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Lecture07 Angle Mod
Lecture07 Angle Mod
EE442 Lecture 7
Spring Semester
Angle Modulation
1
Applications for Various Modulation Techniques
2
Amplitude, Frequency and Phase Modulation
3
Illustrating AM, PM and FM Signals
Carrier signal
Carrier Wave
m(t)
AM
AM Modulated Signal
PM
Angle PM Modulated Signal
Modulation
FM
5
Some Observations on FM and PM Waveforms
3. For PM, the maximum frequency deviation takes place at the zero
crossings of the modulating signal m(t).
6
Advantages of Angle Modulation
3. Angle modulation allows for the more efficient use of transmitter power.
7
Phase-Frequency Relationship When Frequency is Constant
(t ) AC cos( (t ))
(t) is generalized angle
(t ) AC cos(C t 0 )
(t )
C t 0
0 is constant
d (t )
Slope: i (t ) C
dt t t
i
0
time t
8
Concept of Instantaneous Frequency
(t ) AC cos( (t ))
Angle
Modulation (t) is generalized angle
(t ) AC cos(C t 0 )
(t )
(t ) C t 0
0 is constant
d (t )
Slope: i (t ) C
dt t t
0 i
ti time t
9
Angle Modulation Gives PM and FM
d (t )
t
i ( t )
dt t t
and (t ) ( )d
i
i
Angle
Modulation
Phase Frequency
Modulation Modulation
10
Comparing Frequency Modulation to Phase Modulation
11
FM has superior noise immunity compared to AM
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation
13
Frequency Modulation (FM)
But in frequency modulation the instantaneous angular frequency
i varies linearly with the modulating signal m(t),
i (t ) C k f m(t )
t t
i (t )
C k f m( ) d C t k f m( ) d
Then
t
FM (t ) AC cos C t k f m( ) d Agbo & Sadiku
Section 4.2; p. 159
14
Summary
Message signal is m(t)
d i (t )
Definition: Instantaneous frequency is i (t )
dt
dm(t )
Frequency i C kp i C k f m(t )
dt
15
A Pictorial View of FM and PM Generation
H(j) = 1/j
m(t ) FM (t )
Phase
t
Modulator
m( ) d
Generation
Agbo & Sadiku
of FM
Frequency Modulator AC cos(C t )
Figure 4.1
p. 160
H(j) = j
m(t ) d Frequency
PM (t )
dt dm(t ) Modulator
dt Generation
of PM
Phase Modulator AC cos(C t )
16
FM and PM Generation are Nonlinear Processes
17
Modulation Index for Angle Modulation
Let the peak values of the message signal m(t) and its first derivative m’(t) be
represented by
Peak value of m(t) = mp = ½(mmax – mmin)
Peak value of m’(t) [= dm(t)/dt] = m’p
Frequency Deviation is the maximum deviation of the instantaneous
modulated carrier frequency relative to the unmodulated carrier frequency.
It is symbolically represented by either or f.
k f mp
FM: k f m p or f
2
k p mp
PM: k p mp or f
2
The ratio of the frequency deviation f to the message signal’s bandwidth B
Is called the Frequency Deviation Ratio or the Modulation Index, and is
denoted by (unitless).
f
B 2 B
18
Equations for FM Wave with Single-Tone Modulation
Carrier signal AC cos(C t ) (volts)
Carrier frequency C 2 fC (radians/sec)
Modulating wave m(t ) Am cos(mt ) Single-tone modulation
Modulating frequency m 2 f m (radians/sec)
Deviation sensitivity k f (radians/volt-second)
Frequency deviation k f Am (radians/sec)
f k f Am
Modulation Index (unitless)
f m m m
A
Instantaneous frequency f i fC k f m cos(mt ) fC f cos(mt )
2
t
Remember FM (t ) AC cos C t k f m( )d , generally
k f Am
Tone modulated wave FM (t ) AC cos C t sin(mt )
m
or FM (t ) AC cos C t sin(mt )
19
Summary of Mathematical Equations for FM and PM
20
Example
f
FM (t )
21
Solution to Example
Start with the basic FM equation:
FM (t ) AC cos 2 fC t sin(2 f mt )
Compare this to
FM (t ) 10 cos 2 (106 )t 8sin(2 (103 )t )
22
Average Power of a FM or PM Wave
The amplitude AC is constant in a phase modulated or a frequency
modulated signal. RF power does not depend upon the frequency
or the phase of the waveform.
