by multiplying out there matrices and showing that
A-1 .A = I. The factor (ad-bc) is known as the determinant of the matrix and it must be
non-zero for A-1 to exist. Rather than using equation above to write out the analytical
[ ]
form of the J ( x (ν ) ) matrix we first simply numerically evaluate the matrix J at a
[]
−1
given iteration and apply equation above no get J . This is done in the spreadsheet
Chap6Exxx.xls where results are shown.
[ J ( x )]
−1
(k )
= *** (94)
which allows us to apply the Newton-Raphson method directly to our simple example.
For details see Sheet 5 spreadsheet ***.xls. The results are shown in Table 6.xx.
(NOTES & SPEADSHEET STILL UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
(λ (S ))
T
n +1
o
i −1 / 2
Pn +1
−
(
λ (Son +1 )
T ) i −1 / 2
+
(λ (S ))
T
n +1
o
i +1 / 2
P n +1 + T o
(
λ (S n + 1 ) ) i +1 / 2
Pin++11 = 0
i −1
∆x 2
∆x 2 ∆x 2
i ∆x 2
(
∆t λ o ( So )
n +1
) λ ( Son +1 )( )
n +1
Soin+1 − Soin −
φ ∆x 2
i +1 / 2
( i +1 i ) − o ∆x 2
P n +1
− P n +1 i −1 / 2
(i
P n +1
− Pi −1 ) = 0
n +1
Given that the unknowns that we are trying to find are Pi , Sin +1 i = 1,2, NX. ,
then we can write the above equations in general form as:
FP, i ( S n +1 , P n +1 ) = 0
FS , i ( S n +1 , P n +1 ) = 0
(95)
FP, i ( S n +1 , P n +1 ) andn +F1S , i (nS+n1+1 , P n +1 ) n +1 n +1
where the two non-linear equations, FP, i ( S , P ) and FS , i ( S , P ) , arise from
the pressure (P) and saturation (S) equations, respectively, as given above. The
vectors of unknowns, S n +1 and P n +1, nare
+1 given nby
+1 :
S and P
n +1
S 1 P1n +1
n +1 n +1
S2 P2
n +1 n +1
S3 P3
... ...
... ...
S n +1 P n +1
S n +1 = i −1 and P n +1 = i −1
Sin +1 Pi n +1
n +1 n +1
Si +1 Pi +1
... ...
... ...
... ...
S n +1 P n +1
NX NX (96)
54
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
FP, i ( S n +1 , P n +1 ) and FS , i ( S n +1 , P n +1 )
We may also write one total unknows vector Xn+1 using a combination of the saturation
and pressure vectors as follows:
S1 n +1
n +1
P1
S n +1
2
P2 n +1
X n +1 =
S n +1
i
Pi n +1
S n +1
NX
n +1
PNX
The saturations and pressures are coupled together to their nearest neighbours through
the discretisation equations (50 and 54 above). The general form of the solution using
the Newton iteration is then to take a starting guess (iteration, ν=0) Xn+1(0) and then
apply the formulation as above to obtain:
[ ]
−1
X n +1 (ν +1) = X n +1(ν ) + J ( X )(ν ) . F ( X (ν ) )
In this course, we will not give any more detail on the solution of the non-linear
equations which arise in reservoir simulation.
In this section, we return to the issue of numerical dispersion - a term which we will
now use interchangeably with “numerical diffusion”. Indeed, “diffusion” is often
referred to as quite a specific physical effect which is described by certain well-known
equations which are, not surprisingly, known as diffusion equations. For example,
the simplified pressure equation derived in Chapter 5, equation 27, is an example of
a diffusion equation. This equation has the form:
∂P ∂2 P
= Dh 2
∂t ∂x (97)
where Dh is the hydraulic diffusivity (Dh = k/( cf .φ.μ)) and this is a standard form
of the classical diffusion equation. We now consider how the effects of a grid can
lead to “diffusion-like” terms when we try to solve the flow equations numerically.
∂2 P
In the above equations, it is specifically the 2 term that is the “dispersive” or
“diffusive” part. ∂x
∂S ∂f
φ w = − v w
∂t ∂x (98)
qw
56 fw ( Sw ) =
qw + qo
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
fw ( Sw )
qw
( fw ( Sw ) = ) which is a function only of water saturation, Sw. We can
qw + qo
differentiate fw ( Sw ) by the chain rule to obtain:
fw ( Sw ) ∂f ∂S
∂S ∂f
φ w = − v w = − v w w
∂ft S = ∂xqw ∂Sw ∂x
w( w) (99)
qw + qo
∂f
− v w
where the termfw ( Sw)∂Sw is a non-linear term giving the water velocity, v w (Sw ) ,
which is also a function of water saturation: that is:
∂f
v w (S w ) = − v w fw (Sw )
∂Sw (100)
To simplify the problem even further for our purposes here, we take a straight line
∂fw
fractional flow, fw (Sw ) , which means that ∂Sw is a constant and, hence, so is
the water velocity, Vw. Hence, the simple 1D transport equation for a convected
waterfront is:
∂fw
w ∂S ∂Sw
∂S
= −wv w
∂t ∂x (101)
where, as noted above, vw is now constant. This equation describes the physical
situation illustrated schematically in Figure 14.
t1 t2 Governing equation
1 ∂Sw ∂Sw
= - Vw
∂t ∂x
Figure 14
Sw Vw = constant
The advance of a sharp
Water Vw Oil
saturation front governed
0 x2 - x1
by the transport equation x1 x2 Vw =
x t2 - t1
with a constant velocity vw.
Starting from the transport equation 101 above, we can easily apply finite differences
using our familiar notation (Chapter 5) to obtain:
Sn +1 − Swi
n
Swi − Swi −1
φ wi = − vw + Error terms
∆t ∆x (102)
where we have used the backward difference (sometimes referred to as the upstream
∂Sw
difference) to discretise the spatial term, ∂x . Note that we have not yet specified
the time level of the spatial terms. If we take these at the n time level (known), then it
SPACE
∂S δx ∂ Sw
2 2
Sw (x, t ) = Sw (x 0 ) + δx. w + + higher order terms
(t fixed) ∂x 2 ∂x 2 (103)
∂S δt 2 ∂ 2S
TIME Sw ( x, t ) = Sw ( t 0 ) + δt. + 2 + higher order terms
w w
∂t 2 ∂t
(x fixed) (104)
We can rearrange each of the above equations 103 and 104 to obtain the finite
∂S ∂S
difference approximations for the ∂x
and
∂t terms with the leading error
terms as follows (now ignoring the higher order terms):
∂S S(x, t ) − S(x 0 ) δx ∂ 2S
SPACE ≈ − 2 (105)
∂x δx 2 ∂x
∂S S(x, t ) − S( t 0 ) δt ∂ S
2
TIME ≈ − 2 ∂t 2 (106)
∂t δt
To return to our usual notation, we make the identities:
S( x, t ) ⇔ Sin +1
S( x 0 ) ⇔ Si −1
S( t 0 ) ⇔ Sin
δx ⇔ ∆x
δt ⇔ ∆t (107)
∂S Si − Si −1 ∆x ∂ S
2
≈ −
∂x ∆x 2 ∂x 2
(108)
n +1
∂S Si − Si ∆t ∂ S
n 2
≈ −
∂t ∆t 2 ∂t 2
(109)
58
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
We now substitute the above finite difference approximations into the governing
equation 102 with their leading error terms as follows:
Sn +1 − Sin ∆t ∂ 2S Si − Si −1 v w .∆x ∂ 2S
φ i − ≈ − v w +
∆t 2 ∂t 2 ∆x 2 ∂x 2 (110)
Sn +1 − Sin Si − Si −1 v w .∆x ∂ 2S ∆t ∂ 2S
φ i ≈ − v w + +
∆t ∆x 2 ∂x 2 2 ∂t 2
Error term (111)
The error term in the finite difference scheme is now clear and is shown in equation
111. However, it still needs some simplifying since it is a strange mixed term with
∂ 2S ∂ 2S ∂ 2S
2 and 2
both ∂x ∂t terms in it. We now want to eliminate the ∂t 2 term
and this is done by using the original governing equation.
∂ 2S ∂Sw ∂S
To obtain
2 , first note from the original equation 101 that
= − vw w
∂t ∂t ∂x
∂Sw
and we can then differentiate with respect to t as follows:
∂t
∂ ∂Sw ∂ 2Sw ∂ ∂S
= 2 = − vw w
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂x (112)
∂ ∂Sw ∂ ∂S
− vw = − vw w
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t (113)
∂S
We now return again to the governing equation (equation 101) and use it for w
in equation 113 to obtain: ∂t
∂ ∂Sw ∂ ∂Sw 2 ∂ Sw
2
− vw = − v −
w v = v w
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x
w
∂x 2 (114)
and hence:
∂ 2 Sw 2 ∂ Sw
2
2 = v w
∂t ∂x 2 (115)
We now substitute this expression into the error term in equation 111 above to obtain
the following:
v .∆x v 2w ∆t ∂ 2S
= w +
2 2 ∂x 2 (116)
The finite difference equation with its error term in equation 111 now becomes:
In this equation, we now see that the form of the error term is exactly like a “diffusive”
term i.e. it multiplies a (∂2Sw/∂x2) term. Hence we identify the level of numerical
dispersion or diffusion, Dnum, arising from our simple finite difference scheme as:
v .∆x v 2w ∆t ∆x v w ∆t ∆x v w ∆t
D num = w + = v w . + D num = v w . +
2 2 2 2 (118) 2 2
∆x v w ∆t
If D num = v w . + , we can take such a small time step that v w ∆t << ∆x
For this case: 2 2
v w .∆x
∆x≈
D num
v w ∆t <<
2 (119)
(i) Firstly, we may apply an explicit finite difference method to obtain an accurate
solution of the following convection-dispersion equation.
∂Sw ∂Sw ∂ 2 Sw
= − v w + D. 2
∂t ∂x ∂x (120)
That is, where the numerical dispersion is much less than the physical dispersion due
to the explicit D term. If this solution is converged (i.e. does not change on refining
Δx and Δt) then we can plot this at a suitable time, t1, as shown in Figure 15.
Governing equation:
2
1 t = t1 Sw Sw Sw
= - Vw +D
t x x2
Sw Figure 15.
Vw = water velocity
Dispersed frontal displace-
0 ment with a known and con-
x
verged level of dispersion.
60
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
n +1
Swi − Swi
n
Swi
n
− Swi
n
−1
(ii) Now take only the explicit finite difference φapproximation
=−
tov wthe
convection
∆t ∆x
equation only, that is:
Sn +1 − Swi
n
Swi
n
− Swi
n
−1 v .∆t n
φ wi = − vw which gives ⇒ Swi
n +1
= Swi
n
− w (Swi − Swi
n
−1 )
∆t ∆x ∆x.φ
Solve this with a relatively coarser grid, Δx, but with a fine time step thus predicting
vwv.∆ x n
w .∆t
2x.φ.( Choose 1)
n +1
S = S n
Dwinum to be −
wi Swi − Swi
n
−this level of dispersion to deliberately match that in
∆
part (i) above i.e. choose Δx such that Dnum = D. Plot out a saturation profile like
that in Figure 15 at the same time t1 and compare these.
8 CLOSING REMARKS
This lists (without proof) some useful theorems from matrix algebra which underpin
much of the practical application work which we have described in this section.
A.x = b
The central problem which we are interested in is:
A.x = b
A.x = b where A is an NxN square matrix
(ii) det( A ) ≠ 0 ; the determinant of the matrix is non-zero. This is a number found
by “multiplying out” the matrixI.in A a=specific
A.I = Away.
(v) the columns of A are linearly independent. Where (iv) and (v) say that we
cannot get one
Aof
.x the
= 0rows or columns by making some combination of the existing
ones.
3. If the matrixAA=isGpositive
.G T definite then it can be decomposed in exactly one
way into a product: A = G.G T
such that matrix G is lower triangular and has positive entries on the main diagonal.
G decomposition.
This is known as Cholesky
62
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1.
dy = 2. y 2 + 4
dt
where, at t = 0, y(t = 0) = 1. Take time steps of Δt = 0.001 (arbitrary time units) and
step the solution forward to t = 0.25. Use the notation yn+1 for the (unknown) y at
n+1 time level and yn for the (known) y value at the current, n, time level.
SOLUTION 1.
y n +1 − y n
= 2.( y ) + 4
n 2
n +1∆t n
y −y
= 2.( y ) + 4
n 2
∆t
which is rearranged to the explicit formula:
y n +1 = y n + ∆t (2.( y n )2 + 4)
ny+n1+1 − yn n
y = y + ∆=t (22.(.(yy )) ++ 44)
nn 22
n +du ∆t y n +1 − y n
y 1 − y n = 1 tan −n1 2 u
∫ u 2 + α 2 α = 2.( y ) + 4
n 2
= 2.( y ) +4
which can be set 1 easily α
∆t up quite on a spreadsheet. ∆ t
du −1n 2u
∫y 2 += αy 2 + ∆αt(tan
n +1 n =
2.( y ) + 4)
α might need the standard form of the following
To find the uanalytical answer, you
integral: y =2 y + ∆t2(2=.( y ) +tan
1n +1 dy n1 2
)
−1 y y n++1C= y n + ∆t (2.( y n )2 + 4)
2 ∫ ydu+ ( 2 1) 2 ∫
n
4 = dt = t
2 2
1 dy= tan −11 u −1 y
∫2 u∫2y+2 α+ 2( 2α)2 = 2 2α tan 2 = ∫ dt = t + Cdu 1 u
du 1 −1 u ∫ = tan −1
α∫ u=2 +2α 2 α = tan
α u +α
2 2
α α
Using this1standard form gives:
α = 2 2 dy 2 = 1 tan −1 y = dt = t + C
2 1∫ y + (−1 2 )y 2 2 2 ∫ 1 dy 1 y
1 tandy 1+C −1 y
= =
22 ∫ 2y 2 + ( 2 )22 2 2
t tan
= ∫ dt = t
2 +∫ Cy 2
+ ( 2 ) 2
=
2 2
tan −1
2
=
1 −1 y
2
α2 =2 tan 2 2 = t +C
where C isy(the [
α t=) = 2 2 tan 2 2 (t + C )
this becomes:
]
constant of integration and we identify α = 2 above. Therefore,
2 2
−1
[ = t +C ]
y2 2 (t + C )
y(1t ) =tan2 tan
2
1 y−1 1 1 y
C 1= tan −1tan = t+=C0.2176049 tan −1 = t +C
2 2 2Heriot-Watt
2 22 1Engineering,
Institute of Petroleum University
2 2 2 63
−1 1
C =
2 2
tan[
y(t ) = 2 tan 2 2 (t + C )
2
= 0 .]2176049
∫ u + α = α tan α
2 2
du 1 u
∫ u + α = α tan α
−1
2 2
du 1 u
∫1 u + αdy= α tan
−1
1 y
21 ∫ y +dy
α tan −1
= ∫ dt = t + C
2 2
=
2
( 2) 2
2 12 y2
−1
21 ∫ y +dy ∫
= tan = dt = t + C
2
( 2) 2
2 12 2
−1 y
α2 ∫= y 2+ ( 2 ) = 2 2 tan
2 2
2 ∫
= dt = t + C
α= 2
α 1= tan 2 −1 y = t +C
2 12 y2
tan −1 = t +C
2 12 2
−1 yto:
which easily rearranges
[
y2(t )2=tan2 tan = t +C
2 2 (t + C )
2 ]
[
y(t ) = 2 tan 2 2 (t + C ) ]
tan[2 12 (t += C0).2176049
y(t=) = 1 2 tan
C −1 ]
conditions since y(t = 0) = 1; it is easy to see that:
We now find C from the initial
2 12 12
C= tan −1 = 0.2176049
2 12 2
1
C= tan −1 = 0.2176049
2 2 2
This is implemented in the spreadsheet CHAP6Ex1.xls. Note that at t > 0.3, both
the analytical and numerical solutions go a bit strange (very large and they start to
disagree) since the tan function has a singularity y(t) → ∞.
EXERCISE 2.
∆t
Pi n +1 = Pi n +
∆x 2
( Pi n+1 + Pi n−1 − 2 Pi n )
Hint: make up a spread sheet as above and set the first unknown block (shown grey
shaded in table above) with the above formula. Copy this and paste it into all of the
cells in the entire unknown area (surrounded by red border above).
SOLUTION 2.
EXERCISE 3.
64
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
EXERCISE 4.
2 x − 22xx2 −+ 21xx3
2 3 4
++ 12xx4 = +122 x5 = 12
5
3 x5 = 153 x5 = 15
SOLUTION 4.
Answer Answer
x1 = ..........;
x1 = ..........; x2 = ..........;
x2 = ..........; x3 = ..........;
x3 = ..........; x4 = ..........;
x4 = ..........; x5 = ..........
x5 = ..........
EXERCISE 5.
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
First guess = 0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
SOLUTION 5. Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
Answer First
- Exercise
guess =5: 0see spreadsheet
2.0 CHAP6Ex5.xls
2.0 2.0 - Sheet2.0
1
1 4.309677 1.97619 3.6925 2.784615
POINT ITERATIVE SOLUTION
2 OF LINEAR
4.008926 1.411795EQUATIONS
3.498943 2.436331
3 3.993119 1.505683 3.497206 2.503112
4 4.000937 1.500783 3.500617 2.500584
5 3.999963 1.499755 3.499965 2.499832
6 3.999986 1.500026 3.499995 2.500017
7 4.000003 1.5 3.500002 2.500001
8 4 1.499999 3.5 2.5
Converged ⇒ 9 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
10 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
Iteration
counter x at iter. ν
ν x1 x2 x3 x4
First guess = 0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
1 4.309677 1.97619 3.6925 2.784615
2 4.008926 1.411795 3.498943 2.436331
3 3.993119 1.505683 3.497206 2.503112
4 4.000937 1.500783 3.500617 2.500584
5 3.999963 1.499755 3.499965 2.499832
6 3.999986 1.500026 3.499995 2.500017
7 4.000003 1.5 3.500002 2.500001
8 4 1.499999 3.5 2.5
Converged ⇒ 9 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
10 4 1.5 3.5 2.5
EXERCISE 6.
Which is best method (i.e. that requiring the lowest amount of computational work),
BAND or LSOR, for the following problems?
SOLUTION 6.
66
Numerical Methods in Reservoir Simulation
6
EXERCISE 7.
The linear equations which arise in reservoir simulation may be solved by a direct
solution method or an iterative solution method. Fill in the table below:
Give a very
brief description
of each method
Main advantages 1. 1.
2. 2.
Main 1. 1.
disadvantages
2. 2.
2 TWO-PHASE FLOW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Applying Single-Phase Upscaling to a
Two-Phase Problem
2.3 Improving Single-Phase Upscaling
2.3.1 Non-Uniform Upscaling
2.3.2 Well Drive Upscaling
2.4 Introduction to Two-Phase Upscaling
2.5 Steady-State Methods
2.5.1 Capillary-Equilibrium
2.6 Dynamic Methods
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 The Kyte and Berry Method
2.6.3 Discussion on Numerical Dispersion
2.6.4 Disadvantages of the Kyte and Berry
Method
2.6.5 Alternative Methods
2.6.6 Example of the PVW Method
2.7 Summary of Two-Phase Flow
3 ADDITIONAL TOPICS
3.1 Upscaling at Wells
3.2 Permeability Tensors
3.2.1 Flow Through Tilted Layers
3.2.2 Simulation with Full Permeability
Tensors
3.3 Small-Scale Heterogeneity
3.3.1 The Geopseudo Method
3.3.2 Capillary-Dominated Flow
Learning Objectives
• Become familiar with two-phase dynamic upscaling (the Kyte and Berry
Method), and understand the advantages and disadvantages of applying dynamic
upscaling.
• Know how to upscale from the core-scale to the scale of a geological model,
taking account of fine-scale structure and capillary effects.
2
Permeability Upscaling
7
1 SINGLE-PHASE FLOW
1.1 Introduction
Reservoir modelling often involves generating multi-million cell models, which
are too large for carrying out flow simulations using conventional techniques. The
number of cells must therefore be reduced by “upscaling” (Figure 1). Some quanti-
ties, such as porosity and water saturation, are easy to upscale, because they may
be averaged arithmetically. However, other quantities – notably permeability – are
much more difficult to upscale.
Full-field model
Geological model
Figure 1
Upscaling Example
Ak eff ∆P
Q=−
µ ∆x (1)
where Q = total flow, A = area, keff = effective permeability, μ = viscosity, and ΔP/Δx
is the pressure gradient.
In Figure 1, the geological model on the left is a fine-scale model with 20 million cells,
and the coarse-scale model on the right consists of about 300,000 cells. Each of the
coarse-scale cells contains an effective permeability. An example of fine-scale and
coarse-scale grids is shown in the 2D model in Figure 2. An effective permeability
is calculated for each coarse-scale cell, either by averaging the fine-grid values, or
by performing a numerical simulation.
Figure 2
The upscaling procedure
In this section of the upscaling course, we assume that there is only one phase present
– water or oil, and that we have steady-state linear flow. We show how simple aver-
aging may sometimes be used to estimate upscaled parameters, and then move on to
methods which involve numerical simulation. This is followed by a set of examples
which demonstrate how errors may arise, and how to avoid them.
4 × 0.15 + 6 × 0.20
φ= = 0.18.
10
When averaging the water saturation, we need to take the porosity into account. In the
previous example, suppose the water saturation was 0.5 in the blocks with porosity of
0.15, and 0.4 in the blocks with porosity 0.2, then the average water saturation is:
4
Permeability Upscaling
7
4 × 0.15 × 0.5 + 6 × 0.20 × 0.4
Sw =
4 × 0.15 + 6 × 0.20
0.3 + 0.48 0.78
= = = 0.433.
1.8 1.8
P1 P2
Qi ki, ti
Figure 4
Along-layer flow ∆x
Consider a set of (infinite) parallel layers of thickness, ti and permeability ki, where i
= 1, 2, .. n (the number of layers). The effective permeability of these layers is given
by the arithmetic average, ka.
n
∑t k i i
k eff = k a = i =1
n
∑t i
i =1 (4)
(Equation (4) may be proved by applying a fixed pressure gradient along the layers.)
Example 1
x 1 t1 = 3 mm, k1 = 10 mD
Figure 5 2 t2 = 5 m
mm, k2 = 100 mD
z
A simple, two-layer model
Suppose we have two layers as shown in Figure 5. The effective permeability for
flow in the x-direction is given by Equation (4), and is:
3 × 10 + 5 × 100 530
ka = = = 66.25 m
mD
3+5 8
∆Pi ki, ti
Figure 6
∆x Across-layer flow
For flow perpendicular to the layers, the effective permeability is given by the har-
monic average, kh:
n
∑t i
k eff = k h = i =1
n .
ti
∑
i =1 k i (5)
(Equation (5) may be proved by assuming a constant flow rate through each layer.)
Example 2
Equation (5) may be used to calculate the effective permeability for flow across the
two layers in the model shown in Figure 5, i.e. flow in the z-direction.
3+5 8
kh = = = 22.86 mD
3 10 + 5 100 0.35
From Examples 1 and 2, we see that the permeability is different in different direc-
tions. In reservoirs with approximately horizontal layers, the arithmetic average
may be used for calculating the effective permeability in the horizontal direction,
and the harmonic average may be used for calculating the effective permeability in
the vertical direction.
Assuming that we are averaging over many correlation lengths, permeability should
be isotropic (same in the x-, y- and z-directions). The effective permeability for a
random permeability distribution is proportional to the geometric average, which is
given by:
6
Permeability Upscaling
7
n
ln( k i )
∑
k g = exp i =1
n
(6)
Correlation Length
Figure 7
A correlated, random
permeability distribution
(white = high permeability,
dark = low permeability)
The results given below have been derived theoretically for log-normal distributions,
with a standard deviation of σY, where Y = ln(k). The results depend on the number
of dimensions:
k eff = k g (1 − σ 2Y 2)
k eff = k g
k eff = k g (1 + σ 2Y 6)
in 1D
in 2 D
in 3D
} (7)
These formulae are approximate, and assume σY is small (< 0.5). (You are not required
to know the proof.) The 1D result is an approximation of the harmonic average.
Note that the results do not depend on the correlation length of the field, provided it
is much smaller than the system size.
Also note that ka > kg > kh, and the effective permeability always lies between the
two extremes: ka and kh.
Example 3
Figure 8
A random arrangement
of the permeabilties in the
simple example 75 cells of 10 mD 125 cells of 100mD
75 + 250
200
= 10
= 101.625 = 42.17 mD.
1/ α
n α
∑ ki
k p = i =1 ,
n
(8)
where α is the power. The value of the power depends on the type of model, and
must be calibrated against numerical simulation (Section 1.4).
Also, sometimes, engineers use a combination of the arithmetic and harmonic aver-
ages, e.g. they take the arithmetic average of the permeabilities in each column and
then calculate the harmonic average of the columns.
• Parallel layers
• Correlated random fields
Since averaging is very quick, it is frequently used as an approximation for the effec-
tive permeability in more complex models.
8
Permeability Upscaling
7
q xin + q zin = q xout + q zout . (9)
x qzin
i,j-1
z
Darcy’s law is used to express the flows in terms of the pressures and permeabilities.
For example, if the grid blocks in Figure 9 are of length Δx and height Δz (and unit
width in the y-direction), then:
q xin = −
(
k x, i −1/ 2, j ∆z Pi , j − Pi −1, j )
µ ∆x (10)
where kx,i-1/2,j is the harmonic average of the permeabilities in the x-direction in blocks
(i-1,j) and (i,j). (You now should know now why the harmonic average is used here.)
The other flows are calculated in a similar manner.
