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Course: Educational Psychology (671)

Semester: Spring, 2020
Level: MA-Med Special Education
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
Q.l Do you agree with Allport (in E.B. Hurlock, 1078) said that
individuality is a never repeated phenomena? Support your
discussion with reference, if agree or not. (14+06) "Personality is
the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics
behavior and thought"

(Allport, 1961, p. 28).

"The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person

unique"

(Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

Both definitions emphasize the uniqueness of the individual and consequently

adopt an idiographic view.

The idiographic view assumes that each person has a unique psychological
structure and that some traits are possessed by only one person; and that there
are times when it is impossible to compare one person with others. It tends to
use case studies for information gathering.

The nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among

individuals. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological meaning
in everyone. This approach tends to use self-report personality questions, factor
analysis, etc. People differ in their positions along a continuum in the same set of
traits.

Personality development depends on the interplay of instinct and environment

during the first five years of life. Parental behavior is crucial to normal and
abnormal development. Personality and mental health problems in adulthood can
usually be traced back to the first five years.

ALLPORT'S TRAIT THEORY

He was the first psychologist who gave thorough thought to the concept of traits.
He developed his own trait theory and he continued to view the traits as the most
appropriate way of describing and studying personality. He is, by many, actually
considered to be the first psychologist dealing with personality at all and was the
first to offer a class in this field at
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Harvard University in 1924. Throughout his life, Allport continued to develop and
work with his trait theory and he inspired many other psychologists who also
adopted the approach to personality or developed their own trait theory

Allport's theory of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and

the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For
example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes and traits.

Allport (1937) believes that personality is biologically determined at birth, and

shaped by a person's environmental experience, the measurement of consistent
patterns of habit in an individual's behavior, thoughts, and emotions. The theory
is based on the stability of traits over time, how they differ from other individuals,
and how they will influence human behavior. Trait theories state that human
beings possess wide varieties of characteristics or traits that are constant over
time, not everyone will share the same characteristics or traits; but, all of us will
share from the same pool of characteristics that make up the psyche of all
humans.

Allport's theory is known as the trait theory because he emphasized the nature &
evolution of personality traits. His theory is also called the Psychology of
Individuals because it emphasizes a person's uniqueness. Allport was certain that
motivation is always a contemporary process. An individual's current self-image is
far more important than whatever he/she has been in the past. No central
motive, even for abnormal personalities, is ever totally independent of the
contemporary ego structure. The withdrawn catatonic will speak, upon recovery,
of events he/she attempted but ultimately failed to respond to, during the
deepest state of their catatonic condition.

Allport viewed psychology as the study of the healthy person. Another basic
approach he takes is that of the individual human as unique. Each person is
different from the other and should therefore be studied accordingly. Individual
can still be compared but Allport's understanding of psychology goes beyond just
comparison. He emphasizes this individuality in virtually all aspects of his
psychology, another contrast to the view of the psychoanalysts as well as other
psychologists, who put emphasis on similarities within people.

Another radical view of Allport is one regarding the dynamics within the
individual. He referred to this as functional Autonomy. This aspect of his
psychology is probably where Allport differs most from other psychologists of his
time, especially psycho-analysts like Freud and Jung but also behaviorists like
skinner. Allport believes that motivation occurs independent of past experiences;
it is the present motives such as interests, attitudes and life style that govern a
person's behavior.
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CONCLUSION

Every person is unique in his personality, character, attitude and habits. It

depends on the natural factors on one hand and the societal factors on the other.
The personality traits within a person are individual characteristics that are
unique in every manner.
Attitude can be evaluated, but a trait cannot be evaluated because it naturally
exists within the individual. Thus, attitude is difficult to work with as a unit of
measurement. The different combination of traits found in each of us are what
makes us unique. Trait theories are therefore, primarily concerned with the
differences in people with regards to their own set of personality traits.

Q.2 What is learning? Compare stimulus-response theory and

cognitive theories in context of learning? (05+15)
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Psychologists often define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior
as a result of experience. The psychology of learning focuses on a range of topics
related to how people learn and interact with their environments.

During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as
behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning
process.

The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning—-Classical conditioning is a learning process an

association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a that naturally
evokes a response. in which
stimulus
Operant Conditioning—Operant conditioning is a learning process the in which
probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to
reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F.
Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the
consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.

Observational learning—Observational learning is a process in which learning

occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning
theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also
learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.

THE COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists in

development, inspired to explore children's ability to think and reason by
watching his own children's development. He was one of the first to recognize
and map out the ways in which children's intelligence differs from that of adults.
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He became interested in this area when he was asked to test the IQ of children
and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed
that children's intellectual skills change over time that that maturation rather
than training brings about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the
world differently.

