Xhosa people

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Further information: Xhosa language
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Xhosa
AmaXhosa
Total population
8,104,752 (2011 Census)
Regions with significant populations
7,834,203

Eastern Cape: 5,092,152

Western Cape: 1,403,233
 South Africa
Gauteng: 796,841
Free State: 201,145

KwaZulu-Natal: 340,832
 Zimbabwe 200,000[1]
Languages
Xhosa (many also speak Zulu, English, and/or Afrikaans)
Religion
traditional African religions, Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Zulu, Hlubi, Swati, Southern Ndebele and Northern Ndebele
Xhosa
Person umXhosa
People AmaXhosa
Language isiXhosa
Country kwaXhosa

Xhosa people (/ˈkɔːsə, ˈkoʊsə/;[2][3] Xhosa pronunciation: [kǁʰɔ́ːsa] ( listen)) are a Nguni

ethnic group in Southern Africa whose homeland is primarily within the modern-day
Eastern Cape. There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking (Mfengu) community in
Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognised as a national language.[4]

The Xhosa Nation is made up of two sub tribes. The main tribes are the amaGcaleka and
amaRharhabe; AmaRharhabe are made up of AmaNgqika, amaMbalu, amaNtinde,
amaGqunukhwebe, imiDange, imiDushane, and amaNdlambe. The tradional Xhosa
territory is between Mbhashe river and Xelexwa river or Gamtoos river in Jeffrey's bay;
Inland, it goes all the way to the winterberg mountains near Sommerset East. In addition,
there are other nations or Kingdoms found near amaXhosa Kingdom; in their North East
beyond the Mbhashe River, people such as abaThembu settled between Mbhashe and
Mthatha rivers, amaBhaca between the Tina and Mzimvubu rivers, abakoBhosha,
AmaMpondo settled between Mthatha and Mtamvuna rivers, amaMpondomise settled
between Tina, Tsitsa and Mthatha river and amaQwathi settled inland in Thembuland that
are distinct and separate Nations which have adopted the isiXhosa language and the
Xhosa way of life.[5]

Presently approximately 8 million Xhosa people are distributed across the country, and
the Xhosa language is South Africa's second-most-populous home language, after the
Zulu language, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid system of
Bantustans denied the Xhosa South African citizenship, but enabled them to have self-
governing "homelands" namely; Transkei and Ciskei, now both a part of the Eastern
Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa live in Cape Town (eKapa in
Xhosa), East London (Ku-Gompo), and Gqeberha.

As of 2003 the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 5.3 million, lived in the
Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng
(671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461),
Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), and Limpopo (14,225).[6]

Xhosa settlement in Eastern Cape

Contents
 1 History
 2 Language
 3 Folklore and religion
 4 Rites of passage
 5 Rituals surrounding umtshato (Xhosa marriage)
o 5.1 Ukuthwalwa
o 5.2 Isiduko
o 5.3 Ikhazi
 o 5.4 Ukuyalwa
 6 Xhosa burial practices
 7 Traditional diet
o 7.1 Xhosa cuisine
 8 Art
 9 Xhosa beadwork
 10 Xhosa beadwork and its symbolism
 11 Clothing
o 11.1 Women
 11.1.1 Description
o 11.2 Men
 11.2.1 Description
 12 Xhosas in modern society
 13 Notable Xhosa
 14 See also
 15 References
 16 External links

History
The Xhosa are part of the South African Nguni migration which slowly moved south
from the region around the Great Lakes. Xhosa speaking people (amaXhosa,
amaMpondo, abaThembu and amaMpondomise) were already well established by the
time of the Dutch arrival in the mid-17th century, and occupied much of eastern South
Africa from the Gamtoos River Jeffrey's Bay area to lands inhabited by Zulu-speakers
south of the modern city of Durban.[5]

