Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45 – 78

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Geophysical constraints on understanding the origin of the

Illinois basin and its underlying crust
John H. McBride a,*, Dennis R. Kolata b, Thomas G. Hildenbrand c
a
Department of Geology, Brigham Young University, P.O. Box 24606, Provo, UT 84602-4606, USA
b
Illinois State Geological Survey, 615 East Peabody Drive, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
c
U.S. Geological Survey, M.S. 989, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
Received 18 January 2002; accepted 15 November 2002

Abstract

Interpretation of reprocessed seismic reflection profiles reveals three highly coherent, layered, unconformity-bounded
sequences that overlie (or are incorporated within) the Proterozoic ‘‘granite – rhyolite province’’ beneath the Paleozoic
Illinois basin and extend down into middle crustal depths. The sequences, which are situated in east – central Illinois and
west – central Indiana, are bounded by strong, laterally continuous reflectors that are mappable over distances in excess of
200 km and are expressed as broad ‘‘basinal’’ packages that become areally more restricted with depth. Normal-fault
reflector offsets progressively disrupt the sequences with depth along their outer margins. We interpret these sequences as
being remnants of a Proterozoic rhyolitic caldera complex and/or rift episode related to the original thermal event that
produced the granite – rhyolite province. The overall thickness and distribution of the sequences mimic closely those of the
overlying Mt. Simon (Late Cambrian) clastic sediments and indicate that an episode of localized subsidence was underway
before deposition of the post-Cambrian Illinois basin stratigraphic succession, which is centered farther south over the
‘‘New Madrid rift system’’ (i.e., Reelfoot rift and Rough Creek graben). The present configuration of the Illinois basin was
therefore shaped by the cumulative effects of subsidence in two separate regions, the Proterozoic caldera complex and/or
rift in east – central Illinois and west – central Indiana and the New Madrid rift system to the south. Filtered isostatic gravity
and magnetic intensity data preclude a large mafic igneous component to the crust so that any Proterozoic volcanic or rift
episode must not have tapped deeply or significantly into the lower crust or upper mantle during the heating event
responsible for the granite – rhyolite.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Illinois basin; Seismic reflection; Crustal evolution

1. Introduction nated by large-scale boundaries, such as active or

Seismic reflection exploration of the lithosphere
has focused preferentially on geologic settings domi-
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-801-422-0267.
E-mail address: john_mcbride@byu.edu (J.H. McBride).
ancient plate margins, and has involved multi-institu-
tional efforts of new data acquisition. Analogous
exploration programs for continental interiors have
lagged far behind due in part to the lack of clearly
defined geologic targets. For such areas, a low-cost
alternative is to obtain previously acquired seismic

0040-1951/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00653-4
46 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

reflection data (McBride, 1999) that can be reproc-
essed in order to extend the records deeper, either by
including the full record length for an explosive
source or, for the case of vibroseis sources, extend-
ing the correlated signal to greater traveltimes (e.g.,
Okaya and Jarchow, 1989). The purpose of this
study is to present the reprocessing results and
detailed mapping of several hundred kilometers of
previously acquired industry seismic reflection pro-
files over the Illinois basin, central USA (Fig. 1) and
integrate our results with inferences from filtered
regional geopotential field data. We use our new
observations to reevaluate previous concepts of the
structure and origin of the Proterozoic-age crust
beneath the Illinois basin.
2. Geologic and tectonic setting
2.1. Illinois basin
The Illinois basin is an oval depression (Fig. 2c)
covering an area of approximately 285,000 km2 in
parts of Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky (Kolata and
Nelson, 1997) (Fig. 1a and b). It is one of several large
cratonic basins that developed on Precambrian crust
of North America (Leighton and Kolata, 1991). Evo-
lution of the basin was influenced by at least five
major late Precambrian and Phanerozoic tectonic
episodes all of which are characterized by distinct
tectono-stratigraphic successions and well-defined
stratal geometries (Fig. 2a).

Fig. 1. (a) Paleogeographic reconstruction (1.6 – 1.3 Ga) of Rodinia with continents shown in equal-area projection in North American
coordinates (modified from Karlstrom et al., 1999). Granite – rhyolite and juvenile crust provinces are shown in fine stipple. EGRP and SGRP
are eastern and southern granite – rhyolite provinces, respectively, and with their average ages indicated. State of Illinois shown for reference. (b)
Map showing midcontinent rift system (MCR) and Grenville Front tectonic zone (GFTZ) and its possible southwest extension (Hauser, 1996).
The central part of the MCR, dominated by mafic igneous rocks, is black area; Duluth Gabbro is horizontal ruling; post-rift basins flanking the
central MCR, filled mainly with clastic sediments, are shown by shaded area. Map modified from Hauser (1996) and other sources. IB is Illinois
basin, RR is Reelfoot rift, and RG is Rough Creek graben.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 47

Fig. 1 (continued).

2.1.1. Precambrian –Late Cambrian subsidence in
east – central Illinois and west– central Indiana
The basal part of the Illinois basin stratigraphic
succession contains an unusually thick (>1000 m)
sequence of Late Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone
(Fig. 3a) that thickens markedly in east – central
Illinois and west–central Indiana. Macroscopic anal-
yses of drill cores indicate that the Mt. Simon
Sandstone was deposited in a wide range of envi-
ronments from subtidal to upper tidal flat facies
(Sargent and Lasemi, 1993). The Mt. Simon is
underlain by a layered sequence that has been
interpreted from previously acquired seismic reflec-
tion data to be, in part, a sedimentary depocenter
(Pratt et al., 1992).
2.1.2. Reelfoot rift and Rough Creek graben
A Precambrian to Middle Cambrian failed rift
system, known as the New Madrid rift system, under-
lies the southern end of the Illinois basin extending
from southern Illinois and western Kentucky south-
westward to central Arkansas (Ervin and McGinnis,
1975; Braile et al., 1986) (Figs. 1b and 2c). Geo-
dynamic processes within the rift have had a major
influence on basin geometry and subsidence (Kolata
and Nelson, 1997).
48 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

2.1.3. Paleozoic subsidence and structural deforma-
tion of the proto-Illinois basin
The basin underwent widespread subsidence
between Late Cambrian and Early Permian time,
developing into a broad southwest-plunging trough
(Fig. 2c) that extended to the cratonic margin in
central Arkansas and filled with marine carbonates
and to a lesser extent, sandstone, shale and siltstone
(Kolata, 1991) (Fig. 2a and b). Subsidence rates were
greatest and most Paleozoic sequences thickest within
and adjacent to the rift system.
2.1.4. Uplift and erosion of the Pascola arch
Uplift of the Pascola arch in the northern part of the
Reelfoot rift of southeastern Missouri and western
Tennessee during post-late Pennsylvanian to pre-Late
Cretaceous time changed the configuration of the
basin from a southwestward-plunging trough to the
present oval depression (Fig. 2a and b). Most Paleo-
zoic formations thicken southward toward their trun-
cated edges on the flanks of the eroded Pascola arch
with the north-thickening Late Cambrian Mt. Simon
Sandstone being a striking exception (Fig. 2a)
(Stearns and Marcher, 1962).
2.1.5. Subsidence of the Reelfoot rift and development
of the Mississippi embayment
Following uplift and erosion of the Pascola arch,
crustal movement reversed and the Reelfoot rift
once again subsided, resulting in deposition of

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic cross-section through the central Illinois basin (see Fig. 2b for line of section), Rough Creek graben and Reelfoot rift
showing major Paleozoic sedimentary sequences based on drill hole data and Precambrian reflection sequences based on the seismic data
presented herein. The figure is based in part on Kolata (1991; his Fig. 2 – 1). (b) Map showing development of rift basin and subsequent
formation of the proto-Illinois basin centered over the rift junction. Shading indicates Paleozoic strata thicker than f 1500 m (modified from
Kolata and Nelson, 1991). Also shown, for reference, is the simplified structural contour map (in travel time) for the base of the Centralia
seismic reflection sequences presented herein as mapped from seismic lines shown in Fig. 3b and other proprietary seismic lines. (c)
Compilation of major basement rocks encountered in drill holes of the central United States (based mainly on Lidiak, 1996) and principal
basement provinces (from Van Schmus et al., 1996). Thick dashed line indicates inferred southeastern limit of pre-1.6-Ga crust, as defined by
Nd isotopic data in Van Schmus et al. (1996). Dot-dashed line represents boundary between southern Central Plains orogen (SCPO) and the
eastern granite – rhyolite province (EGRP). GFTZ is Grenville Front tectonic zone. Also shown are depth-to-basement contours (contour interval
is 1 km) for Illinois basin region based on drill hole data (e.g., mainly downward projections from shallower Paleozoic horizon structure)
(modified from Buschbach and Kolata, 1991). Short dashed lines indicate major faults.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 49