(T x , i −1 / 2 , j )
+ Tx, i +1/ 2, j + Tz, i , j −1/ 2 + Tz, i , j +1/ 2 Pi , j
− Tx, i −1/ 2, j Pi −1, j − Tx, i +1/ 2, j Pi +1, j
− Tz, i , j −1/ 2 Pi , j −1 − Tz, i , j +1/ 2 Pi , j +1
=0 (11)
Note that the boundary conditions are applied to each coarse grid cell in turn, and
they may not be a good approximation to the pressures which would arise in a fine-
grid simluation. This leads to errors in the results. Upscaling errors are discussed
in Section 1.5.
P1 P2
Figure 10
Fixed pressure, or no-flow,
boundary conditions
no flow through the sides
The pressure is fixed on two sides of the model, and no flow is allowed through the
others sides of the model. This type of boundary condition is suitable for models
where there is little cross-flow: for example, models with approximately horizontal
layers, or a random distribution. These are the most commonly applied boundary
conditions. Figure 11 illustrates how an effective permeability may be calculated
in the x-direction.
Pressure= P1 Pressure= P2
on left face y
on right face
x
Area, A
Flow Rate, Q z
Figure 11
The calculation of effective
permeability using no-flow
boundary conditions
L
1. Solve the steady-state equation to give the pressures, Pij, in each grid block.
2. Calculate the inter-block flows in the x-direction using Darcy’s Law. (See
Equation 10.)
3. Calculate the total flow, Q, by adding the individual flows between two y-z
planes. (Any two planes will do, because the total flow is constant.)
4. Calculate the effective permeability for flow in the x-direction, using the
equation:
k eff , x A( P1 − P 2)
Q=
µL (12)
Repeat the calculation for flow in the y- and z-directions, to obtain keff,y and keff,z.
10
Permeability Upscaling
7
have an infinitely repeated pattern of flows and pressure gradients. In the example
shown in Figure 12, there is a net pressure gradient in the x-direction. The blocks
are numbered i = 1, 2, ..nx in the x-direction, and j = 1, 2, .. nz in the z-direction.
x
P(i,0) = P(i,nz)
Figure 12
P(0,j) = P(nx,j)+∆P P(nx+1,j) = P(1,j)-∆P
Periodic boundary
conditions P(i,nz+1) = P(i,1)
One advantage of using periodic boundary conditions, is that fluid can flow through
the sides of the model. This method can be used to calculate a full tensor effective
permeability (Section 3.2).
P1 P2
P1 P2
Figure 13
Linear pressure boundary
P1 P2
conditions
a) b)
0.06 0.06
0.05 0.05
Frequency
Frequency
12
Permeability Upscaling
7
a) small σ, small λ b) large σ, small λ
Figure 16
Models with different
Permeability (mD)
standard deviations and
correlations lengths 0 50 100 150 200
fine-scale model
single cell
k1eff
k2eff
Figure 17
Comparison of one-stage
and two-stage upscaling
The accuracy of scale-up is affected by the correlation length and standard deviation
of the distribution, and we use the method shown in Figures 10 and 11 to demonstrate
this effect. Instead of generating many fine-scale models with different correlation
lengths, we create 1 fine-scale model, but upscale by different factors – so that the
Figure 18b and c show examples of coarse-scale models with scale-up factors of 5
and 50. In each case the ratio of two-stage upscaling to single-stage upscaling was
calculated. The results are plotted in Figure 19. The results are least accurate when
the scale-up factor is 10 – 50, i.e. when the coarse block size is 1 – 5 times the cor-
relation length. Also, the error increases with the standard deviation of the model,
as one might expect.
a) b) c)
Figure 18
a) Fine-scale model with
400 x 400 cells; b) coarse-
scale model with 80 x 80
Permeability (mD) cells; c) coarse-scale model
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 with 8 x 8 cells
1.03
1.02
keff2/keff1
sigma = 1.00
sigma = 0.75
sigma = 0.50
1.01
1.01
Figure 19
2 1
1.00 The ratio of k eff k eff for
0 20 40 60 80
Scale-up Factor different scale-up factors
• Upscaling will be least accurate when the coarse cell size is comparable to, or
slightly larger than the correlation length.
• Upscaling errors increase as the standard deviation of the model increases.
14
Permeability Upscaling
7
1.5.3 Upscaling of a Sand/Shale Model
Upscaling errors are largest in models where there are high permeability contrasts.
Unfortunately, high permeability contrasts frequently occur in reservoir rocks. For
example, we often require to model the following:
All these cases are difficult to model. As an example, we consider a sand/shale model,
where the shale has zero permeability. Figure 20 shows the fine-scale model, which
has to be upscaled to 3 coarse blocks, as shown. Since there is a shale lying across
each coarse block, each coarse block will have zero permeability in the z-direction
(vertical). However, fluid can flow through the model vertically, as shown. This
error arises because the coarse block size is similar to the characteristic length of the
shales. Upscaling would be more accurate, if the coarse block size was much larger,
or much smaller than the shales. Alternatively, using a “skin” or “flow jacket” will
increase the accuracy of upscaling (Section 1.4.2, Figure 14).
Figure 20
Sand/shale model
2.1 Introduction
Often we need to simulate two-phase systems, e.g. a water flood or a gas flood of an
oil reservoir, or an oil reservoir with a gas cap or an aquifer. The aim of upscaling
in this case is to calculate a coarse-scale model which can reproduce the flow rates
of the different fluids. The coarse model should also provide a good approximation
to the saturation distribution in the reservoir with time.
The paths which the injected fluid takes through the reservoir depends on the forces
present:
Therefore, the balance of forces should be taken into account during upscaling.
Before learning how to upscale two-phase flow, we show the effects which geologi-
cal heterogeneity may have on hydrocarbon recovery.
Consider the following simple model (Figure 21), with alternating horizontal layers of
100 mD and 10 mD (referred to as facies 1 and facies 2). We assume that the model
is filled with oil and connate water initially, and simulate a water flood, by injecting
at uniform rate at the left side, and producing from the right side (at constant bottom-
hole pressure). The density of the two fluids is the same for this example, so that
there are no gravity effects. Figure 22 shows the relative permeabilities and capillary
pressures, and Table 1 lists the properties of the 3 cases simulated with this model.
100 mD
10 mD
Figure 21
Simple layered model for
demonstrating viscous and
capillary effects
12 0.9
krw 1 Pc 1
0.8
10 kro 1 Pc 2
krw 2 0.7
Cap Pressure
8 kro 2 0.6
Rel Perm
0.5
6
0.4
Figure 22
4 0.3
0.2
0 0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 and capillary pressure
Water Saturation Water Saturation
curves
16
Permeability Upscaling
7
Figure 23 shows the distribution of oil saturation after the injection of 0.2 PV, for
Cases 1 and 2. Both cases use only a single relative permeability curve and the flow
regime is viscous-dominated. Water flows faster along the high permeability layers,
as one would expect. However, notice that this effect is reduced when the porosity
of facies 2 is reduced.
Figure 23
The oil saturation for Cases
1 and 2, after the injection Oil Saturation
of 0.2 PV
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
In Case 3, both relative permeability and capillary pressure tables are used. These
curves are typical of a water-wet rock: the capillary pressure is much higher in the
low permeability facies, and the connate water saturation is higher. In this case, water
is imbibed along the low permeability layers, and also there is cross-flow from the
high permeability layers to the low permeability ones (Figure 24). Due to the effects
of capillary pressure, the front is nearly level in the two facies.
Figure 24
The oil saturation for Case
3, after the injection of 0.2 Oil Saturation
PV
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.4
0.3 Case 1
Case 2
0.2 Case 3
0.1
Figure 25
0 Cumulative recovery and
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Pore Volumes Injected
watercut for Cases 1 - 3
In the next example, graded models are used, as shown in Figure 26. There are two
versions: Case 4 with permeability increasing upwards (referred to as coarsening-up)
and Case 5 with permeability decreasing upwards (referred to as fining-up). The
permeabilities range from 200 mD to 1000 mD, the porosity was kept constant at
0.2, and the first relative permeability curve was used. In this model, however, the
densities of the fluids were different: the density of water was set to 1000 kg/m3 and
that of oil was set to 200 kg/m3.
a) Coarsening-up b) Fining-up
1000 mD 200 mD
Figure 26
The graded layer models for
200 mD 1000 mD
Cases 4 and 5
Again a waterflood was performed, and the results are shown in Figure 27. Since
water is more dense than oil, water has a tendency to slump down. In Case 4 (coars-
ening-up), this tendency is reduced by the fact that the viscous forces tend to move
the fluid faster in the upper layers. However, in Case 5 (fining-up), the slumping
effect is reinforced by the viscous force moving fluid faster along the lower layers.
This means that the breakthrough time is earlier in Case 5 than in Case 4, as shown
in Figure 27. The effective absolute permeability in these two models is the same,
but the two-phase flow effects are different, due to the effect of gravity. (If the den-
sity of water equalled the density of oil, the recovery and watercut curves would be
identical.)
a) Coarsening-up a) Fining-up
Figure 27
Oil Saturation The oil saturation after the
injection of 0.2 PV in the
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 graded layer models
18
Permeability Upscaling
7
0.5 1.0
Fractional Recovery
0.4 0.8
Water Cut
0.3 0.6
Case 4
0.2 0.4 Case 5
Figure 28 0.1 0.2
Figure 29 (left side) shows a very heterogeneous 2D model, with correlated random
permeabilities. The permeability distribution was ln-normal (i.e. natural logs), with
a standard deviation of 2.0 The model is assumed to be in the horizontal plain. The
details of the model are given in Table 2. The model was upscaled using the pres-
sure solution method with no-flow boundaries. Three different scale-up factors were
used, and the coarse-scale models 1 and 3 are also shown in Figure 29 (middle and
right side).
Figure 29
Fine- and coarse-
scale models used for
demonstrating the effects
of applying single-phase
upscaling to a two-phase log10(k)
problem -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.8
Relative Permeability
0.6
krw
kro
0.4 Figure 30
The relative permeability
0.2
curve used for the random
0 model. (Capillary pressure
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Saturation was set to zero)
0.6
0.5
Fractional Recovery
0.4
fine
ups 5x5
0.3
ups 7x7
ups 15x15
0.2
0.1
Figure 31
0
Comparison of recovery for
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Pore Volumes Injected different scale-up factors
The model was modified by reducing the standard deviation to 0.2 (lowering the
permeability contrast), and the simulations were repeated with the low heterogeneity
model. The recovery is shown in Figure 32 for the scale-up factor of 15 x 15. As
expected, the errors are smaller for the low heterogeneity model.
0.6
0.5
Fractional Recovery
0.4
lo het fine
lo het coarse
0.3
hi het fine
hi het coarse
0.2
0.1
Figure 32
Comparison of recovery for
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 models with different levels
Pore Volumes Injected of heterogeneity
In addition, the errors caused by using only single-phase upscaling, are larger when
the coarse block size similar to the correlation length. Also, the upscaling error tends
20
Permeability Upscaling
7
to be larger in unstable floods (injected fluid is of lower viscosity than the in situ
fluid) than in stable floods.
b) C
Coa
oars
oarse
rs e1 c) Coar
c) Coar
oarse
se 2
Figure 33
Model with a high
permeability streak
Figure 34 shows the recovery for these models. It can be seen that the model with
uniform coarse cells (Coarse 1) gives very inaccurate results, and the model which
maintains the high permeability streak (Coarse 2) is much more accurate.
0.20
Fractional Recovery
0.15 fine
coarse 1
0.10 coarse 2
0.05
Figure 34
0.00
Recovery and watercut
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 for fine- and coarse-scale
Pore Volumes Injected
models
Several methods for performing non-uniform upscaling have been developed. For
example, Durlofsky et al. (1996, 1997) first carry out a single-phase simulation. Then
they use the inter-block flows to determine the coarse block boundaries. Smaller
coarse blocks are assigned to regions where there are high flow rates.
P1 P2
Figure 35
Producer
Local and global boundary
Local Global
conditions
22
Permeability Upscaling
7
T=
∑q
PΙ − PΙΙ (13)
Where q denotes the fine-scale flows (Figure 36) and PI and PII are the (pore-volume
weighted) average pressures in coarse cells I and II.
Figure 36
Upscaling transmissibility Ι ΙΙ
Upscaling is also performed at the wells, using the method described in Section
3.1. This method produces very accurate single-phase upscaling, which leads to an
increase in the accuracy of two-phase flow at the coarse scale.
Many tests on upscaling methods have been carried out using the model generated
for the 10th SPE comparative solution project, which was on upscaling (Christie and
Blunt, 2001). This model is referred to as the SPE 10 model (Figure 37a). We use
layer 59 (Figure 37b) as an example of well drive upscaling, because this layer is
particularly heterogeneous. There is an injection well at the centre and production
wells in each corner.
a) b) P1 P2
P4 P3
Figure 37
The SPE 10 model, and log10(k)
layer 59 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Layer 59 was upscaled using the WDU method and also the conventional method
with local boundary conditions. Figure 38 shows the oil saturation distribution. It
can clearly be seen that the WDU method reproduces the results of fine-scale model
much better than the conventional approach. This is because appropriate boundary
conditions have been applied to the model.
Figure 38
Comparison of oil
saturation distribution
in fine- and coarse-scale
Soil
simulations of Layer 59 of
0.20 0.35 0.50 0.65 0.80 the SPE 10 model
k f = k abs k rf (14)
Where “f” stands for fluid – oil, gas or water. Generally, we assume that both the
absolute and the relative permeabilities are homogeneous and isotropic at the smallest
scale ( k x = k z ). As we upscale, the absolute and relative permeabilities may become
anisotropic ( k rx ≠ k rz ). To obtain effective (or pseudo) relative permeabilities, the
absolute permeability must be scaled-up separately. Then the pseudo relative perme-
ability is calculated as follows:
k rf , x = k f , x k abs, x (15)
24
Permeability Upscaling
7
In a steady-state upscaling method, we assume that within a short interval of time the
zone of interest is in a steady-state, but we allow the fluid saturation to change gradu-
ally, so that a full range of saturation is obtained. At steady-state, the water saturation
does not change with time, i.e. ∂Sw/∂t = 0, so the continuity equation becomes:
∇ ⋅ u f = 0, (16)
∇ ⋅ ( k f ⋅ ∇Pf ) = 0. (17)
• Capillary equilibrium,
• Vertical equilibrium (gravity-dominated flood)
• Viscous-dominated steady-state
The advantage of steady-state methods is that they turn two-phase upscaling into a
series of single-phase upscaling calculations. This means that steady-state methods
are feasible for models with large numbers of grid cells. (See, for example, Pickup
and Stephen, 2000; and Pickup et al, 2000.)
2.5.1 Capillary-Equilibrium
Assume that the injection rate is very low, gravity forces are negligible, and that the
fluids have come into capillary equilibrium with a coarse-scale cell. This means that
the saturation distribution is determined by the capillary pressure curves.
1. Choose a Pc level.
kabs (mD)
100 Figure 39
20 Model with horizontal
layers
12
0.8
0
lo
hi lo
Cap Pressure
8 0.6
Rel Perm
6
hi 0.4
4
0.2 hi Figure 40
2
lo
0 0 Relative permeability and
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Water Saturation Water Saturation capillary pressure curves
Using the arithmetic and harmonic averages (Section 1.3), the effective permeability
is:
k x = 60.00 k z = 33.33
kw (mD) ko (mD)
0.13 50.0
Since the layers are of equal width, the average saturation is Sw = 0.39. The effective
phase permeabilities are then calculated using the arithmetic and harmonic averages.
Then the relative permeabilities are calculated using Equation 15.
26
Permeability Upscaling
7
k wx = 0.081 k rwx = 0.081 / 60.00 = 0.00135
k wz = 0.051 k rwz = 0.051 / 33.33 = 0.00153
k ox = 29.8 k rox = 29.8 / 60.00 = 0.50
k oz = 16.1 k roz = 16.1 / 33.33 = 0.48
Note that the kv/kh ratio ( = k z k x ) is different for oil and water:
k w, z k w, x = 0.63 k o, z k o, x = 0.54
Effective relative permeability curves may be derived by repeating this calculation for
a range of capillary pressure values (Figure 42). The capillary-equilibrium method
is useful as a quick method for upscaling small-scale models (Section 3.3). However,
it is only valid in cases where the flow rate is very low.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 krox
Rel Perm
0.5
0.4
kroz
0.3 krwz
0.2 krwx
Figure 42 0.1
0
Effective relative 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
permeability curves Water Saturation
2.6.1 Introduction
For dynamic (or non steady-state methods), we need to perform a two-phase flow
simulation on a fine grid. There are basically two types of dynamic method:
k ro k rw
λt = λo + λw = + .
µo µw (18)
qw q
fw = = w
qo + qw qt (19)
Again there are a number of variations of this method, the most commonly used
being that of Stone (1991).
i=1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
j=1
2
3
4
5 ∆z
∆x
Figure 43
Model used for describing
Pseudo calculated
for this coarse block DX
∆X DZ
∆Z the Kyte and Berry Method.
The thickness of the model
is Δy
Δ
The diagram shows two coarse grid blocks, each of which is made up of 5 x 5 fine
blocks. The equations below show how to calculate the pseudo relative permeabilities
and capillary pressure for the left coarse block.
1. Calculate the effective absolute permeability in the area shown in Figure 44,
i.e. half way between the two coarse blocks.
i=3 i=7
j=1
Figure 44
The area used for
calculating the effective
j=5
absolute permeability
Kyte and Berry approximate the effective permeability using the arithmetic average
in each column, and then taking the harmonic average of the columns. The area
between the two coarse blocks is used, for reasons explained below.
28
Permeability Upscaling
7
5
∑ ∆z k
j =1
j ij
ki =
∆Z (20)
where Δzzj and ΔZ are the thicknesses of the fine and coarse blocks, respectively. (In
this case, all the blocks are of equal size.)
∆X
kI = 7
∑ ∆x i ki
i=3 (21)
where Δxi and ΔX are the lengths of the fine and coarse blocks, and k I is the required
effective absolute permeability.
The pseudos are then calculated, at certain times during the simulation. (These are
the times at which the restart files are written in the Eclipse simulation.)
∑∑S
j =1 i =1
φ ∆x i ∆z j
w , ij ij
Sw = 5 5
∑ ∑ φ ∆x ∆z ij i j
j =1 i =1 (22)
3. Calculate the total flow of oil and water out of the left coarse block (Figure 45).
5
q f = ∑ q f 5, j ,
j =1 (23)
where qf5,j is the flow of fluid “f” from fine block number (5,j).
i=5
j=1
Figure 45
Calculation of the total flow j=5
4. Calculate the average phase pressures in the central column of each coarse
block. In this example, we use the fine blocks in columns 3 and 8, the shaded
areas in Figure 46.
j=1
Figure 46
j=5 The cells used for averaging
I II the phase pressures
In the Kyte and Berry method, the pressures are weighted by the phase permeabilities
times the height of the cells (which in this case are all the same size). This is so that
more weight is given to regions where there is greater flow. However, there is no
scientific justification for using this weighting. In the first coarse block (numbered,
I), the average pressure is:
5
∑k
j =1
3j (
k rf 3 ∆z 3 j Pf 3 j − gρf (D3 j − D) )
P fI = 5
∑k 3j k rf 3 ∆z 3 j
j =1 (24)
where D3j is the depth of cell (3,j) and D is the average depth of coarse cell I. The
term gρf(D3j - D ) is to normalise the pressure to the grid block centre. The average
pressure for coarse block II is calculated in the same manner, but using column 8
instead of column 3. The pressure difference is then calculated as:
∆P f = P fI − P fII . (25)
5. The pseudo rel perms are then calculated using Darcy’s law. Firstly, calculate
the pseudo potential difference. (Potential is defined as Φ = P-ρgz, so that the
flow rate is proportional to ∇Φ .)
∆Φ f = ∆P f − gρf ∆
∆D, (26)
where ΔD is the depth difference between the two coarse grid centres. Then:
−µ f q f ∆X
k rf =
∆Zk I ∆Φ I (27)
P c = P oI − P wI (28)
The Eclipse PSEUDO package can be used for calculating Kyte and Berry
pseudos.
30
Permeability Upscaling
7
2.6.3 Discussion on Numerical Dispersion
One advantage of pseudo-isation methods, such as that of Kyte and Berry is that they
can take account of numerical dispersion. When a simulation is carried out using a
larger grid, the front between the oil and water becomes more spread out. However,
the Kyte and Berry method counteracts this effect by calculating the flows on the
down-stream side of the coarse block, instead of the middle. This is illustrated by a
simple example. Figure 47 shows an example of input relative permeability curves
(“rock” curves).
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Perm Rel
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
If the water saturation is Sw = 0.5, the rock curves show that there is a small amount
of oil and water flowing. However, when the average saturation, Sw , is 0.5 in the
coarse block, the distribution could be as shown in Figure 48.
oil
coarse
water block
Figure 48
Example of the water
saturation in a coarse block
Since the water has reached only half way across the coarse block, there should be no
water flowing out of the right side. The Kyte and Berry method calculates the pseudo
relative permeabilities using the flow on the downstream side of the coarse block, to
prevent water breaking through too soon. The pseudo water relative permeability
curve is moved to the right, relative to the rock curves, as shown in Figure 49.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 49
Water Saturation Example of pseudo relative
permeability curves
Because of the first two disadvantages, i.e. negative, or infinite rel perms, pseudos
obtained from packages like the PSEUDO must be vetted before using at the coarse
scale. Often “odd” values of relative permeability are set to zero.
Good reviews of various methods for calculating pseudos are presented in Barker
and Dupouy (1999) and Barker and Thibeau (1997).
Note that dynamic upscaling methods, such as that of Kyte and Berry are difficult
to apply in practice. Ideally, a fine-scale two-phase flow simulation is required for
each coarse-scale cell (plus a “flow jacket”), and this is time consuming. Also, it is
difficult to determine the correct boundary conditions to use, so the results may not
be accurate.
If a pseudo is calculated for each coarse cell, in each direction, there may be 10,000s
of pseudos in the coarse-scale model. The number of pseudos must be reduced, by
grouping similar pseudos together.
32
Permeability Upscaling
7
Pseudo relative permeability curves depend on a number of factors, including:
Because of these problems, two-phase upscaling is rarely used for upscaling from a
geological model to a full-field simulation.
Both these methods share the same problems discussed in Section 2.6.4, namely,
they are difficult to apply in practice.
Figure 50 shows the oil saturation for the fine-scale simulation, a coarse-scale simulation
using the WDU method (Section 2.3.2), and a coarse-scale simulation using pseudos
Figure 50
The oil saturation
distribution for the fine-
scale model of layer 59 and
the coarse-scale models
Soil obtained using the WDU
and the PVW methods
0.20 0.35 0.50 0.65 0.80
60
50
Well Rate (m3/day)
40
Fine
30
Local Figure 51
WDU
PVW
The oil recovery rate for
20
well P4 for the fine-scale
10 model and coarse-scale
models obtained using
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
the WDU, PVW and local
Pore Volumes Injected upscaling methods
It can be seen in Figure 51 that both the WDU and the PVW methods agree well with
the fine-scale simulation. However, the results from the single-phase upscaling with
local boundary conditions are poor. This example shows that two-phase upscaling
is not necessarily always more accurate than single-phase upscaling.
• Two-phase upscaling is time consuming and not always robust, so is rarely used
by engineers.
• Usually, only single-phase upscaling is performed.
• But, heterogeneity interacts with two-phase flow, and tends to produce dispersion of
the flood front, which is not taken into account using single-phase upscaling.
• So, single-phase upscaling may give rise to errors, especially when there is
a large scale-up factor, and the reservoir model is very heterogeneous (large
standard deviation).
34
Permeability Upscaling
7
• Errors in single-phase upscaling may be reduced by using non-uniform upscaling,
or well-drive upscaling.
• Ideally, two-phase upscaling should be performed to take account of two-phase
flow.
• Steady-state upscaling is relatively quick to apply, and is feasible for large
models. However, it is only valid in limited cases, e.g. when the fluids are
approximately in capillary equilibrium.
• Dynamic methods are potentially more accurate.
• The Kyte and Berry (1975) Method was described as an example.
• Dynamic methods can compensate for the effects of numerical dispersion.
• Dynamic methods are difficult to apply in practice.
3 ADDITIONAL TOPICS
This course has, so far, focussed mainly on common methods for upscaling a geo-
logical model for full-field simulation. Most of the single-phase upscaling methods
presented may be found in geological packages, such as IRAP/RMS and Petrel. (The
WDU and TW methods which were developed at Heriot-Watt are not available in
commercial packages.) However, there are a number of other important issues which
should be taken into account when upscaling. In this section, we cover these issues
in a variety of additional topics:
• Upscaling as Wells
• Permeability Tensors
• The Geopseudo Method
• Uncertainty and Upscaling
A grid block in the simulator is much larger than the diameter of a well, and the
pressure calculated for a block containing a well is different from the actual bottom
hole pressure. These are related by:
Iw
q=
µ
(Pw − Pb )
(29)
where Pw is the well-bore pressure and Pb is the pressure of the block. Iw is the well
index, given by:
2πk∆z
Iw =
ln( ro rw ) (30)
Durlofsky et al. (2000) put forward a method for upscaling in the near-well region.
Others have put forward similar methods. The method is only approximate, but
improves the accuracy of coarse-scale simulations. The first step is to calculate
effective single-phase permeabilities, using one of the conventional methods (e.g.
periodic boundary condition applied to each block in turn). Then, a fine-scale single-
phase simulation of the well block and surrounding blocks is carried out (Figure 52).
From the results, the total flows out of the coarse-scale well block, and the average
pressures in the coarse blocks are calculated. These are used to calculate upscaled
transmissibilities between the coarse-scale well block and the surrounding blocks,
and a coarse-scale well index.
q
T4
T3 T1
T2
Figure 52
Near-well upscaling (after
Durlofsky et al., 2000)
This method improves the accuracy of upscaling at well, and it is also incorporated
into the well drive upscaling method (WDU), described in Section 2.3.2.