Xhosa people, 1848

The Xhosa and white settlers first encountered one another around East London in 1686
when survivors of the wrecked ship 'Stavenisse' were taken in as guests by the then
Xhosa ruler named Togu.[7] In the late 18th century Afrikaner trekboers migrating
outwards from Cape Town came into conflict with Xhosa pastoralists around the
Gamtoos River region of the Eastern Cape; The colonists pushed the Xhosas back to The
Great Fish River (Nxuba in Xhosa). Following more than 20 years of intermittent
conflict, from 1811 to 1812, the Xhosas were forced east of the Fish River by the British
Empire in the Third Frontier War.
In the years following, many tribes found in the north eastern parts of South Africa were
pushed west into Xhosa country by the expansion of the Zulus in Natal, as the northern
Nguni put pressure on the southern Nguni as part of the historical process known as the
mfecane, or "scattering". The Xhosa-speaking people received these scattered tribes and
assimilated them into their cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions. The Xhosa
called these various tribes AmaMfengu, meaning wanderers, and were made up of tribes
such as the amaBhaca, amaBhele, amaHlubi, amaZizi and Rhadebe. These newcomers
came to speak Xhosa and are sometimes considered to be Xhosa.

Xhosa unity and ability to resist colonial expansion was to be weakened by the famines
and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858.
Historians now view this movement as a millennialist response, both directly to a lung
disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa
society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy.[citation needed]

Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate
origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among
Xhosa people.[citation needed] That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa
representation in the leadership of the African National Congress, South Africa's ruling
political party.

Language
Main article: Xhosa language
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Map of South Africa showing the primary Xhosa language speech area in green

Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal language of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas call their
language "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to as "Xhosa" in English. Written Xhosa uses a
Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken by about 18% of the South African
population, and has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken in
urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, particularly those living in urban areas, also speak
Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Folklore and religion
Traditional healers of South Africa include diviners (amagqirha). This job is mostly
taken by women, who spend five years in apprenticeship. There are also herbalists
(amaxhwele), prophets (izanuse), and healers (iinyanga) for the community.

The Xhosas have a strong oral tradition with many stories of ancestral heroes; according
to tradition, the leader from whose name the Xhosa people take their name was the first
King of the nation. One of Xhosa's descendants named Phalo gave birth to two sons,
Gcaleka kaPhalo, the heir, and Rarabe ka Phalo, a son from the Right Hand house.
Rarabe was a great warrior and a man of great ability who was much loved by his father.
Gcaleka was a meek and listless man who did not possess all the qualities befitting of a
future king. Matters were also complicated by Gcaleka's initiation as a diviner, which was
a forbidden practice for members of the royal family.

Seeing the popularity of his brother and fearing that he might one day challenge him for
the throne, Gcaleka attempted to usurp the throne from his father, but Rarabe would come
to his father's aid and quell the insurrection. With the blessing of his father, who provided
him retinue and also accompanied him; Rarabe would leave the great place and settle in
the Amathole Mountains region. Rarabe, through his military prowess, subjugated
various tribes he found in the region and would buy lands from the Khoikhoi to establish
his own kingdom. The amaXhosa would from then on be split into two kingdoms under
the senior amaGcaleka and the junior amaRharhabe.

The AmaRharhabe branch of the AmaXhosa is under the leadership of King Jonguxolo
Sandile (Ah! Vululwandle!), who was named and anointed King at the Special Official
Funeral of his mother, Queen Noloyiso Sandile Aah! Noloyiso, who was a daughter of
King Cyprian Bhekuzulu Nyangayezizwe kaSolomon and sister to the current reigning
Zulu monarch Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu.

The AmaGcaleka and amaXhosa as a whole are currently under King Ahlangene
Sigcawu ahh Vulikhaya!!. He was crowned after the death of the monarch his brother,
King Mpendulo Sigcawu (Ah! Zwelonke!) .[8][5]

The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the imbongi (plural: iimbongi) or praise
singer. imbongi traditionally live close to the chief's "great place" (the cultural and
political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions – the
imbongi Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his Presidential inauguration in 1994.
imbongis' poetry, called imibongo, praises the actions and adventures of chiefs and
ancestors.

The supreme being is called uThixo or uQamata. In Xhosa tradition the ancestors act as
intermediaries between the living and God; they are honoured in rituals in order to bring
good fortune. Dreams play an important role in divination and contact with ancestors.
Traditional religious practice features rituals, initiations, and feasts. Modern rituals
typically pertain to matters of illness and psychological well-being.
Christian missionaries established outposts among the Xhosa in the 1820s, and the first
Bible translation was in the mid-1850s, partially done by Henry Hare Dugmore. Xhosa
did not convert in great numbers until the 20th century, but now many are Christian,
particularly within the African initiated churches such as the Zion Christian Church.
Some denominations combine Christianity with traditional beliefs.

