420 DOI: 10.1002/jpln.200521963
2006, 169, 420±433
Review Article
Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden (Albeluvisols) in Germany
Peter Kühn1*, Konrad Billwitz2, Albrecht Bauriegel3, Dieter Kühn3, and Wolf Eckelmann4
1 Institute of Geography, Chair of Physical Geography, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 19±23,
D-72070 Tübingen, Germany
2 Institute of Geography and Geology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Str. 16,
D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
3 State Institute for Mining, Geology and Natural Resources Brandenburg, Department of Geology (LBGR),
Stahnsdorfer Damm 77, D-14532 Kleinmachnow, Germany
4 Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Stilleweg 2, D-30655 Hannover, Germany
Accepted March 31, 2006
Summary
Fahlerden dominate large areas of the young and old mor-
aine landscapes of N and E Germany. Fahlerden (part of
Fahlerden corresponds to Albeluvisols) and their transitional
subtypes are supposed to have a higher intensity of clay illu-
viation than Parabraunerden (Luvisols). Besides this macro-
scopic feature reflecting periglacial influence, micromorpholo-
gical features such as lenticular platy microstructure, vesi-
cles, and fragments of clay coatings in Bt streaks document
the initiation of Fahlerde genesis, which began in the Late
Glacial. A model of Fahlerde genesis chronologically con-
nects sedimentological and periglacial processes, vegetation
development, and soil-forming processes like decalcification,
1 Introduction
Lieberoth (1964b) and Ehwald (1966) described Fahlerden
(= plural of singular Fahlerde)Ðoften Albeluvisols after WRB
(FAO, 1998)Ðas soils which have a higher intensity of clay
illuviation than Parabraunerden (singular: Parabraunerde;
often Luvisols after FAO, 1998)), a pale E horizon (if dry, whit-
ish), a sharp and irregular boundary between E and Bt hori-
zon occasionally with albeluvic tonguing of the E horizon, and
whitish silt powder on ped surfaces of the upper Bt horizon.
Additionally, Mückenhausen (1962) mentioned a relatively
low pH with signs of clay-mineral destruction. These features
are with the exception of whitish silt powder on Bt peds and
low pH the required characteristics of Fahlerden in the Ger-
man Soil Systematics (Arbeitskreis Bodensystematik, 2001)
and the 5th edition of the Soil-Mapping Guidelines (KA5;
short for Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung, Ad-hoc-AG
Boden, 2005). Genetic relations between Fahlerden and peri-
glacial cover-beds were discussed by, e.g., Altermann et al.
(1978), Kopp (1965), and Diemann (1974).
The notation of Fahlerden (after Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005) as
Albeluvisols after FAO (1998) is not satisfactory, since Albelu-
visols are characterized by albeluvic tonguing, whereas Fahl-
erden are characterized by a transitional E/Bt horizon with
optional albeluvic tonguing. Without albeluvic tonguing, Fah-
* Correspondence: Dr. P. Kühn;
e-mail: peter.kuehn@uni-tuebingen.de
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci.
PNSS P196/3B
clay illuviation, and humification. The classification criterion of
larger differences in clay contents between E and Bt horizons
to distinguish Fahlerden from Parabraunerden needs to be
reconsidered, because most Fahlerden have developed in
stratified parent material in periglacially influenced land-
scapes. The interpretation of a soil data base listing data of
both soil types distributed in Brandenburg demonstrates that
the difference in clay contents between E and Bt horizons
may even be smaller in Fahlerden than in Parabraunerden.
Key words: pedogenesis / soil classification / clay illuviation /
micromorphology / soil data base
lerden can usually be classified as Luvisols (FAO, 1998). In
the case of an abrupt textural change associated with stagnic
properties, Fahlerden can even be classified as Planosols
(cf., Tab. 4). To provide the readability of the text and to avoid
unnecessary confusion of the reader the terms Fahlerde
(sing.) and Fahlerden (pl.) will be used. The FAO (1998) nota-
tion will be given where necessary.
In the early 1960s, Fahlerden became a separate soil type in
the soil classification of the former GDR (German Democratic
Republic) (Lieberoth, 1966). In the former FRG (Federal
Republic of Germany), however, the existence and occur-
rence of Fahlerden were accepted as a matter of principle
(e.g., AG Bodenkunde, 1982), but Fahlerden were consid-
ered to be similar to Parabraunerden both in their genesis
and features. For practical reasons, it was generally accepted
that Fahlerden should not be mapped separately from Para-
braunerden in soil surveys of the former FRG, as stated in
the Soil-Mapping Guidelines (AG Bodenkunde, 1982). As a
consequence, soil data bases of the former FRG contain no
data on Fahlerden. This has changed since 1994 with the
publication of the 4th edition of Soil-Mapping Guidelines
(KA4; AG Boden, 1994).
The German Soil Systematics (Arbeitskreis Bodensystema-
tik, 2001) is primarily based on morphogenetic information,
which is to a certain degree supplemented by measurable
features or threshold values. Therefore, open pedogenetical
questions may lead to difficulties in classifying the soil.
1436-8730/06/0306-420
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
Recent results of systematic micromorphological analyses of
Fahlerden (Kühn, 2003a, b; Kühn and Bauriegel, 2003; Kühn
et al., 2002) initiated a new debate on their pedogenesis and
classification. Until now, the genesis of Fahlerden is not
completely understood, a fact that still causes difficulties in
classifying these soils. Therefore, features and properties,
which characterize Fahlerden, should be studied in more
detail. Since the Fahlerde (Pedon ªLenzenº) has been chosen
as the ªSoil of the Year 2006º in Germany, this paper is a con-
