Vector and Tensor Analysis—Applications to Fluid Mechanics

2.1 Tensors in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space

In this section, we briefly introduce tensors, their significance to fluid dynamics, and their
applications. The tensor analysis is a powerful tool that enables the reader to study and to
understand more effectively the fundamentals of fluid mechanics. Once the basics of tensor
analysis are understood, the reader will be able to derive all conservation laws of fluid
mechanics without memorizing any single equation. In this section, we focus on the tensor
analytical application rather than mathematical details and proofs that are not primarily
relevant to engineering students. To avoid unnecessary repetition, we present the definition of
tensors from a unified point of view and use exclusively the three-dimensional euclidean
space, with N = 3 as the number of dimensions. The material presented in this chapter was
drawn from classical tensor and vector analysis texts, including those mentioned in the
References, among others. It is tailored to specific needs of fluid mechanics and is considered
to be helpful for readers with limited knowledge of tensor analysis. For further reading, see
Ref. 1-5.
The quantities encountered in fluid dynamics are tensors. A physical quantity that has a
definite magnitude but not a definite direction exhibits a zeroth-order tensor, which is a
special category of tensors. In an N-dimensional euclidean space, a zeroth-order tensor has N0
= 1 component, which is basically its magnitude. In physical sciences, this category of
tensors is well known as a scalar quantity, which has a definite magnitude but not a definite
direction. Examples are mass m, volume v, thermal energy Q (heat), mechanical energy W
(work), and the entire thermo-fluid dynamic properties such as density ρ, temperature T,
enthalpy h, entropy s, etc.
In contrast to the zeroth-order tensor, a first-order tensor encompasses physical quantities
with a definite magnitude with N 1(N1 = 31 = 3) components and a definite direction that can
be decomposed in N1 = 3 directions. This special category of tensors is known as vector.
Distance X, velocity V, acceleration A, force F, and moment of momentum M are a few
examples. A vector quantity is invariant with respect to a given category of coordinate
systems. Changing the coordinate system by applying certain transformation rules, the vector
components undergo certain changes resulting in a new set of components that are related, in
a definite way, to the old ones. As we will see later, the order of the above tensors can be
reduced if they are multiplied with each other in a scalar manner. The mechanical energy W
= F · X is a representative example that shows how a tensor order can be reduced. The
reduction of order of tensors is called contraction.
A second-order tensor is a quantity that has N2 definite components and N2 definite directions
(in three-dimensional euclidean space: N2 = 9). General stress tensor Π, normal stress tensor
Σ, shear stress tensor T, deformation tensor D, and rotation tensor Ω are a few examples.
Unlike the zeroth, and first-order tensors (scalars and vectors), the second- and higher-order
tensors cannot be directly geometrically interpreted. However, they can easily be interpreted
by looking at their pertinent force components, as seen later in Sec. 2.5.4.
2.1.1 Index Notation
In a three-dimensional euclidean space, any arbitrary first-order tensor or vector can be
decomposed into three components. In a cartesian coordinate system, shown in Fig. 2.1, the
base vectors in x1, x2, x3 directions e1, e2, e3 are perpendicular to each other and have the
magnitude of unity; therefore, they are called orthonormal unit vectors. Furthermore, these
base vectors are not dependent upon the coordinates; therefore, their derivatives with respect
to any coordinates are identically zero. In contrast, in a general curvilinear coordinate system
(discussed in App. A) the base vectors do not have the magnitude of unity. They depend on
the curvilinear coordinates; thus, their derivatives with respect to the coordinates do not
vanish.
FIGURE 2.1 Vector decomposition in a cartesian coordinate system.
As an example, vector A with its components A1, A2, and A3 in a cartesian coordinate system,
shown in Fig. 2.1, is written as:

(2.1)
According to Einstein’s summation convention, it can be written as:

(2.2)
The above form is called the index notation. Whenever the same index (in the above
equation, i) appears twice, the summation is carried out from 1 to N (N = 3 for euclidean
space).
2.2 Vector Operations: Scalar, Vector, and Tensor Products
2.2.1 Scalar Product
Scalar or dot product of two vectors results in a scalar quantity A · B = C. We apply the
Einstein summation convention defined in Eq. (2.2) to the above vectors:

(2.3)
We rearrange the unit vectors and the components separately:

(2.4)
In the cartesian coordinate system, the scalar product of two unit vectors is called Kronecker
delta, which is:

(2.5)
with δij as Kronecker delta. Using the Kronecker delta, we get:

(2.6)
The non-zero components are found only for i = j, or δij = 1, which means that in the above
equation the index j must be replaced by i, resulting in:

(2.7)
with scalar C as the result of scalar multiplication.
2.2.2 Vector or Cross Product
The vector product of two vectors is a vector that is perpendicular to the plane described by
those two vectors. For example:

(2.8)
with C as the resulting vector. We apply the index notation to Eq. (2.8):

(2.9)
with εijk as the permutation symbol with the following definition illustrated in Fig. 2.2:
FIGURE 2.2 Permutation symbol: (a) positive, (b) negative permutation.

εijk = 0 for i = j, j = k, or i = k (e.g., 122)

εijk = 1 for cyclic permutation (e.g., 123)

εijk = -1 for anticyclic permutation (e.g., 132)

Using the above definition, the vector product is given by:

(2.10)
2.2.3 Tensor Product
The tensor product is a product of two or more vectors where the unit vectors are not subject
to a scalar or vector operation. Consider the following tensor operation:

(2.11)
The result of this purely mathematical operation is a second-order tensor with nine
components:

(2.12)
The operation with any tensor such as the above second-order one acquires a physical
meaning if it is multiplied with a vector (or another tensor) in a scalar manner. Consider the
scalar product of the vector C and the second-order tensor Φ. The result of this operation is a
first-order tensor or a vector. The following example should clarify this:

(2.13)
Rearranging the unit vectors and the components separately:

(2.14)
It should be pointed out that in the above equation, the unit vector ek must be multiplied with
the closest unit vector, namely ei:

(2.15)
The result of this tensor operation is a vector with the same direction as vector B. Different
results are obtained if the positions of the terms in a dot product of a vector with a tensor are
reversed as shown in the following operation:

(2.16)
The result of this operation is a vector in direction of A. Thus, the product E = Φ · C is
different from D = C · Φ.