Rites of passage
Further information: Xhosa clan names

The Xhosa are a South African cultural group who emphasise traditional practices and
customs inherited from their forefathers. Each person within the Xhosa culture has his or
her place which is recognised by the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa
person goes through graduation stages which recognise his growth and assign him a
recognised place in the community. Each stage is marked by a specific ritual aimed at
introducing the individual to their counterparts and also to their ancestors. Starting from
imbeleko, a ritual performed to introduce a new born to the ancestors, to umphumo (the
homecoming), from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals and ceremonies
are sancrosact to the identity and heritage of the Xhosa and other African descendents.
Though some western scholars question the relevance of these practices today, even
urbanised Xhosa people do still follow them. The ulwaluko and intonjane are also
traditions which separated this tribe from the rest of the Nguni tribes. These are
performed to mark the transition from child to adulthood. Zulus once performed the ritual
but King Shaka stopped it because of war in the 1810s. In 2009 it was reintroduced by
King Goodwill Zwelithini Zulu, not as a custom, but as a medical procedure to curb HIV
infections.

All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the
individual spends time with community elders to prepare for the next stage. The elders'
teachings are not written, but transmitted from generation to generation by oral tradition.
The iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even more
than names and surnames) are transferred from one to the other through oral tradition.
Knowing your isiduko is vital to the Xhosas and it is considered a shame and uburhanuka
(lack-of-identity) if one doesn't know one's clan. This is considered so important that
when two strangers meet for the first time, the first identity that gets shared is isiduko. It
is so important that two people with the same surname but different clan names are
considered total strangers, but two people from the same clan but with different surnames
are regarded as close relatives. This forms the roots of ubuntu (human kindness) – a
behaviour synonymous to this tribe as extending a helping hand to a complete stranger
when in need. Ubuntu goes further than just helping one another – it is so deep that it
even extends to looking after and reprimanding your neighbour's child when in the
wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a village to raise a child".

One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite
that marks the transition from boyhood to manhood, ulwaluko. After ritual circumcision,
the initiates (abakwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains.
During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe
numerous customs.

In modern times the practice has caused controversy, with over 825 circumcision- and
initiation-related deaths since 1994, and the spread of sexually transmitted infections,
including HIV, via the practice of circumcising initiates with the same blade.[9] In March
2007, a controversial mini-series dealing with Xhosa circumcision and initiation rites
debuted on South African Broadcasting Corporation. Titled Umthunzi Wentaba, the series
was taken off the air after complaints by traditional leaders that the rites are secret and
not to be revealed to non-initiates and women.[10] In January 2014 the website
ulwaluko.co.za was released by a Dutch medical doctor. It features a gallery of
photographs of injured penises, which sparked outrage amongst traditional leaders in the
Eastern Cape.[11] The South African Film and Publication Board ruled that the website
was "scientific with great educative value", addressing a "societal problem needing
urgent intervention".[12]

Girls are also initiated into womanhood (Intonjane). They too are secluded, though for a
shorter period. Female initiates are not circumcised.[5]

Other rites include the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth, and the burial
of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. This is reflected in the traditional
greeting Inkaba yakho iphi?, literally "where is your navel?" The answer "tells someone
where you live, what your clan affiliation is, and what your social status is and contains a
wealth of undisclosed cultural information. Most importantly, it determines where you
belong".[13]

Rituals surrounding umtshato (Xhosa marriage)

Xhosa marriage, umtshato, is one that is filled with a number of customs and rituals
which relate to the upkeep of Xhosa traditional practices. These rituals have been
practiced for decades by the Xhosa people and have been incorporated into modern day
Xhosa marriages as well. The purpose of the practices is to bring together two different
families and to give guidance to the newly wed couple throughout.[14]

Ukuthwalwa

To start off the procedures the male intending to marry goes through Ukuthwalwa which
entails him choosing his future bride and making his intentions of marriage known, how
ever this practice was not done by all the tribes within the xhosa people.[15] In modern
day, the man and woman would most likely have been in courtship or a relationship prior
to Ukuthwalwa. Decades before Ukuthwalwa would entail legal bridal abduction, where
the man could choose a woman of his liking to be his bride and go into negotiations with
the family of the bride without her knowledge or consent. She would have to abide to the
marriage as per tradition.[16]