tribution to the current discussion on the distribution, genesis,
and classification of these soils.
2 Distribution in Germany
The Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources
(BGR) has produced a map showing the occurrence of Fahl-
erden in Germany. It is based on the Soil Map of Germany
Main distribution area of Fahlerden Parabraunerden or Fahlerden
associated with Bänderparabraunerden depending on regionally modified
and Braunerden terminology*)
*) The terms of Fahlerde and Parabraunerde are very often used synonymously
Source: Digital archive FISBo BGR: BÜK 1000, vers. 2.0 (2000; STEGGER & KRUG)
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden 421
1:1,000,000 (BGR, 1995) and additional information (Fig. 1).
Owing to the above mentioned differences in mapping prac-
tice, no comparable data on Fahlerden were available in soil
data bases of the former FRG.
Accepting this uncertainty, Fahlerden including transitional
soil types dominate large areas of the ground-moraine plains
covered by loamy cover sand in the young moraine land-
scapes of N and E Germany (parts of Schleswig-Holstein,
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Brandenburg). They also
occur frequently on loess and loess derivatives. Fahlerden
have been identified as the main soil type in the loess region
of central Saxony (Lieberoth, 1964a) and at the margin of the
Thuringian Basin (Haase, 1978). Furthermore, Fahlerden
occur in ground-moraine areas covered by loess and sand-
loess in the old moraine landscapes of Sachsen-Anhalt and
Brandenburg (Altermann and Fiedler, 1978).
Mostly Podsol-Braunerden as well
Bänderparabraunerden; Fahlerden
are of minor abundance
Figure 1: Distribution of Fahlerde associa-
tions in Germany.
www.plant-soil.com
422 Kühn, Billwitz, Bauriegel, Kühn, Eckelmann
Whereas Mückenhausen (1993) states that Fahlerden are
distributed predominantly on pre-Weichselian loess and on
calcareous sandstones (Keuper, Cretaceous) in S Germany,
in Scheffer and Schachtschabel (2002), it is stated that Fahl-
erden predominantly occur in loess and glacial landscapes in
middle Europe. Nevertheless, the Fahlerde map suggests
that these soils are not dominant or even existing in the W
parts of Germany (Fig. 1).
According to the soil map 1:1,000,000 (Fig. 1), Parabraun-
erden and probably Fahlerden (both dominant and asso-
ciated) and their transitional soil types cover large areas of
the former FRG, whereas Fahlerden are absent in the soil
maps 1:200,000 of this area. The only exceptions are the
sheets ªBraunschweigº (BGR, 1998) and ªHamburg-Ostº
(BGR, 2005). This is explained by the fact that these two
sheets also cover areas of the former GDR, where Fahlerden
and Parabraunerden used to be mapped separately. The dif-
ferent mapping practice in the former GDR and FRG is the
decisive reason for the association unit ºParabraunerden and
Fahlerdenº in the legend of Fig. 1.
Therefore, the apparent nonoccurrence of Fahlerden in soil
maps of the former FRG and even in recently published soil
maps (e.g., sheets of the 1:200,000 soil map) may not reflect
the real distribution of Fahlerden. Presently, it seems impos-
sible to identify the areas of the former FRG that are charac-
terized by the occurrence of Fahlerden and to modify the soil
maps published until now. This is mainly caused by the lack
of data on Fahlerden in the existing data bases. Conse-
quently, a new soil survey of the areas once surveyed has
become necessary.
Figure 2: Stagnic Albeluvisol (Fahlerde-Pseudogley-Braunerde, Profile E 106). 2A, Vertical section; bar on the right side indicates the position
of the horizontal section (2B) (cf., Kühn, 2003b).
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
3 Properties
3.1 Parent material
Fahlerden have frequently developed from stratified parent
material consisting of layers with different petrographic com-
position. Gelisolifluction, cryoturbation, and loess deposition
under permafrost conditions were the main processes caus-
ing the formation and stratification of up to three periglacial
cover-beds (e.g., Kleber, 1992). The widespread upper layer
has an average thickness of 30±70 cm. It is called Geschie-
bedecksand after Berendt (1863) or ªloamy cover sandº in N
Germany (e.g., Bussemer, 2002; Helbig, 1999) and Haupt-
lage or ªupper layerº in the low-mountain ranges and the N
Alpine foothills (e.g., Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005; Mailänder and
Veit, 2001; Semmel, 2002). The underlying layer consists of
sediments of different geological origin, namely: (1) various
types of till, fluvioglacial sediments, or different loess depos-
its, in young and old moraine landscapes (e.g., Altermann et
al., 1978; Bussemer, 1994; Kühn, 2003b), whereas (2) a peri-
glacial layer (Mittellage or ªintermediate layerº), or loess
deposits build up the underlying sediment layer in the low-
mountain ranges and adjacent basins (Ad-hoc-AG Boden,
2005; Völkel, 1995). Concerning the German lowlands, it is
often difficult to distinguish between upper and intermediate
layer (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005). The lowest part of this
sequence of layers is called Basislage (ªbasal layerº). It con-
sists of weathering material derived from underlying rock in
the low-mountain ranges or sediment in the German lowlands
(Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005; Kleber, 1992).
If the parent material is loess, soil scientists often assume a
largely uniform particle-size distribution and a certain amount
of carbonate. This is frequently not the case, since a number
of loess derivatives are influenced by periglacial processes
at
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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433 Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden 423