Fig. 2 (continued).

approximately 900 m of Late Cretaceous, Tertiary
and Quaternary siliciclastic sediments (Zuni and
Tejas Sequences) over the arch (Schwalb, 1969).
These fluvial, deltaic and estuarine deposits form
the Mississippi embayment of the Gulf Coastal
Plain (Fig. 2a).
2.2. Precambrian basement beneath the Illinois basin
In the Illinois basin region encompassed by Illi-
nois, Indiana, western Kentucky and southeastern
Missouri, at least 62 drill holes have penetrated
crystalline rocks interpreted to be Precambrian in
age (Buschbach and Kolata, 1991; Rudman and Rupp,
1993) (Fig. 2c). For many years, it has been thought
that an areally extensive granite – rhyolite terrane
(1.48 – 1.45 Ga; Figs. 1a and 2c) lies beneath the
Paleozoic strata of the Illinois basin and the surround-
ing region on the basis of outcrops of rhyolite, dacite
and related granitic plutons in the St. Francois Moun-
tains of southeastern Missouri (Fig. 2c) and a few
scattered basement drill holes located outside the
50 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 2 (continued).

deeper Paleozoic basin areas (Denison et al., 1984; vast igneous province stretching from northern Mex-
Lidiak, 1996; Van Schmus et al., 1996). The ‘‘eastern ico to eastern Québec with possible paleogeographic
granite –rhyolite province’’ (Bickford et al., 1986) is counterparts across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
centered beneath the Illinois basin region as part of a (Lidiak, 1996; Karlstrom et al., 1999) (Fig. 1a). This

Fig. 3. (a) Contour map (feet; original data units) of the thickness of the Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone within the Illinois basin based on all
available drill-hole data (hole locations are shown) (Sargent, 1991) and interpretation of seismic reflection presented herein and of other
proprietary data. State boundaries are indicated. (b) Detailed map of study area showing seismic lines referred to in this study and the publicly
available COCORP profiles (Pratt et al., 1989). A – AV indicates location of a seismic refraction profile from Braile (1989). C-3 refers to seismic
line from McBride and Kolata (1999).
J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 51
52 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
province is thought to represent either a thin veneer (a
‘‘few kilometers thick’’) or isolated igneous intrusions
within an otherwise unknown basement. These rocks
have typically been described as ‘‘anorogenic’’ on the
basis of no observed deformation of the rocks, the
lack of rocks with a calc-alkaline chemistry, the lack
of metamorphic rocks generally associated with con-
vergent plate boundaries and the A-type geochemical
signature with only subordinate mafic components
(Bickford et al., 1986; Shuster, 2001). The granite –
rhyolite has been thought to be underlain by products
of anatectic melting of the southeastward continuation
of the older Proterozoic Central Plains orogen, which
underlies parts of Missouri, Oklahoma and Nebraska
(e.g., Bickford et al., 1986). The presence of gneiss
and schist fragments in the Avon diatremes of south-
eastern Missouri (Kidwell, 1947), however, suggests
that a metamorphosed terrane of igneous and sedi-
mentary rocks may underlie the granite and rhyolite at
least in that region (Heigold and Kolata, 1993). More
recently, Sm –Nd studies of the USA Midcontinent
reveal Nd residence ages for the granites and rhyolites
in and around the study area that indicate that the
parent magma generating these rocks was derived
from an only slightly older mantle source ( f 1.5
Ga) (Van Schmus et al., 1996) (Fig. 2c). Van Schmus
et al. (1996) suggest that this deeper crust is composed
of multiple juvenile terranes accreted from the south-
east onto an older Paleoproterozoic Laurentian rifted
or foreland continental margin defined by a northeast-
striking line cutting across northwestern Texas to
southeastern Michigan (Fig. 2c).
The existence of sedimentary strata beneath the
basal Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone (Fig. 3a) is very
poorly known for the central part of the Illinois basin.
A few drill-hole penetrations of arkosic sandstone
have been tentatively assigned to the Precambrian,
although this is not supported by lithostratigraphic or
chronostratigraphic evidence (Buschbach and Kolata,
1991; Lidiak, 1996). In the study area and immediate
vicinity, no drill holes yield presumed sediments
beneath the Mt. Simon (Fig. 2c) (Sargent, 1993). On
the other hand, a large area centered around western
Ohio, northeastern Kentucky and southeastern Indiana
to the east is now known to be underlain by a thick,
sub-Mt. Simon sedimentary basin on the basis of
reevaluation of what were at one time presumed
drilling samples of Proterozoic-age eastern granite –
rhyolite province rocks that are in fact arkosic sand-
stone (‘‘Middle Run Formation’’ (Shrake et al., 1991;
Drahovzal and Harris, 1992; Wickstrom et al., 1992));
however, even in this well-documented case, the
actual age of the sediments is unknown and could
be early Cambrian or Proterozoic (Wolfe et al., 1993).
3. Seismic geophysical setting
Geophysical information on the Precambrian crust
below the Illinois basin is based mainly on limited
seismic reflection and refraction data (Heigold, 1991).
The principal observation from deep (15-s traveltime)
seismic reflection transects acquired by the Consor-
tium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP)
across Illinois and western Indiana (Fig. 3b) was the
prominent (‘‘layered’’) reflectivity in the upper crust
( f 1.5 –4 s) beneath the Illinois basin (Pratt et al.,
1989). The layered reflectivity has been described as a
hypothetical Proterozoic sedimentary basin (Pratt et
al., 1992; Lidiak, 1996) or tabular mafic igneous
bodies associated with either granitic basement or
Proterozoic sedimentary strata (Pratt et al., 1989).
Coherent reflections beyond about 4 s were not
commonly observed on the COCORP profiles (Pratt
et al., 1989). Published conventional seismic reflec-
tion profiles (4 –5 s), acquired mainly by the petro-
leum industry, have provided some information on the
reflectivity of the uppermost Precambrian crust
beneath the basin, but mostly along single profiles
or covering limited areas (Sexton et al., 1986; Heigold
and Oltz, 1991; Heigold and Kolata, 1993; Bear et al.,
1997; Drahovzal, 1997; McBride et al., 1997; Potter et
al., 1997; McBride and Kolata, 1999). McBride and
Kolata (1999) used original industry 4-s (i.e., f 12
km) reflection data (i.e., not reprocessed) from the
central part of the basin to produce a preliminary map
of the distribution of layered reflectivity in the shal-
low uppermost crust first recognized by Pratt et al.
(1989).
Seismic velocity – depth models of the crust
derived from seismic refraction data (Braile et al.,
1981; Ginzburg et al., 1983; Catchings, 1999) (see
Braile, 1989 for further review) can be used to convert
traveltimes to depths for upper crustal Precambrian
rocks on the seismic reflection profiles. One refraction
profile that trends east – west across the southern
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
margin of the study area (Fig. 3b) indicates a gener-
alized upper Precambrian crustal compressional wave
velocity of 6.13 km/s (Braile et al., 1981). This
velocity is comparable to that derived for the upper
crust from refraction profiles for the northern Mis-
sissippi embayment to the south (6.20 km/s) (Ginz-
burg et al., 1983). Crustal thickness for the southern
part of the study area is given by Braile et al. (1981) to
be about 37.5 km and generally for central Midconti-
nent to be somewhat less than 40 km by Braile (1989)
and Mooney and Braile (1989).
4. New deep seismic reflection profiles
The vibroseis source reflection data consist of three
long regional profiles (S-1, S-2 and S-3, 386 km total
length), which intersect COCORP Illinois Line 1 and
other proprietary industry profiles. The profiles were
surveyed in the mid-1980s, and cover a representative
area of the south – central Illinois basin in Illinois
(Figs. 3b and 4). The source was spaced at 165 ft
( f 50 m), recorded over a 20,460-ft ( f 6,235-m)
geophone array with 120 channels (24 geophones per
channel). Both the original contractor-processed 4-s
records and the reprocessed records were used for this
study. The contractor data processing sequence
included pre-stack deconvolution, elevation and resid-
ual static corrections, velocity analysis and a cascaded
migration (see McBride and Kolata, 1999 for further
details). For our study, we reprocessed the three
regional profiles using the ‘‘self-truncating’’ extended
correlation method (Okaya and Jarchow, 1989) in
order to continue the record from 4 to 10 s. This
reprocessing method uses the full-frequency band-
width for the duration of the original correlated data
(in this case, 4 s), beyond which the correlation
proceeds with a linearly decreasing bandwidth due
to loss of first, the highest frequencies, followed by
gradually lower frequency components. The correla-
tion operator is allowed to truncate automatically
using as much of the operator length as possible for
reflections after the 4-s full-bandwidth record length.
This approach is practical for ‘‘deep’’ reflections
because, in general, higher frequencies are progres-
sively attenuated with increasing traveltime so that the
loss of high-frequency signal with extended correla-
tion tends to follow the loss due to attenuation. The
53
very long re-correlation time in our case was viable
due to the unusually long listening time for the record
(20 s), the long source signal (sweep duration = 16 s),
and the broad, linear increase of frequency with time
from 14 to 126 Hz. For this study, we stopped the re-
correlation at 10 s, at which there is a theoretical high-
end frequency of about 85 Hz.
The reprocessing was aimed at enhancing images
of Precambrian deep crustal structure (below 5 km
depth) as opposed to details in the Paleozoic sedi-
mentary section, and involved a standard sequence
of steps including deconvolution, coherency filtering
and post-stack migration (Table 1) with parameters
oriented toward enhancing the lower frequency
portion of the signal. Significant departures from
the contractor processing strategy were: (1) applica-
tion of a 8 – 12.5 – 40 – 50-Hz Ormsby frequency
filter, (2) subsample to 8 ms, (3) test migrations
over a range of velocity functions expressed as
percent of the 2-D interval velocity (0%, 70 –100
%), (4) application of a post-stack low-apparent
velocity rejection filter using a limited aperture
tau – p (zero offset traveltime intercept-slowness)
transform (e.g., Yilmaz, 1987) and (5) finally, in
order to display the final CDP stacked sections at
small scale and further reduce noise, we blended
(1:1) the output data with the absolute value of the
amplitude squared and displayed as variable area
with no wiggle trace. Several migration trials were
performed to avoid overmigration artifacts and to
determine which apparently linear events might be
diffractions. Time-to-depth conversions for the Pale-
ozoic sedimentary portion of the profiles were
carried out using information from nearby drill-hole
data (Buschbach and Kolata, 1991) and, for the
Precambrian crust portion, from seismic refraction-
based velocity of the crust as discussed above.
Reflector dips are apparent unless otherwise noted.
Both migrated and unmigrated sections have been
examined for our study. The full record sections of
the S-1, S-2 and S-3 profiles (Fig. 4) are shown as
interpretive line drawings with excerpts selected
using the actual data (Figs. 6, 8 and 9). We have
also incorporated results from the previously
acquired COCORP surveys in Illinois and Indiana
(Fig. 3b); however, due to the low-frequency nature
of these data (input source sweep contained 12 –50
Hz), they are of limited use for detailed mapping of
 54
J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
Fig. 4. Line-drawing interpretation of reprocessed seismic reflection lines S-1 (a), S-2 (b) and S-3 (c) with prominent interpreted faults and seismic sequences noted. Paleozoic portion
of record (base of Mt. Simon Sandstone and higher) is represented by the most prominent stratigraphic markers only. Upper and lower boundaries of the sequences are denoted by
double-edged arrows. A is Centralia sequence (dashed vertical arrows indicate Enterprise subsequence), B is northern sub-Centralia sequence and C is southern sub-Centralia
sequence. Areas enclosed by short dashed lines denote highly diffractive zones observed on the unmigrated records. Gray arrows indicate lateral boundaries of the Enterprise
subsequence. Vertical exaggeration is 2:1 for 6.2 km/s velocity.
J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 55