Piaget thought development unfolded in a series of stages approximately

associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that
unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and
formal operational.

Age
Description
(years)

Sensorimotor World experienced through senses and actions

Use words and images to represent things but lack lorica

Preoperational
reasoning

perforr
r

Table 1. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

THE STIMULUS RESPONSE THOERY OF LEARNING

Edward Thorndike is one of the great learning theorists of all time. He believed
that instruction should pursue specified, socially useful goals. In 1928 his classic
study, Adult Learning, he posited that the ability to learn did not decline until age
35, and then it declined only 1 percent per year, thus going against the grain of
the time that "you can't teach an old dog new tricks." However, it was later
shown that the speed of learning, not the power to learn, declined with
age.
Thorndike supported Dewey's functionalism and added a stimulus-response
component and renamed it connectionist. His theory became an educational
requirement for the next fifty years.

Thorndike specified three conditions that maximized learning:

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•The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally
governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or
punishment.

•The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the
recurrence.

■The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened

through repetition.

COMPARISON OF BOTH THE THEORIES

Spence characterized cognitive theories of learning as those that "Emphasized

the formation and modification of cognitive patterns representative of
the relationships in the environment."

For the most part, within these theories, such as those of Koffka (1935), Kohler
(1940), Lewin (1936), and Tolman (1932), learning was construed as part of a
larger problem of perceptual organization and reorganization with experience. By
contrast, stimulus-response (S-R) theories, such as those of Guthrie (1935), Hull
(1943), Spence (1936), and Thorndike (1898) emphasized such constructs as
habits and S-R bonds, which referred to hypothetical learning states or
intervening variables. S-R theories provided rules relating stimulus factors such
as reward magnitude, number and timing to the strengths of those intervening
variables, and rules relating those variables to empirical response measures. On
the whole, Spence saw few points of disagreement between these two theoretical
positions, and attributed most of the dissension between the camps

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN COGNITIVE AND S-R THEORIES

Metaphors: map control rooms vs. telephone switchboards

Perhaps because spatial-learning tasks provided an important test arena for early
cognitive and S-R psychologists, cognitive theories of learning became associated
with the metaphor of "map control rooms", in which spatial representations and
relations were acquired, computed, and exploited. By contrast, S-R theories
became attached to the analogy of "telephone switchboards" by which stimulus
inputs were, through learning, connected to new response outputs.

Neurophysiologic basis of learning: brain fields or receptor-

effecter connections
Whereas cognitive theorists referred to reorganization of "electrical brain fields"
and "neurophysiologic trace systems", Hull (1943) related habit formation to the
establishment of neural "receptor-effecter" connections. Spence noted that these
differences had little or no significance for learning theory because these
neurophysiologic models were nothing
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more than analogies and played no role in the deductions or inferences of either
camp

Stimulus-stimulus (S-S) or stimulus-response (S-R) associations

Cognitive theorists of the time were clear that learning involved associations
among, or reorganization of, sensory-perceptual processes. By contrast, Guthrie,
Thorndike, Hull and others posited that learning involved S-R associations,
between stimuli and "muscle contraction and glandular secretion.

Contents vs. conditions of learning

Spence noted that cognitive theorists tended to emphasize the "intrinsic"
properties of their constructs, whereas S-R theorists tended to be concerned with
the empirical relations among experimental variables that determine their
constructs. In Rescorla's (1975) terminology, the cognitive theorists concentrated
on the content of learning whereas S-R theorists focused on the conditions under
which learning occurred.

Q.3 Discuss the G.S. Belkin & J. L. Gray different functions of

evaluation, how we can apply these functions in educational
evaluation? (06+14)
EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION
Educational evaluation is applied to find out learners' achievements and diagnose
educational outcomes, and plays a vital role in improving the education quality.
The reason for this is that it determines to what extent the educational procedure
is in line with students' capabilities, how practical it is and how successful it has
been at achieving educational goals. To fulfill their educational goals, educational
contexts need to know how far the procedures are in line with their prefabricated
goals. Today educational evaluations a useful tool for managers and teachers for
decision making on issues such as continuing, revising or expanding educational
syllabus.

Seif (2008) states that evaluation is a rule governed process for gathering and
analysis of data. It is used to determine whether the educational goals are
fulfilled or they are on the process of fulfillment, and to what extent. He also
believes that the main goal in education is to make changes in learners' behavior.
Seif also states that education is comprised of three phases: determining goals,
teaching and educational evaluation.