Table 1: Albic Luvisol (Pedon ªLenzenº, Soil of the year 2006 in Germany) with site characteristics and profile description.

Landscape Category Ueckermünder Heide (NE Germany)

Elevation a.s.l. 48 m
Mean annual air temp. 8.1C
Mean annual precipitation 560 mm
Vegetation Forest: Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur
Position nearly level crest position (slope gradient 0.5%±1.0%)
close to the upper slope of a paleo-cliff
Coordinates R: 5452379 H: 5938750 (German Grid)
Parent Material Periglacial Layers from Weichselian till (Greenland Stadial 2a
after Björck et al., 1998) over basin sediments; rock frag-
ments mostly granite, quarzite
Soil type [KA5] Fahlerde
Subunit [KA5] Braunerde-Fahlerde
FAO (1998) Albic Luvisol
Organic layer mull-like duff [Mullartiger Moder] or mull [Mull]

No. Horizon Horizon Depth Layerc Descriptionb

(KA 5)a (WRB)b [cm]

1 L +3±1/0 very loose layering of leaves of Fagus sylvatica and Quercus robur
2 Of +1/0±0 not always present: semidecomposed organic matter, horizontal layering, fibrous,
abundant fine roots, abrupt, wavy boundary
3 Ah Ah 0±14 UL black (10YR 2/1), very few rock fragments (<2%), single-grain structure, soft consis-
tence, packing density 1 (very loose), few earthworm channels, few fine roots, med-
ium humous, clear weak wavy boundary
4 Bv-Ael1 EB1 14±35 UL dark brown (10YR 3/3), common rock fragments (7%±10%), single-grain structure,
noncoherent, packing density 1 (very loose), few fine roots, clear wavy boundary
5 Bv-Ael2 EB2 35±55 UL dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6), common rock fragments (10%±15%), stone line in
40±55 cm with ventifacts turned upside down and vertically oriented rock fragments,
single-grain structure, noncoherent consistence, packing density 1 (very loose), med-
ium to coarse roots with predominantly horizontal orientation at the lower horizon
boundary, clear wavy boundary
6 II Bt+Ael 2E/Bt 55±70 UL/BL E: very pale brown (10YR 7/3), single grain structure, noncoherent consistence, pack-
ing density 1 (very loose), very few fine roots; Bt: dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6),
very fine to fine angular-blocky structure, slightly hard to hard consistence, packing
density 2±3 (loose to intermediate), whitish silt powder on ped surfaces, many dark
yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) clay coatings predominantly in pores, few clay coatings
on ped surfaces, very few to few fine roots; in both horizons: common rock fragments
(10%±15%); abrupt irregular and broken boundary
7 II Bt 2Bt 70±100 BL light yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), common rock fragments (10%±15%), very fine pris-
matic structure, packing density 3 (intermediate), hard to very hard consistence, dark
yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) clay coatings predominantly in pores, few clay coatings
on ped surfaces, very few fine roots, clear wavy boundary
8 III elCc 3Ck 100±120 basin silt light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), common rock fragments (10%±15%), coherent
structure, packing density 3±4 (intermediate to firm), carbonate pseudomycelia, mod-
erately calcareous, hard consistence

a Ad-hoc-AG Boden (2005)

b FAO (1998) + additional features, colors (moist)
c cf., section 3.1

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424 Kühn, Billwitz, Bauriegel, Kühn, Eckelmann J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433

and macroscopically characterized by the occurrence of frost
wedges and solifluction layers (e.g., Billwitz, 1968; Koch and
Neumeister, 2005).
The presence of different and periglacially influenced sedi-
ments often causes a predisposition for the development of
soil horizons. An apparent coincidence between upper layer
and A, BwE, and E horizons and between intermediate layer
and Bt horizons of Fahlerden can be stated. E/Bt and Bt/E
horizons may have developed in both layers (Bussemer,
1994; Janetzko and Schmidt, 1996). Particularly in the Ger-
man lowlands, Bt horizons occur, which have developed in
the basal layer (cf., Tab. 4).
3.2 Field characteristics
The typical horizon sequence of Fahlerden is A±(Bw)±EB±E±
2E/Bt±Bt±C (cf., Tab. 1). The characteristic horizons of the
Fahlerde are a pale grey, clay-depleted E horizon, the transi-
tional horizon E/Bt, and a deep brown to reddish-brown, clay-
enriched Bt horizon (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005). The E horizon
has a coherent (in loess) to single-grain (in loamy periglacial
cover-beds) structure. Sometimes this characteristic horizon
shows a weak platy structure. The E horizon was frequently
subject to further soil-formation processes and has, in addi-
tion, properties of a Bw horizon and partially of spodic or
stagnic horizons (cf., pedons ªLimsdorfº and ªHolzheimº in
Tab. 4). The sharp transition from the E to the Bt horizon is
characterized by the occurrence of both E and Bt features.
The horizon designation Bt/E or E/Bt depends on the amount
of Bt streaks (3-dimensional fragments of the Bt horizon) in
these transitional horizons (cf., Fig. 2A; Kühn, 2003a). Albelu-
vic tonguing of the E horizon into the Bt horizon is well devel-
oped in many soils (Fig. 2A; e.g., Altermann and Fiedler,
1978; Kundler, 1961). The tonguing is polygonally intercon-
nected, which becomes clear when a horizontal section is
excavated in a depth close to the upper boundary of the Bt
horizon (Fig. 2B). The transitional horizon in Fahlerden is fre-
quently characterized by Bt streaks (Kühn et al., 2002). Ped-
faces and channels of the Bt horizon are covered by weakly
shiny brown clay coatings, which may reach a thickness of
several millimeters in case of extreme clay illuviation. White
to pale grey silt powder or bleached silt grains (ªsilt sprink-
lingsº after Brinkmann et al., 1973) are frequently present on
Bt peds of both E/Bt horizons and the upper part of Bt hori-
zons. Under dry conditions, the silt powder is easily remova-
ble from the pedfaces.
In Bt horizons, sometimes sand wedges occur that usually
belong to a polygonal crack system (Blume et al., 1979; Hel-
big, 1999; Kühn, 2003a). The width of the wedges is between
15 and 60 cm in their upper parts. The top of these wedges
usually coincides with the upper boundary of the Bt horizon
and is therefore situated at an average depth of 35±50 cm.
Thus, the wedges are stratigraphically positioned between
the loamy cover-bed (Geschiebedecksand) and the sandy till
(Fig. 5). The sand wedge filling consists of aeolian sand and
Bt streaks of different sizes, originating from the host material
(Kühn, 2003b).
An important and frequently occurring feature of Fahlerden is
a Bw horizon situated between A and E/Bt horizon. This Bw
horizon is not the result of pedogenic processes responsible
for the development of the characteristic horizons of Fahler-
den. It is, however, a result of polygenesis due to a change in
the environmental conditions since the soil-forming pro-
cesses began in the Late Glacial.