Isiduko
Following Ukuthwala, the man will then be in discussion with his parents or relatives to
inform them of his choice in bride. During this discussion the clan name, isiduko, of the
woman would be revealed and researched.[14] If it were found that the woman and the
man share the same clan name they would not be allowed to proceed with the marriage as
it is said that people with the same clan name are of the same relation and cannot be wed.
[17]

Ikhazi

Once discussions with the family are complete and satisfactory information about the
woman is acquired then the family of the man will proceed to appoint marriage
negotiators. It is these very negotiators that will travel to the family of the woman to
make known the man and his intentions. Once the negotiators reach the family of the
woman they will be kept in the kraal, inkundla, of the woman's family. If the family does
not possess a kraal they will simply be kept outside the household as they will not be
allowed to enter the household without the acknowledgment and acceptance of the
woman's family. It is here where the lobola (dowry) negotiations will begin. The family
of the woman will give them a bride-price and a date for which they must return to pay
that price. The bride-price is dependent on numerous things such as her level of
education, the wealth status of her family in comparison to that of the man's family, what
the man stands to gain in the marriage and the overall desirability of the woman. The
payment of the bride-price could be in either cattle or money depending on the family of
the woman. The modern Xhosa families would rather prefer money as most are situated
in the urban cities where there would be no space nor permits for livestock.[18]

Upon return of the man's family on the given date, they will pay the bride-price and bring
along gifts of offering such as livestock and alcoholic beverages, iswazi, to be drunk by
the family of the bride. Once the lobola from the man's negotiators is accepted then they
will be considered married by the Xhosa tradition and the celebrations would commence.
These include slaughtering of the livestock as a grateful gesture to their ancestors as well
as pouring a considerable amount of the alcoholic beverages on the ground of the bride's
household to give thanks to their ancestors. The groom's family is then welcomed into the
family and traditional beer, Umqombothi, will be prepared for the groom's family as a
token of appreciation from the bride's family.

Ukuyalwa

To solidify their unity the family of the bride will head to the groom's household where
the elders will address her with regards to how to carry herself and dress appropriately at
her newly found household, this is called Ukuyalwa.[14] Furthermore, a new name will
also be given to her by the women of the groom's family and this name signifies the bond
of the two families.

Xhosa burial practices

Burial practices and customs include a specific sequence of events and rituals which need
to be performed in order to regard a funeral as dignified. Once the family has been
notified that a member has died, the extended family comes together in preparation for
the burial of the deceased.

The "umkhapho" (to accompany) ritual is performed in order to accompany the spirit of
the deceased to the land of the ancestors. The local male clan leader or his proxy is the
one who facilitates the process. The purpose of umkhapho is to keep the bonds between
the deceased person and the bereaved alive so that the deceased may be able to return
later and communicate as an ancestor. During this ritual, an animal such as a goat is
slaughtered. A larger animal like a cow may also be slaughtered for an important person
like a head of the family whilst a goat without a blemish may be slaughtered for others.

Further customs include the emptying the main bedroom of the bereaving family, known
as 'indlu enkulu'. This room is where most of the last respects will be paid by family and
friends. The emptying of the room is done in order to create space for extended family
members to be able to mourn in the main room. The first family members and/or
neighbours to arrive arrange the main bedroom to accommodate this seating arrangement
by placing a traditional grass mat (ukhukho) or mattress on the floor.

Mourners do not require an invitation to attend a funeral and everyone who can and
would like to attend is welcome. This means that the bereaved family has to cater for an
unknown number of mourners. Traditionally, mourners were fed with 'inkobe', which is
boiled dried corn and water, and the corn was taken from the family food reserves as well
as donated by family members and neighbours. In the 21st century, it is regarded as taboo
to feed mourners with 'inkobe' and, as a result of shame, funeral catering has become a
lucrative business for the industry during burial events.

Xhosa woman preparing food for large groups of people

On the day of burial, before extended family members disperse to their homes, the
ukuxukuxa (cleansing) ritual occurs and a goat or sheep or even a fowl is slaughtered.[19]
[20]
A cleansing ritual is done the day after the burial, in which the bereaved women of the
family go to the nearest river to wash all the materials and blankets that were used by the
deceased before death. Furthermore, the clothes of the deceased are removed from the
house and the family members shave their hair. The shaving of hair is an indication that
life continues to spring up even after death.[21]

Traditional diet
The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains.
Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory, including the Kei and Fish
Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and
grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.