AC2
Average Power (always)
2
23
Average Power of a FM or PM Wave
Problem:
Solution:
AC2
Average power PC where AC 6 volts
2
62 36
Therefore, PC 18 watts (assumes 1 ohm resistance)
2 2
Note that the result does not depend upon it being FM or PM.
24
Comparison of FM (or PM) to AM
25
AM, FM and PM Waveforms for Single-Tone m(t)
Carrier signal
Carrier Wave
m(t)
Review:
AM
AM Modulated Signal
PM
Angle PM Modulated Signal
Modulation
FM
FM PM
kf kp
f i fC m(t ) 1 10 8 1 10 5 m(t ); f i fC m '(t ) 1 10 8 5 m '(t );
2 2
mmin 1 and mmax 1 m 'min 20, 000 and m 'max 20, 000
f i min 108 105 ( 1) 99.9 MHz, f i min 108 5( 20, 000) 99.9 MHz,
f i max 108 105 ( 1) 100.1 MHz f i max 108 5( 20, 000) 100.1 MHz
27
Frequency Shift Keying is Related to FM
Sketch the FM waveform for the modulating signal m(t). The constant kf is
2 105. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.
m(t)
FM
kf
f i fC m(t ) 1 10 8 1 10 5 m(t )
2
m’(t)
m’(t) kp 1
f i fC m'(t ) 1 10 8 m'(t )
2 4
PM This is carrier PM by a digital signal
– it is Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
because the digital data is
represented by phase of the
carrier wave.
PM (t ) AC cos C t k p m(t ) AC cos C t
m(t )
2
PM (t ) AC sin(C t ) when m(t ) 1
PM (t ) AC sin(C t ) when m(t ) 1
29
Generalized Angle Modulation
Agbo & Sadiku; Section 4.3 on pages 166 to 167
Start with equation (4.8) on page 159, which is
t
A (t ) AC cos[C t k (t )] where (t ) m(t ) h(t ) m( )h(t )d
30
Generalized Angle Modulation (continued)
32
Generation of Narrowband FM and PM
m(t) + NBFM
kf
+
-ACsin(ct)
/2
ACcos(ct)
m(t) + NBPM
kp
+
-ACsin(ct)
/2
ACcos(ct)
33
Modulation Index for Angle Modulation (continued)
Parameter is the modulation index for angle modulation.
34
NBFM and NBPM with Tone Modulation
k f mp k f Am
Let m(t ) Am cos(mt ), then m p Am ; m 2 B; and
m m
t t
k f Am
Then k f m( ) d k A
f
m cos(m )d
m
sin(mt )
35
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
1 1
FM (t ) AC cos(C t ) AC cos (C m )t AC cos (C m )t
2 2
AC
36
Review: Phasor Interpretation of AM DSB with Carrier
C rotates faster than m
us cos(Ct)
C
cos(mt)
ls
m = |us| = |ls|
Spectrum: DSB AM
C - m C C + m
lower upper
sideband sideband
37
Narrowband FM Example (Example 4.4)
Exercise: The message signal input to a modulator is m(t) = 4cos(2104t)
and the carrier is 10cos(108t). If frequency modulation is performed
with kf = 1000, verify that the modulated signal meets the criteria of
being narrowband FM. Also, obtain an expression for its spectrum and
sketch this spectrum.
Solution:
First we calculate the modulation index
Am 4
kf 1000 4
0.2; 0.3 NBFM
m 2 10
1 1
AC 10 thus, AC (0.2)(10) 1
2 2
We use the equation on the previous slide (slide #31):
1 1
FM (t ) AC cos(C t ) AC cos (C m )t AC cos (C m )t
2 2
FM (t ) 10 cos(C t ) cos (C m )t cos (C m )t
38
Narrowband FM Example (Example 4.4 continued)
FM (t ) 10 cos(C t ) cos (C m )t cos (C m )t
The corresponding expression for the specturm becomes
FM ( ) 10 ( C ) ( C ) ( C m ) ( C m )
( C m ) ( C m )
where C 108 radians/sec and m 2 104 radians/sec
FM ( )
10
Bandwidth = 2m
-C - C
(-C - m) (-C + m) (C - m) (C + m)
39
Wideband FM (WBFM)
WBFM requires >> 1 radian (much more complicated)
For wideband FM we have a nonlinear process, with single tone
modulation:
FM
WB
(t ) Re AC exp jC t j sin(mt )
We need to expand the exponential in a Fourier series in order to
analyze FM
WB
(t ). Modulation Index
f f
WB
(t ) AC Jn ( ) cos 2 ( f nf m )t
FM
n
C
fm B
where the coefficients J n ( ) are Bessel functions.