Table 2: Particle size and chemical properties of pedon ªLenzenº.

No.a Depth Particle±size distributionb Index of pHc CaCO3d Corge N te CEC potf BSg Pedogenic Oxidesh
homo-
geneity
T fU mU gU fS mS gS gU+fS [CaCl2] Feo Fed Mno Mnd Alo Ald
mS+gS
<2 2± 6.3± 20± 63± 200± 630±
6.3 20 63 200 630 2000
[cm] [%] [%] [%] [mg g±1]
3 ±14 7 9 23 53 4 3 1 14.3 3.4 n.d. 1.38 0.082 5.5 14 0.82 1.47 0.022 0.030 0.18 0.29
4 ±35 9 8 24 52 3 3 1 13.8 4.1 n.d. 0.33 0.027 3.7 6 0.78 1.51 0.201 0.263 0.23 0.55
5 ±55 14 6 22 51 3 3 1 13.5 4.2 n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.9 10 0.32 1.44 0.038 0.056 n.d. 0.22
6 ±70 26 5 15 44 5 4 1 9.8 4.2 n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.3 16 0.21 1.83 0.029 0.045 n.d. 0.13
7 ±100 25 4 10 49 6 6 0 9.2 4.2 n.d. n.d. n.d. 8.9 59 0.56 6.66 0.078 0.106 0.12 0.67
8 ±120 13 7 16 59 3 2 0 31.0 7.3 8.4 n.d. n.d. 6.0 100 0.39 2.44 0.059 0.080 n.d. 0.06

a No. according to horizon numbers in Tab. 1

b Fractions in lm of humus and carbonate-free soil sample <2 mm, dispergant Na4P2O7
c soil-to-solution ratio of 1:1.25 in 0.01 M CaCl
2
d with Scheibler apparatus (Schlichting et al., 1995)
e heat combustion at 1200 C using vario EL (Elementar)
f CEC
pot after Mehlich (1948)
g BS = base saturation
h Fe , Mn , Al after Mehra and Jackson (1960), Fe , Mn , Al after Schwertmann (1964).
d d d o o o

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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433 Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden 425

3.3 Soil chemical and soil physical properties main root zone, the bulk density is relatively high. This may
be caused by sediment settling due to clay depletion.
3.3.1 Pedon ªLenzenº, Soil of the Year 2006

Particle-size distribution and index of homogeneity (gU + fS) / 3.3.2 Different Fahlerde pedons and the soil data base
(mS + gS) show the stratification of the parent material and Brandenburg (LBGR)
the aeolian input within the upper 55 cm of the pedon (Tab. Besides the Soil of the Year 2006, four pedons representing
2). The index consists of different grain-size categories with variations of the soil type Fahlerde were chosen to illustrate
the numerator representing the aeolian and the denominator genesis and classification problems.
the glacial component (Alaily, 1984). The Bt horizon
(25%±26%) has a slightly higher clay content than the typical All pedons have developed from stratified parent material.
range of Fahlerden in NE Germany, where it rarely exceeds Both E and Bt horizons of the pedons are formed in different
20% (Helbig, 1999; Kühn, 2003b). The relatively high Feo layers. The ratio (gU + fS) / (mS + gS) indicates the stratifica-
and Ald content and the low pH in the EB1 horizon illustrate tion of the parent material (Tab. 4).
the initial transformation to podzolic properties within the
upper horizons (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969). Under forest, where no liming took place, the soil pH is »4.
Agriculturally used Fahlerden generally have a higher pH of 5
to 6 (e.g., pedon ªGroû Kreutzº). High pH and base saturation
The soil-physical data in Tab. 3 have been extracted from the
of pedon ªLimsdorfº can be explained by liming. The CaCO3
soil data base Brandenburg (LBGR). The available water
content and the high pH of the upper part of pedon ªKarsdorfº
capacity of »50 mm within the upper layer is low (cf., Ad-hoc-
are an exception; aeolian input of calcareous dust during the
AG Boden, 2005). Because of a negative climatic water bal-
last decades led to special soil-chemical conditions (Dultz
ance with a precipitation of »550 mm y±1 in the main distribu-
and Kühn, 2005). The base saturation of all Bt horizons is
tion area, a risk of draught is given in dry spring and summer
> 50%, with the exception of the 2Btg1 in pedon ªHolzheimº.
periods. Despite the fact that the upper layer presents the
The soil database of the State Institute for Mining, Geology,
Table 3: Characteristic physical properties of Fahlerden from Bran- and Natural Resources Brandenburg (LBGR) gives an over-
denburg. view of selected physical and chemical data of Fahlerden
(Fig. 3). It contains data of more than 300 pedons of Fahler-
Horizon Parameter Median Q25 Q75 SD V
den recorded in Brandenburg during the last decades. To
Ah (n = 12) BD 1.46 1.4 1.5 0.1 0.1 avoid overlapping of samples, only data sets from pedons
AC 20.0 17.1 23.8 6.2 0.3 recorded following KA4 (AG Boden, 1994) or KA5 (Ad-hoc-
FC 22.6 21.4 23.7 2.3 0.1 AG Boden, 2005) rules were taken into consideration.
AWC 17.3 17.1 18.3 0.7 0.0
Fahlerden have a lower base saturation (BS) and pH than
Bw (n = 7) BD 1.77 1.7 1.8 0.1 0.1 Parabraunerden (Fig. 3). The higher BS of Parabraunerden is
AC 12.5 5.0 16.1 8.6 0.7
a result of higher silt and clay contents (texture: loamy sand)
FC 23.5 18.7 25.9 6.1 0.3
AWC 18.0 9.6 19.7 5.8 0.3
of the upper layer in their major distribution area (ªUcker-
markº). The high BS in the A horizons of Parabraunerden is a
E (n = 23) BD 1.65 1.6 1.7 0.1 0.1 consequence of agricultural practice. In the major distribution
AC 20.6 15.7 26.0 8.2 0.4 area of Fahlerden (ªMittelbrandenburgische Plattenº), how-
FC 16.7 14.6 20.6 3.8 0.2 ever, the silt and clay contents are lower (texture: sand to
AWC 13.3 11.8 15.2 2.3 0.2 loamy sand), since the sand component of the aeolian mate-
rial is larger compared to the areas situated northwards. With
2E/Bt (n = 20) BD 1.68 1.7 1.7 0.1 0.0 the exception of BE horizons of Parabraunerden, the BS in
AC 16.8 15.2 23.8 3.6 0.2 Bw, E, and Bt horizons of both Parabraunerde and Fahlerde
FC 19.5 14.6 21.4 4.5 0.2
is >50% (Fig. 3).
AWC 12.6 11.0 13.3 2.0 0.2