Fig. 4 (continued).
56 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 4 (continued).
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
Table 1
Data processing flow for vibroseis profiles
Reprocessing flow*
Input vibroseis uncorrelated SEG-Y shot files
Vibroseis correlation; sweep 0 – 20 s; output 10 s
Geometry assignment (use inline geometry)
Mute test & apply
Elevation static correlation ( f 107 m datum, f 2438 m/s velocity)
Spherical spreading correlation (1/v2t)
NMO correction (30% stretch mute) using modified original
velocity function
Ormsby bandpass minimum phase filter (8 – 12.5 – 40 – 50 Hz)
Test and apply residual automatic static correction
1000-ms automatic gain control
CDP stack, apply final datum statics
1500-ms automatic gain control
L1 Norm predictive adaptive deconvolution (400-ms operator
length, 100-ms prediction distance)
Phase-shift time migration (1-D interval velocity function, 75%)
(10 – 80 Hz)
Tau-p-based transformation ( 9, 9 ms/trace preserved; five-trace
aperture)
Blend original with absolute value amplitudes squared
Display as black-and white variable area, no wiggle trace
* Based on line S-1.
Precambrian reflective sequences. COCORP Illinois
line 1 corresponds approximately to the location of
our S-2 (Fig. 3b).
5. Seismic reflection results and interpretation
5.1. Seismic sequence analysis of the layered
successions below the Mt. Simon Sandstone
In contrast with the laterally uniform reflections of
the Illinois basin Paleozoic stratigraphic section,
deeper reflectivity beneath the Late Cambrian Mt.
Simon Sandstone is complex and highly structured.
The overall character of regional profiles S-1, S-2 and
S-3 in the f 1.5- to 6 – 7-s interval can be described
in terms of dish- or wedge-shaped reflection packages
(Fig. 5). These packages are typically bound, above,
below and laterally, by a bright and continuous
reflection or narrow reflection band that is subhor-
izontal to moderately dipping (Fig. 6a). The internal
character of the packages is less coherent than the
boundary reflections and consists of weaker, continu-
ous and/or geometrically complex reflections and
associated diffractions (Fig. 4). The geometry of
57
reflections in many places strongly suggests the pres-
ence of stratiform unconformity-bounded deposits.
The types of stratal discordance and lateral termina-
tions observed include onlap, downlap, toplap and
truncation like those observed for known seismic
sequences of sedimentary rocks (Mitchum et al.,
1977). In our analysis of these seismic sections, we
have applied seismic stratigraphic concepts first
developed for use in sedimentary basins (Mitchum
et al., 1977; Pratt et al., 1992), although also appli-
cable to volcaniclastic sequences (Planke et al., 2000;
Berndt et al., 2001). We have also, where permitted by
availability of data, correlated prominent boundary
reflectors on intersecting profiles and produced iso-
traveltime ‘‘structure’’ and ‘‘isopach’’ maps. Our
analysis reveals three prominent sub-Mt. Simon rock
units that are separated from one another by reflective
discordant surfaces (Figs. 2a, 4 and 5) including (1)
the Centralia sequence (defined by Pratt et al., 1992),
which also contains the Enterprise subsequence
(defined by McBride and Kolata, 1999); (2) the
northern sub-Centralia sequence (defined herein); (3)
the southern sub-Centralia sequence (defined herein).
5.1.1. Centralia sequence
The Centralia sequence was defined by Pratt et al.
(1992) as ‘‘the layered Precambrian rocks imaged on
the upper 5 s of the COCORP lines in southern Illinois
and Indiana.’’ Published interpretations of the higher
quality 3-s and 4-s unreprocessed industry reflection
profiles that can be tied directly to the COCORP
profiles (McBride and Kolata, 1999), as well as our
analysis of the data reprocessed for this study, show
the Centralia sequence to have well-defined stratiform
reflectivity that is mappable in east – central Illinois
and west –central Indiana (Fig. 2b). On line S-1, the
base of the Centralia (base of A in Fig. 4) rises from 3
s on the north end to approximately 1.5 s on the south
end where it pinches out at the interpreted base of the
Mt. Simon Sandstone (Figs. 4a and 6a). The base of
the Centralia on lines S-2 (Fig. 4b) and S-3 (Fig. 4c)
lies between 2 and 3 s. The overall geometry of the
Centralia sequence, as known from available reflec-
tion data, is bowl-shaped with distinct pinch-out
boundaries on the west and south (Fig. 2b).
The Enterprise subsequence, which occurs in
southeastern Illinois and southwestern Indiana (Fig.
7a), is a distinct succession of reflective units in the
 58
J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
Fig. 5. Schematic perspective diagram of three key reprocessed seismic reflection profiles (S-1, S-2, S-3; Fig. 3b) showing three sub-Mt. Simon Sandstone seismic sequences,
interpreted faults, and diffractive zones. Depth conversion is approximate, based on assuming an average 6 km/s velocity for the entire section. Bold letters refer to sequence labels
used in Figs. 4 and 6.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 59

