x30! J2,.3RS REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Second Edition W. F. Stoecker Professor of Mechanical Engineering University of Minow at Urbana-Champaign J. W. Jones Associate Professor of Mechantcal Engineering University of Texas at Austin McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York St. Louis San Fracisco Auckland Bogots (Caracas. Lisbon London Maisid Mexico City Milan ‘Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore ‘Sydney Tokyo Torontowi conTENTS: 240 a 212 243 aaa Das 2416 27 218 219 2.20 221 222 2.23 Chapter 3 34 32 33 34 35 Chapter 4 44 42 43 “4 45 46 47 48 49 Isentropic Compression — Bernoulli's Equation Heat Transfer Conduction Radiation Convection ‘Thermal Resistance Cylindrical Cross Section Heat Exchangers Heat-Transfer Processes Used by the Human Body Metabolism Convection Radiation Evapor Problems References Psychrometry and Wetted-Surface Heat Transfer Importance Psychzometric Chart Saturation Line Relative Humidity Humidity Ratio Enthalpy Specific Volume Combined Heat and Mass Tranafer; the Straight-Line Law [Adiabatic Saturation and Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb Temperature Deviation between Enthalpy and Wet-Bulb Lines Wet-Bulb Thermometer Processes Comment on the Basis of 1 kg of Dry Air ‘Transfer of Sensible and Latent Heat with a Wetted Surface Enthalpy Potential Insights Provided by Enthalpy Potential Problems References Heating- and Cooling-Load Calculations Introduction Health and Comfort Criteria ‘Thermal Comfort Air Quality Estimating Heat Loss and Heat Gain Design Conditions ‘Thermal Transmission Infiltration and Ventilation Loads ‘Summary of Procedure for Estimating Heating Loads 40 40 40 a2 a 43 4a 46 47 48 49 50 St 3 33 54 55 56 582 410 at 412 413 414 pada eee ae arararrdes > Chapter 6 6 62 63 4 65 66 or ‘Components of the Cooling Load Internal Loads > Solar Loads through Transparent Surfaces Solar Loads on Opaque Surfaces ‘Summary of Procedures for Estimating Cooling Loads Problems References Air-Conditioning Systems ‘Thermal Distribution Systems Cassie Single-Zone System Outdoor-Air Control Single-Zone-System Design Calculations Multiple-Zone Systems Terminal-Reheat System Dual-Duct or Multizone System Variable-Air-Volume Systems Water Systems Unitary Systems Problems References Fan and Duct Systems Conveying Air Pressure Drop in Straight Ducts Pressure Drop in Rectangular Ducts Pressure Drop in Fittings ‘The ¥2p/2 Term Sudden Enlargement ‘Sudden Contraction ‘Tums Branch Takeofts Branch Entries Design of Duct Systems ‘Velocity Method Equal-Friction Method Optimization of Duct Systems ‘System Balancing (Centrifugal Fans and Their Characteristics Fan Laws Air Distribution in Rooms Circular and Plane Jets Diffusers and Induction Problems References Pumps and Piping, Water and Refrigerant Piping Comparison of Water and Air as Heat-Conveying Media CONTENTS vil 1 1 B ” a 85 86 38 88 39 90 92 95 95 96 7 100 101 101 102 103 103 103 106 109 109 110 i 1B na 16 17 ut 118 19 120 120 123 14 12s 7 127 129 130 130 1316 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING tional vehicles, tractors, crane cabs, areraft, and ships. The major contstutor 7 tional ing loadin many of these vehics is heat from yolar radiation, and, jn he ure of public transportation, heat from people. The leads are also characterized Sa rapid changes and by a high intensity per unit volume in comparison fo building air conditioning. 116 Food storage and distribution Many meats ish, frat, and vegetable are perish aes eet hei storage life can be extended by refigeraticn. Fruits, many vegeta: apie cexsed meat, such 35 sausages ae stored at temperatres just slighty shove rae ere'te prolong ther life, Other meats, fish vegetables, and fits are fronen 20 eer e cay months at low temperatures until they are defrosted and cooked by the “ire jozen-food chain typically consists of the following links: freezing, strase sn cofngerated warehouses, display ina reigerated case a food markets, and Finally ar regen the home freezer or frozenfood compartment of s domestic rfsges\0r Home tay attempts to feeze food resulted ina product laced with ie crystals Freeing Jos dscovered that the temperature must be plunged rapidly throvah, ihe Hreering vone. Approaches!