Bt (n = 17) BD 1.78 1.8 1.8 0.1 0.0 Regarding the median, Parabraunerden show a larger differ-
AC 9.05 7.0 10.9 3.1 0.3 ence in clay content (»13%) between E and Bt horizons than
FC 23.8 22.1 26.2 3.1 0.1 Fahlerden (about 10%, Fig. 3). This is not necessarily a result
AWC 11.4 10.7 12.4 1.2 0.1 of a more intense clay illuviation, but may also be caused by
the breakdown of clay minerals. Regarding the stratification
C (n = 8) BD 1.80 1.8 1.8 0.0 0.0 of the loose parent material it is hardly possible to reconstruct
AC 10.7 8.0 12.7 4.3 0.4 the amount of illuviated clay, since the amount of total clay
FC 22.2 18.6 22.7 1.3 0.1 within the different layers has to be reconstructed first (cf.,
AWC 16.6 11.5 18.6 3.1 0.2
Alaily, 1984).
BD = bulk density [g cm±3]
AC = air capacity [mm]
FC = field capacity [mm]
AWC = available water capacity [mm]

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426 Kühn, Billwitz, Bauriegel, Kühn, Eckelmann J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433

Table 4: Grain-size distribution, chemical properties, and color of four Fahlerden in Germany. Additional data on ªGroû Kreutzº: Kühn and Han-
nemann (2005); ªLenzenº: Kühn (2003b); ªKarsdorfº: Dultz and Kühn (2005), Kühn (2003b).

Horizon Horizon Layera Depth Particle±size distribution Indices pH CaCO3 BS Pedogenic Munsell
of homo- oxides color
geneity (moist)
T fU mU gU fS mS gS
(WRB)b (KA5)c <2 2± 6.3± 20± 63± 200± 630± fS/mS gU+fS [CaCl2] Feo Fed Feo
6.3 20 63 200 630 2000 mS+gS Fed
[cm] [%] [%] [mg g±1]
Pedon ªLimsdorfº (Brandenburg); Arenic Albeluvisol (podsolige Fahlerde-Braunerde); forest
EA Ahe UL ±2 2 2 3 10 41 38 4 1.1 1.2 3.3 n.d. 26 n.d. n.d. n.d. 10YR6/1
BA Ah-Bsv UL ±14 3 1 3 10 43 36 4 1.2 1.3 3.9 n.d. 14 1.3 1.92 0.68 10YR4/4
BE Ael-Bv UL ±42 3 2 4 9 33 39 9 0.8 0.9 4.3 n.d. 11 1.1 1.88 0.57 10YR5/6
E Ael UL ±48 3 3 5 10 32 38 9 0.8 0.9 4.1 n.d. 7 0.4 2.39 0.17 10YR7/4
2Bt/E II Ael+Bt IL ±60 15 4 4 11 26 32 8 0.8 0.9 3.9 n.d. 63 n.d. 10YR5/6
3Bt III Bt BL ±82 17 3 4 7 28 33 9 0.8 0.8 4.4 n.d. 93 10YR5/6
3Cw III ilCv BL ±90 11 3 4 9 28 34 11 0.8 0.8 6.7 n.d. 95 10YR5/4
4Cw IV elCv till ±200 10 3 5 10 30 35 9 0.9 0.9 7.5 5.3 100 10YR5/4
Pedon ªGroû Kreutzº (Brandenburg); Siltic Albeluvisol (Fahlerde); agriculture
Ap Ap UL ±30 6 12 16 16 29 18 3 1.6 2.1 5.6 n.d. 84 1.2 2.29 0.54 10YR4/3
E/Bt Bt+Ael UL ±40 8 15 18 15 25 16 3 1.6 2.1 6.0 n.d. 81 1.00 2.63 0.38 7.5YR4/6
2Bt1 II Bt1 BL ±70 11 15 18 15 25 14 1 1.8 2.7 5.6 n.d. 90 2.61 7.76 0.34 7.5YR4/3
2Bt2 II Bt2 BL ±105 11 16 18 15 25 14 1 1.8 2.7 6.2 n.d. 100 1.7 5.33 0.32 7.5YR4/6
3Ck III elCc till ±125 10 19 20 14 23 13 1 1.8 2.6 7.8 7.4 100 0.8 3.74 0.24 10YR5/4
Pedon ªKarsdorfº (Sachsen±Anhalt); Siltic Albeluvisol (Braunerde-Fahlerde); agriculture
Ap rAcp UL ±20 7 9 23 53 4 3 1 1.3 14.3 7.6 9.5 n.d. 10YR6/3
EB Bv-Ael UL ±40 9 8 24 52 3 3 1 1.0 13.8 7.6 0.4 10YR7/4
E/Bt Bt+Ael UL ±50 14 6 22 51 3 3 1 1.0 13.5 7.5 0.2 10YR8/3
2Bt/E II Ael+Bt IL ±70 26 5 15 44 5 4 1 1.3 9.8 4.4 0.1 10YR8/3
2Bt II Bt IL ±105 25 4 10 49 6 6 0 1.0 9.2 4.5 0.1 7.5YR4/6
3CkBw III Bv-lCc BL ±125 13 7 16 59 3 2 0 1.5 31.0 7.5 9.8 7.5YR5/6
3Ck III lCc BL ±160 15 6 22 52 3 2 0 1.5 27.5 7.8 12.0 10YR6/6
Pedon ªHolzheimº (Hessen); Aprupti±albic Planosol. (Pseudogley±Fahlerde); forest
Ah Ah UL ±5 21 10 26 36 5 1 1 4.5 20.5 3.3 n.d. 9 2.5 6.69 0.37 10YR 3/3
E Sw-Al UL ±25 18 11 29 37 3 1 1 2.3 15.4 3.5 n.d. 4 2.1 6.19 0.33 10YR 5/3
2Btg1 II Sd-Bt1 IL ±55 40 10 20 23 3 2 2 1.8 6.7 3.9 n.d. 42 1.7 15.5 0.11 10YR 5/6
2Btg2 II Sd-Bt2 IL ±75 43 10 20 21 3 2 2 1.9 7.1 4.2 n.d. 57 1.9 14.8 0.13 10YR 5/6
3Btg III Sd-Bt (red) BL ±103 52 11 10 11 6 5 5 1.2 1.7 4.3 n.d. 62 1.2 18.5 0.07 7.5YR 5/6
3Btg III Sd-Bt (brown) BL ±103 37 10 19 25 3 3 4 1.2 4.6 4.5 n.d. 73 2.2 15.8 0.14 10YR 5/6