A pressure gradient has been applied in the x-direction. This will obviously give
rise to a flow in the x-direction. The fluid takes a path through the medium, so that
it expends a minimum amount of energy. There will be a component of flow up the
high permeability, and only a small amount of flow across the low permeable layer,
as shown. This gives rise to a net flow in the z-direction, or cross-flow. Here, the
term cross-flow is used to describe flow perpendicular to the applied pressure gradi-
ent. When calculating the effective permeability of this model, we need to take this
cross-flow into account. This may be done using a tensor effective permeability, k ,
where:
36
Permeability Upscaling
7
k xx k xy k xz
k = k yx k yy k yz
k zx k zy k zz
(31)
The first index applies to the flow direction, and the second to the direction of the
pressure gradient. For example kxy is the flow in the x-direction caused by a pres-
sure gradient in the y-direction. The terms kxx, kyy, kzz are known as the diagonal
terms. These are the terms which are usually considered – the horizontal and vertical
permeabilities, kh and kv, respectively. The other terms, which describe the cross-
flow, are the off-diagonal terms.
k
u=− ⋅ ∇P,
µ (32)
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u x = − k xx + k xy + k xz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u y = − k yx + k yy + k yz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂P ∂P ∂P
u z = − k zx + k zy + k zz
µ ∂x ∂y ∂z (33)
In Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2, we studied flow along and across horizontal layers. The
model in Figure 5 is repeated here (Figure 54), showing the arithmetic average for
the effective permeability for along-layer flow and the harmonic average for across
layer flow.
fine-
fine-sca
ne-scale
sca le coar
coarse
ar se--sca
se scale
le
Figure 54 x t1 = 3 mm, k1 = 10 m
mD
D 66.2
66 .25
.2 5 mD
66.25 0
k=
0 222.886
or in 3D:
Figure 55
x' Layers tilted at an angle of
z' θ to the horizontal
This model is essentially the same as the one in Figures 4 and 6, although the layers
have are repeated, and they have been tilted. In the frame of reference defined by the
x ′ and z′ axes, the effective permeability may be calculated using the arithmetic and
harmonic averages as before. However, in the x-z co-ordinate system, the effective
permeability should be represented by a full tensor. The terms of the tensor may be
calculated from the arithmetic and harmonic averages, as follows:
This formula is obtained by rotating the co-ordinate axes through an angle θ. (You
are not required to know the proof.) This example is in 2D, so only the kxx, kxz, kzx
and kzz are shown. Further rotations may be carried out around the x ′ or z ′ axes to
obtain a full 3D tensor.
Note that:
Example 5
Suppose the example in Figure 54 is rotated by 30º (Figure 56), and calculate the
effective permeability tensor.
38
Permeability Upscaling
7
'z
x
Figure 56
Layered model tilted by 30º z 30o
55.40 18.79
k= .
18.79 33.71
In 2D, a 9-point scheme is required to take account of cross-flow. This means that
there are 9 terms in each of the pressure equations, as illustrated in Equation (35).
The coefficients, ai, in Equation (35) depend on the transmissibilities between the
blocks. There are several different methods of discretisation which give slightly dif-
a) b)
x
i-1,j-1 i,j-1 i+1,j-1
z
i-1,j i,j i+1,j
Figure 57
i-1,j+1 i,j+1 i+1,j+1 a) 9-point scheme for 2D.
b) 27-point scheme for 3D
Often the off-diagonal elements of the permeability tensor (kxy, etc) are negligible,
so the limitations of using a 5-point (2D) or a 7-point (3D) scheme are not serious.
In layered systems, the size of the off-diagonal term may be gauged from Equation
(34) in Section 3.2.1:
This is a maximum for θ = 45º, and increases as (ka – kh) increases. Therefore, full
permeability tensors become more important as the angle of the lamination or bed-
ding increases, and as the permeability contrast increases.
10
0 Seismic data Para-
Vertical thickness (m)
sequences
Log
1 Flow model
Beds
0.01 Probe
Laminae
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 1 10 100 1000 10000 Figure 58
Horizontal length (m)
Length scales
40
Permeability Upscaling
7
For convenience, we consider upscaling as two separate stages (Figure 59). Stage
1 is upscaling from the smallest scale at which we may treat the rock as a porous
medium (rather than a network of pores), up to the scale of the stochastic geologi-
cal model, i.e. from the mm – cm scale to the m – Dm scale. Stage 2 is upscaling
from the stochastic geological model to the full-field simulation model, which has
already been described.
Stage 1
Upscaling
Geological Model
~ 107 blocks
Figure 59
Two separate stages of
upscaling. (Geological Stage 2
model taken from “Tenth Upscaling
SPE Comparative Solution
Project: A Comparison of
Techniques”, by Christie Simulation Model
and Blunt, 2001.) ~ 104 blocks
In the finest-scale model, the grid cells may be a mm cube, or less. If we upscale to
blocks of 50 m x 50 m x 0.5 m, we are upscaling by a factor of at least 5 x 104 in the
horizontal directions and 500 in the vertical.
Figure 60
Illustration of the
Effective Perm Pseudo Rel. Perm Curves
Geopseudo Method
Figure 61
Example of capillary-
Oil Saturation dominated flood in a
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 layered model
When the flow is across the layers, as in Figure 62, the effects of capillary pressure
are even more striking. This figure shows the same small-scale model of sedimen-
tary lamination. When the injection rate is low (average frontal advance rate of
0.3 m/day), the flood is capillary-dominated (Figure 62a), water (black) has been
imbibed into the low permeability layers leaving oil trapped in the high permeability
laminae (grey). As the injection rate is increased, the oil has more viscous force and
can overcome the capillary forces leading to less trapping of oil (Figures 61b). In
the case of Figure 62c, the flood is viscous dominated and all the movable oil has
been displaced by water.
42
Permeability Upscaling
7
a) b) c)
Figure 62
Examples of across-
layer flow. a) capillary
Oil Saturation
dominated, b) intermediate,
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
c) viscous-dominated
Figure 63 shows a model of sedimentary ripples. Kyte and Berry pseudos were cal-
culated for the model using four different flow rates. There is a factor of 10 between
each flow rate, with rate 1 being the fastest. Figure 64 shows the resulting pseudos
(from Pickup and Stephen, 2000).
Figure 63
3 cm, 54 cells 10 mD
A model of ripples (based
on the Ardross Outcrop, 1 cm, 200 mD
18 cells
near St. Monance in Fife,
Scotland)
0.9 0.9
0.8 rate 1 0.8 rate 1
rate 2 rate 2
Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability
1. At high rates, the pseudos are shifted to the right. This is to compensate for
numerical dispersion.
2. At very low flow rates (rate 4), the flood is capillary-dominated, and the oil is
trapped. The pseudo oil relative permeability goes to zero around Sw = 0.46.
Ringrose et al. (1999) give a list of guidelines for when Geopseudo upscaling may
be necessary:
However, it is now recognised that there are many uncertainties in the reservoir
modelling, and instead of concentrating on a few detailed models, geologists and
engineers are starting to generate thousands of models in order to characterise the
effects of uncertainty. These models must be coarse so that the simulations can run
very quickly.
These changes mean that, in future, people are less likely to follow the “traditional”
upscaling approach. However, if the effects of fine-scale structure are ignored, this
44
Permeability Upscaling
7
will lead to errors in the predicted recovery. It is therefore very important to understand
the effects of possible sub-grid heterogeneity on absolute and relative permeability,
and to include these effects, when necessary. This is an area of active research at
Heriot-Watt University.
• Permeability upscaling is often inaccurate, particularly when the coarse cell size
is comparable, or slightly larger than the correlation length of the permeability
distribution, and when the standard deviation is large.
• The regions around wells should be treated as a special case, because the flow
is radial. The well index and the transmissibilities around the well block should
eb upscaled.
46
Permeability Upscaling
7
4 REFERENCES
Barker, J. W. and Thibeau, S., 1997. “A Critical Review of the Use of Pseudo Relative
Permeabilities for Upscaling”, SPE Reservoir Engineering, May, 1997, 138-143.
Barker, J. W. and Dupouy, P., 1999. “An Analysis of Dynamic Pseudo-Relative Per-
meability Methods for Oil-Water Flows”, Petroleum Geoscience, 5 (4), 385 - 394.
Christie, M. A., 1996. “Upscaling for Reservoir Simulation”, J. Pet. Tech., November
1996, 48, 1004-1008.
Christie, M. A. and Blunt, M. J., 2001. “Tenth SPE Comparative Solution Project: A
Comparison of Upscaling Techniques”, presented at the SPE Reservoir Simulation
Symposium, Houston Texas, 11 – 14 February, 2001.
Corbett, P. W. M., Ringrose, P. S., Jensen, J. L. and Sorbie, K. S., 1992. “Laminated
Clastic Reservoirs - The Interplay of Capillary Pressure and Sedimentary Architec-
ture”, SPE 24699, presented at the 67th Annual Technical Conference of the SPE,
Washington, DC, 4 - 7 October, 1992.
Durlofsky, L. J., Behrens, R. A., Jones, R. C. and Bernath, A., 1996. “Scale Up of
Heterogeneous Three Dimensional Reservoir Descriptions”, SPEJ, 1, 313-326.
Durlofsky, L. J., Milliken, W. J. and Bernath, A., 2000. “Scaleup in the Near-Well
Region”, SPEJ, 5 (1), 110 – 117.
Huang, Y., Ringrose, P. R. and Sorbie, K. S., 1995. “Capillary Trapping Mechanisms
in Water-Wet Laminated Rocks”, SPE RE, 10 (4), 287 – 292.
Kyte, J. R. and Berry, D. W., 1975. “New Pseudo Functions to Control Numerical
Dispersion”, SPEJ, August 1975, 269-276.
Ringrose, P. S., Sorbie, K. S., Corbett, P. W. M. and Jensen, J. L., 1993. “Immiscible
Flow Behaviour in Laminated and Cross-bedded Sandstones”, J. Petroleum Science
and Engineering, 9(2), 103-124.
Ringrose, P. S., Pickup, G. E., Jensen, J. L. and Forrester, M. M., 1999. “The Ardross
Reservoir Gridblock Analog: Sedimentology, Statistical Representivity, and Flow
Upscaling”, in Reservoir Characterization – Recent Advances, eds R. Schatzinger
and J. Jordan, AAPG Memoir 71, p 256 – 276.
Stone, H. L. 1991. “Rigorous Black Oil Pseudo Functions”, SPE 21207, presented
at the 11th SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, Anaheim, CA, February, 17-
20, 1991.
Weber, K. J. and van Geuns, L. C., 1990. “Framework for Constructing Clastic Res-
ervoir Simulation models”. JPT, October 1990, p 1248 – 1297.
Zhang, P., Pickup, G. E. and Christie, M. A., 2005. “A New Upscaling Approach
for Highly Heterogeneous Reservoirs”, presented at the SPE Reservoir Simulation
Symposium , February 2005.
48
Petrophysical Input
8
4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF
PETROPHYSICAL DATA
4.1 Laboratory Measurement of Capillary
Pressure
4.2 Laboratory Measurement of Relative
Permeability
Having worked through this chapter the students should be able to...
2
Petrophysical Input
8
1 INTRODUCTION
Outline of the purpose of this chapter:
• To inform the student of the types of petrophysical data that are used in reservoir
simulation (k, φ, kro, krw, Pc). k and φ are generally measured or determined by
correlation or model, so, the central focus here will be on multi-phase properties (kro,
krw, Pc);
• To explain the underlying pore-scale physics of two-phase flow and show how this
behaviour leads to the results we see at the macroscopic scale.
• To review wettability measures (such as USBM and Amott tests) and to explain
how wettability modifies relative permeability and capillary pressure.
There are countless examples of porous materials in everyday life, each with its own
particular pore structure and transport potential. These range from leather, wood,
paper and textiles, to bricks, concrete and sand; even animal tissue and bones contain
intricate pore networks. The need to understand such a vast array of permeable
materials has consequently fostered a great deal of scientific interest from many
diverse fields: soil mechanics, groundwater hydrology, industrial filtration, and
petroleum engineering, to name but a few. Although the theme of fluid flow through
porous media is a common feature of all of the disciplines listed above, each has its
own technical terminology associated with the subject. For example, "dewetting",
"desaturation" and "drainage" are all terms synonymous with the displacement of a
wetting phase from the interstices of a porous material by a nonwetting phase.
Throughout this section, however, the terminology used will be that generally
encountered in the petroleum industry. A variety of fundamental concepts relating to
both pore structure and solid/fluid interactions can be found in Appendix A.
4
Petrophysical Input
8
There are two other well-known limitations of Darcy’s Law:
(i) At high injection rates, inertial effects can become important and Darcy’s Law
should be replaced with the Forcheimer Equation:
dp
= aµq + bρq 2
dx
where η is the fluid viscosity and the second term on the right-hand side corresponds
to inertial effects.
(ii) Low pressure gas measurements must be corrected by using the Klinkenberg
Equation:
α
k app = k 1 +
p
where kapp is the apparent (measured) permeability, k the actual permeability, p the gas
pressure, and α a parameter that depends upon the properties of the gas being used.
The correction is needed because the mean free path of a gas molecule at low pressure
is of the order of a pore radius and the continuum concept begins to break down.
D2 Dmax
k=φ 2
D2 = ∫s [∫ f(D) dD / D ]
2 2
32 f(s)ds φ
Dmin k=
D 2 96 ∫ f(D) dD / D6
k=φ
96 <>
D 2
+ σ 2D
If all tubes are identical (diameter=D) and lie parallel to the flow direction, then a
combination of Poiseuille's law and Darcy's law gives:
D2
k=φ (1)
32
An interesting aspect of this simple result is that the quantity (k/φ)1/2 can be thought
of as a sort of average pore diameter.
Carmen-Kozeny Model - One of the more notable correlations based upon conduit
flow is that developed by Carmen and Kozeny (Carman, 1937, 1938, 1956; Kozeny,
1927). The basic premise of this modelling approach is that particle transit times in the
actual porous medium and the equivalent tortuous rough conduit must be the same.
After some analysis (see Appendix B), we arrive at the relationship:
φ3
k= (2)
2 T 2 (1 − φ)2 Ss2
The permeability can be written in terms of an average grain diameter (Dp) by noting
that, for spherical particles, Ss=6/Dp. Hence,
6
Petrophysical Input
8
φ3D 2p
k= (3)
72 T 2 (1 − φ)2
Although a whole family of similar models exist, they differ only in the method of
calculating an hydraulic radius RH and shape factors.
A fully interconnected network was first used by Fatt (1956) for primary drainage
studies. Although the two-dimensional lattice used was extremely small (200-400
tubes), the novelty of the approach encouraged great interest in the subject, and
improvements on Fatt's primitive model were soon forthcoming (Rose ,1957; Dodd
& Kiel ,1959). However, simulations using small lattices could never hope to capture
the full behaviour of microscopic flow processes. With the advent of high speed
computers, however, much larger 3D systems can now be constructed, with the result
that microscopic flow behaviour can be more accurately simulated. Figure 3 shows
a capillary dominated drainage process using an 80 x 80 square lattice, the details of
which will be presented later: the resulting picture is somewhat more reassuring. The
fractal capillary fingering is in excellent agreement with experimental observation
(see Lenormand et al, 1988).
Only recently has it been computationally feasible to carry out studies using large
three-dimensional networks (Figure 4).
Figure 4
8
Petrophysical Input
8
capillary elements. This simple lattice has dimensions Nx x Ny x Nz where Nx, Ny, Nz
are the number of nodes in the x, y and z directions respectively. Periodic boundary
conditions are assumed in the y and z directions in order to simulate larger systems and
eliminate surface effects. The pressure gradient is taken to be in the x direction.
Now, for a single element of radius r and length L, the flow Q is given by Poiseuille’s
law:
π r 4 ∆P
Q= (4)
8µ L
where µ is the viscosity and ∆P the pressure difference acting across the capillary. At
each node (i, j, k), the sum of the flows Qi must add up to zero (conservation of mass),
and so:
∑Q
i =1
i =0
Oil Water
Projected
area
= πr2
(b) (c)
P0
(Pi - P0)πR2 = 2πRΣ
Pi
r
2Σ
=> (Pi - P0) =
R
Figure 5
Let us first consider a rubber balloon that has been inflated to a certain pressure (Pi)
and then tied (we will assume that this "experiment" is taking place in an atmosphere
at pressure Po, usually atmospheric pressure). If a force balance is considered for one
half of the balloon (Figure 5(c)), then we can show that, at equilibrium, the elastic
force acting around the circular perimeter of the balloon must counterbalance the
difference in pressure projected onto the shaded cross section.
This leads to a relationship between the pressure difference across the balloon surface
and the radius of the balloon:
2Σ
( Pi − Po ) = (5)
R
where Σ is the elastic tension characterising the balloon wall (dimensions of Force/
Length). Here is an example where a pressure difference exists between two regions
of fluid but no flow occurs — the elastic membrane of the balloon counteracts this.
Now, instead of thinking of a rubber balloon (where Σ is actually a function of R itself),
we can carry out a similar analysis for a gas bubble at pressure Pgas floating in oil at
pressure Poil. We can now write immediately:
2σ go
( Pgas − Poil ) = (6)
R
where σgo represents the interfacial tension between gas and oil. This relationship tells
us that the pressure difference across a small spherical bubble is larger than that across
a large spherical bubble.
This type of analysis can be applied to the more general case of an interface
characterised by two different principal radii of curvature (eg a sausage-shaped
balloon Figure B2). The details are slightly more involved (see Dullien (1979), but
the final result is simply:
10
Petrophysical Input
8
1 1
( Pgas − Poil ) = σ go ( + ) (7)
R1 R 2
where R1 and R2 are the principal radii of curvature characterising the interface.
Return now to the idealized (and some what unrealistic) situation where we have two
fluids at equilibrium in a capillary tube separated by a curved interface (this curved
interface appears at the microscopic scale when one of the fluids preferentially wets
a solid surface, Figure 6). The pressure difference across the fluid-fluid interface is
known as the capillary pressure. Note the difference between tube radius (rA) and the
interface radius (RA) when the contact angle is non-zero.
RA
rA
Figure 6 θ
A little bit of trigonometry can be used to derive an equation for two fluids at
equilibrium in a circular cylinder, known as the Young-Laplace equation. This relates
the pressure difference across a curved interface (i.e. capillary pressure Pc) in terms
of the associated contact angle, interfacial tension and pore (tube) radius:
1 1 2σ go cos θ
Pc = ( Pgas − Poil ) = σ go cos θ( + )= (8)
R R R
Although we have used gas displacing oil in our example, results for any nonwetting
fluid displacing a wetting fluid can be inferred immediately.
Another consequence of the equation is that larger pressure differences are needed for
a nonwetting phase to displace a wetting phase from smaller tubes ((Pgas-Poil)∝1/R).
We can therefore go on to examine the very simple drainage process shown in Figure
7, where oil (dark) displaces water (light) from a set of parallel tubes (R1>R2>R3) as
oil pressure is gradually increased. Once the oil pressure exceeds the water pressure
by an amount 2σowcosθ/R1, then the largest tube fills and the system settles down to
a new equilibrium configuration. Subsequent displacements occur at (Poil-
Pwat)>2σowcosθ/R2, and (Poil-Pwat)>2σowcosθ/R3. The corresponding plot of water
saturation vs capillary pressure is shown in Figure 8. This could be thought of as a very
basic capillary pressure curve and we will return to this concept later.
P3 P4
Figure 7
Pc
2σ cos θ
R3
2σ cos θ
R2
2σ cos θ
R1
Sw Figure 8
Simulators use capillary pressure curves to relate oil and water pressures at a given
water saturation (see earlier chapters regarding this). Generally, capillary pressure is
mostly important at the small scale (~cm), although it should also be included in
reservoir-scale models involving transition zones.
When dealing with any process involving multiphase flow, it is important to distinguish
between steady-state and unsteady-state regimes (Figure 9). With regard to flow in
porous media, the former is characterised by phase saturations that are invariant with
time; that is, the volume flux of each fluid entering the system is the same as that
leaving. Experimentally, this would be achieved by fixing the inlet flows of oil and
water at a certain ratio and leaving the system to equilibrate (such that the individual
fluid fluxes exiting the sample are the same as those entering). There are consequently
no pore-scale displacements of any kind once steady-state has been reached - each
12
Petrophysical Input
8
phase tends to flow within its own tortuous network of pores. Once measurements
have been completed at this ratio of fluxes, a new ratio could be set and the process
repeated.
Core-Scale
Steady-state Unsteady-state
Pore-Scale
Although the "channel flow concept" of steady-state flow outlined above appears to
be generally valid (Craig, 1971), there are certain conditions under which this
assumption may be questioned. If there is no strong wetting preference for the matrix,
for example, or if the interfacial tension between the two fluids is very small, then a
slug-like flow regime may develop. Alternatively, if the flow channels are rough and
have an irregular cross-section (which is almost always the case in natural rock
material), then the wetting phase will tend to line the channel walls and the nonwetting
phase will usually reside in the centre of pores. Such phenomena can play a vital role
in determining phase distributions during a variety of displacements, and their effects
cannot always be overlooked. We shall return to these Issues later.
We will now discuss drainage capillary pressure and relative permeability in two
different arrays of capillary tubes. First, we will return to a capillary bundle model and
then we will go on to examine drainage in an interconnected network.
PSD(r)
Single Pore
Figure 10
1
Rmax - Rmin
PSD
f(r)
Figure 11
The steps in a Primary Drainage process - and the corresponding drainage capillary
pressures - would be as follows and these are illustrated schematically in Figures
12(c). From the pore occupancies, we calculate the water saturation Sw by summing
the volume of the water-filled pores, divided by the volume of all pores. Similarly, we
may calculate the relative permeabilities (described in a later section).
Step 1: To enter the water filled porous network the oil pressure must be such that Po1
- Pw > Pc,1 = 2σ/Rmax - this is the minimum entry pressure before the oil can displace
the water from the largest pore where r = Rmax. Figure 12(a). Because Pc,1 is the
smallest of all entry pressures, oil enters the biggest pore first.
14
Petrophysical Input
8
Step 2: The oil pressure increases such that, Pc1 < Pc2 = 2σ/r2 where r2 < Rmax. At this
higher capillary pressure, the oil displaces water from all the pores that have Rmax >
r > r2. This leads to a finite oil saturation in the (fully accessible) capillary bundle.
Figure 12(b).
Step 3: The oil pressure increases again such that, Pc1 < Pc2 < Pc3 = 2σ/r3 where r3 <
r2 < Rmax. At this even higher capillary pressure, the oil displaces more water from all
the pores that have Rmax > r > r3. This leads to a increased oil saturation in the (fully
accessible) capillary bundle. Figure 12(c).
Step 4 (not shown): In principle, for a fully accessible system, we can increase the
capillary pressure to Pcmax = 2σ/ Rmin and this would displace all the water with 100%
oil (So = 1).
For this Primary Drainage process, the corresponding drainage relative permeabilities
(rel perms) are shown in Figures 13(a) – 13(c).
Step 1: At this point, there is only water flow (Sw = 1) and therefore krw = 1 and kro
= 0. Figure 13(a).
Step 2: Now, the water saturation is Sw = Sw2 and krw falls quite rapidly since the water
is now flowing in the smaller pores. Correspondingly, kro rises more rapidly since the
oil is flowing in the larger pores. Figure 13(b).
Step 3: The water saturation is now Sw = Sw3 and krw is relatively low since the water
is now flowing in the smallest pores. Again, kro rises very rapidly since the oil is
flowing in the larger pores as shown in Figure 13(c).
In fact, there are analytical expressions for the relative permeabilities of a capillary
bundle model and these will be introduced later in the course. Also, for a capillary
bundle, the sum of the relative permeabilities turns out to be unity, but this is a result
specific to simple fully accessible models and is not of great importance for real
porous media.
PSD Pc
Pc1 = 2σ
Rmax
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax Sw -->
(b) Step 2: primary drainage, Pc1 < Pc2 = 2σ/r2 (r2 < Rmax)
PSD Pc
r2 Pc2 = 2σ
r2
(c) Step 3: primary drainage, Pc1 < Pc2 < Pc3 = 2σ/r3 (r3 < r2 < Rmax)
PSD Pc
Figure 12
16
Petrophysical Input
8
PSD
krw
water kr
f(r)
kro
PSD krw
kr
f(r) water oil
r2
kro
Sw --> Sw2
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax
PSD kro
kr
f(r) water oil
krw
r3
Sw --> Sw3
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax
Figure 13
(ii) The water residing in the target pore could be trapped. Water can be trapped in
a pore when two conditions are satisfied; (a) when. there is no chain of water-filled
pores from the target pore to the outlet of the network (the target pore is then
hydraulically disconnected) and (b) when there are no wetting films coating the
pore surfaces that could allow water to "leak away" from the pore. These films fill
the "corners" of pores as shown for the example of a simple triangular pore in
Figure 14.
water
oil
Figure 14
Invasion percolation where
oil (yellow) displaces the
water
18
Petrophysical Input
8
Figure 15
Invasion percolation where
oil (yellow) displaces the
water
Figure 16
Oil/water drainage flood (c) drainage; z = 2.667, So =0.5; (d) drainage; z = 2.667, So =0.7;
at various stages in a 2-D
(20 x 20) network for a
water wet system with
coordination number, z =
2.667. This is essentially
invasion percolation with
periodic boundary
conditions (i.e. if the
invading oil leaves the top
of the network, it re-
enters at the bottom).
Observe that water films
in oil-filled pores are not
visualised (e) drainage; z = 2.667, So =0.9.