Spectral analysis for tone modulation of WBFM: Agbo & Sadiku, pp. 171-180.
We will not cover this section in EE442 but rather focus upon the physical
interpretation of FM spectrum spread.
40
WBFM (or WBPM) Requires Much More bandwidth Than AM
AC A
t f
fC
Am Carrier
CarrierSignal
Signal(frequency fc )fC)
(frequency A
t f
fm
Message Signal (frequency
(frequency ffmm)) A
A
AM
t f
A WBFM
A Amplitude
AmplitudeModulated
ModulatedSignal
Signal
t f
Frequency
FrequencyModulated
Modulated(FM)
(FM)Signal
Signal
41
FM Spectra as Function of Modulation Index
Number of Bandwidth
Sidebands¶
NBFM 0.1 2 2 fm
= 0.2
0.3 4 4 fm
0.5 4 4 fm
1.0 6 6 fm
= 1.0 2.0 8 8 fm
5.0 16 16 fm
10.0 28 28 fm
=5 Single-tone
Modulation Index
f
= 10
f m m
BT or BW
42
Spectra of FM Signals
Single-tone A = 0.2 A
Modulation Index
f f
f
= 1.0
f m m
= 10
43
Selecting an FM Station
Broadcast FM Radio covers from 88 MHz to 108 MHz
100 stations – 200 kHz spacing between FM stations
Voice modulation
200 kHz
noise
45
Specifications for Some Commercial FM Transmissions
46
Three Important Frequencies for FM and PM
1. Modulation index
f f
(can be a very large number)
Bm f m m 2 Bm
2. Deviation ratio D
f
D (always much less than unity)
fC C
Remember: For FM = kf mp & for PM = kp m’p
47
FM Bandwidth and the Modulation Index
A. Narrowband FM (NBFM) – << 1 radian
NB
BFM 2 Bm where Bm is the bandwidth of m(t )
48
Example: Bandwidth of FM Signal
The message signal input to a modulator is 10cos(2 104t). If frequency
modulation with frequency deviation constant kf = 104 is performed, find
the bandwidth of the resulting FM signal.
Solution:
1 k f Am 104 10
5
2 f m 2 10 4
49
Example: Equal Bandwidth for FM & PM Signals
If phase modulation is performed using the message signal 10cos(2 104t)
used in the previous slide, find the phase deviation constant kp giving the
PM signal the same bandwidth, namely, 120 kHz.
Solution:
For both the FM and PM signals to have the same bandwidth, and f must
be the same. For FM, = kf Am; but for PM, = kp m’p .
Expressing the message signal m(t) = Am cos(mt) gives
d
m '(t ) Am cos(mt ) m Am sin(mt ) m ' p m Am
dt
Thus,
104
kf 1
k f Am k pm Am kp
m 2 104 2
k pm 'p k pm Am 1
Check: = k p Am (10) 5
m m 2
50
Example: Commercial FM Radio Stations
For commercial FM radio, the audio message signal has a spectral range of
30 Hz to 15 kHz, and the FCC allows a frequency deviation of 75 kHz.
Estimate the transmission bandwidth for commercial FM using Carson’s
Rule.
Solution:
We start by calculating
f 75 kHz
5
Bm 15 kHz
Using Carson's rule gives
BFM 2 1 Bm 2 5 115 kHz 180 kHz
The allowed bandwidth for commercial FM is 200 kHz.
Note that Carson's rule slightly underestimates the
bandwidth.
51
Why Does FM and PM Take Much More Bandwidth?
Observation: The bandwidth required for AM and NBFM are the same.
WB
BFM 2( f Bm ) 2( 1)Bm Carson's Rule
Next we examine the Fourier components this using phasors.
52
FM Tone-Modulated Signal Spectrum
Review
Review:
For = 2.0
53
NBFM Constructed From Phasors in FM Modulation
fC AC
fm -fm
AC
AC AC
2 2
0 fC - fm fC fC + f m
54
Sidebands Constructed From Phasors in FM Modulation
Animation showing how phase modulation works in the phasor picture -- phase
modulation with a sinusoidal modulation waveform and a modulation depth of π/4
radians. The blue line segments represent the phasors at the carrier and the
harmonics of the modulation frequency.