a UL = Upper Layer; IL = Intermediate Layer; BL = Basal Layer

b Fractions in lm of humus and carbonate-free soil sample <2 mm.
c 10 g soil sample in 25 mL 0.01 M CaCl2 solution.
d with Scheibler apparatus after Schlichting et al. (1985)
e after Mehlich (1948), CEC
pot
h after FAO (1998)

3.4 Micromorphology Cappings of submicroscopic blackish-grey fine material on

coarse stone fragments occur frequently (cf., Fig. 4c).
The micromorphological description follows Stoops (2003).

3.4.2 Transitional E/Bt or Bt/E horizon

3.4.1 E horizon
The loamy E horizons have a weakly developed platy micro-
structure and a monic to enaulic c/f-related distribution if the par-
ent material is more sandy. Clay coatings are rare, fragments of
clay coatings are found in biogenic infillings only. Sometimes
very dusty dark grey clay to silt-clay coatings occur (Fig. 4a).
These transitional horizons have a weakly to well-developed
lenticular structure (Fig. 4b) and a gefuric c/f-related distri-
bution with a moderately developed pedality. Fine-material
cappings occur on coarse grains and partly on Bt streaks.
The characteristics of the Bt streaks are similar to those of
the underlying Bt horizon. Besides undifferentiated b-fabric,