Figure 17
Oil/water drainage flood
at various stages in a 2-D
(20 x 20) network for a
water wet system with
coordination number, z =
4. This is essentially
(e) drainage; z = 4, So =0.9. invasion percolation
Accessibility and the accessibility function A(r): The meaning of accessibility and the
definition of the accessibility function, A(r), are shown in Figure 18, together with the
pore filling sequence for a connected network. Compare this with the drainage process
in a fully accessible (capillary bundle) model.
20
Petrophysical Input
8
(a) (b)
3 3
Accessibility A(r)=A2/(A1+A2) M 10 12 M 10 12
p(r) e 5 2 e 5 2
r A r A
c 13
8 7
i c 13
8 7
i
u 6 11
r u 6 11
r
r r
y y
Pores filled with Hg 4 1 9 4 1 9
A1
(c) (d)
A2 Shielded Shielded
3 3
M 10 12 M 10 12
Rmin r Rmax e 5 2 e 5 2
Figure 18 r
c
A
i
r
c
A
i
8 7 8 7
The idea of accessibility u 13
6 11
r u 13
6 11
r
r r
and the accessibility y y
function for mercury 4 1
Shielded
9 4 1 9
The accessibility function is defined as A(r) = A2/(A1+A2) and we can explain this
concept physically as follows..Consider a mercury (Hg)→ air invasion percolation
process (Figure 18). For the mercury to displace the air from a given pore, this pore
must be accessible. In the sequence of Hg-pore filling in (a) to (d), at certain stages
(e.g. (c)) some pores are “shielded”, i.e. they are large enough to be invaded but can
not (yet) be seen by the invading mercury. How accessibility is related to the
accessibility function for a drainage displacement is shown in Figure 19(a) – 19(c).
where the “low occupancy” value of the accessibility is seen to be 0 and the high
occupancy is 1 i.e. the phase is at a sufficiently high saturation that it can effectively
“see” all pores that can be entered at a given (high) capillary pressure.
rp
Accessibility function
PSD ◆
1
f(r) water A(r) A(r) = 0 for
Rmax > r > rp
0 ◆
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax r --> rp Rmax
r < rp
Accessibility function
PSD ◆ Not
occupied 1
f(r) water = A1 A(r) A(r) > 0 for
r < rp
◆
Oil occupied
= A2
0
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax r --> rp Rmax
PSD ◆ ◆
1
water oil Oil occupied A(r) A(r) = 1 for
f(r) = A2 r << rp
(A1 = 0)
=> A(r) = 1 Figure 19
The meaning of
0 accessibility and the
Rmin radius, r -> Rmax r --> rp Rmax
accessibility function,
A(r), in a primary drainage
process
Figure 20
a) Comparison of a drainage
flood (oil displacing water)
in (a) a 2-D water wet
glass micromodel where
oil is the light fluid and the
etched “geometrical” pore
b)
pattern can be seen; and
(b) the corresponding 2-D
theoretical network model
calculation of the same
flood where oil is in lighter
blue and the red pores are
water filled (McDougall
and Sorbie, Heriot-Watt
U., unpublished)
22
Petrophysical Input
8
A comparison of an experimental drainage flood (oil displacing water) in a glass
micromodel and the corresponding network model calculation is shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20(a) shows the 2D water wet glass micromodel where oil is the light fluid and
the etched “geometrical” pore pattern can be seen. The corresponding 2D theoretical
network model calculation of the same flood is shown in Figure 20(b) where oil is in
red and the lighter blue pores are water filled. The agreement between these two
figures is sufficiently good to be confident that we have captured the main pore scale
physics of the drainage process in our network model.
Piston-like displacement of oil by water is the reverse of drainage except that it occurs
when one of the phase pressures change such that Po - Pw < Pc = 2σ/r. The second
mechanism, snap-off, is associated with the flow of wetting phase (water) through
films, which swell around the oil in a pore to form a “collar” which eventually - at an
appropriate capillary pressure - causes the oil to snap off thus occupying the space with
water. This snap-off process is shown schematically in Figure 21 for a single pore and
in Figure 22 for a 2D interconnected network. A given waterflood will generally
consist of a mixture of the two displacement mechanisms outlined above.
10 3 10 3
12 12
W 5 2
W 5 2
a O a O
t i t i
e 13
8 7 l e 13
8 7 l
r 6 11 r 6 11
4 1 9 4 1 9
(c) (d)
Trapped
10 3 3
12 10 12
W 5 2
W 5 2
a O a O Figure 22
t i t i Schematic of the snap-off
e 13
8 7 l e 13
8 7 l
r 6 11 r 6 11 mechanism in imbibition.
A 3-D view of a pore with
4 1 9 4 1 9
wetting films in the
corners is given in Figure
14
How the snap-off process relates to oil recovery is shown schematically in Figure 23,
which shows a “ganglion” of oil being snapped-off by water in a water-wet rock. The
oil could only escape through the connected cluster of oil filled pores (since there are
no oil films in a water -wet porous medium). We also note that the isolated blob of
oil left behind in this process in Figure 23 is “residual oil” since it is “trapped” and
cannot now move (unless viscous rather than capillary forces are invoked).
Without proof, we note here that the capillary pressure for snap-off is lower than that
for piston-like displacement. Indeed, in a strongly water-wet circular capillary (cosθ
=1), the snap-off capillary pressure is approximately, Pc = σ/r i.e. half the value for
piston like displacement. Hence, if a capillary is occupied by oil and the oil pressure
is lowered, the capillary entry pressure for piston-like displacement will be reached
first and - if water is freely available, in adjacent pores for example - then piston-like
displacement will occur first. On the other hand, if the capillary entry pressure drops
below the piston-like entry pressure but no water front is available, then it will not fill
with water. However, if the oil phase pressure, Po, drops sufficiently (or Pw increases
sufficiently) that the snap-off capillary pressure is reached and there are water films
to carry water to that pore, then snap-off will occur. Hence, imbibition is a more
complex process than drainage and the balance between piston-like and snap-off
events that occurs depends on a range of factors such as the range of pore sizes, pore-
geometry (aspect ratios), the connectivity of the network (z) and the presence/absence
of wetting films (wettability). Clearly, if we have a wide range of pore sizes, then as
we drop the oil phase pressure, Po, the pore that fills next with water is that for which
Po - Pw < Pc; i.e. where the Pc refers to either Pc piston-like in an accessible pore or
snap-off in a smaller but isolated pore which can be supplied wetting phase through
films.
24
Petrophysical Input
8
Trapped this oil filament is
Oil unstable and "snaps"
continous oil
Flow
oil escapes
through
continous
oil phase
Sand
Grains
Oil Trapping by Filament Snap Off
Trapped "snap-off"
Oil
continous oil
Flow
oil escapes
through
continous
oil phase
Figure 23
Sand
Schematic of snap-off of Grains
an oil ganglion within a
porous medium Oil Trapping by Filament Snap Off
Such a model of imbibition has been implemented in the 2D network of water wet
pores discussed above where we take:
The phase distribution patterns for imbibition in this network is shown for z = 2.667
in Figures 24(a) - (d) and for z = 4 in Figures 25(a) - (d). Observe that in this case no
direction of flow can be observed, as pores fill simultaneously throughout the
network. In the two cases above, we can determine that the percentages of snap-off
and piston like events in each flood are:
♦ z = 4 (Figure 25)
Piston-like = 92.5% Snap-off = 7.5%
Obviously, we can also derive the relative permeabilities for the drainage and
imbibition processes in the connected networks (see later), which show hysteresis
effects similar to those for the Pc curves of Figure 26.
Figure 24
Oil/water imbuition flood
at various stages in a 2-D
(20 x 20) network for a
water wet system with
coordination number, z =
(c) imbibition z = 2.667, Sw = 0.25; (d) imbibition, z = 2.667, Sw =0.281 2.667
26
Petrophysical Input
8
Figure 25
Oil/water imbuition flood
at various stages in a 2-D
(20 x 20) network for a
water wet system with
coordination number, z = 4 (c) imbibition z = 4, Sw = 0.25; (d) imbibition, z = 4, Sw =0.366
15000 15000
10000 10000
Pc(Pa)
Pc(Pa)
drainage
3
0000 2 0000
1
imbibition
0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Sw Sw
Figure 26
In reality, of course, pore geometries in rock samples are far more complicated than
those characterising capillary networks and imbibition is somewhat more complex
(drainage is still relatively straightforward). Micromodel studies by Lenormand and
co-workers (Lenormand and Zarcone, 1984) has uncovered other possible mechanisms,
as illustrated in Figure 27. Their different mechanisms have been termed I1, I2, I3, etc,
where the integer corresponds to the number of pores surrounding a junction that are
filled with nonwetting fluid. We can determine the stability of each meniscus in Figure
27 as the capillary pressure is lowered — remember, that the imbibition process is
characterized by increasing meniscus radii as the flood proceeds. Hence, as long as
the next stage of the waterflood results in an increase in meniscus radius, the
displacement remains stable. So, in Figure 27(a) (an I1 mechanism), the displacement
p0 x' p0
nw w
4 3 2 1
01 02
x
1
2
5 1
3
(c)
A
4
R
(b) (d)
Figure 27
28
Petrophysical Input
8
3.6 Introduction to Percolation Theory
In the previous two sections, the process of fluid flow in a porous medium has been
considered from the point of view of the fluid. However, it is also possible to consider
the process as being determined by the geometry of the porous medium itself. One
approach, which has since become known as percolation theory, was first used by
Broadbent and Hammersley (1957) to investigate the flow of gas through carbon
granules (for the design of gas masks to be used in coal mines). As well as describing
the flow of fluids and gases through porous media, their theory has subsequently been
used to describe many other diverse processes; such as, the electrical properties of
amorphous semiconductors, the behaviour of crystalline semiconductors containing
impurities, and magnetic phase transitions. Phenomena that are best described by
percolation theory are critical phenomena: characterised by a critical point at which
some property of the system changes abruptly.
In the present context of fluid flow, percolation theory emphasises the topological
aspects of problems, dealing with the connectivity of a very large number of elemental
pores and describing the size and behaviour of connected phase clusters in a well-
defined manner.
The primary focus of this section is to discuss how ideas from percolation theory can
be applied more specifically to flow in a porous medium. As a simple, instructive
analogue, consider first a two-dimensional square lattice of capillary elements as
shown in Figure 28(a). The most pertinent concepts from percolation theory will now
be discussed using this geometry. Consider the critical behaviour of the network.
Assume that, initially, all of the tubes are blocked and that they are then opened at
random. For any given geometry there is a unique fraction of tubes that must be open
before flow across the network can commence; this critical fraction is called the
percolation threshold (Pth) and for a simple square lattice has the value Pc=0.5 exactly
(Figure 28(b) shows the distribution of closed and open tubes and Figure28(c) shows
the flowing, spanning cluster of open tubes). One of the most incredible aspects of this
result is that it is independent of the radius distribution; it only depends upon the
topological structure of the network (actually, the co-ordination number (z) and the
Euclidean dimension (d)). In fact, the percolation threshold and system topology are
linked by the equation:
d
z.Pc = (9)
(d − 1)
(b) (c)
Figure 28
Now, if instead of random opening, the pores are opened systematically beginning
with those of largest radius (top-down filling), it is clear that flow will commence once
a cluster of large open pores spans the system. The radius at which this occurs is known
as the percolation radius, Rp, and is defined implicitly by the equation:
where f(r) is the normalised tube radius distribution function and Pc the percolation
threshold. However, the simulation of low-rate drainage processes is carried out using
a top-down invasion percolation model with hydraulic trapping of the wetting phase.
In this case, the injected nonwetting phase first fills the largest pores connected to the
inlet face of the network, and then proceeds along progressively narrower pathways,
sequentially occupying smaller and smaller pores. Although this process appears to
be very different from the pure top-down pore filling, the resulting flowing clusters
are, in fact, identical. Hence, the invasion percolation spanning cluster also appears
at R=Rp.
How does this apply to flow in porous media? Well, many imbibition and drainage
processes exhibit critical behaviour: porous media contain clusters of oil-filled,
water-filled and gas-filled pores and we would only see flow of a particular phase
when the corresponding phase clusters span the system (Figure 29).
30
Petrophysical Input
8
3 Isolated clusters +
8 Isolated clusters 1 spanning cluster
Figure 29
Moreover, we see no flow below certain critical saturations (Sor, Swi) and these
critical saturations will largely be determined by the connectedness of the porous
medium under investigation (see equation 10 above, where Pth is a function of z).
1
p c ( r )α (11)
r
v(r) α r ν 0 ≤ ν ≤ 3 (12)
When more than one fluid is flowing through a network, phase occupancy during a
given process (e.g. primary drainage, secondary imbibition etc.) may be characterised
by a set of rules (based upon the physics discussed earlier) which, when combined with
topological considerations (accessibility), give realistic saturation distributions
throughout a displacement. This approach is particularly well-suited to the modelling
of capillary-dominated flow. However, since any increase or decrease in the
saturation of a particular phase depends upon the spatial distribution of that phase, the
computational effort saved in dispensing with unsteady state calculations is more than
offset by the implementation of a clustering algorithm (after Hoshen and Kopelman,
1976). This algorithm is essentially a “book keeping” exercise which locates and
labels the phase clusters which are distributed throughout the network. These clusters
are continually changing their structure during a displacement, and so the efficacy of
the simulation as a whole is intrinsically linked to the efficacy of the clustering
algorithm itself. A great deal of time and effort has been invested in achieving the
optimum performance of this element of the network simulator. The precise
computational details are dealt with more fully in McDougall (1994).
Although we have rules that tell us how a given displacement proceeds as a function
of capillary pressure, we still need a method of calculating the flow of each phase at
any given stage. In fact, this turns out to be fairly straightforward: we can set a certain
capillary pressure in the model, determine the phase occupancies, effectively “freeze”
each phase, and use the numerical approach from Section 2.6 to calculate the fractional
flows . This facilitates the calculation of effective permeabilities for the two intertwined
networks (one for each phase) over a range of saturation values. Inherent in this is the
assumption that the flow is stationary, thus steady-state relative permeabilities are
considered here; for work on dynamic relative permeabilities see Blunt and King,
1990. Measured relative permeabilities depend upon the saturation histories, saturation
of the fluids, pore space morphology, wetting characteristics of the fluids, the ratio of
the fluid viscosities and the capillary number. Many of these factors are already
included in the model and will be described later in Section 5.2 when we discuss the
use of network models in calculating capillary pressure curves and relative
permeabilities.
32
Petrophysical Input
8
qualitative sensitivity studies of petrophysical parameters (examining the effects of
connectivity, pore size distribution, dead-end pore space, co-operative filling events,
&c. upon Pc and Krel), although more quantitative studies can also be considered.
f(R)
Imbibition
0.02
0.015
f(R)
Drainage
0.02
0.015
z
y x 0.01 Pores filled
with wetting
phase
0.005
Nonwetting
phase
R
20 40 50 80 100
Figure 30
Unfortunately, the porous diaphragm method is rather slow (and therefore expensive),
as equilibration times for an oil-water system are generally high. This problem can be
ameliorated somewhat by using water/air systems and rescaling the resulting data.
One final point of note relates to the operating range of the experimental equipment.
The maximum possible driving pressure is determined by the displacement pressure
of the glass frit (diaphragm) upon which the sample is placed. Once the displacement
pressure of the diaphragm has been exceeded, the wetting phase is no longer able to leave
the sample and the experiment ends (Figure 31(b)).
Centrifuge Method — The centrifuge method is quick but relies on highly specialist
equipment and analytical treatment of the data. The sample is put into a centrifuge
surrounded by a displacing phase (Figure 31(a)(ii)). The centrifuge is spun at different
speeds and the volume of displaced fluid measured on each occasion. Whilst an
average capillary pressure can be inferred corresponding to each rotational speed, the
local capillary pressure and saturation values vary with distance from the centre of
rotation. Hence, some analysis is required to back-out an appropriate average Pc
curve.
34
Petrophysical Input
8
(i) (ii) I
Nitrogen Pressure
Saran Tube
Crude Oil
H
Neoprene Stopper
Scale of
Squared Paper
P
Nickel-Plated
Spring Seal of M
Core Red Oil D
Kleenex Paper N L
Ultra-Fine F
Fritted Glass
Disk G E J K
Brine
(iii)
Regulating Valve
Lucite Window To
Atmosphere
Cylinder
U-Tube
Manometer
Lucite Window
Pc diaphragm
Pc core
100%
0
Operating
σW
range
Figure 31b
Steady-State Methods
Steady-state methods are characterised by simultaneous injection of the two phases at
a fixed ratio and known flowrates. Steady-state conditions are assumed to have been
reached once the inlet and outlet fluxes of each phase have equilibrated and/or a
constant pressure drop is seen to exist across the sample. This may take many hours
or even days, depending upon the type of material under investigation and the
measurement technique being used. Once equilibration has been reached, Darcy’s
law can be used for each phase in turn, resulting in a pair of relative permeability values
valid at that particular saturation. The fluid flux ratio is then changed (whilst keeping
the total flowrate constant), yielding a second set of data once a new steady-state has
been achieved. Similar measurements for a number of different flux ratios can then
be used to give a set of relative permeability curves which span the entire saturation
range. Although the time involved in extracting such data is clearly an important
concern, steady-state measurements performed at low rates should be considered most
indicative of reservoir behaviour. Typical laboratory relative permeability curves are
shown in Figures32 and 33. Some of the more popular experimental techniques will
now be discussed.
36
Petrophysical Input
8
100
kg , k0 , Penn State
kg , k0 , single-core dynamic
★ kg , ★ k0 , dispersed feed
80 kg , k0 , Hafford technique ★
kg , k0 , gas-drive technique
Relative permeability, %
kg , k0 , Hassler method
60
★
40 ★
★
Core No. 0-2-A ★
20 Berea outcrop ★
★
K = 120 md
L = 2.30 cm
★ ★
0 ★ ★★
0 20 40 60 80 100
Oil saturation, %
Figure 32
100
kg , k0 , Penn State
kg , k0 , single-core dynamic
★ kg , ★ k0 , dispersed feed
80 kg , k0 , Hafford technique
★
kg , k0 , gas-drive technique
Relative permeability, %
kg , k0 , Hassler method
★
60
★
★
40 ★
Figure 33
The Hassler Method — The laboratory apparatus used for this type of steady-state test
is shown in Figure 35d. Semi-permeable membranes are positioned at both the inlet
and outlet ends of the core sample, which serve to separate the test fluids outwith the
sample whilst permitting two-phase flow to take place within it. The importance of
this is that allows the two pressure drops to be regulated independently, enabling
equilibration of the capillary pressure at both ends of the core. This procedure is
designed to provide a uniform saturation distribution throughout the system, and thus
eliminate any capillary end effects.
Unsteady-State Methods
Although unsteady-state relative permeability measurements can be made much more
rapidly than those requiring steady-state equilibration, analysis of the resulting data
is more difficult and open to a certain degree of ambiguity. In unsteady-state tests, one
phase is displaced directly from the core sample by the injection of another, at a rate
high enough such that capillary pressure remains negligible. An analysis of the
resulting production data, based upon the Buckley-Leverett frontal advance theory
(Buckley and Leverett, 1942), then permits the determination of a relative permeability
ratio (krw/kro). The relevant theory was given by Welge (1952), who demonstrated that:
1
fo =
µ k (14)
1 + o rw
µ w k ro
38
Petrophysical Input
8
where fo is the fraction of oil in the outlet stream, and the mi are viscosities. This was
later extended by Johnson et al (1959), who developed a technique for calculating the
individual relative permeabilities from the permeability ratio. Several other methods
also exist (Saraf and McCaffery, 1982; Jones and Roszelle, 1978; inter alia). A sample
calculation is shown in Figure 34 —note that we only get relative permeability after
breakthrough of the displacing phase.
1.0
krw
0.8
kro
0.6
kri
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw
Figure 34
In the past, much work has been carried out to compare these unsteady-state results
with their steady-state equivalents. Unfortunately, although the outcomes appear to
be broadly in agreement, there have been a number of exceptions (e.g. Schneider and
Owens, 1970; Owens et al, 1965; Loomis and Crowell, 1962; Archer and Wong,
1971). The limitations of the unsteady-state approach for determining water-oil
relative permeabilities have been discussed more fully by Craig (1971): the main
concerns relate to the high pressure differentials involved (in excess of 50psi), and the
fact that large viscosity ratios are often used in an attempt to extend the range of two-
phase flow. The general applicability of the resulting data must consequently be
called into question.
Centrifuge Methods
Centrifuge techniques can provide useful results extremely rapidly, with the added
bonus that they are thought to be free of the viscous fingering problems that
accompany many other unsteady-state methods. They are, however, subject to
problems associated with capillary end effect and cannot be used to quantify the
relative permeability of the displacing phase. Such methods involve monitoring the
production from samples that are initially saturated with one or two phases, with
analytical techniques being used to back-out relative permeability values (see Van
Spronsen, 1982, for a fuller account).
Differential
pressure taps Oil pressure pad
Bronze
screen Highly permeable disk Oil
Gas meter
Outlet Intlet
Penn-State Hafford
Oil burette
vacuum
Lucite
Core
material
Core
Lucite-mounted Dispersing
core section
Oil
Oil burette
Dispersing Flowmeter
section face
40
Petrophysical Input
8
associated viscosity ratio is high, then the less viscous invading fluid will begin to
finger through the sample and a condition of uniform saturation will be impossible to
achieve. With this in mind, it is clear that such considerations should not be
overlooked when attempting to interpret a wide variety of unsteady-state coreflood data.
The effect of interfacial tension upon relative permeabilities can also be significant.
In cases where the experimental flowrate is high and the interfacial tension is small,
the capillary forces become less significant and slugs of both fluids may begin to flow
through the same network of pores. In fact, as the interfacial tension approaches zero,
the relative permeability curves actually become straight diagonal lines: i.e. the total
effective mobility of the system remains constant over the entire saturation range.
Experimental results showing this effect are reproduced in Figure 36b.
(a) (b)
240
???? m=82.2
.75
???? m=42.0 ????
???? m=5.7 .5
100 ????
???? m=5.2
.25
???? m=0.9 ????
???? m=0.6
0 0 ????
0 50 100 0 .25 .5 .75 1.0
Sw Sq
Figure 36
5.1 Methods for Generating Capillary Pressure Curves and Pore Size Distributions
Background
In this section, we will describe a number of approaches to generate capillary pressure
curves for use in reservoir simulation. We often have to undertake a simulation study
without possessing all of the data we would ideally require — perhaps we have only
one experimental capillary pressure curve at our disposal and perhaps it comes from
a part of the reservoir not directly related to our current study. We need some way of
inferring reasonable data from those available to us at the time and, although we may
have to make some gross assumptions, we should be able to invoke our knowledge of
flow at the pore-scale to help us.
Let us begin by reminding ourselves of the drainage case (drainage curves are
frequently used in simulators — often erroneously). Remember that, in drainage, we
are increasing the pressure difference between the nonwetting and wetting phases. As
Pc increases, the radius of interface curvature decreases and, using a capillary tube
analogue, the Young-Laplace equation tells us that the nonwetting phase begins to
invade the porous medium when Pc>2σcosθ/Rmax — i.e. at the so-called displacement
pressure of the sample. As Pc continues to increase, the nonwetting phase invades
progressively smaller pores. Hence, the nonwetting phase saturation gradually
increases with Pc. The resulting plot of Pc vs Sw is the drainage capillary pressure
curve (Figure 37).
Pc
Water wet
sand
Pc
D.P.
Displacement
pressure
Funicular Insular
%100 0 σ0
0 100% σw
Pendular Funicular
Figure 37
42
Petrophysical Input
8
We can now use this discussion to infer the type of capillary pressure curve that may
result from different samples. For example, how would the pore size distribution
affect the curve? We already know that the displacement pressure is affected by Rmax
— the largest pore in the sample — but it should also be clear that the range of pore
sizes in a sample can greatly affect the shape of the corresponding Pc curve (Figure
88). Flat plateaux indicate samples that are fairly homogeneous at the pore scale,
whilst steeper curves indicate a large variance in the distribution. Moreover, fine
textured rocks with small cemented grains can be expected to exhibit higher capillary
pressures at a given saturation that coarse-textured media — also higher displacement
pressures. So, from our basic understanding of capillary pressure at the microscopic
scale, we have been able to infer a great deal about how we would expect capillary
pressure curves to vary at the continuum (macroscopic) scale.
Pc
Water wet
sand
Irredu-
cible water
saturation
3
D.P.
All same radii
σw
0 100%
100% σ0 0
Figure 38
Now, eliminating Rextmax from equations 15 and 16we arrive at the scaling relationship:
(σ cos θ)
(Pce )oil / water = (Pce )mercury / air (σ cos θ) oil / water (17)
mercury / air
This clearly holds for any Pc-value, and so a complete oil-water capillary pressure
curve can be obtained from the mercury injection data by applying equation 17at each
saturation.
Experience shows that the ratio of interfacial tensions and cosines on the right hand
side of 17(often difficult to measure accurately) should have a value of approximately
6. However, different ratios have sometimes been needed to reconcile experimental
mercury-air and oil-water data from different rock-types (Figure 39 — the ratio is
referred to as—“Factor” in these plots). Such differences may be due to interactions
between contact angle and pore geometry.