55
Generating FM Signals
56
Direct Generation of FM Signal Using a VCO
VCO is “voltage-controlled oscillator”
+VCC
Varactor diode
RFC
VCO
Q
m(t) FM (t )
CD
1
osc
LC eq LC Resonator
57
Narrowband FM Generated by Pulling a Crystal Oscillator
+VCC
R3
Varactor diode FM (t )
Xtal
m(t)
Q1
A crystal is an
R2 CD R4 electro-mechanical
resonator.
58
Generation of Narrowband Frequency Modulation (NBFM)
t
FM (t ) AC cos C t k f m( ) d
NBFM requires << 1 radian
DSB-SC
modulator
m(t) + NBFM
kf
+
-ACsin(ct)
/2 Oscillator
ACcos(ct)
Carrier
Agbo & Sadiku
Figure 4.5; page 168
59
Indirect Generation of FM Using Frequency Multiplication
m(t ) FM
NB
(t ) FM
WB
(t )
Frequency
NBFM Multiplier
60
Frequency Multipliers
A frequency multiplier is a nonlinear component followed by a bandpass
filter at the multiplied frequency desired.
in (t ) y (t ) out (t )
Section 4.4 Nonlinear Bandpass
Page 181 of Device Filter @ nC
Agbo & Sadiku
We select the nth order nonlinear component of y(t) and pass it through
the bandpass filter.
t
in (t ) AC cos C t k f m( )d , and
0 Note: m(t) is
not distorted
t
out (t ) AC cos nC t nk f m( )d by multiplier.
0
Conclusion: Carrier frequency is now nfC and frequency deviation is now nf.
Commercial frequency multipliers are generally 2 and 3.
61
Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter Example
Crystal stabilized
voltage-controlled fC 1 200 kHz
fC 2 12.8 MHz
oscillator f1 25 Hz
m(t ) f2 1.6 kHz
NBFM 64
generation Multiplier
(t )
NB
FM
fC 3 1.9 MHz
FM
WB
(t ) f3 1.6 kHz
48
PA Multiplier BPF
fC 4 91.2 MHz
A mixer
f4 76.8 kHz does not
change f
Crystal Oscillator
These numbers correspond
to an FM broadcast radio station.
62
Why are Two Multiplication Chains Used?
FM
NB
(t )
Mixer WB
FM (t )
NBFM Multiplier Multiplier
generator Chain A Chain B
Oscillator
63
Many Ways to Perform Frequency Multiplication
Tp
Amplitude
1 1 2
T Tp Tp
65
Simple Comb Generator
A step recovery diode (SRD) is a p-n junction diode having the ability to generate
extremely short pulses. It is also called snap-off diode or charge-storage diode,
and has a variety of uses in microwave electronics (e.g., pulse generator or
parametric amplifier).
Comb
Generator
Circuit
https://www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/the-emc-blog/4402169/DIY-6-GHz-comb-generator
66
Step Recovery Diode Based Comb Generation
Volts
Time (nanoseconds)
The key to generating a wide comb of frequencies is to
generate very narrow pulses which step recovery diodes
are designed to do.
http://www.mwrf.com/analog-semiconductors/designing-
step-recovery-diode-based-comb-generator
67
Generation of Narrowband Phase Modulation (NBPM)
PM (t ) AC cos(C t k p m(t ))
m(t) + NBPM
kp
+
-ACsin(ct)
/2
ACcos(ct)
68
Generation of Phase Modulation
Carrier
frequency fC
+VD
m(t) PM (t )
kp
CD
Varactor diode
69
Advantages of FM
Advantages of frequency modulation
1. Resilient to noise: The main advantage of frequency modulation is a reduction in
noise. As most noise is amplitude based, this can be removed by running the
received signal through a limiter so that only frequency variations remain.
2. Resilient to signal strength variations: In the same way that amplitude noise can
be removed, so too can signal variations due to channel degradation because it does
not suffer from amplitude variations as the signal level varies. This makes FM ideal
for use in mobile applications where signal levels constantly vary.
3. Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter: As only frequency changes
contain the information carried, amplifiers in the transmitter need not be linear.
4. Enables greater efficiency : The use of non-linear amplifiers (e.g., class C and class
D/E amplifiers) means that transmitter efficiency levels can be higher. This results
from linear amplifiers being inherently inefficient.