Traditional foods include beef (Inyama yenkomo), mutton (Inyama yegusha), and goat
meat (Inyama yebhokwe), sorghum, milk (often fermented, called "amasi"), pumpkins
(amathanga), Mielie-meal (maize meal), samp (umngqusho), beans (iimbotyi),
vegetables, like "rhabe", wild spinach reminiscent of sorrel, "imvomvo", the sweet sap of
an aloe, or "ikhowa", a mushroom that grows after summer rains.[22]

Xhosa cuisine

See also: Typical South African foods and dishes

Xhosa beer Umqombothi in Langa

 Iinkobe, peeled off fresh maize grains, and boiled until cooked. It is eaten as a
snack, preferably with salt.
 Isophi, corn with beans or peas soup
 Umleqwa, a dish made with free-range chicken.
 Umngqusho, a dish made from white maize and sugar beans, a staple food for the
Xhosa people.
 Umphokoqo, crumble pap
 Umqombothi, a type of beer made from fermented maize and sorghum.
 Umvubo, sour milk mixed with umphokoqo, commonly eaten by the Xhosa.
  Umbhako, a loaf of bread, commonly made with homemade dough. Normally
round, from baking pots
 Umfino, Wild Spinach/Cabbage called imifino, spinach mixed with mealie meal.
 Umqa, a dish made of pumpkin and mielie meal (maize meal)
 Umxoxozi, a pumpkin that is cooked before it is fully ripened.
 Amaceba, slices of unpeeled pumpkins that are cooked in plenty of water.
 Umcuku, fermented porridge [amarhewu], sour, slightly soft than porridge itself,
mixed with dry pap [umphokoqo]. And was popular in the 1900s.
 Amarhewu, soft and sour porridge
 Intyabontyi, a melon white inside eaten either raw or cooked.

Art

Xhosa women's outfit, made from cotton blanket fabric coloured with red ochre and
decorated with glass beads, mother of pearl buttons and black felt trim

Traditional crafts include bead-work, weaving, woodwork and pottery.

Traditional music features drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, mouth harps, and stringed-
instruments and especially group singing accompanied by hand clapping.[5] There are
songs for various ritual occasions; one of the best-known Xhosa songs is a wedding song
called "Qongqothwane", performed by Miriam Makeba as "Click Song #1". Besides
Makeba, several modern groups record and perform in Xhosa. Missionaries introduced
the Xhosa to Western choral singing.[5] "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", part of the National
anthem of South Africa is a Xhosa hymn written in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga.
The first newspapers, novels, and plays in Xhosa appeared in the 19th century,[5] and
Xhosa poetry is also gaining renown.

Several films have been shot in the Xhosa language. U-Carmen eKhayelitsha is a modern
remake of Bizet's 1875 opera Carmen. It is shot entirely in Xhosa, and combines music
from the original opera with traditional African music. It takes place in the Cape Town
township of Khayelitsha. Black Panther, which is an American movie that made over a
billion dollars at box office also features the Xhosa language.

Xhosa beadwork
Beads are small round objects made of glass, wood, metal, nutshell, bone seed and the
likes, which are then pierced for stringing.[23] Before glass beads were introduced, people
used natural materials to make beads. Xhosa people relied on the San to sell beads to
them through trade or barter exchange. Xhosa people would give hemp to the San in
exchange for beads. The beads made by the San were made out of ostrich egg shells
which were chipped to small size, bored and polished and strung into sinews. Producing
them took a long time, so they were scarce, highly priced, valued and in demand. It is
recorded that it was only in the 1930s that the Portuguese introduced glass beads through
trade.[24]

Xhosa beadwork and its symbolism

Adornments serve a particular purpose across different cultures as social markers. They
are used to ascertain where one belongs to with regards to identity, history and
geographical location. They reveal personal information with regards to age and gender
and social class as some beads were meant to be worn by royalty. Beadwork creates a
sense of belonging and cultural identity and traditions hence people draw their cultural
ways of living and meanings, as Xhosa people use them as social markers. Xhosa people
believe that the beads also create a link between the living and the ancestors as diviners
use them during rituals. Thus beads have some spiritual significance.[24]