60 348 30 225.0
50 290 25 187.5
Mercury injection Mercury injection
Mercury capiliary pressure, psi
40 232 20 150.0
Sandstone core
Porosity - 28.1%
30 174 15 112.5
Permeability - 1.43 darcys
Factor - 7.5
20 116 10 75.0
Limestone core
Porosity - 23.0%
10 Permeability - 3.36 md 58 5 37.5
Factor - 5.8
0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
H20 H20
100 80 60 40 20 0 100 80 60 40 20 0
Hg Hg
Liquid saturation, % Liquid saturation, %
Figure 39
44
Petrophysical Input
8
Derivation of Pore Size Distributions
In addition to providing raw data for the derivation of capillary pressure curves,
mercury injection data can also be used to derive so-called pore-size distributions
(PSDs). The theory for deriving PSDs from intrusion data comes from a paper by
Ritter and Drake (1945), which makes a number of simplifying assumptions: (i) the
pores are circular cylinders in shape, and (ii) all pores of a given radius are accessible
to the mercury (i.e. no accessibility issues). By using the Young-Laplace equation to
convert Pc to pore radius, the PSD (D(r)) can be derived from the capillary pressure
data via the relationship:
Pc dSmercury
D( r ) = (18)
r dPc
D( r ) = air
dS
(19)
dr
The procedure can be tested using the data shown in Table 2 and you are encouraged
to follow the example.
Unfortunately, the distributions that are produced by this method (and therefore by
commercial porosimeters) are not pore size distributions but pore volume distributions.
The spike (very typical) is caused by accessibility effects prevalent during drainage
processes and the volume associated with some large “shielded” pores can be
incorrectly assigned to small pores (see Figure 40). To get a better idea of the true PSD
(that is the frequency distribution of pore radii), the Ritter and Drake distribution D(r)
should be divided by r2 for each r-value — this generally shows that there are far more
smaller pores than D(r)would suggest. That said, the volume-weighted distributions
provided by commercial porosimeters are still useful lithological fingerprints.
˜ ~ k
R (20)
φ
1
Pc k 2
J= (21)
σ cos θ φ
46
Petrophysical Input
8
Example J-functions are shown in Figure41 together with a derived set of Pc-curves.
The procedure can also be used to examine the relationship between permeability
(and/or porosity and/or fluid combinations) and water saturation at different capillary
pressure cut-off values ——in general, at a given Pc, we find that lower k => higher
Sw (Figure 42).
1.5 4
Lim
Reservoir Formation Sw-1√(Sw)
1.4
Hawkins Woodbine 0.347
Rangely Weber 0.151 3
1.3 El Robie Moreno 0.18
1
2
()
Kinsella Viking 0.315
1
2
φ
k
()
Hawkins
σ cos θ
Alundum (consolidated) 0.371 2
1.1
Pc
Pc
1.0
√ (Sw) =
Kinsella
1
0.9
0.8
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.7
Alundum
Liquid saturation, %
0.6 Theoretical limiting (b)
value for regular
Leverett packed spheres
0.5
0.447
0.4
Leduc 4
Morano Rangely
0.3
0.2 Katie 3
1
2
0.1
() φ
k
Kinsella Shale
0
σ cos θ
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 2
Pc
Water saturation, Sw
√ (Sw) =
200 md
100 md
0
50 md
10 md
27 180 81 0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid saturation, %
Height above zero capilliary pressure, ft
24 160 72 (d)
Oil water capilliary pressure, psi
21 140 63
(reservoir conditions)
18 120 54 4
15 100 45
3
1
2
12 80 36
() φ
k
9 60 27
σ cos θ
2
Pc
5 40 18
√ (Sw) =
1
3 20 9
0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water saturation, % Liquid saturation, %
(c)
Figure 41
Brine saturation S 20 25 30
Porosity φ
Figure 42
Transition Zones
We conclude this section on capillary pressure curves with a brief discussion of
transition zones. Transition zones are usually described using the water-wet vertical
bead pack idealization shown in Figure 43. A water-saturated bead pack is allowed
to drain under gravity until capillary equilibrium is reached. At the top of the column,
the water is in the form of discrete rings connected via thin wetting films over grains
— called the pendular regime. Moving down the column, the rings become larger and
ultimately coalesce — the funicular regime. Near the bottom of the pack, water is
continuous.
48
Petrophysical Input
8
σ
σ R
θ θ
R θ θ r
r r y
(a) r d
y
(i) (ii)
b
b
δ δ
θ
θ
c a c a
(i) (ii)
(b)
b
b
δ
δ
θ
c a c a
Whilst this idealization gives some limited insight into transition zone behaviour, a
more enlightening picture emerges if we use our knowledge of drainage capillary
pressure at the pore scale — this can give us a mental picture of fluid distributions as
we move through a transition zone. Referring to Figure 44a, we see that the
hydrostatic oil and water gradients meet at the OWC (Po=Pw). Above this contact,
Po>Pw and capillary pressure increases as we go further up the reservoir. Figure 44b
shows how the phases would be distributed in the pore network, with oil present in
smaller and smaller pores as we move up through the transition zone.
Gas
GOC 5200'
Test Results
at 5250 ft
Oil po = 2402 psia
dpo
= 0.35 psi/ft
OWC 5500' dD
Water
Pressure (psia)
Cappilary
2250 2375 2500 Pressure
Increasing
2265 2369
5000
Depth Pcgo
(feet)
GOC: po = pg = 2385
5250
Pcow
Capillary pressure data can also be used to infer fluid saturations as a function of depth
within a transition zone. Assuming that oil and water pressures remain continuous
throughout the entire height of the zone (doubtful under some circumstances), we can
write equations for each hydraulic gradient (z measures height above OWC and
increases vertically upwards):
dPw
= − gρ w (23)
dz
dPo
= − gρ o (24)
dz
50
Petrophysical Input
8
Pc = g(ρw − ρo )z (27)
Hence, any capillary pressure curve can be re-plotted to give saturation with depth
information. An example is shown in Figure 45.
830
840
Minimum of 22% connate water
850
860
870
880
Data derrived from
890
capillary pressure
900 Data obtained from
Depth, M below sea level
seismic logs
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
Approximate gas-oil contact
990
1000
1010
1020
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water saturation scale %
Figure 45
Purcell Model
The Purcell model seeks to utilise cheap capillary pressure data in order to predict
more expensive relative permeabilities. The model revisits the capillary bundle
model and initially uses a little algebra to develop a predictor for absolute permeability.
A graphical “recipe” for relative permeability prediction via capillary pressure data is
essentially the following:
(iv) For any chosen value of water saturation (Swt, say), calculate the area under the
1/Pc2 curve from 0 to Swt. This gives kwt
(v) For the same value of water saturation, calculate the area under the 1/Pc2 curve
from Swt to 1. This gives knwt
(vi) Use the values obtained from (iii) – (v) to determine relative permeabilities
14 0.56
12 0.48
1/(capillary pressure)2, 1/Pc2, atm-2
10 Pc 0.40
Capillary pressure, Pc, atm
8 1 0.32
(Pc)2
6 0.24
4 0.16
2 0.08
0 0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Percent of total pore space occupied by mercury
Figure 46
There is one clear drawback using this approach, however: the relative permeabilities
add up to unity over the full saturation range and are therefore completely symmetrical.
This limitation led Burdine to add the following improvement.
52
Petrophysical Input
8
Burdine Model
The Burdine model simply takes the Purcell model and re-scales the endpoints
through the prefactors:
Sw − Swi 1 − Sw − Sor
λ w (Sw ) = λ nw (Sw ) = (27)
1 − Swi − Sor 1 − Swi − Sor
The curves are therefore defined over the wetting-phase saturation range (1-Sor) to (1-
Swi). The full equations are given in Appendix B (Figure B6). Although a number of
gross assumptions have been made along the way, the Burdine method offers a cheap
alternative to laboratory measurement of relative permeabilities. It is easily coded
into a spreadsheet and is often carried out by practicing reservoir engineers —
experience appears to show that the wetting phase prediction is often fairly good,
whilst the nonwetting curve is less well reproduced.
k rw ∝ Seff
4
(28)
However, it was soon discovered (not surprisingly) that the exponents in Corey’s
original equations would have to be varied in order to fit different materials. They
were consequently generalised by Brooks and Corey (1964) to:
k rw = S(eff2 + 3λ ) λ (30)
Seff = ( Pcb Pc )
λ
( Pc ≥ Pcb ) (32)
with Pcb representing the breakthrough capillary pressure and λ the “pore size
distribution index”. Both of these parameters have to be determined experimentally:
Seff vs Pc data is plotted on a log-log scale and a straight line fitted, the slope gives λ
and the intercept with Seff=1 is assumed to give Pcb.
Network Models
It is quite apparent from this discussion that no satisfactory predictive model currently
exists which can adequately account for the complex jumble of channels that pervade
a porous medium. One of the most promising developments of recent years, however,
has been the possibility of applying interconnected network models to the study of
Figure 47
The model calculates the total flow through two intertwined networks (one for each
phase) over a range of saturation values. Inherent in this is the assumption that the flow
is stationary, thus steady-state relative permeabilities are considered here. In all that
follows, the wetting phase is assumed to be water and the non-wetting phase oil. Each
pore in the network is assigned a capillary entry radius from a distribution. At each
stage of the displacement, the total flow is calculated separately for each of the
54
Petrophysical Input
8
intertwined networks. The results are then converted into normalised permeabilities
as functions of saturation. Additional details can be found in the earlier discussion
presented in section 2.6.
Primary Displacements — Consider first the case of a strongly water-wet rock which
is initially 100% saturated with oil. Several possible displacement mechanisms have
been identified in two dimensions (Lenormand and Zarcone, 1984), one of which is
known as “snap-off”. When brought into contact with the water phase, a strongly
water-wet rock will spontaneously imbibe the wetting fluid via film flow along
irregularities on the pore surfaces. In effect, the water slowly wets all internal grain
surfaces and is essentially present everywhere in the matrix. As this imbibition
process continues, the thin films begin to swell. Eventually, the thinnest pores will
become completely filled with water and the original oil will be displaced if an escape
route exists (see earlier discussion in section 3.4). This continues with the gradual
filling of progressively wider pores until no further displacement is possible since the
oil phase becomes disconnected. The snap-off mechanism is thought to be the most
prevalent imbibition mechanism governing capillary-dominated waterfloods of
consolidated media (low aspect ratio pores). More pistonlike displacements may
occur in media containing high aspect ratio pores (e.g. unconsolidated beadpacks) but
such systems are not considered here (the competition between snap-off and pistonlike
displacements is discussed more fully in Dixit et al, 1997). A typical set of imbibition
relative permeability curves obtained from 3D network modelling are shown in Figure
48 and are seen to correlate well with experimental observations
1.0
0.8
0.6
Kri
0.4
0.2
Figure 48
Imbibition relative 0.0
permeability curves from 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw
pore-scale simulation
1.0
0.8
0.6
Kri
0.4
0.2
Figure 49
0.0 Drainage relative
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 permeability curves from
Sw
pore-scale simulation
Both secondary drainage and secondary imbibition have been studied, but for brevity
only the primary drainage-secondary imbibition scenario will be discussed here. The
simulation is shown in Figure 50. The similarity to experimental curves from
consolidated media is striking and the hysteresis effect is clearly duplicated in the case
of the non-wetting phase. The wetting phase curve shows little sign of deviation which
is also in general agreement with experimental findings. In order to explain this
phenomenon, a step by step analysis of the distribution of invaded pores must be
considered. It is found that the hysteresis effect is due to the different physics
governing imbibition and drainage processes; in particular, the associated issue of
accessibility during drainage (McDougall and Sorbie, 1992). Different hysteresis
patterns are exhibited by unconsolidated media and possible causes of this have been
discussed by Jerauld and Salter (1990). More recently, the full range of experimentally-
observed hysteresis phenomena has been modelled and interpreted by Dixit et al
(1997). Both studies show that pore aspect ratio and the competition between snap-
off and pistonlike displacement affect the hysteresis trend, although different
methodologies were used to capture the effects.
56
Petrophysical Input
8
1.0
krwint
Primary Drainage
0.8 Secondary Imbibition
krwsec
0.6
Kri
0.4
0.2
Figure 50
Non-wetting phase
hysteresis after a primary 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
drainage -> secondary Sw
imbibition cycle
R, microns
4
0.6 Krg sim
Kro expt 3
kr
0.5
0.4 Krg expt 2
0.3 1
0.2
0
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1 SHg
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Experimental Analytic
Sg compensated
25
0.6 Krg sim
20
Kro expt
kr
0.5
Krg expt 25
0.4
10
0.3
0.2 5
0.1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1
SHg
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
60
0.6 Krg sim
50
Kro expt
kr
0.5 40
0.4 Krg expt 30
0.3 20
10
Figure 51
0.2
0 Gas-oil relative
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 permeabilities (prediction
0.1
SHg vs experimental) and
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Experimental Analytic inverse capillary pressure
Sg compensated
data for reservoir samples
(i) Contact angle hysteresis — advancing and receding contact angles differ
(reflected in Pc through the Young-Laplace equation)
58
Petrophysical Input
8
(ii) Pore structure hysteresis — sloping pore walls mean that pores fill and empty at
different capillary pressures
There is often such a difference between imbibition and drainage curves (both
capillary pressure and relative permeability) that we must make sure that we are using
the correct set of curves in our reservoir simulation studies (for instance, we should
not be using drainage curves as simulation input when modelling a waterflood in a
water-wet reservoir). Built-in numerical models are available in Eclipse and other
commercial reservoir simulators to account for flow reversals at intermediate
saturations.
Pc
b d c
Sw
Pc Swi 1
1.0 1.0
kr Sor
kro
Secondary
drainage
Drainage
Intermediate
path
Imbibition
0.0
0.0 0.0 Sw 1.0
0.0 Swi Sw 1.0
Figure 52
Water Wet
40
32
24
16
2 1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation - percent Figure 53
θ = 158º
θ = 35º
θ = 30º
θ = 30º
Water
Water
Silica Surface
Isooctane
Isooctane + Isoquinoline Naphthenic
5.7% Isoquinoline Acid
θ = 54º θ = 106º
θ = 30º θ = 48º
Water
Water
Calcite Surface Figure 54
60
Petrophysical Input
8
This figure clearly demonstrates an important issue, namely, that the wetting preference
of a rock depends not only upon the fluids involved but also upon the mineralogy of
the rock surface. For instance, we see that, in the presence of isoquinoline, water is
nonwetting on a silica substrate but wetting on a calcite substrate. In cases when a solid
has no wetting preference, (i.e. when the angle separating the two fluid interfaces is
close to 90o) the system is said to be of “neutral” wettability.
In most of what has been described in this chapter, the assumption has been made that
the system under consideration was water-wet. Indeed, historically, all reservoirs
were believed to be strongly water-wet and almost all clean sedimentary rocks are in
a water-wet condition. An additional argument for the validity of the water-wet
assumption was the following: the majority of reservoirs were deposited in an aqueous
environment, with oil only migrating at a later time. The rock surfaces were
consequently in constant contact with water and no wettability alterations were
possible as connate water would prevent oil contacting the rock surfaces. However,
Nutting (1934) realised that some producing reservoirs were, in fact, oil-wet (the rock
surface was preferentially wetted by oil in the presence of water) and it is now
generally accepted that water-wet reservoirs are the exception rather than the rule
(Table 3 and 4).
Contact
Angle Percent of
(degrees) Reservoirs
Water-wet 0 to 80 8
Intermediate wet 80 to 100 12
Oil-wet 100 to 160 65
Table 3 Strongly oil-wet 160 to 180 15
Contact
Angle Silicate Carbonate Total
(degrees) Reservoirs Reservoirs Reservoirs
Water-wet 0 to 75 13 2 15
Intermediate wet 75 to 105 2 1 3
Oil-wet 105 to 180 15 22 37
Total 30 25 55
Table 4
We now know that wettability is a rather complicated issue (still actively being
researched) and that there are a number of different factors affecting reservoir
wettability, including:
(iv) Brine pH
(v) The presence of multivalent metal cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Fe3+)
In short, surface chemistry determines the wettability state of a reservoir (or, more
correctly, any given region of a reservoir; as wettability can be expected to vary
spatially — and possibly temporally——throughout a reservoir).
Having discovered that most reservoirs are not water-wet, we now have to modify
everything that we have learned so far — pore-scale physics, capillary pressure
models, relative permeability models, and network models. However, this is not as
difficult as it may first appear; we already understand drainage and imbibition
processes at the pore scale, we know how to define capillary pressure, and we
appreciate the dynamics underlying relative permeability measurements. The following
discussion should help you apply your previous water-wet knowledge to systems that
are not water-wet.
Pore-Scale Effects
The effect of wettability at the pore-scale is shown in Figure 55. If a rock is water-wet,
we have already seen that there is a tendency for water to reside in the tighter pores
and to form a film over the grain surfaces. Oil (the nonwetting phase) resides in the
larger pores. In this case, the term “imbibition””— a process whereby a wetting phase
displaces a nonwetting phase — would refer to the displacement of oil by water. The
term “drainage” would apply to oil displacing water . In an oil-wet system, however,
the situation is reversed— oil now forms a thin film over the grain surfaces and water
fills the larger pores. Consequently, in an oil-wet medium,“imbibition” refers to the
displacement of water by oil, whilst “drainage” refers to the displacement of oil by
water. These differences clearly have major implications for waterflooding reservoirs
(if a reservoir is oil-wet, a waterflood is a drainage displacement, oil is flushed from
small pores, and oil production via film-flow also becomes important).
62
Petrophysical Input
8
The foregoing discussion has clarified some of the pore-scale physics affecting water-
wet and oil-wet media. However, given the complex nature of wettability alterations
in reality, a more realistic representation of wettability at the pore scale may be that
shown in Figure 56. Here, a combination of water-wet and oil-wet pathways exists that
allows film-flow access to the displacing phase and film-flow escape for the displaced
phase. Hence, a waterflood would now consist of a combination of imbibition and
drainage events: water initially imbibing along water-wet pathways (displacing oil
from small pores) and then requiring an overpressure to drain oil from the larger oil-
wet pores. It is clear that the underlying mineralogy and surface chemistry of the
system would determine the connectivity and topology of the “wettability pathways”
but how can we determine these pathways”— in short, how can we quantify the
wettability of a porous medium?
Uniform — the wettability of the entire porespace is the same (100% water-wet, 100%
oil-wet, or 100% “intermediate-wet”) and the contact angle is essentially the same in
every pore;
64
Petrophysical Input
8
F(R)
Mixed-Wet
0.02
0.015
α
0.01 Water-Wet
0.005
Oil-Wet
R
20 40 60 80 100
F(R)
Fractionally-Wet
0.02
0.015 Water-Wet
α
0.01
0.005
Oil-Wet
R
20 40 60 80 100
Figure 57
Wettability Measurement
Core wettability can be determined in a number of ways, although three main
quantitative methods are used most frequently:
(i) Contact angle measurement — this measures the wettability of a mineral surface
and is mainly used by specialist researchers
(ii) Amott method — this measurement gives valuable information regarding the
extent and connectivity of wettability pathways of a core
Table 5 gives some expected values for water-wet, neutral-wet, and oil-wet media
from each test (we will explain each of these shortly).
Other qualitative methods exist, such as rate-of-imbibition tests, NMR methods and
dye adsorption methods, but these are not routinely undertaken. Let us now examine
the three main methodologies in more detail.
Crystal
Water
Advancing
Water Oil Oil
Contact
Angle
Crystal
180
90
66
Petrophysical Input
8
Amott Test
The Amott test is slow but informative.
It combines both imbibition and forced displacement and is usually carried out via the
following “recipe”:
(2) Immerse in oil and measure volume of oil imbibed after 20 hours (Voi)
(3) Centrifuge the core down to Swi and measure the total oil volume (Vot)
(4) Immerse in water and measure volume of water imbibed after 20 hours (Vwi)
(5) Centrifuge the core down to Sor and measure the total water volume (Vwt)
(6) Calculate the displacement-by-oil ratio (Io) and the displacement-by-water ratio
(Iw), i.e.
Voi Vwi
Io = Iw =
Vot Vwt
If Iw=0 and Io=0, the core is said to be neutrally-wet (neither phase has imbibed)
Often, the indices are combined to give a single index; the Amott-Harvey Index =Iw-
Io, yielding a number between -1 (oil-wet) and 1 (water-wet). If possible, however,
it is better to have access to both Io and Iw, as these individual indices tell far more than
the single Amott-Harvey index. Unfortunately, there are two main drawbacks to the
Amott test: firstly, it takes a long time for fluids to equilibrate, making the test time-
consuming and costly; and secondly, the ratios used in the calculations are very
sensitive to errors in saturation measurement. A far quicker, but less informative,
measure of wettability is given by the USBM test.
USBM Test
The USBM test uses thermodynamic arguments to ascertain the approximate work
done on the system durig centrifuge displacements. This essentially boils down to
calculating areas under Pc curves (= work done during a displacement) as follows
(Figure 59).
II
A1
0
I
A2
-10
0 Average Water Saturation, Percent 100
II
A1
0
A2
-10
0 Average Water Saturation, Percent 100
Figure 59
(2) Core is centrifuged under brine at incremental speeds until Pc=-10psi (NB. water
pressure greater than oil pressure, so Pc=Po-Pw is negative). Measure expelled
oil volume
(3) Core is centrifuged under oil at incremental speeds until Pc=+10psi. Measure
expelled water volume
(5) Calculate the areas under the oil-drive (A1) and water-drive(A2) curves
68
Petrophysical Input
8
Although W theoratically goes from -infinity to +infinity, -1<W<1 is usually reported
(W>0 indicates some degree of water-wetness, W<0 some degree of oil-wetness).
Note, that other methods exist that combine elements of the Amott and USBM tests
(see the literature for details, an example is shown in Figure 60).
Core Handling
The previous discussion has highlighted the importance of wettability at the pore-
scale and its implications for oil recovery (as demonstrated by the Amott and USBM
tests). We should therefore endeavour to preserve the natural state of a core as much
as possible if we wish to derive SCAL data that has relevance to the reservoir under
consideration. There are a number of issues of which we should be aware: (i)
wettability alterations can occur during drilling due to complex mud chemistry, (ii)
pressure and temperature change as a core is brought to surface, (iii) asphaltenes may
subsequently precipitate and light ends may be lost. Pressure coring can help alleviate
some of these problems but this is not always available.
Amott-IFP Index
(Cuiec, 1991)
Native-state core
— ideal if available as it minimises losses, wrap cores in polyethylene film and foil,
then seal in liquid paraffin
Restored-state core — Only course of action if wettability has been altered. Clean the
core, flow reservoir fluids in correct order, age the core (1000 hours/40 days) and hope
that reservoir conditions have been re-established. Often, of course, this is not the case
and recoveries and relative permeabilities are badly affected (Figure 61).
NATIVE CORE
50 CRUDE OIL .8
CLEANED CORE
CRUDE OIL
CLEANED CORE
Oil Recovery, Percent PV
REFINED OIL
Relative Permeability
40
.6
30
.4
20
.2
10
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Water Injected, Pore Volumes Water Saturation, PV
Figure 61
70
Petrophysical Input
8
Archie Saturation Exponents as a function of
Saturation for a Conducting Nonwetting Phase
_ Rt
Sw n = ≡ IR
Ro
where:
Sw = brine saturation in the porous medium
Rt = resistivity of the porous medium at
saturation S w, and
Ro = resistivity of the 100%
Figure 62 brine-saturated formation
1 1
pc = po − pw = σ + (33)
r1 r2
where s is the interfacial tension between the two fluids, and r1 and r2 are the two
principal radii of curvature (see section 3.1). The pressure difference Pc is the
capillary pressure and, in oil-water systems, is conventionally taken to be the pressure
in the oil phase minus the pressure in the water phase. For drainage of a water-wet
circular capillary (radius R) and zero contact angle, this relationship becomes:
2σ
pc = po − pw = (34)
R
Notice, however, that for water to invade an oil-wet capillary, the capillary pressure
must become negative (i.e. pw must become greater than po) The combination of the
words “negative” and “pressure” may at first seem confusing, but the term is merely
an artefact of conventional terminology. The concept of negative capillary pressure
is central to displacements in heterogeneously-wet media.
32
A
CURVE
1.DRAINAGE
24 2.SPONTANEOUS IMBIBITION
3.FORCED IMBIBTION
16
Age + Change Wettability
1
8 2
0 Sw% 100
0
B
Swi Primary Drainage
(Initial Water)
Pc(+ve) Forced Oil Drive BEREA CORE
-8 k = 184.3 md
(Secondary Drainage)
3
Water Imbibition
(Spontaneous) POINT
A. IRREDUCIBLE WETTING SATURATION
-16 B. ZERO - CAPILLARY-PRESSURE
NONWETTING SATURATION
C. IRREDUCIBLE NONWETTING SATURATION
Oil C
Pc(-ve) Imbibition -24
Forced Water Drive (Spont- 0 20 40 60 80 100
aneous) WATER SATURATION, PERCENT P.V.
0 Sw% 100
48 -48
VENANGO CORE VL - 2
k = 28.2 md -32
32
24 -24
-16
16
2 1 1
8 -8
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
WATER SATURATION - PERCENT OIL SATURATION, PERCENT
Capillary pressure characteristics, strongly water-wet rock. Oil-water capillary pressure characterisitics. Ten-sleep
Curve 1 - Drainage. Curve 2 - Imbition. sandstone. oil-wet rock (after Ref.29). Curve 1 - drainage.
Curve 2 - Imbition.
20 32
INTERMEDIATE
WET
CAPILLARY PRESSURE, CM.HG
16 24
12 16
CAPILLARY PRESSURE - Cm of Hg
1
8 8
2
4 0
Figure 63
0
0 20 40 60 80 -8
BEREA CORE 2-MO16-1 Experimental capillary
100 k - 184.3 md
WATER SATURATION, PERCENT
3
pressures in cores for
Drainage capillary pressure characteristics (after Ref.30) -16 various processes
( drainage, imbibition) and
-24
0 20 40 50 60 100 wettability conditions
WATER SATURATION - PERCENT
Oil-water capillary pressure characteristics, ( water-wet, oil-wet,
intermediate wettability. Curve 1 - drainage. Curve 2
- spontaneous imbition. Curve 3 - forced imbition. intermediate-wet )
72
Petrophysical Input
8
So, in general, a negative leg in the capillary pressure curve indicates some fraction
of oil-wet porespace. The concept is shown both schematically and for experimental
data in Figure 63.