Educational Evaluation: Functions and Applications

Educational evaluation has numerous functions and application.
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• Diagnose: educational evaluation can be used in learning contexts; this

function can help teachers to determine the factors affecting learners' learning
process which in turn may eliminate learning problems.

• Syllabus Revision: educational evaluation can be really helpful in syllabus

design and revision. • Comparison: It can be used to compare syllabus, teaching
methods and other aspects of education such as management.

• Needs Analysis: Needs analysis means gathering quantitative data to find out
the needs of a certain group of learners, education employees and the people in
the society

Other functions of evaluation include—

1. Paying close attention to goals and what should be achieved through

education procedure;

2. Supporting the determined syllabus and eliminating its flaws to achieve

educational goals;

3. Emphasizing solidarity of the participants and therefore achieving educational

goals;

4. Paving the way for improving system, atmosphere and expanding the
appropriate human resources and therefore improving and developing the
society, economy and culture within the country;

5. Feeling responsible for educational procedures and ensuring individuals and

the society of these activities;

6. Announcing the educational procedures.

Bazargan (2006) also states that educational evaluation involves the reflection of
activities of a unit or educational phenomenon in order to push the
predetermined goals forward.

Studying the descriptive evaluation and the traditional paradigm in elementary

school on the basis of the class atmosphere, students' emotional characteristics
and creativity, Maher et al. (2007) found that there is significant difference
between descriptive evaluation and traditional paradigm with respect to the
variables of class atmosphere (collaborative learning, individualism, competition,
fairness in scoring, detachment from school and social support).

Haghighi (2007) in his study on the impact of educational evaluation on Tehran

elementary school students' learning found that there is a significant difference
between the experimental and the control group. Aboomohamadi (2005) in a
study on elementary teachers' point of view towards descriptive evaluation found
that 75 percent of the teachers were in favor of the issue and pointed out its
advantages such as reduction of
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stress, elevation of intake and improving learning quality. They also pointed out
the disadvantages which were its being time consuming and families not being in
line with it.

Evaluation is a process in which an educational and training procedure is

compared with its predetermined goals to find out their fulfillment. Educational
evaluation has a variety of functions and applications such as diagnosis, syllabus
revision, comparison and needs analysis.

The most important functions and applications of educational evaluation are

paying close attention to learning goals and what should be achieved through
education procedure and making decisions about them, supporting the
determined syllabus and eliminating its flaws to achieve educational goals and
improving the human resources, emphasizing solidarity of the participants and
therefore achieving educational goals, paving the way for improving the system,
atmosphere and expanding human resources and therefore improving and
developing the society, economy and culture within the country, feeling
responsible for educational procedures and ensuring individuals and the society of
the activities and announcing the educational procedures.

Q.4 What can you, as a special education teacher, do to increase

the probability that students and parent will correctly interpret
school reports and respond to them in ways that make it easier to
reach educational goals?
(20)
The role that teachers and school counselors play in the education of students
with special needs is increasingly important (Lockhart, 2003). As school
counselors work with students with disabilities within their schools, they also
frequently have the opportunity, or the need, to work with the parents of those
students. Parents of students with disabilities share the concerns of all parents
about child-rearing and about education and also have additional concerns
related to their children's disabilities. Professional school counselors can serve an
important role as advocates for students with disabilities and their parents:
"Professional school counselors are often the designated (and sometimes lone)
advocates for children with special needs and their parents in an intricate and
often intimidating educational bureaucracy" (Erford, House, & Martin, 2003, p.
18). Understanding the concerns and perspectives of these parents is essential to
working with them effectively as partners in their children's education.

Just as it is unwise to generalize about students as if all students were the same
or about parents as if all parents or all families were the same, so it is unwise to
generalize about all parents of children with special needs, making the
assumption that they are all the same. Not only is the range of special needs and
disabling conditions vast, but parents and families
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also vary in their styles, concerns, approaches, values, involvement, and

backgrounds.

Not all children with special needs enter the educational system already identified
as having a disability. Although the movement for early identification and early
intervention has been successful in identifying many children with special needs
at the preschool level, some students' needs may not become apparent until
sometime after they begin formal school.

PARENT TEACHER INTERACTION CAN HAVE POSITIVE EFFECT ON

CHILDREN'S PERFORMANCE
School counselors can serve an important role in, on one hand, reassuring and
educating parents regarding measures taken at school to insure children's safety
and, on the other hand, alerting school officials to safety concerns that need
attention. An additional important role for school counselors working with parents
of students with disabilities is to encourage parents to help their children develop
independence by not overprotecting them. Although making such adjustments
may be difficult for parents, they can be helped to see that fostering
independence is in the long-term best interests of the child.