Fig. 6. (a) Excerpt of northern part of S-1 showing northward-thickening sub-Mt. Simon Sandstone sequences. Note especially the strong
dipping reflection forming the lower boundary of the northern sub-Centralia sequence. (b) Excerpt of western part of S-3 illustrating offsets on
the sub-Mt. Simon Sandstone sequence boundaries, which are interpreted as fault offsets. Vertical exaggeration is f 1.4:1 for 6.2 km/s velocity.
NA is base of New Albany Shale, Kx is base of Knox Group, MS is base of Mt. Simon Sandstone, A is Centralia sequence, B is northern sub-
Centralia sequence. The seismic data for this figure and all other displays of the S profiles are provided by Seismic Exchange, Inc.; in all cases,
the interpretation is that of the authors.

upper part of the Centralia sequence (Fig. 8a) that
suggest the presence of unconformity-bound deposi-
tional sequences immediately beneath the Mt. Simon
Sandstone. Fig. 4 shows the known regional extent of
the Enterprise subsequence on the full record-length
profiles (i.e., as vertical dashed double arrows within
A). Top-discordant relations include erosional trunca-
tion and toplap. Base-discordant relations include
onlap and downlap. These reflection patterns are
particularly evident at the interpreted margins of the
Enterprise subsequence (Fig. 9). For example, on line
S-1, from km 40 to beyond km 70 and at a time of
1.5– 2.5 s, the Enterprise consists of several stacked
seismic facies that can be interpreted as prograded
60 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

clinoforms (Fig. 9a). The data permit interpretation of
four unconformity-bound sequences within the Enter-
prise on S-1: (1) a series of reflectors that downlap an
extensive northward-dipping surface of truncated
reflectors, (2) an array of reflectors that onlap this
surface and climb over the downlapping clinoforms,
(3) a prograding lens of convergent and sigmoid
cycles and (4) a series of reflectors that onlap sequen-
ces 1 – 3 (Fig. 9a). Similar seismic facies are also seen
on line S-2 from km 70 to km 90 at 1.0– 2.5 s (Fig.
9b). Superimposing the interpreted subsequence
boundaries on the unmigrated version of the reflection
profiles (Fig. 8a) reveals that the base of the Enter-
prise subsequence corresponds to the onset of a
diffractive section below as opposed to an apparently
stratified section above, which is suggestive of a
sedimentary origin for the Enterprise.
5.1.2. Northern sub-Centralia sequence
The extended re-correlation processing revealed an
additional seismic sequence below the Centralia
sequence situated beneath the northern third of line
S-1 (Fig. 5). On S-1, the base of the northern sub-
Centralia sequence (base of B in Fig. 4) gradually
expands northward from a feathered edge at the base
of the Centralia (below km 90, Fig. 4a) by a traveltime
of 2 s over a lateral distance of 50 km (Figs. 4a and
6a). The northern sub-Centralia is bordered on the
north by a moderately dipping and very coherent
reflector that terminates into a mostly horizontal
diffractive zone that continues northward to the end
of the profile (Fig. 6a). On the intersecting line S-3,
this diffractive zone correlates to the base of a broad
bowl-shaped northern sub-Centralia sequence (Fig.
4c) that extends across the entirety of S-3 with its

Fig. 7. (a) Traveltime isopach map for the interval between the base of the Mt. Simon Sandstone and the base of the Enterprise subsequence.
Contour interval is 500 ms. (b) Two-way isotraveltime to base of entire package of the Centralia and northern sub-Centralia sequences
combined. Contour interval is 100 ms (or 300 m at 6.0 km s 1). For traveltime less than 2 s, contour interval is 500 ms. (c) Traveltime isopach
map for the northern and southern sub-Centralia sequences (solid and dashed lines, respectively). Contour interval is 500 ms. See text and Fig. 5
for definitions of all the sequences on the reflection profiles. County boundaries are shown for comparative purposes.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 61

Fig. 7 (continued).

longest duration (6 s) below km 48. Beginning on the
west (Fig. 6b), this base steps down in an easterly
direction between km 100 and km 60 and then
gradually rises eastward leveling out at km 10 (Fig.
4c). Like on S-1, the base of the northern sub-
Centralia sequence on S-3 is highly diffractive and/
or segmented, especially below the western half of the
line, where the prominent and disjointed reflectors
situated between 3 and 6 s marking the base may
indicate a series of down-to-the-basin fault blocks
(Fig. 6b). The sense and position of the offsets on
the base of the northern sub-Centralia sequence
appear to be related to synthetic, but lesser magnitude
offsets (in traveltime) on the base of the main Cen-
tralia sequence, defining planar normal faults. The
thickest (i.e., longest duration) part of the overlying
Centralia sequence, including the Enterprise subse-
quence, corresponds to the thickest part of the north-
ern sub-Centralia sequence (Fig. 7c). The traveltime
contour map for the base of the integrated Centralia
and northern sub-Centralia sequences (i.e., A and B
sequences in Fig. 4) (Fig. 7b) indicates a wedge of
material that dramatically thickens northward into the
center of the sequence.
62 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 7 (continued).

5.1.3. Southern sub-Centralia sequence
We refer to a third reflection package beneath the
Centralia visible on lines S-1 and S-2 as the south-
ern sub-Centralia sequence (C on Fig. 4). This
sequence, which is the most complex of the three,
can also be described as resting ‘‘structurally’’
beneath (or south of) the northern sub-Centralia
sequence (Fig. 5). On S-1, the base of the southern
sub-Centralia is marked by a series of coherent
reflectors between 4 and 5 s that terminate abruptly
beneath km 50 (Fig. 4a). From this point, these
reflectors can be traced northward to about km 100
where they are truncated below the southern part of
the northern sub-Centralia sequence (Fig. 4a). On
line S-2 beginning below km 82, the coherent
reflectors occur within a thin wedge between 3
and 4 s, then extend abruptly downward between
km 50 and km 40, and then gradually rise toward
the east end of the profile (Fig. 4b). The sequence
reaches a maximum duration of approximately 2 s
traveltime near km 42 (Fig. 4b). The southern sub-
Centralia sequence is cut by at least two steeply
dipping or vertical faults (between km 40 and km
70 on S-1) that are inferred from synthetic offsets
of reflectors near the base of the main Centralia
sequence and near the base of the southern sub-
Centralia sequence (Fig. 4a). On the orthogonal S-2
profile, we interpret a moderately dipping normal

Fig. 8. (a) Excerpt of unmigrated high-resolution version of S-2 over region where the Enterprise subsequence thins beneath the base of the Mt.
Simon Sandstone. Note the increased diffractive character of the section below the base of the Enterprise subsequence. (b) Sixfold dynamite
seismic reflection record from the Gulf of Papua showing a shelf-margin sedimentary environment morphologically similar to the Enterprise
subsequence on its margin [see (a) and Fig. 9]. Dashed lines show interpreted seismic stratigraphic sequence boundaries. From Bubb and
Hatlelid (1977). AAPGn1977 reprinted by permission of the AAPG whose permission is required for further use.
J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 63
64 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 9. Excerpts of migrated seismic reflection profiles S-1 (a) and S-2 (b) focused on the Enterprise subsequence (indicated by bracket)
interpreted using the seismic stratigraphy paradigm. Horizontal arrows indicate interpreted horizontal truncations or onlap; dipping arrows
indicate dipping truncations or downlap.