100
OIL WET
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, PERCENT
WATER WET
CRAIG'S RULES OF THUMBS FOR CETERMINING WETTABILITY
80 Water-Wet Oil-Wet
OIL
Interstitial water saturation Usually greater than Generally less than
WATER 20 to 25% PV. 15% PV.
60
Frequently less
OIL than 100%.
40 Saturation at which oil and water relative Greater than 50% Less than 50% water
permeabilities are equal. water saturation. saturation.
WATER
Relative permeability to water at the Generally less than Greater than 50%
20 maximum water saturation (i.e., 30% and approaching
floodout): based on the effective oil 100%.
permeability at reservoir interstitial water
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 saturation.
WATER SATURATION, PERCENT P.V.
100 100
Relative permeability, % of air permeability
Water-wet
reservoir Oil-wet
Oil reservoir
Oil
60 60
A
20 20
A
Water S wi ter
S wi Wa
0 0
0 40 80 100 0 40 80 100
Water saturation % Water saturation %
In water-wet system: In oil-wet system:
S w mostly > 20% S w < 15%
At point A: kro = k rw ;Sw > 50% At point A: kro = k rw ;Sw < 50%
k rw at S or / k ro at W wi < 30% k rw at S or / k ro at S wi> 50%
10 10 1.0
108
o
UP TO 49 o
1 CORE PERCENT USBN
NO. SILANE WETTABILITY
2 DISPLACED
.9 9
1 0 0.649 PHASES
3 2 0.02 0.176 0.5 o
4
3 .2 -0.222
131
.8 5
8
4 2.0 -1.250
5 10.0 -1.333
138 o
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, FRACTION %
.7 7 AND GREATER
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY TO WATER
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY TO OIL
.6 6 DISPLACING
PHASES
.5 0.10
5
5
.4 4 4
0.05
.3 3 3
.2 2
1 DISPLACING DISPLACED
PHASE PHASE q
.1 1 Heptone, Dodecone
Nitrogen Dioclyl Ether up to 49 o
5
0.01 Nitrogen Water 108 o
74
Petrophysical Input
8
80
CONTACT ANGLE
70 0o WATER-WET
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
WATER INJECTED, PORE VOLUMES
100
70
50
OIL SATURATION. % P.V.
30
20
10
6
1
2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
PORE VOLUMES OF FLOOD WATER
Figure 66
60
50
OHIO SANDSTONE
70
60
50
WATER-WET OIL-WET
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
DISPLACEMENT BY WATER RATIO DISPLACEMENT BY OIL RATIO
0 20 40 60 80 100
WEIGHT - PERCENT OIL - WET SAND
Figure 67
1.0
krw 1/0
0.8 100% WW
75% WW
50% WW
0.6
25% WW
0% WW
Kri
0.4 krw1
kro2/25
krw1/25
0.2 krw2
kro2 Figure 68
Relative permeability
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 curves from mixed-wet
systems: a is the oil-wet
SW
pore fraction
76
Petrophysical Input
8
Donaldson et al (1969) and Emery et al (1970) performed waterflood experiments
using core plugs which had been aged in crude for varying periods of time. Both
studies showed that the more water-wet the rock, the more efficient the displacement.
Conversely, Kennedy et al (1955), Amott (1959) and Salathiel (1973) have all shown
that the most efficient recovery takes place at close to neutral conditions. The precise
wettability details are unclear from study to study however and so some sort of
modelling approach is appropriate to understand the issue more fully. In the next
section, we therefore go on to examine how network modelling techniques may be
applied in this context.
Introduction
The wettability characteristics of a porous medium play a major role in a diverse range
of measurements including: capillary pressure data, relative permeability curves,
electrical conductivity, waterflood recovery efficiency and residual oil saturation.
This section describes the development and implementation of a pore-scale simulator
capable of modelling multiphase flow in porous media of nonuniform wettability.
This has been achieved by explicitly incorporating pore wettability effects into the
steady-state models described earlier.
Results are presented which show how α (the fraction of pores which are assigned oil-
wet characteristics) affects resulting relative permeability curves. These have been
used to calculate waterflood displacement efficiencies for a range of wettability
conditions, and recovery is shown to be maximum at close to neutral conditions.
Moreover, simulated capillary pressure data have demonstrated that standard wettability
tests (such as Amott-Harvey and free imbibition) may give spurious results when the
sample is fractionally-wet in nature (McDougall and Sorbie, 1993a).
Here, attention is restricted to mixed-wet systems. The term “mixed” wettability was
first introduced by Salathiel (1973) to describe systems where the oil-wet pores
correspond to the largest in the sample, the small pores remaining water-wet. Such
situations may arise when oil migrates to water-wet reservoirs and preferentially fills
the larger interstices. The wettability characteristics of these pores may then be altered
by the adsorption of polar compounds and/or the deposition of organic matter from the
original crude, thereby rendering them oil-wet. Fractional wettability, however, is
generally related to the rock matrix itself and is due to the differences in surface
chemistry of the constituent minerals. Because of these variations, crude oil
components may adsorb onto some pore walls whilst ignoring others. This, in effect,
means that fractionally-wet rock contains oil-wet pores of all sizes. Attention here,
however, will be restricted to mixed-wet systems.
Each simulation begins with the network 100% saturated with oil, and water is then
introduced at the inlet face. Each waterflood consists of the following two stages:
(1) Water is first allowed to spontaneously imbibe via film flow but only along
continuous water-wet pathways which have access to the inlet. Accessible
water-wet pores are then assumed to become filled via a “snap-off” mechanism,
whereby the smallest pores are filled first followed by the next smallest and so
on. The defending oil phase can escape from a pore by draining along a pathway
of oil-filled pores which connect it to the outlet.
(2) Once spontaneous imbibition has ceased, the invading water is over-pressured
(i.e. a negative capillary pressure is applied) and now acts as a nonwetting fluid.
The displacement is modelled using an invasion percolation process, and the
water next fills the largest oil-wet pores connected to either the inlet face of the
network or the invading water cluster. If, at any time during the forced
imbibition, water-wet pores are contacted by the invading cluster, then they are
filled spontaneously if the defending oil can escape. Throughout forced
imbibition, oil may escape in two different ways: either
(a) by draining along a pathway of oil-filled pores which connect it to the outlet,
or
(b) by draining via film flow along a pathway of oil-wet pores to the outlet.
Clustering algorithms (following Hoshen and Kopelman, 1976) have been developed
which permit the labelling of both oil clusters and water clusters as well as clusters of
oil-wet and water-wet pores. Note that the fluid clusters are a dynamic phenomenon,
whilst the “wettability clusters” remain static during a given process.
The relative permeability curves from mixed-wet networks, computed for a variety of
α values, are shown in Figure 68. It is apparent that the oil curve loses curvature and
the water curve gains curvature as the oil-wet pore fraction increases. Furthermore, the
crossover point does not steadily move towards lower water saturations (as is often
supposed). For a between 0 and 0.5, it actually shifts to higher saturations; only when
α> 0.5 does it begin to moves back towards lower values.
The precise structure of relative permeability curves plays a vital role in determining
reservoir performance and efficiency. The results described above show that
experiments performed on unrepresentative core samples may yield inaccurate curves
and subsequently lead to incorrect field predictions. The precise effect of reservoir
wettability on waterflood performance is now examined in more detail.
78
Petrophysical Input
8
support the conclusion that optimum recovery occurs at some intermediate wettability
state. Indeed, comparisons with a laboratory study on wettability effects (Figure 70)
are extremely encouraging: the simple rule-based simulator implemented here
reproduces the experimental observations very satisfactorily.
0.8
20PV
Recovery Efficiency
0.7
3PV
0.6
BT
Figure 69 0.5
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Recovery efficiency vs %
water-wet pores using a % Water-Wet Pores
mixed-wet simulator
0.8
0.7
Recovery Efficiency
0.6
20PV
0.5
3PV
0.4
BT
Figure 70 0.3
-1.0 -0.6 -0.2 0.2 0.6 1.0
Experimental observations
from Jadhunandan and Amott-Harvey Wettability Index
Morrow (1991)
Current Research
Recent development work in the Institute of Petroleum Engineering at Heriot-Watt
University has focussed upon on a new PC-based Visual C++ mixed-wet simulator.
The advantages of the Visual C++ approach are twofold: (i) PC-based material is far
more accessible to the general user than raw Unix-based research code, and (ii) C++
facilitates the creation of dynamic arrays that can be created “on the heap” and deleted
at the end of function calls — this utilises memory far more efficiently, leading to the
possibility of producing far larger networks than before.
The latest version of the mixed-wet simulator (MixWet) is now fully-functional
(Appendix C) and a large number of new features are available. The full cycle of
primary drainage — aging — water imbibition — water drainage — oil imbibition
— oil drainage are all included. Aging after primary drainage is controlled via the
7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
80
Petrophysical Input
8
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Petrophysical Input
8
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Petrophysical Input
8
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86
Petrophysical Input
8
8 APPENDIX A: SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
A1Sphere Packings
Sphere packings are very useful for qualitative understanding of pore shape and can
also give some insight into porosity measurements. Examples are shown in Figure
A.1 — the cubic packing gives the largest porosity (47.6%) whilst the rhombohedral
packing gives the smallest (26%). Let us analyse a simple packing in more detail.
A2Specific Surface
An important measure characterising the grain surface of a porous medium is known
as the specific surface. This plays an important role in the adsorption capacity of a
sample and affects a number of petrophysical measures, including electrical resistivity,
initial water saturation, and absolute permeability. There are two definitions of
specific surface;
(i) The surface area of the pores per unit volume of solids (Ss), and;
(ii) The surface area of the pores per unit bulk volume (Sv). Mathematical relationships
for (i) and (ii) can be derived by noting that the surface area of a sphere is 4πR2.
For this idealized system, we find that Ss=3/R and Sv=π/2R — hence, the specific
surface of a porous medium is inversely proportional to the (mean) grain size.
88
Petrophysical Input
8
σ S1 − σ S2 = σ12 cos θ
where σS1 represents the solid/fluid 1 surface free energy, σS2 the solid/fluid 2 surface
free energy, and σ12 the fluid-fluid interfacial tension. The value of the contact angle
may lie anywhere from 0o to 180o, and is strongly dependent upon the fluid pair and
surface material involved (Figure A4). If θ=90o, then σs1=σs2 and neither fluid is
wetting; the system is then described as neutral.
σ12
σs1 - σ s2= σ12 cos θ
σs1 θ σs2
Figure A3
θ = 158º
θ = 35º
θ = 30º
θ = 30º
Water
Water
Silica Surface
Isooctane
Isooctane + Isoquinoline Naphthenic
5.7% Isoquinoline Acid
θ = 54º θ = 106º
θ = 30º θ = 48º
Water
Water
Calcite Surface
Figure A4
A7Spreading Phenomena
Consideration of the trigonometric term in Young’s equation shows that mechanical
equilibrium between two fluids and a solid surface is only possible if:
σ S1 − σ S2 < σ12
i.e. cosθ
must always be <1. If this condition is violated, however, the system is unstable and
the wetting phase will spontaneously spread on the solid. Although quantification of
this “spreadability” in fluid/solid systems is not possible at present (there is no current
technique available for measuring either σS1 or σS2), this is not a problem if the solid
is replaced by a third fluid or a gas.
So = σ wa − (σ ow + σ oa )
and so initial spreading occurs if this coefficient is either zero or positive. It is evident
from the above discussion that the spreading characteristics of oil/water/gas systems
must have serious implications for a wide range of hydrocarbon recovery processes.
The effect of the spreading coefficient upon three-phase displacements is dealt with
more fully in the notes.
A8Capillarity
Consider the situation where a liquid is in contact with a glass capillary tube. If the
adhesive forces of the liquid to the glass are greater than the cohesive forces in the
liquid, then the interface will curve upwards towards the tube, forming a meniscus
which intersects the tube wall at an angle θ (Figure A5). The fact that the meniscus
is curved, means that there is now a non-zero vertical component of surface tension,
which acts to pull liquid up the capillary. This continues, until the vertical component
of surface tension is exactly balanced by the weight of fluid below, i.e. when:
σWA
2R Figure A5
where h is the height of the liquid column, R the capillary radius, and r the density of
the fluid. Although the application of this simplistic example to flow in porous media
may not be immediately obvious, it should serve to demonstrate how surface and
interfacial tension forces can play a crucial role in determining fluid distributions at
the pore scale. The full implications of capillary phenomena are apparent in the notes.
90
Petrophysical Input
8
9 APPENDIX B: MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND AND
DERIVATIONS
Consider the system shown in Figure 1a, which consists of n capillary tubes per unit
cross-sectional area. The length of the system is taken to be L. The flow through a
single cylindrical capillary of radius R is given by Poiseuille’s law:
πR 4 ∆P
q=
8µL
where µ is the fluid viscosity and ∆P the pressure drop across the tubes. Hence, the
total flow (Q) through the porous medium is:
nπR 4 ∆P
Q = nq =
8µL
Now, the porosity (φ) of the medium is nπR2L/(AL)= nπR2 (as cross-sectional area
A=1). Hence,
φR 2 ∆P
Q=
8µL
R2 D2
k=φ =φ
8 32
An interesting aspect of this simple result is that the quantity (k/φ)1/2 can be thought
of as a sort of average pore diameter.
B2 Carman-Kozeny Equation
The basic premise of this modelling approach is that particle transit times in the actual
porous medium and the equivalent tortuous rough conduit must be the same. Particle
velocity in a rough conduit (vt) is given by the equation:
R 2 ∆P
vt =
2µL t
where Lt is the conduit length and particle velocity through the porous medium (vr)
is given by:
For travel times to be the same in both systems, we require Lt/vt=Lr/vr, and this leads
to the relationship:
R 2H
k=φ
2T 2
where T is called the tortuosity of the sample (Lt/Lr). We now need to determine a
hydraulic radius. The theory utilises established hydraulic practice, in that the
“equivalent” conduit is assumed to have a radius, RH which takes the form:
Volume of pores φ
RH = =
Surface area of pores (1 − φ)Ss
φ3
k=
2 T 2 (1 − φ)2 Ss2
The permeability can be written In terms of an average grain diameter (Dp) by noting
that, for spherical particles, Ss=6/Dp. Hence,
Lr
Lt
T=
Lr
Figure B1
Lt Carman-Kozeny details
R 2 ∆P k∆P
vt = ur =
2µL t µLr
What do we take for R H ?
ur = vr φ vr =
k∆P Volume of pores φ
RH = =
Surface area of pores (1 - φ)Ss
µL rφ
=>
φ3
k=
L t Lr Rφ 2
2(1- φ)2 T 2 Ss2
= => k=
vt vr 2T 2
92
Petrophysical Input
8
D
B P
ρ
ρ
A
C δl
σδl
R2
R1
Figure B2 φ
Generalised Derivation of
Capillary Pressure Across
a Curved Interface N
a L b L
q2 r2
r2
qw
r1
Figure B3 q1
r1
Pore Doublet Details
S = S wt
kwt ∫
= krwt = S =1
s=0
dS/ (Pc ) 2
k
∫dS/ (P ) 2
s=0
c
S =1 Figure B5
knwt ∫s = s wt
= krnwt = S =1
dS/ (Pc ) 2 Purcell Extension to
Relative Permeability
k
∫ dS/ (P ) 2
s=0
c
Prediction
94
Petrophysical Input
8
S = Sw S =1
dS dS
∫
2 S = 0 Pc
2 ∫
2 S = Sw Pc
2
k rw (Sw ) = ( λ w (Sw )) S =1 k rnw (Sw ) = ( λ nw (Sw )) S =1
dS dS
∫S= 0 Pc2 ∫S= 0 Pc2
(4) Coordination Number (Z): the average number of pore elements meeting
at a node
(6) Fraction of oil-wet pores: this refers to the fraction of the total number of
pores in the network that become oil-wet after primary drainage
(6a) Theta button —used to read in water-wet and oil-wet contact angle ranges
(7)-(8) The mixed-wet and fractionally-wet radio buttons are mutually exclusive.
Mixed-wet assigns oil-wet characteristics to a fraction of the largest pores
containing oil after primary drainage. Fractionally-wet assigns oil-wet
characteristics to a size-independent fraction of the pores containing oil
after primary drainage
(9) Primary drainage (PD) checkbox: oil displaces water from a 100% water-
wet network. This can also be used to examine other generic 2-phase
incompressible drainage displacements (e.g. gas-oil drainage). Successively
higher (positive) capillary pressures are applied to the system and this
drives the displacement
(10) Water imbibition (WI) checkbox: water imbibes along water-wet pathways
in the system and snaps-off in the smallest oil-filled pores. Aging will
already have taken place before this part of the cycle. The displacement is
controlled by reducing the pressure in the oil phase (i.e. successively lower
(positive) capillary pressures are applied to the system
(12) Oil imbibition (OI) checkbox: oil imbibes along oil-wet pathways, snapping-
off the smallest water-filled pores. This is driven by a gradual reduction in
water pressure and this drives the oil imbibition
(13) Oil drive (OD) checkbox: oil pressure is increased once again and oil is
forced into water-wet pores
(14) Random number seed — changing this value produces a new network
realisation with the same average properties as others that use the same
96
Petrophysical Input
8
(15) PSD refers to the pore-size distribution exponent (n), where f(r)~rn. n=0
refers to a Uniform distribution, n=3 gives a Cubic distribution, etc. For a
Log-Uniform distribution, this parameter should be set to n=–0.999 (not
n=–1, as this leads to a singularity). N=10 gives a truncated normal
distribution
(20) Graphics Options: these radio buttons allow the user to view different
aspects of the simulation
(21) Calculate Kri — 2-phase relative permeabilities are calculated when this
checkbox is checked. An SOR algorithm is used to solve the pressure field
and elemental flows can be subsequently calculated
(22) Mercury? — this checkbox is used to allow invasion of mercury from all
sides of the network instead of unidirectional flooding
(23) Water Films? — if this is checked, then water will leave the system through
thin films. This, in effect, leads to no trapping of the water phase during oil
invasion in a 100% water-wet network. This option is checked when
simulating mercury injection, as the intrusion in this case is essentially
mercury-vacuum
(24) Oil Films? — if this is checked, then oil will leave the system through thin
films. This, in effect, leads to no trapping of the oil phase during water
imbibition in a 100% oil-wet network
The main output file contains information regarding nonwetting phase saturation
(Snw) (oil or gas), wetting phase relative permeability (krw) (water or oil), nonwetting
phase relative permeability (krnw) (oil or gas), current capillary entry radius (R),
number fraction of pores filled with nonwetting phase (p).
1
2
3
4
5
6
6a 7
8
20
26
9 15
10
16
11 27
12 17
13 25
18 21 23 Figure 78
Annotated interface (see
14 19 22 24
text for details of
functions)
98
Glossary of Terms
CONTENTS
This glossary is intended for use by the reader as a quick reference to terms used
commonly in reservoir engineering in general and in reservoir simulation in particular.
The student is not expected to work through this from begining to end in a systematic
manner. However, the students should make sure that he or she is quite familiar with
all the technical terms that appear in the main text of this unit. It is hoped that this is
of particular use for distance learning students who may have studied the reservoir
engineering distance leasrning unit some time ago but hopefully it will also be of
use to our residential students.
A stock tank barrel (STB) is the same volume defined at some surface standard
conditions (in the stock tank) which are usually 60oF and 14.7 psi.
A reservoir barrel (RB) is the same volume defined at reservoir conditions which
can range from ~ 90oF and 1500 psi for shallow reservoirs to > 350oF and 15,000 psi
for very deep (high temperature - high pressure, HTHP) reservoirs. Note that when
1RB of oil is produced it gives a volume generally less than 1B at the surface since
it loses its gas. (See formation volume factor.)
Oil Types: Dry gas; Wet gas; Gas Condensate; Volatile oil; “Black” oil; Heavy
(viscous) oil; Tar - see Tables 1 and 2 below.
4000
Bubble Point Dew Point Single Phase
Cricondentherm = 250 ºF
or or Gas Reservoirs
Dissolved Gas Retrograde A
Reservoirs Gas-Condensate
3500 Reservoirs
= 127 ºF
F
B
on
oducti
Critical
Tc
3000 C Point
of Pr
B1
De
Reservoir Pressure, PSIA
C1 w
Po
Path
t
o in i
2500
eP
nt
l
Path of Reservoir Fluid
B2
bb 80%
Flui
Bu
D
2000
40%
20%
1500
e 10%
m
olu
u i dV 5%
1000 Liq A1
0%
Figure 1 A2 B3
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+
Wet gas Colourless gas - >100 Mscf/bbl 60o -70o 96 2.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.4
some clear or
straw-coloured
liquid
Condensate Colourless gas - 3-100 50o-70o 87 4.4 2.3 1.7 0.8 3.8
significant amounts Mscf/bbl
of light coloured (900-18000 m3/m3)
liquid
“Volatile” or Brown liquid - "3000 40o-50o 64 7.5 4.7 4.1 3.0 16.7
high shrinkage various yellow, red, scf/bbl
oil or green hues (500 m3/m3)
“Black” or Dark brown 100- 2500 30o-40o 49 2.8 1.9 1.6 1.2 43.5
low shrinkage to black viscous scf/bbl
oil liquid (20 - 450 m3/m3)
Heavy oil Black viscous liquid Almost no gas 10o-25o 20 3.0 2.0 2.0 12.0 71
in solution
Table 1
o
Tar Black substance No gas < 10 - - - - - 90+
viscosity > Describing various oil types
10,000cp
from dry gas to tar
4
Glossary of Terms
Inter Facial Tension (IFT): The IFT between two phases is a measure of energy
required to create a certain area of the interface. Indeed, the IFT is given in dimensions
which are energy per unit area. The symbol for IFT is σ and units are dyne/cm in
c.g.s. units and N/m (newtons per m) in S.I. units. For example, if both gas and oil are
present in a reservoir then the gas/oil IFT may be in the range, σgo ~ 0.1-10 mN/m;
likewise. The oil/water value may be in the range, σ0w ~ 15 - 40 mN/m. Note that
numerically 1mN/m = 1dyne/cm.
Component: A single chemical species that may be present in a phase; e.g. in the
aqueous phase there are many components - water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl),
dissolved oxygen (O2) etc.; in the oil phase there can be hundreds or even thousands
of components - hydrocarbons based on C1, C2, C3, etc. Some of these oil components
are shown in Table 2.
Formation Volume Factor: The factor describing the ratio of volume of a phase
(e.g. oil, water) in the “formation” (i.e. reservoir at high temperature and pressure)
to that at the surface; symbols Bw, Bo etc. For oil, a typical range for Bo is ~1.1 - 1.3
since, at reservoir conditions, it often contains large amounts of dissolved gas which
is released at surface as the pressure drops and the oil shrinks; oilfield units [reservoir
barrels/stock tank barrel (RB/STB)].
Gas Solubility Factors (or Solution Gas/Oil Ratios): These factors describe the
volume of gas (usually in standard cubic feet, SCF) per volume of oil (usually stock
tank barrel, STB); symbol, Rso and Rsw; units SCF/STB.
Compressibility: The compressibility (c) of a fluid (oil, gas, water) or rock formation
can be defined in terms of the volume (V) change or density (ρ) change with pressure
as follows:
1 ∂V 1 ∂ρ
c = − =
V ∂P ρ ∂P
Typical ranges of compressibilities are presented below (from Craft & Hawkins
(Terry revision), 1991):
Formation rock 3 - 10
Water 2 - 4
Undersaturated Oil 5 - 100
Gas at 1000psi 900 - 1300
Gas at 5000psi 50 - 200
Essentially the material balance equations described how the energy of expansion
and influx “drive” production in the reservoir. If there is a sufficiently low (or zero)
fluid influx, the reservoir pressure will decline. One form of the Material Balance
Equation is given below where each term on the left-hand side described a mechanism
of fluid production (from Craft & Hawkins (Terry revision), 1991):
N .m. Bti c .S + c f
N .( Bt − Bti ) + N . Bti . w wi
.( Bg − Bgi ) + (1 + m). N. .∆pp + We
Bgi 1 − Swi
[ ]
= N p . Bt + ( Rp − Rsoi ). Bg + Bw .Wp
6
Glossary of Terms
In practice the material balance equation is often applied in the “linear form” of
Havlena and Odeh (J. Pet. Tech., pp896-900, Aug. 1963; ibid, pp815-822, July 1964);
see discussion in Craft & Hawkins (Terry revision, 1991).
In the above formulation of the Material Balance Equation, the various terms have
the following interpretation.
• The following terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones
that may be present in the reservoir:
N.m.Bti
N .(Bt − Bttii ) + .(Bg − Bgi )
Bgi
• The following term accounts for the change in void space volume which is
the expansion of the formation and the connate water:
c .S + c f
). N . Bti . w wi
(1 + m). .∆pp
1 − Swi
• The next term is the amount of water influx that has occurred into the
reservoir:
We
• The first term of the RHS represents the production of oil and gas:
[
= N p . Bt + ( Rp − Rsoi ). Bg ]
• The second term of the RHS represents the production of water:
Bw.Wp
Pores & pore throats: The tiny connected passages that exist in permeable rocks;
typically of size 1μm to 200 μm; they are easily visible in s.e.m. (scanning electron
microscopy). Pores may be lined by diagenetic minerals e.g. clays. The narrower
constrictions between pore bodies are referred to as Pore Throats. See Figure 2:
quartz
quartz
10mm
~1mm Figure 2
Permeability: The fluid (or gas) conducting capacity of a rock is known as the
permeability; symbol k ; units Darcy (D) or milliDarcy (mD); dimensions -> [L]2.