Children with disabilities may have communication difficulties, such as little or no

speech or speech that is difficult to understand, making it more difficult for them
to converse with peers and to make friends. Children with chronic health
problems or frequent surgeries may have frequent school absences, making it
difficult for them, as well, to make friends. In addition, paraprofessional teaching
assistants who are with a child with a disability during the school day may serve
as an obstacle to making friends, as peers communicate with the aide rather than
with the child or as children are inhibited by the hovering presence of an adult. In
addition, the student with a disability may, in turn, be more comfortable and
accustomed to interacting with adults than with peers and may have difficulties
understanding how to relate to peers.

School counselors can be active in many ways in helping students with disabilities
to establish friendships within the school community. Educating the school
community, discussed above, is an important step toward breaking down
attitudinal and informational barriers that might impede the development of
friendships for students with disabilities. In addition, as part of a small-group
counseling program, school counselors can create friendship groups and include
students with disabilities in those groups along with their nondisabled peers.
School counselors also can work with individual children with a focus on their
difficulties in forming friendships, helping them to identify the source of their
difficulties and ways to overcome them. School counselors can serve as a source
of information and evaluation in terms of students' progress toward social
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development goals in their lEPs. School counselors can communicate these

possibilities to parents of students with disabilities, partnering with them to help
students with disabilities make friends.

School counselors can consult with special education teachers or school

psychologists about assessment options or with teachers in gifted education
about the characteristics of gifted children, and they can communicate with
parents about alternative methods for student identification. School counselors
also can advocate for twice-exceptional students with teachers, reminding them
that both the disability and the giftedness need to be accommodated.

CONCLUSION
Children with special needs are an asset to our society and they can serve as
productive members if both their teachers and parents interact with each other in
providing a healthy, learning environment and cater to their special needs.

Q.5 Most of our teachers are thinking that guidance and counseling
are same but these are not. Differentiate between guidance and
counseling. How guidance and counseling can help a special
education teacher to provide guidance and counseling to special
need children and their parents? (20)
What is Guidance?
Guidance is advice given to an individual concerning matters such as career. An
expert in the field in question, say career choices, advises individuals on how to
go about everything. Guidance aims at making people know the pros and cons of
their decisions. It enlightens individuals on how to make the right choices. The
experts make individuals know that choices have consequences, especially in the
future.

Guidance is the approach used to help learners choose their courses or career
paths wisely. It aims at helping the person develop themselves for their future. It
serves individuals with ready solutions.

What is counseling?
In counseling, a client discusses freely with the counselor or therapist. They
express their emotions, fears, and problems to the counselor. The counselor then
helps them deal with their problems and other reasons people go to see a
therapist. The primary purpose of counseling is to have an individual open up so
that they can get the help they need.

The discussion between the client and counselor is often in a confidential

environment.
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Counseling digs into the root of the problems before identifying potential
solutions. The counselor works to help the client view life from a positive
viewpoint.

The Differences between Guidance and Counseling

The differences between guidance and counseling are as discussed below:

■Guidance is preventive, while counseling is curative. You may seek guidance

before choosing careers, but you seek counseling to save a problematic marriage.

■Guidance helps an individual make the best choices, while counseling helps
them change their perspective. Guidance gives clients ready answers, while
counseling helps them come up with their well-informed solutions.

•Guidance uses an external approach to tackle the issue at hand while counseling
uses an in-depth approach to establish the root causes of the problem before
tackling it.

■Guidance is the best approach for tackling educational and career problems
while counseling is best employed in tackling socio- psychological and other
personal problems.

•Guidance is provided by an expert in the field at hand or anybody superior. It

does not require professional training. Counseling is given by people who have
been trained professionally to handle psychological problems.

■Guidance provides ready answers and decisions for clients while counseling
empowers individuals to create the most appropriate solutions to tackle an issue.

•In guidance, confidentiality is not a guarantee. It can be conducted for an

individual or a group. In counseling, you are guaranteed confidentiality since the
sessions are always one to one.

COUNSELING STUDENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Several general guidelines are useful for counselors serving children and
adolescents with developmental disabilities and their families. Of utmost
importance, counselors must understand the characteristics and needs of these
groups. Counselors should advocate for culturally sensitive screening and
consultation about alternative solutions in the general education classroom prior
to referral and placement in special education (Tarver Behring & Ingraham,
1998). Counselors also should support and participate directly in educational
supports when academic difficulties are first evident (Echevarria, 2002).
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Counselors, too, must have general knowledge of the culturally fair methods and
instruments for assessing children and youth in various categories. Once an
exceptional need has been identified, counselors may help by providing parents
with referrals for various services, such as educational evaluations and services
within the public school setting; health screenings; neurological evaluations;
psychiatric assessments for medication; speech and language services, physical
therapy, and career and vocational resources, both at school and in the
community; specialized family counseling services; and support groups.
Counselors then can consult with teachers, special educational personnel,
parents, and community sources to plan educational and social interventions in a
coordinated manner.