fault that spans the apparent offset of the base of
the wedge of the southern sub-Centralia sequence to
the west and the base of the sequence where it is
dropped down to the east (beneath km 37 –49) (Fig.
4b). Separate isotraveltime isopach contour maps for
both the northern and southern sub-Centralia
sequences (Fig. 7c) show a more irregular pattern
for the latter in which the sequence has roughly
northwest strike and deepens sharply to the east –
northeast. Comparing the two contour maps (Fig.
7c) indicates that the two sequences are structurally
discordant.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
5.2. Middle crustal reflector structure
Below the relatively well-layered Centralia sequen-
ces, reflectivity in the middle crust is sparse and less
ordered. Large areas of diffractions and associated
short reflection segments dominate much of the sec-
tion, especially beneath the thinned margins of the
upper crustal Centralia sequences (Fig. 4a). These
diffractive zones collapse, upon migration, into dis-
continuous ‘‘pods’’ of segmented reflectors. For
example, on the north –south line S-1, two strong
clusters of diffractions appear between 5 and 7 s, one
beneath the southern pinchout of the Centralia
sequence (km 10 – 18) and another near the southern
margin of the southern sub-Centralia sequence (km
45 –53) (Fig. 4a). On an orthogonal line, S-2, three or
four distinct pods of diffractions (km 69– 88) that
collapse into segmented reflectors can be recognized
beneath the western marginal pinchouts of both the
southern sub-Centralia sequence (km 80) and the
Enterprise subsequence (km 86) (Figs. 4b and 5).
Following migration, several dipping zones are rec-
ognizable on the sections well below the base of the
Centralia sequences. The most prominent of these
appears on eastern half of S-3, where an antiformal
pattern occurs beginning at 9.1 s (km 30– 48) and a
bright west-dipping reflection occurs at 7.9 s (km 18)
(Fig. 4c).
6. Results from analysis of gravity and magnetic
data
The results of reprocessing industry seismic reflec-
tion profiles were integrated with filtered gravity and
magnetic anomaly maps for the study area and Illinois
basin region. We have taken the approach of filtering
the data in such a way as to emphasize particular
spatial wavelengths or depths of investigation (i.e.,
regional versus residual field components) (Fig. 10).
The magnetic intensity data used in our study are
compiled from several aeromagnetic surveys (Hilden-
brand and Hendricks, 1995). Survey line spacing in
the study area is generally 1.6 km, except in central
Illinois (north of lat. 39j) where the spacing is 9.6 km.
A 1-km grid of magnetic values was prepared for each
aeromagnetic survey using a minimum curvature
algorithm developed by Webring (1982). All data
65
were analytically continued to a surface 305 m above
the land surface. For both the magnetic and gravity
data, a 1-km grid is adequate since our sources of
interest are at least 3 km in depth. The magnetic-
anomaly data were reduced to the north magnetic
pole, a procedure that shifts most anomalies to posi-
tions above their sources. Because data resolution is
adequate to study regional features only, we did not
attempt forward modeling of magnetic or gravity
anomalies (i.e., any solution would be highly uncon-
strained).
In order to enhance near-surface magnetic sources,
the magnetic data were upward continued analytically
2000 m to generate a regional field (i.e., calculating
the magnetic field as if it were measured 2000 m
above the actual measurement surface). This regional
field or low-frequency-passed field (i.e., the measure-
ment surface is farther from the sources) was then
subtracted from the unfiltered data set to derive a
residual or high-frequency-passed field. The residual
magnetic data (Fig. 10a) illustrate the effectiveness of
this approach for highlighting subtle geologic infor-
mation. In areas of steep, broad magnetic gradients,
low-amplitude and spatially restricted anomalies
(related to near-surface features) and other subtle
features or trends tend to escape notice on the
reduced-to-pole map. In order to resolve these short-
wavelength anomalies, a second-vertical-derivative
(Fig. 10b) filter (Bhattacharyya, 1965) was applied
to the reduced-to-pole magnetic data. The derivative
map reduces the effects of broad regional gradients
and enhances subtle local and shallow features by
delineating the vertical edges of sources. An increase
in the number of anomalies per area indicates that the
number of shallow lateral changes in magnetic proper-
ties increases.
The gravity data were obtained from the National
Geophysical Data Center ( f 85,000 stations) and
from the University of Texas at El Paso ( f 16,000
stations kindly furnished by G.R. Keller). All data
were tied to the IGSN-71 gravity datum and reduced
to complete Bouguer-anomaly values using a reduc-
tion density of 2670 kg/m3 and the 1967 formula for
the theoretical gravity (Cordell et al., 1982). The
spacing of gravity stations is generally adequate
(about one station per 4 km2) to define and character-
ize basement features within the study area. A 1-km
grid of gravity values was prepared using the Webring
66 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

(1982) algorithm. So as to compensate for the load on more closely the contribution of intracrustal density
the crust caused by the additional mass related to variations.
topography, the isostatic residual gravity anomaly was In order to more accurately portray lateral density
determined (Simpson et al., 1986), which reflects variations in the crust below the Paleozoic Illinois

Fig. 10. (a) Reduced-to-pole magnetic intensity with the 2000-m upward continuation subtracted to produce a residual map. (b) Second vertical
derivative of reduced-to-pole magnetic intensity upward continued by 1000 m. (c) Isostatic gravity with effects of Paleozoic sediments removed
(see text for more information) with a 2000-m upward continuation removed in order to produce a residual map. Three key seismic reflection
lines are shown (Fig. 3b), plus selected traveltime contours (heavy solid lines) for the Centralia sequence (Fig. 7a). Curved dashed lines show
two interpreted ‘‘rings’’ of positive anomalies. X indicates peak of positive anomaly observed from reduced-to-pole magnetic intensity (Fig.
10a).
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78 67

Fig. 10 (continued).

basin, the density effects of the Paleozoic sediments
were removed (Fig. 10c). We generalize the Phaner-
ozoic section by dividing it into two layers: layer 1—
primarily low-density, clastic sedimentary rocks (2540
kg/m3) extending down to Mississippian Ste. Gene-
vieve limestone (written communication, Janis Tre-
worgy, Illinois State Geological Survey, 1999); layer
2—primarily dense carbonates (2740 kg/m3) under-
lying layer 1 and extending down to Precambrian
basement (Buschbach and Kolata, 1991). Using these
known surfaces, the gravity fields of a + 130 kg/m3
layer 1 and 70 kg/m3 layer 2 can be calculated and
added to the isostatic gravity field. By analytically
adjusting the gravity field in this way, the Phanerozoic
sedimentary rocks are changed entirely to a density of
2670 kg/m3, and the corrected field of the study area
68 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 10 (continued).