® to freezing food ineiode atrblast freezing, Where 8 ronunately -30°C is blown with high velocity over Fackages of food stashed Oy arr wallets; contact freecng, where the food is placed between metal plates 8 or Timmersion freezing, where the food is placed n ¢ lowtemperatre brine: sees od icezing, where the individual particles are cased along 3 convey" Dek ae in suspension by an upward-drected stream of sol ir (Fig1-S)iand free dng with eryogenie substance such as nitrogen of carbon dioxide. ening peas on a fidied bed conveyor ball (Lewis Reieaion Compan) Figure 1SAPPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 7 Figure 1-6 A refrigerated warehouse. (International Assocation of Refrigerated Warehouses) Storage Fruits and vegetables should be frozen quickly ater harvesting and meats frozen quickly after slaughter to maintain high quality. Truckloed and rallearioad lots are then moved {o refigerated warehouses (Fig. 1-6), where they ae stored at -20 to -23°C, perhaps for many months. To maintain a high quality is fish, the storage tem perature is even lower. Distribution Food moves from the refrigerated warehouses to food markets as needed to replenish the stock there. Inthe market the food is kept refrigerated in display cases heldat 3 t0 °C for dairy products and uifiozen fruits and vegetables at approximately 20°C for frozen foods and ie eam. In the United States about 100,000 refrigerated Aisplay cases ae sold each year. The consumer finally stores the food in a domestic refrigerator or freezer until used, Five milion domestic refrigerators are sold each year in the United States, and for several decades styling and first cost were paramount considerations in the design band manufacture of domestic refrigerators. The need for energy conservation, how: ‘ever, has brought back the engineering challenge in designing these appliances.{8 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1:7 Food processing Some foods need operations in ion 9 freezing and refriger- 17 sEeoage ana these processes ental refrigeration 2892) ep produers ‘The chief dairy product are mils 8 Oar ‘and cheese. To pas- Dairy Pek se temperature is elevated to approximately "73°C and held for about 20 tea that process the mik is cooked and ultimately refiigerated to 3 or 4°C for Sorage, In manufacturing ice cream’ the iapesion ot first pasteurized and thor- roy ned. Then, refrigeration equipment cooks He to about 6°C, whereupon aaa aa freezer. The freezer drops the temperature ~5°C, at which temperature i ent ffens but remains fuid enough to flow fro a conlsine- From this point une rece cream i stored below freezing temperatures, he fs evatpundreds of varieties of cheese, cach pera BY © Aifferent.process, tut typical steps include bringing the temperate ‘of milk to about 30°C and then but Seal cubstances, including 2 cheese starter ont sometimes rennet. Part of adding tore alii into the curds, from which the awit ‘whey is drained. A curing evo’ in refigerated rooms follows for most cheeses at temperature of the order of 10°C. 1 aes Refrigeration is esenial in the production of such beverages as concen Beverage ye, beer, and wine, The taste of many drinks cP ‘be improved by serving, them cold nce qoenteates are popular because of thes hich geal and reasonable cost this le expensive to concentrate the jue close 601 orchards and ship it in its fro res ce than to sip the raw fruit, To preserve the Oe ‘of juice, its water must be serena a Low temperature, requiring the entre Poses 1° ‘be carried out at pres: sores much below atmospheric sree brewing industry refigeration controls the ferment reaction and pre: serve, some ofthe intermediate and final products. ANY eet fn the production of seal is Fermentation, an exothermic reaction, FOr producing a lagertype beer Fr sleoion should proceed at 8 temperature between ® fand 12°C, which is maintained ty refdgeration. From this point on in the Prosi he beer is stored in bulk and wlti ~ wy bottled or kegged (Pia, 1-7) in sfrigerated space: pear reason fr cefigerating bakery products 1% provide a better match ‘perween production and demand and thus prevent ‘Many breads and pastries are betwee lowing baking to prowde a longer shel! 1% ‘before being sold to the con: ftonen tq practice that provides freshly baked produc (and the enticing aroma as saranda supermarkets but achieves some Of OF advantages of high produc weld prepare the dough ina central locaton, fez fand then transport it to the Supermarket, where it is baked as needed rath geal and (006 products ae preseted Dy fm ‘rying, in which the produet frozen and then the water i remonee OY ‘ublimation (direct transition from rod water vapor), Te process takes place in a CHU “while heat is carefully appli vee svprodvet to provide the heat of sublimation. Some manufacturers of instar Ceaiee use the freeze-drying proces. 118 Chemical and process industis The chemi] ang PISS industries include th 18 ufacturers of chemicals petroleum refiners, ‘petrochemical plants, paper and pul martes, ete. These industsies require good engineering for their refrigeration sin