In the school setting, counselors can assist the child or adolescent with
developmental disabilities by consulting with teachers about social skills
strategies and programs for the entire class. For example, through the guidance
of counselors, teachers can act as role models by showing respect for all students
and can help the class generate ground rules for classroom communication and
give positive feedback to students without disabilities who are engaging in social
interaction or academic activities with classmates with disabilities. Both within
and outside the school setting, counselors can work directly with children and
adolescents with developmental disabilities through individual and group
counseling on key social and emotional areas of difficulty, such as low self-
esteem.

Counselors can help these children and adolescents to build positive self- esteem
by modeling appropriate ways to express feelings, teaching them how to think of
alternative solutions to a problem, empowering these youngsters to be involved
in decision making about themselves, creating opportunities for them to learn
positive behavior through rewards and recurring successful experiences,
providing them with accurate information about the disability, and identifying
others with the disability who have succeeded (Pierangelo & Jacoby, 1996).

Counselors also can work with the entire family on acceptance, goal setting, and
rewards for success in the home to promote optimal conditions for these children
and adolescents to reach their fullest potential. In addition, counselors can work
with the family to facilitate the emotional adjustment of all family members by
encouraging positive feelings for one another within the family, discussing how to
balance attention for each child in the family, and specifying methods for support
and stress reduction for the parents.

Counselors can consult with teachers about specific techniques ( e.g., teaching
the sequential-step approach to math problems, using repetition, teaching
outlining techniques, and instructing students in the use of memory aids),
classroom modifications (e.g., administering oral tests, using computers, audio
taping lectures, reducing assignments, and
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allowing extended time to complete work), and motivational approaches (e.g.,

employing internal and external rein forcers, token economies, and contracts for
adolescents) that fit each student's special needs (Westman, 1990).

Counselors can help teachers to be role models for the rest of the class in
promoting social success for students with learning disabilities and can help them
facilitate supportive peer activities such as peer pairing, cooperative work groups,
and classroom social skills programs (Tarver Behring et al., 1998). If attention
difficulties are present in combination with specific learning disabilities,
counselors can recommend that parents consult with a psychiatrist about the
possibility of prescribing stimulant medication for children who have not
responded to other techniques (Barkley, 1995).

Finally, counselors can offer support to parents in relation to specific difficulties

and demands in the home: tutorial services to reduce parents' stress surrounding
schoolwork demands; assistance in developing schedules to help parent who are
frustrated because of their children's lack of organization; and referral of children
to social organizations to address parents' concerns about their children's low
self-esteem, social status, and long-term educational and career adjustment
(Westman, 1990).

Especially helpful for parents of adolescents with emotional disturbance is

training in creating and using contracts that clearly specify limits, rules, expected
behaviors, privileges, and consequences for inappropriate behaviors. Even though
families may contribute to the behavioral and emotional disorders of children and
adolescents when discipline is harsh or inconsistent, a child's difficulties often are
caused less directly by the parenting style alone than by a negative cycle in
which the parents lack coping skills and strategies to deal with the youngster's
difficult temperament (Patterson, 1986). Therefore, family therapy is strongly
recommended to resolve anger and negative interaction patterns in the family.

Individual and group counseling can be beneficial with children and adolescents
who have mild and moderate emotional problems. Through individual counseling,
the counselor can build a therapeutic, supportive relationship and work to change
the child's or adolescent's negative selfimage, depressed or anxious feelings, or
relationship difficulties with peers. Group counseling can help the child or
adolescent learn to express feelings more appropriately and can help the child or
adolescent develop a positive self-concept, improve social skills and academic
performance, and increase motivation. Planning educational and career goals
with adolescents, parents, and teachers can provide positive alternatives to help
the adolescent with a mild or moderate emotional or behavioral disorder toward
long-term adjustment (Kauffman, 1997).
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CONCLUSION

Exceptional children and adolescents comprise a diverse and complex group

requiring a wide range of services according to their individual needs. Counseling
with children and adolescents with exceptional needs must be coordinated with
educational services, medical and remedial specialists, family members, and the
students themselves. Exceptional children and adolescents receive maximal
benefits when comprehensive counseling services are offered in combination with
a variety of other support services in the most normalized environment possible.