isolates estimated lateral density variations within a
Precambrian basement of density 2670 kg/m3. A
regional field calculated by upward continuing these
corrected data by 2000 m also was removed to
produce the residual gravity field shown in Fig. 10c.
A first-order observation from comparing the dis-
tribution of the Centralia sequences and the potential
field filtered data is that the upper crustal sequences
do not correspond to either high magnetic or gravity
intensities as might be expected for a major accumu-
lation of mafic igneous material like those seen for the
Midcontinent rift system (Lidiak et al., 1985). Instead,
the areal extent of the sequences corresponds to
subdued intensities and spatial wavelengths on both
residual magnetic and gravity maps, but especially for
the former. On the residual reduced-to-pole magnetic
anomaly maps (Fig. 10a and b), the deeper, interior
part of the sequences clearly corresponds to reduced
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
wavelengths and intensity. This is also true for the
innermost part of the sequences (i.e., beginning at the
3-s traveltime contour) when compared with residual
isostatic gravity (Fig. 10c). From a regional perspec-
tive, the known boundaries of the reflectivity (i.e., on
the south and west) match an overall change in
magnetic anomaly wavelength and intensity, which
defines a much larger area with a subdued pattern that
extends well beyond the area where seismic reflection
data are available. This implies that our observations
of the Centralia sequences could represent a small part
of what could ultimately be a huge reflectivity feature
of the upper crust below the Paleozoic Illinois basin
continuing to the north and east.
The western and southern boundaries of the Cen-
tralia sequences are marked by two parallel-trending,
approximately concentric curved alignments of small,
localized magnetic anomaly highs (Fig. 10a), which
are matched by a less well-defined alignment of
gravity anomaly highs (Fig. 10c). It is worth noting
that an outer anomaly ring (Fig. 10a) appears over the
thinned margins of the main Centralia sequence. The
positive magnetic anomalies comprising this outer
ring usually correspond to the centers of isostatic
gravity highs (Fig. 10a and c), which suggests mafic
igneous sources (Lidiak et al., 1985). The inner ring of
quasi-circular anomalies is less well defined and does
not show such a distinct one-to-one correspondence of
prominent magnetic and gravity anomaly highs. In the
inner ring, anomalies identified as magnetic highs do
not necessarily correspond to a gravity high, suggest-
ing the occurrence of both mafic and nonmafic
igneous sources. As discussed in the previous section
on middle and lower crustal structure, highly diffrac-
tive zones occur in clusters (Fig. 4) beneath the
thinned margins of the Centralia sequences (i.e.,
beneath the southern and western fringes) (Fig. 5).
These zones show a moderate correspondence to the
position of the inner ring of magnetic and gravity
anomalies (Fig. 4). No full-crustal seismic reflection
lines are available crossing the outer anomaly ring
except for the very southernmost part of S-1 (Fig. 4a),
which shows a zone of diffractions there as well.
Diffraction effects, such as observed on our lines, can
be interpreted as originating from the disruption
related to localized igneous intrusion through the crust
(Schilt et al., 1981), such as inferred from the potential
field anomalies, although diffraction could arise from
69
planar features as well (Sadowiak et al., 1989).
Spectral analysis of magnetic and gravity anomalies
in the Illinois basin region and results based on ideal
body theory (Hildenbrand and Ravat, 1997; Hilden-
brand et al., 2002) indicate that the source of the
anomalies of isolated mafic igneous rocks lies below
the base of the Centralia sequence (i.e., below 6 –14
km), which is consistent with the observed onset
traveltimes for the diffractive zones (Fig. 5).
7. Discussion
7.1. Origin of sub-Mt. Simon seismic sequences
One of the most remarkable results of this study is
the detection of three highly coherent Precambrian
‘‘stratigraphic’’ sequences beneath the Paleozoic Illi-
nois basin that continue down to 15– 20 km depth
(Fig. 5). 3-D mapping of these sequences reveals
broad ‘‘basinal’’ packages that may be related to a
Proterozoic episode of caldera complex development
possibly in concert with limited (incipient?) rifting
(Fig. 5). The seismic facies of the Enterprise subse-
quence (part of the main Centralia sequence, Fig. 9)
display evidence for unconformity-bounded deposi-
tional sequences within rocks previously considered
to be non-sedimentary ‘‘basement.’’ In fact, the Enter-
prise reflection terminations and configurations are
similar to the prograding clinoforms typically imaged
along many passive continental margins. Similarities
can be seen, for example, in comparing the Enterprise
to the shelf-margin succession of the Gulf of Papua as
illustrated by Bubb and Hatlelid (1977) (Fig. 8b). This
is most apparent on S-1 at 40 km (Fig. 9a) and S-2 at
84 km (Fig. 9b), where the seismic facies at the
margins of the Enterprise display (1) an abrupt change
in slope of reflectors, (2) onlap of convergent to
sigmoid cycles and (3) an antiform in the basal
Cambrian strata that may correspond to a shelf-margin
buildup (alternatively, the antiform may have been
caused by reactivation of a thrust fault at the base of
the Enterprise (McBride and Kolata, 1999)). These
stratal geometries suggest that the Enterprise could be
a sedimentary or volcaniclastic succession that fills a
basin that lies north of 38jN latitude and east of
89j30VW longitude (Fig. 7a). Although the several
drill-hole penetrations in and around the study area all
70 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
indicate granite –rhyolite textures and compositions
(i.e., non-sedimentary), the Enterprise subsequence
has not actually been tested by drilling except in
one hole near profile S-1 (km 60) (Fig. 3b) (Wayne,
see Sargent, 1991), which shows a highly thinned
section of Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone and is thus
probably drilled on an anomalous erosional topo-
graphic high not representative of the subsequence
as a whole. This leaves open the possibility that the
Enterprise subsequence may in part be sedimentary.
Planke et al. (2000) present a comprehensive study
of seismic facies characteristics of large basaltic
extrusive complexes in rifted continental margin set-
tings. Although the depositional response of volcanis-
tratigraphic systems is obviously different from
siliciclastic systems, a seismic stratigraphic sequence
approach (Mitchum et al., 1977) is warranted because
both systems may involve gravity-driven mass trans-
port in the presence of water. The reflective character
of the Enterprise subsequence is similar in some
respects to the seismic facies described by Planke et
al. (2000). As indicated by Planke et al. (2000), a
Gilbert-type delta, with topset, prograding foreset and
bottomset surfaces, may explain the strataform and
dipping character of the Enterprise subsequence for
the case of sub-aerially erupted lavas flowing into a
shallow sea or lake. The effect of a ‘‘layered’’ lava –
sediment pile could be enhanced by intermittent
sedimentation in between eruptions. For example,
the base of the Enterprise is an extensive high-ampli-
tude planated surface that caps a lower Centralia
seismic facies below with divergent, arcuate and
disrupted reflections (Fig. 8a). These features are like
the contact between massive basalt flows and over-
lying volcaniclastic sediments illustrated by Planke et
al. (2000) for the Cuvier Margin of western Australia.
Likewise, the prograded clinoforms in the Enterprise
subsequence are similar to the progradational reflec-
tive configuration of the lava delta facies of the Møre
Margin in the northeast Atlantic. On the other hand,
the deeper parts of the sequences show a less strati-
form character with discontinuous reflector segments
and numerous diffractions (Fig. 8a). Below the Enter-
prise subsequence, the upper crustal reflectivity
changes markedly from a more strataform to a dif-
fractive and less-ordered character, which suggests
more of a volcanic and/or intrusive igneous origin
(Fig. 8a). Chaotic mixtures of volcanic rocks and
sediments may result from the explosive interaction
of magma and wet sediments in a sedimentary basin
setting (Planke et al., 2000).
7.2. Influence of the Centralia and associated
sequences on the subsidence of the Illinois basin
Most Paleozoic sequences in the Illinois basin
thicken in the region of the Reelfoot rift and Rough
Creek graben (i.e., New Madrid rift system) suggest-
ing that basin subsidence mechanisms were geneti-
cally linked to geodynamic processes operating in the
rift complex (Fig. 2). Evidence suggests that the basin
began to form during the late Precambrian to Early
Cambrian as a failed rift that underwent thermal
cooling and subsidence (Heidlauf et al., 1986; Kolata
and Nelson, 1991, 1997; Bond and Kominz, 1991).
Post-Middle Ordovician subsidence in the basin is
attributed to downwarping of the crust caused by an
isostatically uncompensated mass situated beneath the
rift system (Braile et al., 1986; Kolata and Nelson,
1991, 1997). The presence of a crustal mass is locally
suggested by a positive gravity anomaly (Cordell,
1977) and high-velocity (7.3 km/s) lower crust cen-
tered beneath the Reelfoot rift (Mooney et al., 1983;
Ginzburg et al., 1983). The mass may have resulted
from intrusion of the anorogenic granite country rock
by tholeiitic basalt as described by Klein and Hsui
(1987) and Klein (1991). According to DeRito et al.
(1983), the most likely mechanism responsible for
reactivation of cratonic rift basins underlain by an
uncompensated mass is a global increase in the geo-
thermal gradient and/or an increase in regional stress
related to loading of the crust in nearby orogenic belts.
Both mechanisms would decrease the viscosity of the
lithosphere and activate subsidence of the uncompen-
sated mass in the crust. If basin subsidence was linked
entirely to geodynamic processes operating in the rift
system, why then did the proto-Illinois basin extend
far to the north into east – central Illinois and west –
central Indiana (Fig. 2b)? Was there a separate and
discrete subsidence mechanism in this area that oper-
ated independently but in concert with rift-related
mechanisms to produce the present basin fill patterns?
It is clear from stratal patterns and thickness trends
within the Centralia sequences and overlying Late
Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone that an episode of
localized subsidence and/or volcanic accumulation
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
was underway before the main deposition of the post-
Cambrian Illinois basin stratigraphic succession. This
is illustrated when comparing the thickness of the
Enterprise subsequence (Fig. 7a) to that of the over-
lying Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone (Fig. 3a). As
seen on seismic line S-1 (Fig. 4a), the Centralia
sequence and overlying Mt. Simon show a similar
trend of northward thickening. This comparison sug-
gests that the depositional origins of the Enterprise
and Mt. Simon units are similar. Using the regional
thickness of the Mt. Simon as a proxy to identify the
early Illinois basin depocenter, it therefore appears
that the Enterprise and Mt. Simon Sandstone were
accommodated by an episode of subsidence centered
in east – central Illinois and west– central Indiana. In
contrast, all post-Mt. Simon Paleozoic sequences
thicken southward toward depocenters situated over
the Reelfoot rift, which further emphasizes the
uniqueness of the Mt. Simon and Enterprise interre-
lationship (Fig. 2a). Since the actual age of the Enter-
prise remains unverified by drilling (i.e., no isotopic
age determination), it is conceivable that at least parts
of it are stratigraphically conformable with the over-
lying Cambrian sedimentary strata. This would mean
that the Enterprise is much younger than the region-
ally extensive granite –rhyolite terrane of 1.5-Ga age.
If such is correct, then the Enterprise, and perhaps
deeper parts of the Centralia sequence, could be a
downward continuation of the Mt. Simon Sandstone
basin. The subsidence mechanism, however, has yet
to be identified. Although subsidence rates were
greater over the Reelfoot rift after the Late Cambrian,
areas north of the rift in east –central Illinois and
west –central Indiana continued to subside throughout
the Paleozoic. After Late Cambrian time, the proto-
Illinois basin developed into a broad southward-
plunging trough that extended from east – central Illi-
nois and west– central Indiana through the Reelfoot
rift toward the cratonic margin in east – central Arkan-
sas (Fig. 2b). A principal result of our findings thus is
that the present configuration of the Illinois basin
resulted from the cumulative effects of subsidence
operating separately in these two discrete regions (Fig.
2b): (1) the area of the Centralia assemblages in east –
central Illinois and west –central Indiana and (2) the
New Madrid rift system in southern Illinois, western
Kentucky, western Tennessee and southeastern Mis-
souri.
71
7.3. A rhyolitic caldera complex or rifting origin?
A common element of many of the several hypoth-
eses on the origin of the granite –rhyolite provinces in
North America is that extension of the crust was
associated with magmatism, perhaps brought on by
rifting and incipient ocean opening (Anderson and
Bender, 1989; Lidiak, 1996). Specific evidence for an
extensional origin is the association of mafic igneous
flows, sills and other intrusions with the granite and
rhyolite, including some interlayering of felsic and
mafic rocks, as well as the geochemistry of the
basalts, which indicates an intra-continental tholeiitic
composition (Lidiak, 1996). However, as pointed out
by Bickford et al. (1986), the relative scarcity of
basaltic igneous rocks indicates that any rifting proc-
ess could not have developed to the extent that mafic
magmas, corresponding to the heat source during
extension, penetrated widely into the upper crust.
The nearest Proterozoic rift is the Midcontinent rift,
which post-dates the granite – rhyolite provinces and
partially encircles much of the midwest (Hauser,
1996) (Fig. 1b). This rift is delineated by a highly
linear narrow zone with relatively sharp boundaries
over hundreds of kilometers with very strong potential
field anomalies and has thus been confidently inter-
preted as a major rift (Van Schmus and Hinze, 1985).
In contrast, the presently known expression of the
Centralia sequences is clearly nonlinear, but instead
ovoid with no major ‘‘rift-bounding’’ faults associated
directly with the margins of the sequences and no
significant overall positive potential field anomaly.
Therefore, we suggest that using a Midcontinent or
East African rift paradigm to interpret our observa-
tions may not be appropriate. On the other hand, a
rhyolitic caldera complex model can explain several
features of the Centralia sequences.
Rhyolitic calderas develop as explosive structures,
roughly ovoid with diameters from a few to many tens
of kilometers (Roche et al., 2000), that repeatedly
collapse in on themselves without building any tall
construction (Smith and Bailey, 1968; Bullard, 1976).
Intracaldera volcanic and lacustrine materials can
reach up to 5 km in thickness (Roche et al., 2000).
Post-eruption caldera subsidence is typically
described by piston collapse or flexural down-sagging
models (Roche et al., 2000). In the piston collapse
model, a roughly circular block of material sinks into
72 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