Permeability is found experimentally using Darcy's Law (see below). Permeability
can be anisotropic and show tensor properties (see below) - denoted k . Probably
the most important quantity from the point of view of the reservoir engineer since
its distribution dictates connectivity and fluid flow in a reservoir. Timmerman (p. 83,
Vol. 1, Practical Reservoir Engineering, 1982) presents the rule:
k/φ Correlations: It has been found in many systems that there is a relationship
between permeability, k, and porosity, φ. This is not always the case and much scatter
can be seen in a k/φ crossplot. Broadly, higher permeability rocks have a higher
porosity and some of the relationships reported in the literature are shown below.
Some examples of k/φ correlations which have appeared in the literature are shown
in Figure 3:
8
Glossary of Terms
100.0
100.0
50.0
50.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
5.0
Permeabilty
Permeabilty (md)
(md)
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
Core
Core
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
Figure 3
Permeability/Porosity 0.01
0.01
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Correlation for Cores from 6 8 10 12 14 16
Core Porosity (%)
18 20 22
Core Porosity (%)
the Bradford Sandstone
10,000
10,000
1,000
1,000
Permeabilty
Permeabilty (md)
(md)
100
100
Core
Core
10
10
Figure 4
Permeability/Porosity 1
10 10 20 30
Correlation for Cores from 0 10 20
Core Porosity (%)
30
Core Porosity (%)
the Brent Field
Darcy’s Law: Originally a law for single phase flow that relates the total volumetric
flow rate (Q) of a fluid through a porous medium to the pressure gradient (∂P/∂x) and
the properties of the fluid (μ = viscosity) and the porous medium (k = permeability;
A = cross-sectional area): Note that Darcy's law can be used to define permeability
using the quantities defined in Figure 5 as follows:
Darcy Velocity: This is the velocity, u, calculated as, u = Q/A; this may be expressed
as,
Q k ∂P
u= = −
A µ ∂x
Q u
v= =
A.φ φ
∆P
Q Q
Figure 5
∆
k.A ∆P
Q = β. . Schematic of the Single
µ L
Phase Darcy Law
At the small (core plug) scale, anisotropy may come from fabric anisotropy at the
grain level or from lamination at the slightly larger scale (laminaset scale). At the
larger scale (grid block), the anisotropy may arise from larger scale heterogeneity,
even though locally the component rock facies are completely isotropic. This is
illustrated in Figure 6.
10
Glossary of Terms
Core Plug
Small Scale
kh Fabric Anistropy
kv
Lamination
Residual Saturation: The residual saturation of a phase is the amount of that phase
(fraction pore space) that is trapped or is irreducible; e.g. after many pore volumes of
water displace oil from a rock, we reach residual oil saturation, Sor; the corresponding
connate (irreducible) water level is Swc (or Swi); the related trapped gas saturation is
Srg; at the residual or trapped phase saturation the corresponding relative permeability
(see below) of that phase is zero. Strictly, we should refer to the phases in terms of
wetting and non-wetting phases - the residual phase of non-wetting phase is trapped
in the pores by capillary forces. Typically, in a moderately water wet sandstone, Sor
~ 0.2 - 0.35. The amount of trapped or residual phase depends on the permeability
and wettability of the rock and a large amount of industry data is available on this
quantity: For example, the relationship for k vs. Swc (or Swi) is shown for a range of
reservoir formations, Figure 7.
5,000 1
1,000
3 2
500
Air Permeability (mD)
12
13 8
100 10
9
50 7
11
10
11A
5
5 4 6
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Connate water
A schematic of the Two Phase Darcy Law showing the definition of Relative
Permeability is presented in Figure 8.
At steady-state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo and Qw,
are the same:
12
Glossary of Terms
At steady-state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo and Qw
are the same
∆Po
∆Pw
Qw Qw
Qo Qo
L
Several further examples of relative permeabilities and capillary pressure are given
later in this glossary. Note that the Units for the two-phase Darcy Law are given in
Figure 2, Chapter 2.
Pc krel
kro Figure 9
Schematics of capillary
krw
pressure and relative
Sw Sw permeability for a water-wet
system
Mobility and Mobility Ratio: the mobility of a phase (e.g. λw or λo) is defined as
the effective permeability of that phase (e.g. kw = k . krw ; ko = k . kro) divided by the
viscosity of that phase;
k.k rw k.k ro
λw = ; λo =
µw µo
λ o k ro .µ w
M= =
λ w k rw .µ o
Fractional Flow: The Fractional Flow of a phase is the volumetric flow rate of
the phase under a given pressure gradient, in the presence of another phase. The
symbols for water and oil fractional flow are fw and fo and they depend on the phase
saturation, Sw:
Qw Q
fw = ; fo = o ;;where Q T = Q o + Q w
QT QT
The fractional flows play a central part in Buckley-Leverett (B-L) theory of linear
displacement which starts from the conservation equation:
∂Sw ∂f ∂So ∂f
= − w ; = − o
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
∂f
vSw = v. w
∂Sw
14
Glossary of Terms
where v is the fluid velocity, v = Q/(Aφ)) and (dfw/dSw) is the slope of the fractional
flow curve. The relationship between the fractional flow and Buckley Leverett theory
is illustrated in Figure 10.
Oil-Wet: Oil-wet formation: Where oil is the preferential wetting phase. Oil occupies
the smaller pores and forms a film over all of the rock surface - even in the pores
containing water. A Waterflood in such a system would be a drainage process (see
below). Oil would spontaneously imbibe into an oil-wet core containing mobile
water at Swr, displacing the water.
Water Injection
Q Water Wet Core
w
at sor
Water Injection Water Wet Core
Figure 12
Qw at sor
Imbibtion
Water Injection Water Wet Core
Spontaneous Imbibition: This process occurs
at sorwhen a wetting phase invades a porous
medium in the absence of any external driving force. The wetting fluid is “sucked
in” under the influence of the surface forces. For example, if we have a water wet
core at irreducible water saturation, Swr, then water may spontaneously imbibe and
displace the oil as shown in Figure 13.
Oil
The observed behaviour in a system of Intermediate Wettability is shown in Figure 14
Oil
where we s both phases can spontaneously imbibe under certain conditions.
seeatthat
Core wc
Water imbibes into
Core at swc core displacing
Oil Water imbibes
Water oil-water wet or into
core displacing
intermediate wet
Water oil-water wet or
system
Core at swc
intermediate
Water imbibeswet
into
system
core displacing
Water oil-water wet or
intermediate wet Figure 13
system Spontaneous Imbibition
Figure 14
Intermediate wettability.
Both water and oil may
Core at swc Oil Core at sor spontaneously imbibe
into the core displacing
the other phase. Shows
Water both water wet and oil wet
character
Primary drainage: is oil --> water from a core at 100% water saturation to Swr.
Secondary imbibition: is water --> oil from a core at Swr and mobile oil to Sor.
Pc krel d
Drainage
kro
d
i krw
Figure 15 Imbibition
i
Drainage and imbibition
Sw Sw
capillary pressures
100
80
Relative Permeability, %
60
Drainage
40
Imbibition
20
Figure 16
Drainage and imbibition 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
relative permeability char- Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV
acteristics
80
Fraction
80
60
Permeability,
60
OilOil
Permeability,
40
40
Relative
20
Relative
20
Water Figure 17
0 Water
00 20 40 60 80 100
0 20Water 40 60 %PV
Saturation, 80 100 Typical water-oil relative
Water Saturation, %PV
permeability characteristics,
strongly water-wet rock
1.0
1.0
O O
il il
0.1
Fraction
0.1
Fraction
Permeability,
Permeability,
0.01
0.01
WaWtearter
Relative
Relative
0.001
0.001
Figure 18
0.0001
0.0001 0 20 40 60 80 100 Typical water-oil relative
0 20 Saturation,
Water 40 60 %PV80 100
Water Saturation, %PV permeability characteristics,
strongly water-wet rock
100
Relative Permeability, Fraction
80
60
Oil
r
te
40
Wa
20
Figure 19
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Typical water-oil relative
Water Saturation, %PV permeability characteristics,
strongly oil-wet rock
1.0
18 O
il
Glossary of Terms
1.0
O
il
0.1
r
Wate
0.01
0.001
Figure 20
0.0001
Typical water-oil relative 0 20 40 60 80 100
permeability characteristics, Water Saturation, %PV
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
32 32
24 24
16 16
2 1
1
8 8
2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation - % Oil Saturation - %
Intermediate Wet
20 32
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
16 24
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
12 16
1
8 8 2
4 0
0 -8
0 20 40 60 80 100 3
Water Saturation - %
-16
Capillary Pressure Characteristics,
(After Ref. 30)
-24
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation - %
20
Glossary of Terms
100 100
80
60
Oil
60
Oil
rte
40 40
Wa
20 20
Water 0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation, %PV Water Saturation, %PV
1.0 1.0
O
il
O
il
0.1
Relative Permeability, Fraction
0.1
Relative Permeability, Fraction
r
Wate
0.01 0.01
Water
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.0001
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation, %PV Water Saturation, %PV
Sw where
krw = kro Sw > 50% Sw < 50%
(Points A on Figure 23)
100 100
Water-Wet Oil-Wet
Reservoir Reservoir
80 80
Oil
Relative Permeability,
% of Air Permeability
Oil
B
60 60
40 40
A
20 20
Swi A B Swi r
Wate
r te
Wa
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation, % Water Saturation, %
22
Glossary of Terms
Waterflood Pattern: On-land Waterflooding is often carried out with the producers
and injectors in a particular pattern. This is known as pattern flooding and examples
of such patterns are: Five Spot, Nine Spot, Line Drive etc. as shown schematically
in Figure 24.
Injection Well
Production Well
Pattern Boundary
Figure 24
Examples of areal patterns
of injectors and producers
(pattern flooding) Direct Line Drive Staggered Line Drive
Areal Sweep Efficiency: The Areal Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of areal
reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume throughput of displacing fluid as shown
schematically in Figure 25. For example, the Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough
for various processes (Waterflooding, Gas Displacement and Miscible flooding) is
shown as a function of mobility ratio in Figure 26:
100
Breakthrough Areal Sweep
90
100
Efficiency, %
Breakthrough Areal Sweep
80
90
70
Efficiency, %
80
60
Figure 26
70 Areal sweep efficiency at
50
0.1 1.0 10.0
Mobility Ratio
breakthrough in a five
Water→Oil
60 Gas→Oil spot pattern for various
Miscible
displacement processes
50
0.1 1.0 10.0
Water→Oil
Mobility Ratio
Vertical Sweep Effi ciency: The Vertical Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of
Gas→Oil
vertical section (orMiscible
cross-section) of reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume
throughput of displacing fluid. This is function of the heterogeneity of the system
(e.g. stratification), the fluid displacement process (e.g. waterflooding, gas injection)
and the balance of forces (e.g. importance of gravity). It is shown schematically in
Figure 27.
24
Glossary of Terms
Figure 27
Schematic showing vertical Poor Vertical Sweep
(By gravity over-ride or the presence
sweep efficiency of a high-k streak in this case)
Black Oil Model: Different types of formulation of the transport equations for
multiphase/multicomponent flow are used to simulate the various recovery processes;
by far the most common is the “Black Oil Model” which can simulate primary
depletion and most secondary recovery processes. A black oil simulation model is
one of the most common approaches to modelling immiscible two and three phase
(o, w, g) flow processes in porous media; it treats the phases rather like components;
it does not model full compositional effects; instead, it allows the gas to dissolve
in the other two phases (described by Rso and Rsw); however, no “oil” is allowed to
enter the gas phase.
Grid Structure: This refers to the geometry of the grid being used in the numerical
simulation of the system. This grid may be Cartesian, radial or distorted and may be
1D, 2D or 3D (see notes).
Spatial Discretisation: This is the process of dividing the grid in space into divisions
of Δx, Δy and Δz. In reservoir simulation, we always “chop up” the reservoir into
blocks as shown in the gridded examples below and then we model the block →
block flows.
y
W2
W1 x W3
∆z
∆x
Figure 28
∆y Perspective view of a
2D areal (x/y) reservoir
Just 1 x z-block in 2D Areal Grid simulation grid: W = well
Figure 29
3D Cartesian Grid
The 3D Cartesian Grid is the most commonly used grid when constructing a relatively
simple model of a reservoir or a setion of a reservoir. This is shown in Figure 30.
26
Glossary of Terms
Producer
∆y
Water Injector
∆x
Figure 30
A 3D Cartesian grid for
∆z
reservoir simulation
(Variable)
(i+1/2) Boundary
Block i Block i+1
Sw i Qw Sw i+1
Q w = ( kA
k
kA )i +1/ 2 rw
(P − Pi )
. i +1
µ w Bw i +1/ 2 ∆x
where the inter-grid block quantities are averages at the interfaces (where i+1/2 denotes
this block to block interface. The single phase Transmissibility,, Ti+1/2 , is given by:
( kA)i +1/ 2
Ti +1/ 2 =
∆x
and the full Water Transmissibility,, Tw,i+1/2, between the two grid blocks is given
by:
( kA)i +1/ 2 k rw k
Tw, i +1/ 2 = = Ti +1/ 2 . rw
∆x µ w Bw i +1/ 2 µ w Bw i +1/ 2
Qw = Tw, i +1/ 2 ( Pi +1 − Pi )
(k.A)av - a Harmonic Average between blocks is taken for the single phase part of
the transmissibility (see Chapter 4; Section 3.2).
[krw/(μw.Bw)]av - this term is more complicated. For the average relative permeability
term, [krw]av an Upstream Weighting is used; For [(μw.Bw)]av the Arithmetic Average
between blocks is taken. (See Chapter 4; Section 3.3).
Grid Orientation: The Grid Orientation problem arises when we have fluid flow
both oriented with the principal grid direction and diagonally across this grid as
shown schematically in Figure 32. Numerical results are different for each of the
fluid “paths” through the grid structure. This problem arises mainly due to the use of
5-point difference schemes (in 2D) in the Spatial Discretisation. It may be alleviated
by using more sophisticated numerical schemes such as 9-point schemes (in 2D).
I P
Figure 32
P Flow arrows show the fluid
paths in oriented grid and
I = Injector diagonal flow leading to
P = Producer
grid orientation errors
Local Grid Refinement: Local Grid Refinement is when the simulation grid is
made fine in a region of the reservoir where (LGR) quantities (such as pressure or
saturations) are changing rapidly. The idea is to increase the accuracy of the simulation
in the region where it matters, rather than everywhere in the reservoir. E.g. LGR ==>
close to wells or in the flood pilot area but coarser grid in the aquifer.
28
Glossary of Terms
Hybrid Grid LGR: Hybrid Grids are mixed geometry combinations of grids which
are used to improve the modelling of flows in different regions. The most common
use of hybrid grids are Cartesian/Radial combinations where the radial grid is used
near a well. Hybrid Grid LGR can be used in a similar way to other LGR scheme.
Examples: A simple example of LGR and Hybrid Grid structure is shown in figure
33.
Injector
Coarse Grid
Producer
in Aquifer
Figure 33
Schematic of local grid Hybrid Grid
refinement (LGR)
Distorted Grids: A Distorted Grid is a grid structure that is “bent” to more closely
follow the flow lines or the system geometry in a particular case.
Corner Point Geometry: In some simulators (e.g. Eclipse), the option exists to
enter the geometry of the vertices of the grid blocks. This allows the user to define
complex geometries which better match the system shape. This option is known as
Corner Point Geometry and it requires that the block → block transmissibilities are
modified accordingly.
Coordinates of
Vertices ( ) Specified
Block ( ) centres
Fault L1
L2
L1 L3
L2
L4
L3
L4
Figure 34
Grid structures for Faults
Distorted Grid and Distorted Grids
30
Glossary of Terms
1 Extented Refinement
Figure 35
Types of local Grids
(a)
1.0
3600
3400 Calculated
0.8 3200 Field Data
Final Match 3000
2800
Pressure (psi)
0.6
2600
Watercut
2400
0.4
2200
2000
First Trial 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.2
Year
Observed Data (b)
0.0 3600
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 3400 Calculated
Time, Days x 10
3200 Field Data
3000
2800
Pressure (psi)
2600
2400
2200
2000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 36
Year
A field of a history match
of watercut and well
Final Pressure Matches of Typical Khursaniyah Field Wells:
(a) Reservoir AB pressures; redraw from
(b) Reservoir C
(c) Reservoir D (MP) Mattax and Dalton (1990)
32
Glossary of Terms
∂S (Si − Si −1 )
≈
∂x i ∆x
Si-1
Slope = ∂s
∂x
i
Si
S(x,t)
Si+1
∆x ∆x ∆xx ....
i-1 i i+1
x
Figure 37
Linear Equations: When finite difference methods are applied to the differential
equations of reservoir simulation, a set of linear equations results. These have the
form:
A. x = b
............
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + an3 x3 .... + ann xn = bn
Direct Solution Of Linear Equations: A Direct Solution method is when the linear
equations are solved by an algorithm which has a fixed number of operations (given
N, the number of linear equations [unknowns]). If the equations have a solution,
then, in principle, a direct method will give the exact answer, x(true), to the machine
accuracy. E.g. Gaussian Elimination
where Tol. is some small pre-specified tolerance. E.g. Line Successive Over-relaxation
(LSOR)
Grid Ordering Schemes: When the simulation grid blocks are ordered in various
ways, the structure of the non-zeros in the sparse matrix, A, is different. Advantage
can be taken of the precise structure when solving these equations. E.g. Schemes
known as D2 and D4 ordering.
34
Glossary of Terms
Low Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
Oil Recovery
% OOIP
Figure 38
Time
Basic idea of upscaling
krel
Low Sw
Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Pseudo-Relative
Permeabilities
krel
Sw
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
Oil Recovery
% OOIP
Figure 39
Basic idea of upscaling or
Time
pseudo-isation
36
Glossary of Terms
Stylolites: Stylolites are frequently found in limestones. They are laterally extensive
features formed by grain-to-grain sutured contact caused by the phenomenon of
pressure solution. These features may significantly reduce vertical permeability thus
causing systems containing them to have very low (kv/kh) ratios (at certain scales).
Dual Porosity Models: These are the most widely used simulation models for
modelling flow in fractured systems. They have separate conservation/flow equations
for the matrix and the fractures and matrix → fracture flow is represented by Transfer
Functions. They are most frequently used to model multiphase flow in fractured
carbonates.
Variants of this model allow for; (i) flow only in fractures and (ii) flow in both
fractures and matrix.
Transfer Function: The function which describes the oil flow rate between the matrix
and the fractures is known as the Transfer Function. Approximate analytical equations
for this function have been suggested by Birk, Boxerman and Ahronovsky.
Sudation: When oil is recovered from the matrix blocks in a fracture by a combination
of gravity and capillary forces, the recovery mechanism is sometimes referred to as
Sudation.
A: the pressure gradients in a particular direction (x, say), ∂P/∂x, are all equal locally
in a long system. See Figure 41a.
B: there is virtually instant crossflow vertically - nearly infinite - compared with the
horizontal flow. See Figure 41b.
Vertical Equilibrium (VE) is known to apply in “long thin” systems (where Δx >>
Δz, in Figure 41b). More accurately, the VE limit is approached as the scaling group,
RL → ∞ ; where:
1/ 2
∆x k
R L = . z
∆z k x
and kz and kx are the vertical and horizontal permeabilities, respectively. In practice,
if RL is > 10, then VE is a very good assumption.
38
Glossary of Terms
Layer 1
Layer 2 ∆z
Layer 3
∆x
∂P ∂P ∂P
∂x ∂x ∂x
1 2 3
∆z
Figure 41
Schematic views of vertical
equilibrium
∆x
Miscible Displacement: Whereas oil and water are immiscible fluids (i.e. they
do not mix and are separated by an interface), some fluids are fully Miscible (i.e.
they mix freely in all proportions). When a gas (or other fluid) is injected into an oil
reservoir and the fluids are miscible, this is referred to as a Miscible Displacement.
When two fluids (e.g. gas and oil) are fully miscible (σgo = 0), the local pressure and
the pressure gradients are the same (there is no capillary pressure since there is no
interface).
The mixing between the solvent and the oil can occur locally by Dispersion and
by Fingering (see Viscous Fingering below). The displacement is described by a
generalised Convection-Dispersion Equation where the mixing viscosity, μ(c) is a
function of the concentration of the solvent, c (or oil). Often, the solvent viscosity
is below that of the oil (i.e. μs < μo) which tend to cause an instability to develop in
the displacement known as Viscous Fingering.
The Miscible Flow Equations: These comprise of a Pressure Equation and a Transport
Equation. The pressure equation is derived by inserting Darcy’s Law (with a viscosity
dependent on solvent concentration) into the continuity equation. The transport
equation is a generalised convection-dispersion (or convection-diffusion) equation.
Continuity equation:
Darcy Equation:
k
u=− .∇P
∇P
µ( c)
where u is the Darcy velocity, c is the miscible solvent concentration and k is the
k
∇.u = −∇. .∇
∇P
P = q̃q˜
µ (c )
or
k
∇. .∇
∇P
P = − q̃q˜
µ (c )
where q̃ represent any source/sink terms
∂c
= ∇.(D.∇c) − v.∇
∇cc
∂t
u
where D is the dispersion tensor and v is the pore velocity ( v = ).
φ
Dispersion and Dispersivity: Hydrodynamic dispersion in a porous medium at
the small (core) scale is a frontal spreading or mixing which is due to various flow
paths which the fluid can flow along at the pore scale. This mixing is a “diffusive”
process since the growth of the mixing zone, Lf , tends to grow in proportion to t .
In a tracer core flood experiment, the Dispersion Coefficient, D, may be measured
by fitting the effluent profile to an analytical solution of the Convection-Dispersion
Equation (see figure 42). Units of D (cm2/s - at lab scale).
Dispersive mixing behaviour can also be seen from the “mixing” effect of heterogeneities
at larger scales in a porous medium. D, has been found to depend linearly on velocity
through the relationship: D = α . v; where α is the Dispersivity and has dimensions
of length. Dispersion is actually a tensor in rather the same way that permeability
( k ) in its general form is a tensor.
40
Glossary of Terms
Dispersive
Mixing Zone Effluent
Concentration
C(x,t1) Ce(1,t)
1 Lf Ce 1
C
1
0 x 1 time (pv)
Viscous Fingering: When a high mobility (lower viscosity) fluid displaces a lower
mobility (higher viscosity) fluid, a type of instability may develop known as Viscous
Fingering. For such a displacement, the Mobility Ratio (see above) is high and the
process may be observed in either miscible or immiscible displacements, although it
occurs more readily in miscible systems. Results from an experiment are shown in
Figure 43 where the dark fluid is high viscosity and the light fluid is low viscosity.
Clearly, viscous fingering leads to a poorer sweep efficiency in such floods.
Figure 43
Experimental
demonstration of viscous
fingering
Reservoir Simulation
(1) Answer ALL the questions and try to confine your answer to the space provided on the
paper.
(2) The amount of space and the relative mark for the question will give you some idea of the
detail that is required in your answer.
(3) If you need more space in order to answer a question then continue on the back of the
same page indicating clearly (by PTO) that you have done so.
(4) The total number of marks in this examination is 262; this will be rescaled to give an
appropriate weighted percentage for the exam. The marks are relative and, together with
the space available, should give an approximate guide to the level of detail required.
(5) There is a compulsory 15 minute reading time on this paper during which you must not
write anything.
1
Q1. List two uses of numerical reservoir simulation for each of the following stages of field
development.
1.
(2)
2.
(2)
(ii) At a stage well beyond the maximum oil production in a large North Sea field:
1.
(2)
2.
(2)
Q2. At any stage in a reservoir development by waterflooding, the engineer may use material
balance calculations and/or numerical reservoir simulation. Under which particular cir
cumstances would you use each of these approaches?
(3)
(3)
Q3. Given all the problems and inaccuracies, which are known to exist in the application of
reservoir simulation, why do engineers still use it?
(2)
2
Q4
Water
injector
Water Producer
injector
Continuous or
Discontinuous
High k Low k Shales ???
OWC
2000 m
Vertical scale
100 m
Reservoir X is a light oil reservoir (35º API) being developed by waterflooding. The reservoir
comprises a high average permeability massive sand overlying lower average permeability
laminated sands. The thickness of each sand is approximately equal and there are shales at the
interface of these two sands. However, the operator is uncertain if these shales are continuous or
discontinuous.
(i) What would the main differences be between the cases where the shales in the above
reservoir were continuous and where they were discontinuous?
(4)
(ii) Say briefly how you would go about investigating this using reservoir simulation.
(4)
3
(iii) Suppose a reservoir engineer took 10 vertical grid blocks (NZ=10) in a simulation model
of this system. Would you expect the local (kv.kh) values in each of the main reservoir
sands to be similar or different? Explain your answer briefly.
Similar/different
(1)
Explain
(4)
(iv) If this reservoir well had a gas cap, then gas coning might be a problem.
(4)
(4)
4
(v) In which two ways would the grid used to investigate gas coning be different from that
which was used in the full field waterflooding simulation?
1.
(2)
2.
(2)
Q5. Two of the main numerical problems/errors that arise in reservoir simulators are due to
numerical dispersion and grid orientation.
Explain each of these terms briefly saying - what it means, its origin and how we might get
round it. Draw a simple hand drawn sketch illustrating each.
(5)
(5)
5
(iii) Grid Orientation - sketch
(4)
(4)
Q6. A very simple single phase pressure equation is given by Eq. 1 below.
Ê ∂P ˆ Ê ∂ P ˆ
2
Á ˜ =Á 2˜ Eq. 1
Ë ∂t ¯ Ë ∂x ¯
(i) Write down how this equation is discretised in an explicit finite difference scheme - briefly
explain your notation.