Social identities/markers with regards to age, gender, grade, marital status, social rank or
role and the spiritual state can be ascertained through Xhosa beadwork. Symbolic
references are drawn from the beads through the colour, pattern, formation and motifs.
However, it ought to be taken into cognisance that some of these messages are limited to
a certain group or between two people. In Xhosa culture beads represent the
organisational framework of the people and the rites of passage that people have gone
through as the beads are representative of the stages of one's life. Motifs on the beads
often used include trees, diamonds, quadrangles, chevrons, triangles, circles, parallel lines
that form a pattern that is exclusive to certain age groups. Although the beadwork has
some cultural significance with certain motifs having exclusive meanings, the creator of
the beadwork has creative control and can create and draw meaning from individual
preference. Thus the meanings drawn from the beadwork are not rigidly set.[24]
Among the Thembu (a tribe in the Eastern Cape often erroneously referred to be a Xhosa
tribe), after circumcision, the men wore, and still wear, skirts, turbans and a wide bead
collar. A waistcoat, long necklaces, throat bands, armbands, leggings and belts are part of
his regalia. The dominant colours in the beadwork are white and navy blue, with some
yellow and green beads symbolising fertility and a new life, respectively.[24] Xhosa people
regard white as the colour of purity and mediation; white beads are still used as offerings
to spirits or to the creator. Amagqirha/diviners use white beads when communicating
with the ancestors . These diviners also carry with them beaded spears, which are
associated with the ancestors that inspire the diviner; beaded horns; and calabashes, to
hold medicinal products or snuff. "Amageza", a veil made of beads, is also part of their
regalia, they use these beads by swaying them in someone's eyes so as to induce a trance-
like state.[24]

Inkciyo is a beaded skirt that serves as a garment covering the pubic area.[25] Among the
Pondo people (Xhosa clan) the beads are turquoise and white in colour. This skirt is worn
during a virginity testing ceremony among Xhosa people undergoing their rites of
passage into womanhood.[26]

Impempe is a whistle that has a necklace on it, the whistle symbolises one's introduction
to teenagehood.[27]

Xhosa beadwork and other cultural beadworks have cultural ties, but nowadays beads are
also worn as fashion pieces, too, either as cultural appreciation or appropriation. The use
of cultural beadworks as fashion pieces means that anyone can wear these pieces without
having to belong to that cultural group.[28]

Clothing

Traditional Xhosa clothing

The Xhosa culture has a traditional dress code informed by the individuals social
standing portraying different stages of life. The 'red blanket people' (Xhosa people) have
a custom of wearing red blankets dyed with red ochre, the intensity of the colour varying
from tribe to tribe. Other clothing includes beadwork and printed fabrics. Although in
general, Xhosa lifestyle has been adapted to Western traditions, the Xhosa people still
wear traditional attire for special cultural activities. The various tribes have their own
variations of traditional dress which includes the colour of their garments and beadwork.
This allows for different Xhosa groups to be able to be distinguishable from one another
due to their different styles of dress. The Gcaleka women, for instance, encase their arms
and legs in beads and brass bangles and some also wear neck beads.[29]

Women

Unmarried women often wear wraps tied around their shoulders, leaving their breasts
exposed. Engaged women redden their plaited hair and let it screen their eyes, this was
done as a sign of respect for their fiancés. Xhosa women wear some form of headdress to
cover their heads as a sign of respect to the head of the family which is either their father
or husband. Elderly Xhosa women are allowed to wear more elaborate headpieces
because of their seniority.

Description

 Incebetha is a small blanket that is used as a bra. It is pinned or adorned with

beads. The process of making 'incebetha' is called 'uRhaswa'.
 'Ifulu' is a garment that is worn underneath, below the belt. 'Ifulu' is covered by
the 'isikhakha' or 'umbhaco' and is made of a blanket. It is also adorned with beads
through 'urhaswa'.
 'Iqhiya' is a cloth that is fitted to the head and covered with beads. Women then
wear a small and light weight blanket on the waist called 'uxakatha'.
 Women make bracelets with beads, called 'intsimbi' or 'amaso', which they wear
on their feet. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is also worn around the waist. 'Intsimbi' or
'amaso' is made with small wires or flexible material. 'Imitsheke' is worn on the
wrist. A small hand bag is worn called 'ingxowa'[30]