the magma chamber along curved faults that dip very
steeply or are vertical. Flexural down-sagging typi-
cally acts in concert with arcuate faulting to accom-
modate the subsidence. Field mapping studies in the
nearby St. Francois Mountains Proterozoic granitic
caldera systems, which are part of the eastern granite –
rhyolite province (Fig. 2c), document steep, deeply
penetrating arcuate faults that accommodated the
accumulation of volcanic units during caldera collapse
(Kisvarsanyi, 1980; Sides et al., 1981). The integrated
structure of a caldera system is typically complicated
by the creation of resurgent domes or ‘‘blisters’’ that
push upward due to magma intrusion following the
initial collapse as seen, for example, in the Yellow-
stone (USA) and Toba (Sumatra) volcanic depressions
(Schilly et al., 1982; Knight et al., 1986; Chesner et
al., 1991) (Fig. 11). In both these cases, as well as in
the St. Francois Mountain calderas (Sides et al.,
1981), many eruptions occurring over geologic time
have produced complexes of overlapping calderas.
Such multiple collapse and doming episodes may
create dipping unconformities between volcanic
deposits within a ‘‘basinal’’ feature when viewed in
cross-section (Sides et al., 1981) (Fig. 12).
Our observations of a major structural and strati-
graphic depression beneath the Illinois basin bear

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic interpretive map showing boundaries of the three Centralia sequences and the Enterprise subsequence (part of the
Centralia sequence). Also shown, at the same scale, are maps of Yellowstone and Toba Lake calderas, where the gray pattern indicates the
caldera and the stipple pattern represents domes or islands (modified from Schilly et al., 1982 and Knight et al., 1986). Young post-caldera
volcanic vents in Yellowstone are shown as black triangles. (b) Schematic interpretive cartoon cross-section across the Illinois basin study area
showing possible upper crustal structure represented by seismic sequences and deeply buried igneous intrusions.
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
Fig. 11 (continued).
several similarities to caldera systems. The 3-D geom-
etry of the three main sequences indicates a ‘‘nested’’
interrelationship where the uppermost (Centralia)
sequence broadens out over deeper subsequences that
become areally more restricted with depth and rest
beneath the deepest part of the Centralia sequence
(i.e., defining a more conical depression with depth)
(Fig. 5). The internal character of the shallowest
subsequence (Enterprise subsequence) is the most
distinctive and displays many aspects of a depositio-
nal sequence, based on recognition of diagnostic
stratigraphic features (Fig. 9). In plan view (Fig.
11a), the three main Centralia sequences together
describe a large ovoid depression that has subsided
by a combination of steep faulting on the flanks (e.g.,
as seen on the western half of profile S-3; Fig. 4c) and
down-sagging toward the interior (e.g., as seen in the
middle of profile S-1; Fig. 4a) (Figs. 5 and 12). The
stratiform character of the upper part of the sequences
(i.e., Enterprise subsequence) is consistent with grav-
ity-driven mass transport of volcanic (and possibly
intermittent lacustrine) materials in-filling an ovoid
depression. In the deeper parts of the sequences (i.e.,
beneath the Enterprise subsequence), which would be
nearer the magma chamber underlying the caldera, the
irregular reflector geometries and abrupt truncations
73
are more reminiscent of igneous intrusion and the
effects of resurgent doming. The steeply dipping and
highly coherent reflections that bound the sides of the
deeper sequences (e.g., the bright, north-dipping
reflector at the northern end of profile S-1 that borders
the northern Centralia subsequence, Fig. 6a) may
indicate intrusive contacts (unconformities), perhaps
preserved from prior volcanic episodes that have been
subsequently truncated.
Rhyolitic caldera systems are often associated
with intraplate mantle plume-generated hotspots
[e.g., Yellowstone (Fig. 11a) (Miller and Smith,
1999)]. The granitic calderas of the St. Francois
Mountains in particular, and the eastern granite –
rhyolite province in general, are thought to be related
to late Proterozoic hotspot activity and production of
anorogenic granites without reaching an advanced
rifting stage (Kisvarsanyi, 1980). Extensional faults
and grabens can arise in association with caldera
development depending on the geologic setting as in
the cases with Yellowstone (extensional Basin and
Range faulting; Schilly et al., 1982) and Toba
(nearby Sumatran fault zone and the Sunda subduc-
tion zone; Knight et al., 1986). The deepest parts of
the Proterozoic sequences beneath the Illinois basin
have clearly been the most affected by steep normal
74 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78