6 (4)
(ii) If an implicit finite difference scheme was used to solve Eq. 1, then a set of linear
equations would arise which could be solved using either a direct or an iterative linear
equation solution technique. Briefly explain each of the bold terms above:
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
7
Q7. Statement: “The Equations of Two Phase Flow can be derived easily simply by using
Material Balance and Darcy’s Law”.
Explain this statement with reference to two phase flow - you do not need to actually derive the
equations and, indeed, you may not use any equations other than Darcy’s law.
(8)
Q8. (i) Draw a schematic sketch of a single grid block of size Dx by Dy by Dz, showing the
porosity f, the oil and water saturations So and Sw (only 2 phases present).
(2)
8
(ii) Using the sketch in part (i) above, derive expressions for (a) the volume of oil in the grid
block, Vo; (b) the mass of oil in the grid block, Mo, introducing the formation volume
factor, Bo.
(a) Vo?
(3)
(b) Mo?
(3)
(iii) Write an expression for the oil flux, Jo, saying briefly what it is, any units it might be
expressed in and explaining any terms you introduce.
(6)
9
Q9. (i) Name three ways in which a Black Oil reservoir simulation differs from a
Compositional simulation model.
1.
2.
3.
(6)
(ii) Draw a simple sketch of a single grid block showing what is meant by a component and a
phase.
(4)
(iii) Using the notation CIJ to denote the mass composition of component I per unit volume of
phase J (dimensions of CIJ are mass/volume), derive an expression - based on the
quantities labelled in your sketch in (ii) above - for the mass of component I in the grid
block.
(6)
10
(iv) Give one example of (a) where you would use a Black Oil model and (b) where you would
use a Compositional simulation model.
(3)
(3)
Q10. Figure 2: The figure below shows the basic idea of “upscaling” or “Pseudo-isation”.
OIL "Rock"
Propts.
"Pseudo-"
Propts.
11
(i) What is meant by “Upscaling” with reference to the modelling of say a waterflood.
(2)
(ii) What is the difference between “rock” relative permeabilities and pseudo-relative
permeabilities?
(4)
• Methodology
(4)
• Techniques?
(4)
12
Q11. (i) Sketch (roughly) a semi variogram for each of the following permeability models:
(a) a correlated random field with a range of 100m and a sill of 10,000 mD2; and
(b) a laminated system where the laminae are of constant width of 1cm and where the high
permeability = 2D and the low permeability = 1D. Label your sketches clearly.
(a)
(6)
(b)
(6)
(ii) What can you deduce about the standard deviation of the correlated random field in (i)(a)
above.
(3)
13
(iii) Sketch the correlogram for case (i) above.
(5)
k = 0.5 D 2 cm x
k = 2.0 D 5 cm
k = 1.0 D 1 cm y
(i) Calculate the effective permeability of the above model in the x-direction; show your working.
(5)
14
(ii) Calculate the effective permeability of the above model in the y-direction, show your
working.
(6)
(ii) Suppose we put a very find grid (say of size 0.1 cm x 0.1 cm) on the 3 layer model in Figure 3
above. If we jumbled up all the grid blocks randomly so that the new model had no discernable
structure, would the new effective permeability be: greater than that in (i) and (ii)?; less than that in (i)
and (ii)?; in between these values? Explain your answer.
(6)
15
Q13. In miscible flow in a random correlated field, explain how the mixing zone grows with
time in each of the following cases (illustrate your answers with simple sketches):
(4)
(4)
(4)
(iv) On the same diagram below, sketch the expected type of fractional flow curve f(c) vs c) you
would expect for each type of flow.
(6)
16
Q14. In the Kyte and Berry pseudo-isation (upscaling) method, describe briefly (using a
diagram) how numerical dispersion is taken into account (no detailed mathematics is
required).
(10)
17
Q15. (i) List the main categories in the hierarchy of stratal sedimentary elements - give one
short sentence explaining each of these.
(8)
(iii) Describe which of the above length scales of sedimentary heterogeneity are likely to have
most significance for the following reservoir flow phenomena:
(3)
(3)
* Vertical sweep efficiency:
(3)
(3)
18
Q16. You have been given the following distribution of core-plug permeabilities in a particular
reservoir unit which includes a higher permeability a fluvial channel sand overlying a
lower permeability deltaic sand:
Frequency
100 400 600 800
Permeability (md)
With reference to Figure 4 above: (a) explain the probable reason that the permeability
distribution has the above form; (b) sketch the sort of permeability models (laminar, bed and
formation scale) you might use for the flow simulation of this unit.
(a)
(3)
(b)
19
Q17. (i) Draw a sketch of water displacement of oil across the laminae in a water-wet
laminated system at (a) “low” flow rate (capillary dominated) and (b) “high” flow rate
(viscous dominated); in this sketch show where the residual remaining oil is and
give a sentence or two of explanation.
(a)
(8)
(b)
(8)
20
(ii) Is the effective water permeability at residual (i) remaining oil saturation (across the
laminae) higher in case (a) or (b) in part (i) above? Explain.
(6)
(iii) What are the implications of the results in (i) and (ii) above for upscaling in reservoir
simulation?
(6)
21
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Model Solutions to Examination
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Date:
Reservoir Simulation
Subject:
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
No. Mk.
1. Complete the sections above but do not seal until the examination is finished.
5. This book must be handed in entire with the top corner sealed.
6. Additional books must bear the name of the candidate, be sealed and be affixed to
the first book by means of a tag provided
1
Answer Notes
# => indicates one of several possible answers which are equally acceptable.
[…] => extra information good but not essential for full marks - may get bonus.
2
Model Solutions to Examination
Q1 (i)
(ii)
after same development twice and to use this to assess various IOR
Q2
(i)
production.
(ii)
3
Q3
Q4
(i)
the situation above with high k on top, some vertical communication will
help recovery.
(ii)
cases with and without shales - and some in-between cases with
(iii)
Different
4
Model Solutions to Examination
The high perm massive sand would have a small scale kv/kh ~1 which
would result in a similar larger scale value. In the laminated sands, the
“small” scale (say core plug scale) would have a low kv/kh of say 0.1 to
0.01 and this would result in a correspondingly lower kv/kh at the grid
block scale.
(iv)
Well
Gas Gas
Oil Oil
and and
Water Water
= perforations
Gas Coning It is the drawdown of the highly mobile (low mg) gas into
5
Set up a near-well r/z geometry fine grid - possibly 50 layers and
Generally needs a fine Dr, Dz grid, often finer near the well where
(v)
2. The fineness of the grid would be different. Very fine for near-
6
Model Solutions to Examination
Q5
(i)
(ii)
numerical methods.
(iii)
P
Fluid tends to
flow along (parallel)
to the grids
Fig A Fig B
I = injector ; P = producer
7
(iv)
The injected fluid tends to flow parallel with the grid from the
injector (I) to the producer (P) - see previous page. This means that
above. i.e.
Fig B
Actual Recovery
Fig A
%00IP
Producer
Pv or Time
Q6
(i)
8
Model Solutions to Examination
(ii)
∂2 P
In this scheme the spatial term in Eq. 1 i.e. would be specified at
∂x 2
the new time level n+1
where X1, X2, X3 are unknown - the a’s are a matrix of known
with a fixed number of steps which will solve these linear equations
unknown vector X (0) where the (o) denotes 0th iteration: This is then
original linear equations i.e. X(1) Æ X(2)… Æ X(V) until the method
converges e.g.
9
/ X(V+1) - X(V)/ < small number TOL. [Methods such as the Jacobi, LSOR,
Q7
mo mo
i, j
mw
Mass
Dt Dt Dt
Ê A.k.kro ( So ) ˆ
Qoil ( i -1, j ) Æ ( i , j ) Á
Ë mo
˜ ( Po - Poi -1 j
¯ i - 1 ij
)
2
Thus the two phase Darcy Law supplies the relation for volumetric flow
rate and pressure in the grid block. These volumetric flows can be
converted to MASS flows (x by density) and then put into the material
10
Model Solutions to Examination
\
\ Material Balance + Darcy’s Law => 2-phase Flow Equation.
Q8
(i)
(ii)
(a) Vo = Dx Dy Dz f So
(b)
11
(iii)
Q9
1. The black oil model essentially treats a phase (o,w,g) as the basic
conserved unit or “pseudo component”
of components (CH4, C10, H2O etc.) - the black oil model simply treats
oil whereas the black oil model relies on the simple Rso type treatment.
12
Model Solutions to Examination
(iii)
(iv)
# (a) Waterflood calculations in a low GOR - say 30∞ API - oil reservoir
# (b) CO2 injection in a - say 36∞ API - light oil system [Condensate
Q10
(i)
Upscaling in a waterflood essentially means getting the correct
(effective) parameters (-e.g. rel. perm.) for the larger scale grid blocks
(ii)
13
numerical dispersion, heterogeneity etc..) in addition to the intrinsic
(iii)
Methodology
Techniques?
grid Æ coarse grid. E.g. Kyte and Berry, Stone’s method, two phase
tensors etc…
[N.B. This just needs to reproduce the fine grid result - even if it is
WRONG - at the coarse scale]
14
Model Solutions to Examination
Q11
(i)
(ii)
It takes a lag distance of about the “range” to see the field variability
15
(iii)
lag
Q12
(i)
(ii)
16
Model Solutions to Examination
(iii)
The keff in the randomised model would be between the two answers
in (i) and (ii) above (the answer in (ii) being the lower).
Q13
(i)
Note - we take the same contour values (c= 0.1, 0.5, 0.8) in all sketches
below.
17
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
18
Model Solutions to Examination
interface only. Thus, if the fine grid water (say) flows have not
19
Q15
(i)
homogeneous k. (length mm Æ m)
hi k
lo k
form 3D beds.
20
Model Solutions to Examination
Tabular cross-bedding
e.g. 2m
Eroded/? top sets
~50cm
Bottom sets
or climbing ripples
Para-sequence/sequence-stacks of bedforms
(ii)
• Para sequence - sequence scale
Q16
(a) There is a double peak - the bimodality probably arises from the
lower perm plugs from deltaic sands, and the higher permeability plugs
21
(b)
laminated sand
pseudo
Tightly laminated
deltaic sands
Crossbeddes
fluvial
channel
B -stacked crossbeds
Q17
(i) (a)
hi lo hi lo hi lo
Slow Flow
CAPILLARY DOMINATED
High water Sw in
Water flow direction
LOW perms in a
water-wet system
Sw
HIGH "remaining"
oil in hi k
22
Model Solutions to Examination
(b)
hi lo hi lo hi lo
VISCOUS DOMINATED
WATERFRONT
"Fast" Flow
of water
High water Sw
Water flow direction
LOW perm in a
water-cut system
Sw
(ii)
It is higher in case (a) for the reasons already explained.
(iii)
(a) The two phase pseudo relative perms. are highly anisotropic for
23
Along
Across
24
Model Solutions to Examination
25
Course:- 28117
Class:- 28912
HERIOT WATT UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Reservoir Simulation
8 State clearly any assumptions used and intermediate calculations made in numerical
questions. No marks can be given for an incorrect answer if the method of calculation is
not presented. Be sure to allocate time appropriately.
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Q.1: Consider the following statement which is made referring to a reservoir development plan
for a field which has been in production for some time:
“A reservoir engineer should always apply Material Balance calculations and should usually -
but not always - use Numerical Reservoir Simulation”.
(i) Why should you always perform some sort of material Material Balance calculations ?
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(ii) What is the main disadvantage of using material balance calculations in reservoir
development?
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(iii) In the above context, explain when you would use Reservoir Simulation and when you may
not use it. Give an example of each case.
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Q.2: Various types of 2D and 3D grids are used in reservoir simulation calculations. Describe
what you think the best type of grid is for performing calculations on each of the reservoir
processes described below and say why.
Reservoir processes:
(i) Modelling of likely gas and water coning and its effect on (vertical) well productivity in a
light oil reservoir with a gas cap and an underlying aquifer;
(ii) Simulating a large number of options in an injector/producer well pair in a gas injection
scheme where the objective is to look at the effects of formation heterogeneity on gas - oil
displacement and to develop some pseudo relative permeabilities to use in a full field model;
(iii) Carrying out an appraisal of an entire flank of a complex faulted field which has several
injector and producer wells.
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Why?...........................................................................................................................................
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Why?...........................................................................................................................................
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Why?..........................................................................................................................................
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Q.3: Numerical dispersion and grid orientation are two of the main numerical problems that
occur in reservoir simulation. Explain in your own words, with the help of a simple sketch,
the meaning of each of these terms:
(5)
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(5)
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Q4. Figure 1 below shows the results of a series of 6 waterflooding and gas flooding
calculations (labelled A - F) in a 2D vertical cross-sectional numerical simulation model.
Results are plotted as “Oil Recovery at 1PV Injection” vs. 1/NZ , where NZ is the number
of vertical grid blocks in the simulation. Assume (a) that the number of grid blocks in the
x-direction (NX) is sufficiently large and is constant in all calculations; and (b) that the
axes of the graph are “quantitative”.
Figure 1
2D cross-section
Key
No. vertical grid
gas injection
blocks = NZ
waterflood
Oil recovery C
at 1PV
injection
60% B
A
50%
D
E
40%
F
(i) How many vertical grid blocks (NZ) were used in case F? ......... (3)
(ii) Do the simulated waterflood and gas flooding calculations become more “optimistic” or
“pessimistic” as we take more vertical grid blocks in the calculation?
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Q4. (continued)
(iii) Extrapolate each of the calculations to NZ --> ∞ for both the waterflood and the gas flood
on Figure 1. Estimate the % recovery for each and the incremental recovery of the gas flood
compared with the waterflood. Comment on the implications of your result for carrying out a
gas flooding project in this reservoir.
Estimations...........................................................................................................
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Comment:
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Q. 5 Figure 2 below shows a “control volume” - block i - for single-phase compressible flow in
1D. The quantities qi+1/2 and qi-1/2 are the volumetric flow rates of the fluid at the
boundaries of block i. All grid blocks are the same size in the x-direction (∆x) and the
cross-sectional area is constant, A = ∆y.∆z (where ∆y and ∆z are the block sizes in the y-
and z-directions). The density and porosity are denoted by symbols - ρ and φ respectively.
Figure 2
i-1 i i+1
Area
=A qi-1/2 q i-1/2
= ∆ y. ∆ z
∆x
x
(i) Write a clear mathematical expression for the change in mass in block i over a time step ∆t
due to flow:
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(ii) Write a clear mathematical expression for the change in mass in block i from the beginning
of the time step to the end (i.e. the accumulation):
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(iii) Considering the above two expressions, what equation can you now write from material
balance ?
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Q.5 (continued)
(iv) Are there any assumptions in the equation you have just written in part (iii) above? Briefly
explain.
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(v) Now use the single-phase Darcy Law in the equation you wrote in (iii) above and show how -
by taking Limits ∆x, ∆t --> 0 - you obtain the pressure equation for single-phase compressible
flow: Show the steps you take.
(8)
(vi) If you have written down the answer to part (v) above correctly, then you should have
written down a non-linear partial differential equation (PDE). What does “non-linear” mean in
this context and explain in physical terms what the main problem is with this sort of equation.
Non-linear?...................................................................................................................................
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The problem?...............................................................................................................................
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Q.6: (i) From the four assumptions listed below, show clearly how Equation 1 arises from the
non-linear equation you derived in Q.5 part (v) above. Indicate clearly where you use each
of the assumptions in your derivation.
∂P ∂ P
2
=
κ 2 Equation 1
∂t ∂x
The term κ is a constant (Greek kappa - not permeability, k). Other quantities which may be
used are Cf - the fluid compressibility, ρ - the density; k - the permeability; µ - the fluid viscosity;
φ - the porosity.
∂P
2
(i) Answer:
(12)
(continue on the back of this page if necessary indicating that you have done so)
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Q.6 (continued)
(ii) From your answer to part (i) above, write down what constant κ is in terms of the other
constants.
κ = .............................................................................................................................................. (4)
(iii) Using the notation in Figure 3 below, apply finite differences to Equation 1 above and define
the discretised spatial derivative at the new time level, (n+1) (i.e. an implicit method). Show each step
in your working and show clearly how this leads to a sparse set of linear equations.
Figure 3
P in+1
n+1
∆x
All ∆ x and
Time
level ∆t ∆ t fixed.
P in
n
i-1 i i+1
Space --->
(12)
(continue on the back of this page if necessary indicating that you have done so)
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Q.6 (continued)
(iv) We can write down the set of linear equations that arises from applying finite differences to
the flow equations as follows:
A.x = b Equation 2
where A is a matrix, x is the vector of unknowns and vector b is known. Write out Equation 2
explicitly for three equations and rearrange these to show how a simple iterative scheme can be
formulated. Say very briefly how this is solved. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of
an iterative scheme.
(continue on the back of this page, if necessary, indicating you have done so)
(10)
Advantage?...................................................................................... (2)
Disadvantage?................................................................................. (2)
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Q.7: The oil flux, Jo, into and out of a grid block is shown in Figure 4 below. Other quantities
are denoted as follows: Oil saturation So; porosity, φ; Formation volume factor, Bo; Oil
density at standard conditions, ρosc; Darcy velocity of oil, vo (similar quantities apply to the
water phase).
Figure 4
∆y
Oil Flux Jo
Jo
∆z
∆x
x x + ∆x
(i) Write an expression for the oil flux, Jo, giving any possible units.
(6)
(ii) The concentration of oil, Co, is defined as the mass of oil per unit volume of reservoir. Write
an expression for Co in terms of the quantities defined above.
(6)
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Q.7 (continued)
(iii) Prove that, in 1D two-phase flow, then for the oil phase:
(10)
(continue on the back of this page, if necessary, indicating you have done so)
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Q.7 (continued)
(vi) State the two-phase Darcy’s law for oil using (∂Po/∂x) for the pressure gradient and kro for the
relative permeability, and substitute this into Equation 3 above and derive the oil conservation
equation.
• Two-phase Darcy Law for the oil phase (in terms of Darcy velocity, vo)
(4)
(8)
————————————————————End of Q.7 ——————————————
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Q.8 In three-phase flow (oil, water and gas), we can define a gas flux, Jg, and a gas concentration,
Cg, in exactly the same way as was defined for oil in Q. 7 above.
(i) Explain physically why the gas flux and the gas concentration are more complicated than the
corresponding quantities for the flow of oil or water.
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(ii) Using Rso and Rº to denote the gas solubility factors, derive expressions for Jg and Cg showing
your working.
(12)
(continue on the back of this page, if necessary, indicating you have done so)
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Q. 8 (continued)
(iii) Use your expressions for Jg and Cg in the conservation Equation 3 (for gas) to write down the
first step in obtaining the conservation equation for gas.
(6)
————————————————————End of Q.8 ———————————————
Q.9: Explain what history matching is in a reservoir simulation of a field saying briefly how it is
done and what can go wrong.
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(continue on the back of this page, if necessary, indicating you have done so)
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Q.10 (i) Write down the formulae for the arithmetic (ka), harmonic (kh) and geometric (kg) averages
of a permeability field with permeabilities k1, k2, .... kM. The number of data points you have = M.
ka =
kh =
kg =
(10)
(ii) State how you would use these averages for calculating the effective permeabilities in the
horizontal and vertical directions in the models in Figures 5(a) and 5(b) below.
Figure 5
(a) (b)
(8)
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Q.10 (continued)
• For Figure 5(b): Horizontal keff & Vertical keff :
(8)
(iii) Calculate the effective permeability for flow across the laminae in Figure 6 below. Show your
working.
Figure 6
100 mD, 2 cm
10 mD, 1 cm
20 mD, 1 cm
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Q.11 The diagram in Figure 7 below shows a grid consisting of 2 coarse grid blocks, with 7 x 3 fine
blocks in each of these coarse blocks.
Figure 7
i=1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
j= 1
3 ∆z
∆x
Suppose you are calculating the pseudo relative permeabilities for the left coarse block using the
Kyte and Berry method. Assume that you have all the necessary information (saturations, pressures,
flows etc.) from a fine-scale (3x14) simulation.
(i) Show clearly on Figure 7 which part of the grid you would use for calculating the following
quantities and give a brief sentence of explanation:
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Sw = (5)
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Q. 11 (continued)
(iii) What is the weighting for the average pressure? Give a brief sentence of explanation.
(5)
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qw = (5)
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Q.12 (i) By means of a simple sketch, show how a cubic packing of spherical grains is arranged.
Sketch:
(4)
(ii) Use the sketch to help you calculate the specific surface of the sample per unit volume of solid,
Ss (in m2/m3).
(iii) If the grain radius is taken to be 10µm, determine the porosity (φ) of the sample
Porosity working:
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Q.12 (continued)
(iv) If the grain radius was 100µm instead of 10µm, what would the porosity (φ) of the sample now
be?
(v) What do the results of parts (iii) and (iv) above suggest concerning the porosity of cubic sphere
packs?
Ans............................................................................................................................................. (2)
(vi) Write down the Carman-Kozeny equation in terms of the grain diameter (D), porosity (φ), and
the specific surface per unit volume of solid, Ss
Carman-Kozeny equation:
k=
(6)
(vii) Taking the grain radius to be 10 µm and the tortuosity of the sample to be T=1, calculate an
approximate permeability in Darcies for a cubic packing of spheres (NB Use the porosity found in
Q.12 part (iii) in this calculation) .
Working:
Contact angle?...................................................................................................................................
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(4)
Sketch
(4)
(ii) If an oil/water meniscus is at equilibrium in a cylindrical capillary tube, what is the equation
that relates the capillary pressure, Pc, to the tube radius R and the contact angle θ?
Pc=
(5)
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Q. 13 (continued)
(iii) Oil is introduced at the inlet face of the water-filled pore network shown in Figure 8 on the
next page. The numbers on Figure 8 refer to pore radii (in microns, µm). The pores are taken to be
capillary tubes and are water-wet, the contact angle is θ = 60o in every pore and the oil/water
interfacial tension is 80 mN/m. The capillary pressure of the system is gradually increased and oil
begins to invade the network.
Shade in the pores that become oil-filled at each of the 4 capillary pressure values Pc1, Pc2, Pc3
and Pc4 in Figure 8 (NB 14.7 psi = 105 Newtons/m2).
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Q. 13 (continued)
Figure 8: Shade in the pores that become oil-filled at each of the 4 capillary pressure values Pc1,
P c 2
,
5 2
Pc3 and Pc4 below (NB 14.7 psi = 10 Newtons/m ).
5 15 2
11 1
Oil Water
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
5 15 2
11 1
Oil Water
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
5 15 2
11 1
Oil Water
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
5 15 2
11 1
Oil Water
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
(20)
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Q.14 (i) Explain the differences between a drainage flood and an imbibition flood at the pore-
scale, paying particular attention to the roles played by pore size, film-flow and accessibility to
the inlet (sketch each displacement in the boxes provided below to illustrate your answer).
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(continue on the back of this page, if necessary, indicating you have done so)
Imbibition
Sketch
(4)
Drainage
Sketch
(4)
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Q. 14 (continued)
(ii) The strongly water-wet network in Figure 9 below is initially completely filled with oil and the
capillary pressure is so high that no water can currently imbibe. If the capillary pressure is slowly
decreased, so that water can invade via film-flow and snap-off, how is the residual oil distributed at
the end of imbibition (i.e. when Pc=0)? Shade in the residual oil using the network template
provided in Figure 10. The numbers on the bonds again refer to the tube radii in microns (µm).
Note this network is deliberately different from that in Figure 8. Also, oil cannot enter the water
reservoir due to the presence of a water-wet membrane.
Figure 9
5 15 2
11 1
Water Oil
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
Figure 10
5 15 2
11 1
Water Oil
20 10 3
3 12
12 4 8
(8)
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Q15. You have been supplied with the table of mercury injection data below.
Table 1
Mercury P c (air/mercury) Oil saturation Pc(oil/water)
saturation (psia) (psia)
0 2 0
0.2 4 0.2
0.4 5 0.4
0.5 6 0.5
0.6 7 0.6
0.8 20 0.8
0.9 60 0.9
(i) Sketch the air/mercury capillary pressure curve using the axes provided
(6)
(ii) Write down the equation used to re-scale mercury injection data to oil/water systems and use it
to complete Table 1 (assume the following values for interfacial tensions and contact angles:
σmercury/air = 360x10-3 N/m, σoil/water = 60x10-3 N/m, θmercury/air = θoil/water = 0o
Equation:
(6)
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Q. 15 (continued)
(iii) Plot the oil/water capillary pressure curve using the axes provided below
Sketch.
(5)
(iv) Write down the equation that determines the Leverett J-function from capillary pressure data-
i.e. complete the following equation:
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Q. 15 (continued)
(v) Using the capillary pressure data shown below in Table 2, calculate an appropriate J-function
and complete the table below : assume the values k = 100 mD, φ= 0.1, interfacial tension, σ =10
x10-3 N/m, and contact angle, θ = 0o. Choose any suitable units but label your sketch clearly.
Sketch the J-function below.
Table 2
Complete the table
Wa te r S a tu ra tio n P c (p s ia ) J (S w)
1 0
0.8 2
0.6 4
0.5 6
0.4 10
0.2 20
(6)
J(Sw)=
(4)
(6)
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Q.16 (i) Name the two most popular tests used to determine the wettability of a reservoir rock.
(ii) Give the three “rules of thumb” that can often be used to distinguish between water-wet and
oil-wet relative permeability curves.
Rule 1 ................................................................................................................................................
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Rule 2 ................................................................................................................................................
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Rule 3 ................................................................................................................................................
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(iii) Capillary pressure curves in Figure 11 below have been measured on two different core samples.
The two plots are shown below. Use your knowledge of wettability variations at the pore scale to
answer the following:
Figure 11
Pc Pc
Sw Sw
(A) (B)
(iv) Which sample is probably the more water-wet? Explain your choice.
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Q.16 (continued)
(v) Give a physical explanation for the negative leg shown in the capillary pressure curve in Figure 11(A).
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(6)
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