Men

Xhosa Men Resting during a Hunt

Xhosa men traditionally filled the roles as hunters, warriors and stockman therefore,
animal skin forms an important part of their traditional wear. Men often wear goatskin
bags in which to carry essentials such as tobacco and a knife. The bag is usually made
from skin that had been removed in one piece, cured without removing the hair, and
turned inside out. On special occasions such as weddings or initiation ceremonies, Xhosa
men wear embroidered skirts with a rectangular cloth over the left shoulder alternatively,
a tunic and strands of beaded necklaces can be worn.[31]
Description

Men wear 'ingcawa' a white and black blanket, adorned with 'ukurhaswa'. Men wear
beads around their neck. 'Isichebe' is a short bead while 'Isidanga' is a long bead necklace
with different colors. Men wear beads around their wrists and foot called 'amaso'. Beads
that are worn on the head are called 'unngqa' or 'igwala'. Men smoke pipes that are
decorated by 'ukurhaswa'. The traditional smoking pipes are called 'umbheka phesheya'.
[32][29]

Xhosas in modern society

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Modern Attire

Xhosa Man, Eastern Cape

Xhosa girl

Xhosa people currently make up approximately 18% of the South African population.
The Xhosa are the second largest cultural group in South Africa, after the Zulu-speaking
nation.[33]
Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30%,[5] and in 1996 studies estimated
the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%.[34] There have
been advances since then, however.[citation needed]

Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in

Xhosa, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still
considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at
university level. Most of the students at Walter Sisulu University and University of Fort
Hare speak Xhosa. Rhodes University in Grahamstown, additionally, offers courses in
Xhosa for both mother-tongue and non-mother-tongue speakers. These courses both
include a cultural studies component. Professor Russel H. Kaschula, Head of the School
of Languages at Rhodes, has published multiple papers on Xhosa culture and oral
literature.

The effects of government policies during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the
poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males
could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since
the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.

After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town has become
increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa people.[35]

Notable Xhosa
Main article: List of Xhosa people

See also
 List of Xhosa Kings
 King Zwelonke Sigcawu
 Xhosa wars
 Transkei
 Amafufunyana
 Lobola
 List of Xhosa people
 AbaThembu
 Amampondo
 Inqawe
 Xhosa literature

References
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 Hlenze Welsh Kunju, 2017 Isixhosa Ulwimi Lwabantu Abangesosininzi eZimbabwe:
Ukuphila Nokulondolozwa Kwaso, PhD Dissertation, Rhodes University.
  "Xhosa – pronunciation of Xhosa". Macmillan Dictionary. Macmillan Publishers
Limited. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
  Nombembe, Caciswa. "Music-making of the Xhosa diasporic community: a focus
on the Umguyo tradition in Zimbabwe." Masters dissertation, School of Arts, Faculty of
Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, 2013.
  Xhosa, Article at everyculture.com
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  History of South Africa 1486 - 1691, GM Theal, London 1888
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Uofaweb.ualberta.ca. Archived from the original on 7 July 2007. Retrieved 20 December
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  http://www.middelburgec.co.za/page/culture
  "What really goes down at a traditional Xhosa wedding". www.w24.co.za.
  Online, Matrimony. "Matrimony Online, South Africa's leading wedding
website". www.matrimony.co.za. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017.
Retrieved 14 July 2017.
  "Iziduko - Xhosa Culture". www.xhosaculture.co.za. Retrieved 17 September
2018.
  "Lobola ins and outs - HeraldLIVE". heraldlive.co.za. 20 March 2014.
  SIPHE POTELWA. (2016) The visual narrative relating to social performance of
the Xhosa people during burial. MASTER OF VISUAL ARTS. UNIVERSITY OF
SOUTH AFRICA http://hdl.handle.net/10500/22189 Accessed 15 October 2018
  Rebekah Lee (2012) Death in Slow Motion: Funerals, Ritual Practice and Road
Danger in South Africa, African Studies,71:2,195-
211,DOI:10.1080/00020184.2012.702965
  Anne Hutchings. Ritual cleansing, incense and the tree of life-observations on
some indigenous plant usage in traditional Zulu and Xhosa purification and burial rites.
Alternation 14 (2), 189-217, 2007 https://hdl.handle.net/10520/AJA10231757_488
Accessed 15 October 2018
  Xhosa cuisine
  Encyclopedia,com. http://www.encyclopedia.com/fashion/encyclopedias-
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