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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
Figure 3: Clay content, pH, base saturation (black square dots = median; rectangles = quartiles 25%, 75%; ranges: min, max) of
Parabraunerde and Fahlerde data sets from Brandenburg (soil data base LBGR).
other b-fabrics are mainly found in Bt streaks with
fragments of clay coatings (Fig. 4c) and small in-situ limpid
clay coatings (cf., Kühn et al., 2002). Often very dusty dark
grey silt-clay coatings occur as mentioned with E horizons
(Fig. 4a). Sometimes vesicles occur within the clay-depleted
areas (Fig. 4d).
3.4.3 Bt horizon
The Bt horizons are characterized by an enaulic and gefuric
c/f-related distribution in more sandy and a subangular-
blocky structure in the loamy parts with a moderately to well-
developed pedality. Three to four different types of clay coat-
ings representing different phases of clay illuviation can typi-
cally be found (Kühn et al., 2002; Kühn, 2003a, b), which is a
common feature of soils characterized by clay illuviation
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden 427
(e.g., Kemp et al., 1998; Payton, 1993; Van Vliet-Lano et al.,
1992).
4 Pedogenesis
The principal process regarding the formation of Fahlerden is
clay illuviation (from the Latin luere = to wash out). This pro-
cess leads to the formation of the characteristic E and Bt hori-
zons. A possible sequence of pedogenic processes at sites
non-groundwater-influenced is: decalcification ± silicate
weathering (neoformation of clay minerals and Fe hydro-
xides) ± clay illuviation (development of E and Bt horizons) ±
ongoing silicate weathering during clay illuviation controlled
by the very gradual but continuous lowering of pH in the dec-
alcified part of the soil. This sequence is well-known and pre-
dominantly connected to Holocene pedogenesis (e.g.,
www.plant-soil.com
428 Kühn, Billwitz, Bauriegel, Kühn, Eckelmann
100 µm
0.2 mm
Figure 4: Micromorphology of Fahlerde profiles. a) Very dusty grey silt-clay to clay coatings (blue arrows)ЪHolzheimº: 8±13 cm; PPL; b) well-
developed lenticular platy structure; enrichment of silt (macroscopic: silt powder) and submicroscopic grey fine material on the upper side of
peds, note the clay-depleted areasЪKarsdorfº: 62±67 cm; PPL; c) Bt streaks with grey fine material capping; fragments of limpid yellow brown
clay coatings within Bt streaks (red arrows)ЪKarsdorfº: 62±67 cm; PPL; d) vesicles (red arrows), fragments of limpid yellow brown clay
coatings with lenticular platesÐ ªKarsdorfº: 56±66 cm, PPL.
Kuntze et al., 1994; Reuter, 1962; Scheffer and Schachtscha-
bel, 2002). However, there are some additional features typi-
cal for Fahlerden, which will be discussed below.
4.1 Silt powder on Bt peds
Whitish-grey silt powder frequently occurs on Bt peds of Fahl-
erden (Scheffer and Schachtschabel, 2002, p. 498). The
accumulation of this silt powder in the upper part of Bt hori-
zons is considered a characteristic phenomenon with Fahler-
den. It was described in Fahlerden of the Central Russian
Plain (Kundler, 1959), in lessivated soils of the central Taiga
of Eurasia (Rusanova, 1976), in seasonally frozen soils of
W Siberia (Fedorova and Yarilova, 1972) and in Grey Forest
Soils of central Siberia (Shugalei, 1998).
In soils that have developed under temperate climate, these
whitish enrichments of silt on the upper surface of Bt peds
are interpreted as a degradation of Bt horizons (Bullock et al.,
1974; Langohr and Pajares, 1983).
However, Van Vliet and Langohr (1983) assume a genesis in
connection with thawing of segregation ice. The melting
water is supposed to wash out the fine material between the
platy peds. This phenomenon seems to be preserved in the
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
0.2 mm
0.2 mm
E/Bt and 2Bt/E horizon of the ªKarsdorfº pedon (Fig. 4b). The
white silt powder occurs predominantly at a depth of
60±80 cm, where the water is supposed to move mainly dur-
ing the thaw period, while the deeper parts of the soil are still
frozen. Additionally, ferrolysis could be responsible for clay-
mineral destruction and bleaching in E horizons in case of
acid pH (Brinkmann et al., 1973).
As the silt powder is best developed in the upper 20 cm of
the Bt horizons (60±80 cm depth, e.g., pedons ªKarsdorfº
and ªHolzheimº), the whitish silt powder may indicate the
influence of former periglacial conditions (Kühn, 2003a). This
inference is supported by the occurrence of lenticular platy
microstructure related to ice-segregation processes. The len-
ticular plates are particularly characteristic for the boundary
active layer and permafrost table and for the seasonally fro-
zen parts of soils (Fig. 4b; Harris, 1985).
4.2 Vesicles
Vesicles are, if not distorted, spherical voids with smooth
walls (Stoops, 2003). The development of vesicles has been
attributed to the entrapment of air bubbles as a result of the
breakdown of peds due to raindrop impact or irrigation (e.g.,
Moss, 1991). Vesicles are a surface feature and occur from
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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
arctic to tropical and in paddy soils, often in connection with
crust formation (Bresson and Valentin, 1993).
If vesicles occur at 40±60 cm depth, they can be taken as an
indicator for periglacial influence (Fig. 4d). In arctic soils, vesi-
cles typically occur close to the permafrost table and in the
upper 5±10 cm of active layers, polygons, and gelisolifluction
lobes (Van Vliet-Lano, 1985). Under arctic-climatic condi-
tions, the formation of vesicles can be a result of thaw-conso-
lidation and liquefaction under appropriate soil moisture con-
ditions (Harris, 1983). The entrapped air forms vesicles close
to the depth of the former permafrost table when the perma-
frost thaws and the soil dries out. These vesicles remain as
typical features of periglacially influenced soils (Fitzpatrick,
1956; Van Vliet-Lano et al., 1984). Thus, the occurrence of
vesicles in pedon ªKarsdorfº at a depth of »60 cm can be
explained as a result of thawing and freezing under perigla-
cial processes. In middle Europe, the last period with climatic
conditions under which vesicles could have developed at this
depth is the Younger Dryas.
4.3 A model of Fahlerde genesis
The simultaneous occurrence of lenticular platy peds, Bt
streaks (with fragments of clay coatings), whitish-grey silt
powder on Bt peds, and vesicles indicate periglacial influ-
ences on Fahlerden. Undisturbed clay coatings within the Bt
streaks and in the Bt horizon indicate clay-illuviation pro-
cesses following the last periglacial influence. They are con-
nected to Holocene pedogenesis. Taking into account these
processes as well as the development of the parent material,
a model presenting the pedogenesis of Fahlerden in the NE
German lowlands is presented below (Fig. 5).
In NE Germany, soil formation and vegetation development
began around 14,000 y BP, as can be inferred from 14C ages
of organic material (OM) in the Pomeranian Bight (Görsdorf
and Kaiser, 2001). Periglacial processes, decalcification, and
enrichment of OM were the first soil-forming processes that
took place in the areas set free from the inland ice. Whereas
an open vegetation with Artemisia and (dwarf-)shrubs (Juni-
perus, Betula nana, Salix) dominated the upland areas in the
beginning of the Late Glacial (open-vegetation phase I, vege-
Figure 5: Model of the formation of periglacial cover-bed (Geschiebedecksand) and Fahlerden on ground-moraine plains in Mecklenburg-
Vorpommern (modified from Kühn, 2003b).
ã 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Distribution and genesis of Fahlerden 429
tation phases after De Klerk, 2002), a Hippopha shrub tun-
dra expanded within the open upland vegetation in the Hippo-