Fig. 12. (a) Cross-section through Long Valley, California caldera based on seismic refraction and other geophysical data. Dashed lines indicate
outline of S-wave attenuating volume, inferred to be active magma chambers. Modified from Newhall and Dzurisin (1988). (b) Cross-section
through Yellowstone, Wyoming caldera based mainly on seismic refraction data. Modified from Schilly et al. (1982).

faulting (e.g., Figs. 5 and 6b) and this may have
helped control the localization of the subsequent
caldera and volcaniclastic development. Comparing
the general morphology of these sequences in cross-
section with that of the Long Valley and Yellowstone
rhyolitic caldera systems (Fig. 12) points to the
general similarity in terms of wedge-shaped pack-
ages within the calderas and the presence of down-
to-the-basin normal faulting along the margins.
Using Yellowstone and Toba as contemporary exam-
ples, the expected areal extent of a single discrete
caldera is near to the area outlined by the smaller
sequences and subsequences (Fig. 11a), but which
over a long period of geologic time could produce a
larger area of overlapping caldera systems.
Filtered isostatic gravity and magnetic intensity
data for the study area (e.g., Fig. 10) indicate that
the deeper parts of the seismic sequences correspond
to subdued geopotential field values and spatial wave-
lengths meaning that the sequences are lacking in
widespread high-density, high-magnetization rocks,
relative to the surrounding region. On the other hand,
the outer margins of the sequences, especially to the
west and south, are marked by prominent coincident
mostly positive magnetic (Fig. 10b) and gravity (Fig.
10c) anomalies, which indicate mafic igneous source
intrusions (Hildenbrand et al., 2002) that are ex-
pressed in a general way as the highly diffractive
zones (Fig. 4) on the deep reflection profiles. Using a
caldera complex model, the partially annular distribu-
tion of the small anomalies (Fig. 10b) can be
explained as representing igneous plutons intruded
along the arcuate ring fractures of a massive caldera
system. Igneous plutons are commonly emplaced
 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
along the ring fractures of the caldera or along intra-
caldera faults and, in contemporary examples, are
manifested as arcuate alignments of volcanic vents
(Kisvarsanyi, 1980; Sides et al., 1981; Roche et al.,
2000). For example, in the case of the mid-Proterozoic
Butler Hill granitic caldera in the St. Francois Moun-
tains, the final-stage igneous intrusions were em-
placed in an annular pattern concentric to the caldera
walls (Lowell, 1991). Because the geopotential field
analyses preclude a large mafic igneous component to
the crust beneath the Centralia sequences, except for
isolated igneous centers, any Proterozoic volcanic
and/or rifting episode must not have tapped deeply
or significantly into the lower crustal or upper mantle
during the heating event responsible for the granite –
rhyolite.
8. Summary and conclusions
New reflectivity images of the crust beneath the
Paleozoic Illinois basin have been derived from
reprocessing of several hundred kilometers of indus-
try seismic reflection data mainly using the extended
vibroseis correlation technique. Three highly coher-
ent ‘‘stratigraphic’’ sequences are detected beneath
the Paleozoic Illinois basin [i.e., sub-Mt. Simon
Sandstone (Late Cambrian)] that continue down into
middle crustal depths. These sequences, some of
which suggest unconformity-bounded depositional
sequences, lie within a vast depression developed
over or within the ‘‘eastern granite – rhyolite prov-
ince’’, a major Proterozoic (1.48 – 1.45 Ga) igneous
terrane composed of A-type felsic rocks with sub-
ordinate mafic components. The sequences are
bounded by strong, laterally continuous reflectors
that are mappable over distances exceeding 200 km
and are expressed as broad ‘‘basinal’’ packages in
plan view that become areally more restricted with
depth. The internal character of the shallowest, sub-
Mt. Simon sequence (Enterprise) consists of prom-
inent dipping and truncated reflector clinoforms,
suggestive of a prograding shelf-margin-type sedi-
mentary succession. The overall thickness and dis-
tribution of this shallowest sequence mimic closely
the overlying Mt. Simon clastic sediments. The
present configuration of the Illinois basin thus
appears to have been influenced by the combined
75
effects on subsidence of the Centralia sequences to
the north and the New Madrid rift system to the
south. Normal-fault reflector offsets that progres-
sively disrupt the sequences with depth are possibly
related to a Proterozoic rhyolitic caldera complex
and/or rift episode related to the original thermal
event that produced the granite – rhyolite province.
The discovery of a major collapsed caldera complex,
as postulated herein, would indicate for the first time
a subsurface location and mechanism for the volcan-
ism of the eastern granite –rhyolite province. The
nearby St. Francois Mountains caldera systems may
represent the deeply eroded roots of a feature anal-
ogous to the Centralia sequences. Although we favor
a caldera explanation, we acknowledge that some
features of the sub-Mt. Simon structure (e.g., normal
faults, coincident positive potential field anomalies
and prograding clinoforms) are also consistent with a
purely rift origin. Filtered isostatic gravity and mag-
netic intensity data for the study area indicate that the
deeper parts of the seismic sequences correspond to
subdued geopotential field values. This implies that
the sequences are lacking in high-density, high-mag-
netization rocks, relative to the surrounding region.
However, the outer margins of the sequences, espe-
cially to the west and south, are marked by prom-
inent coincident magnetic and gravity anomalies,
indicative of mafic igneous source intrusions that
are expressed in a general way as highly diffractive
zones on the deep reflection profiles. Experiments in
upward continuing the magnetic intensity field for
the St. Francois Mountains area (Hildenbrand et al.,
2002) demonstrate the potential field similarity, in
terms of spatial wavelengths and anomaly amplitude,
between the two areas, once the effect of different
burial depths is removed. Geopotential field analyses
for the study area rule out a large mafic igneous
component to the crust. This means any Proterozoic
rifting and/or volcanic episode must not have tapped
significantly into the lower crust or upper mantle
during the heating event responsible for the granite –
rhyolite. Reflectivity in the lower crust is marked by
intermittent horizontal packages and short, gently
dipping reflections and diffraction segments. Wide-
spread reflection layering in the deep crust, which
has been thought to be an indicator of intrusion of
mafic igneous melt derived from the upper mantle in
rifted provinces (Warner, 1990), is not observed.
76 J.H. McBride et al. / Tectonophysics 363 (2003) 45–78
Acknowledgements
This project was made possible by the kind
release of seismic reflection data to the Illinois
State Geological Survey by Seismic Exchange. The
research was financially supported, in part, by the
US Geological Survey (USGS), Department of the
Interior, under USGS award numbers 1434-HQ97GR-
03194 and 1434-HQ97GR-03065 (University of
Illinois). The views and conclusions contained in this
document are those of the authors and should not be
interpreted as necessarily representing the official
policies, either expressed or implied, of the US
Government. This work was also supported in part
by the Earthquake Engineering Research Centers
Program of the National Science Foundation under
Award Number EEC-9701785. We also acknowledge
the support of this research by Landmark Graphics via
the Landmark University Grant Program at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Data
processing for this study was performed using Land-
mark’s ProMAX 2-Dk. The authors gratefully
acknowledge reviews by J.-C. Mareschal and an
anonymous referee, which greatly improved the final
version of the paper. The publication of this report is
authorized by the Chief, Illinois State Geological
Survey.
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