pha phase. Juniperus and Betula became dominant indicat-
ing a vegetation regression (open-vegetation phase II).
Fiedler and Reissig (1964) mentioned that Pleistocene sedi-
ments contain 10%±30% clay, which can be translocated ver-
tically if an adequate porosity of the sediment is given. There-
fore, as proposed by Stephan (2000), silicate weathering is
not a prerequisite for clay illuviation, which may therefore fol-
low right after decalcification. Clay translocation is rather a
function of decalcification depth and porosity than a function
of time (Blume, 1961, p. 61). The Late Glacial Betula/Pinus-
forest phase (Allerùd; Greenland Interstadial 1a±c after
Björck et al., 1998) marks the climax of the Late Glacial soil
and vegetation development. Periglacial processes were
reduced or even absent. At the end of the Betula/Pinus-forest
phase, initial Fahlerden with a probable depth of up to 70 cm
had developed. This depth can be inferred from the occur-
rence of limpid yellow-brown fragments of clay coatings,
which occur within periglacially formed lenticular microplates
(Kühn, 2003a, b). With the beginning of open vegetation
phase III (Younger Dryas; Greenland Stadial 1 after Björck et
al., 1998), the climate cooled down, and the vegetation
opened up. Mainly herbs dominated the upland areas (De
Klerk, 2002). Periglacial processes like the formation of sand
wedges, loamy cover sands, and solifluction layers became
active again (Helbig, 1999). The sand wedges were filled with
aeolian sand, which was also mixed into the upper deci-
meters of the soils. Repeated freezing and thawing cycles led
to a partial disruption of the initial Bt horizon and the forma-
tion of Bt streaks (Laves and Thiere, 1970; Kühn, 2003b).
With the onset of the Holocene, soil-forming processes
became more intense. Bioturbation, humification, and decal-
cification followed by silicate weathering and clay illuviation
were dominant processes that finally led to Fahlerden with
the typical horizon sequence (after FAO, 1998):
A±BE±(2E)±2E/Bt±2Bt/E±Bt±Ck (illustrated by pedons ªLen-
zenº and ªLimsdorfº) or according to KA5 nomenclature (Ad-
hoc-AG Boden, 2005): Ah/Ael-Bv,Bv-Ael/(II)(Ael/)(II,III)
Ael+Bt/Bt/(III,IV)(e)lC. The BE horizon is supposed to have
formed in the Late Holocene, although no age determinations
www.plant-soil.com
430 Kühn, Billwitz, Bauriegel, Kühn, Eckelmann
are available to support this assumption. With the beginning
of the agricultural land use, human-induced processes inter-
fered with the natural pedogenetic processes. Bw horizons
and important parts of 2Bt/E horizons are often incorporated
in Ap horizons (cf., Tab. 4).
Redoximorphic features are common but are not omnipresent
in Fahlerden (e.g., pedon ªHolzheimº). On a macroscopic
scale, weak mottling and Fe-Mn nodules are detectable,
whereas on a microscopic scale, Fe-Mn nodules and ferrugi-
neous/Mn hypocoatings on clay coatings and groundmass
are present. The occurrence of Fe/Mn hypocoatings on differ-
ent types of clay coatings suggests redoximorphic influence
at different times.
5 Classification problems
Since Fahlerden have frequently developed in stratified par-
ent material, the minimal requirements for the differences in
clay content due to clay illuviation between E and Bt horizon,
given in KA5 (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005) do not seem to be
Figure 6: Range and frequency of Munsell colors (moist) in E [Ael]
horizons in Brandenburg (soil data base LBGR).
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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
helpful. These requirements have been established to sim-
plify the distinction between Fahlerden and Parabraunerden.
However, if these soils are developed in nonhomogenous
parent material, it is hardly possible to estimate the amount of
illuviated clay (e.g., Altermann and Fiedler, 1978). Moreover,
comparing the difference in clay content between E and Bt
horizons of both Fahlerden and Parabraunerden in Branden-
burg, the difference is even larger in Parabraunerden than in
Fahlerden (cf., Fig. 3). This may be caused by different clay
contents of tills in the distribution areas of both soil types.
The color of the clay-depleted horizon and the presence of a
transitional E/Bt or Bt/E horizon are used as practical criteria.
The transitional horizons occur in »68% of the documented
Fahlerden in Brandenburg. The most frequent colors (moist)
of E [Ael] horizons are 10YR 6/4 and 10YR 7/4 (Fig. 6). After
KA5 (Ad-hoc AG-Boden, 2005, p. 220), the color must have a
value of more than 6 and a chroma of less than (moist).
Whitish silt powder on Bt peds as mentioned above could be
introduced as another criterion of classification, since it
occurs frequently in Fahlerden but very rarely in Parabraun-
erden.
6 Synthesis and conclusions
Fahlerden predominantly occur in young and old moraine
landscapes and loess areas of N and E Germany. The regio-
nal differences shown in the General Soil Map of Germany
1:1,000,000 (BGR, 1995) were discussed with respect to
their changeful history within the German soil classification
during the last decades. As a result of different mapping prac-
tices in the past, no data on Fahlerden are available in the
soil data bases of the former FRG. If these data are needed,
a new soil survey of the once surveyed areas seems to be
necessary. Another promising approach is the application of
data-mining techniques like artificial neural networks or clas-
sification trees (cf., Behrens et al., 2005) to learn the distin-
guishing patterns between Fahlerden and Parabraunerden
from soil data bases containing Fahlerden. The derived
knowledge can be applied on data bases, which do not differ-
entiate between both soil types to spatially predict the distri-
bution of Fahlerden.
Field and micromorphological data demonstrate that the gen-
esis of Fahlerden is affected by Late Pleistocene and Holo-
cene processes. Macroscopic features of periglacial influ-
ence (sand wedges, cover-beds) and micromorphological
features as lenticular platy microstructure, vesicles, and frag-
ments of clay coatings in Bt streaks propose the initiation of
Fahlerde genesis in the Late Glacial (cf., Fig. 5) with ongoing
clay illuviation during the Holocene. Kundler (1961) and Lie-
beroth (1982) already stated that Fahlerden could have
developed under temperate and periglacial climatic condi-
tions. Recent pedogenesis has a tendency to podsolization
within the upper layer (cf., pedon ªLenzenº). Clay illuviation is
supposed to have stopped because of the acid pH but to con-
tinue under agricultural use due to liming.
The discussion of the hitherto used criteria for the classifica-
tion of Fahlerden (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005) and their distinc-
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J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2006, 169, 420±433
tion from Parabraunerden demonstrated uncertainties with
differences in clay content between E and Bt horizons. This is
caused by the stratification of the parent material, as a conse-
quence of which the E and the Bt horizons have often devel-
oped in different layers. Whitish silt powder on Bt peds could
be introduced as another criterion of classification since it is
common in Fahlerden and rare in Parabraunerden.
Acknowledgments
We thank W. Kainz (GLA Sachsen-Anhalt) for his help in
locating the pedon ªKarsdorfº and B. Lintzen and P. Wiese
(Greifswald) for providing excellent drawings. We are greatly
indebted to Hans-Peter Blume (Kiel), Karl Stahr (Stuttgart-
Hohenheim), and an unknown reviewer for valuable and
thought-provoking reviews of the manuscript. We are also
grateful to H.-R. Wegener and laboratory team (Gieûen) for
providing additional soil-chemical data on pedon ªLenzenº.
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