70
Disadvantages of FM
Disadvantages of frequency modulation
1. Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the disadvantages is that
the demodulator is a more complicated, and hence more expensive than the very
simple diode detectors used in AM.
71
Ideal FM Differentiator Demodulator
The ideal FM detector converts the FM signal‘s instantaneous frequency i
to an amplitude that is proportional to i.
Differentiation performs FM to AM conversion
t
Input: FM (t ) AC cos C t (t ) AC cos C t k f m( ) d
d
t
Output: FM (t ) AC cos C t k f m( ) d
'
dt
t
Both AM
'FM (t ) AC C k f m(t ) sin C t k f m( ) d and FM
included
dFM (t )
FM (t ) d
dt
Envelope
ACC AC k f m(t )
dt Detector After DC removal
VL
Output of
Limiter
t
t
FM (t ) Band-pass
Filter
@ C
Constant
Limiter Amplitude
Output
4
cos C t k f t m( )d
t
FM (t ) x(t ) FM (t )
Input
73
Practical FM Differentiator Demodulator
+ +
Differentiator C R x(t) Envelope
y(t)
at low frequencies _ Detector _
jRC j / 3dB 1
H ( j ) ; where 3dB
1 jRC 1 j / 3dB RC
1
For << 3dB ; then H ( j ) j RC
RC
Multiplication by j in the frequency domain is equivalent
to differentiation in time domain! The high-pass filter acts
as a differentiator for an FM signal. Therefore,
74
Bode Plot of CR High-Pass Filter
75
Practical Frequency Demodulators
• Time-delay demodulator
• FM slope detector
• Balanced discriminator
• Quadrature demodulators
76
Time Delay Demodulator
77
FM Slope Detector Performs FM to AM Conversion
Envelope
Detector Comment: The
differentiation
operation is
performed by any
FM (t ) x(t) y(t) circuit acting as a
frequency-to-
amplitude
converter.
78
Balanced Discriminator (Foster-Seeley Discriminator)
Tuned Envelope
Circuits Detectors Centered around fc
• • f
FM (t )
• k m(t)
Transfer Characteristic
Another example of the
use of symmetry in design.
79
Quadrature Demodulator – Block Diagram
FM (t )
Phase m(t )
Low-Pass
Phase Comparator
Filter
Shifting Circuit
Circuit
80
Using a XOR Gate for Phase Frequency Detector
A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XOR
Exclusive
OR gate
81
Quadrature Demodulator – Implementation
The signal is split into two components. One passes through a network
providing a basic 90° phase shift in addition to the phase shift from the
signal’s frequency deviation. The mixer output is dependent upon the
phase difference between the two signals; that is, it acts as a phase detector
producing a voltage output proportional to the phase difference and thus
the frequency deviation on the FM signal.
Low-
pass
Filter
C2 Mixer
Incoming Demod
FM signal audio
C1 R L
http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/fm-reception/fm-quadrature-
detector-demodulator.php
82
Phase-Locked Loops (Using Feedback)
A PLL consists of three basic components:
Phase detector
Loop filter
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
PLL Diagram: Output signal
AC cos C t i (t )
is phase
H (s)
Oscillator
(VCO)
eo (t )
2 B cos C t o (t )
83
Zero-Crossing Detectors
84
Zero-Crossing Detector Illustration
FM (t ) Zero-
m(t)
Hard Multi- Averaging
crossing
Limiter vibrator circuit
circuit
https://www.slideshare.net/avocado1111/angle-modulation-35636989
85
Noise in Frequency Modulation
In FM systems noise has a greater effect on the higher
modulating frequencies. It is common practice to artificially
boost the signal level of the higher modulating frequencies to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the transmitted FM signal.
S NO f 2 BT
for f
N FM AC2 2 -BT /2 BT /2 f
0
86
Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis in FM
R1
AWG Noise R1
C
R2
C
87
Typical Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis Filters
Transmitter Receiver
Pre-emphasis Filter De-emphasis Filter
R1
R1
R2 C
C
H ( ) ( dB) H ( ) ( dB)
-6 dB/octave
+6 dB/octave
1 1 log( ) 1 log( )
R1C R1 R2 C R1C
88
Analog and Digital FM Cellular Telephones
1G analog cellular telephone (1983) – AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service)
First use of cellular concept
Used 30 kHz channel spacing (but voice BW was B = 3 KHz)
Peak frequency deviation f = 12 kHz, and
BT = 2(f + B) = 2(12 kHz + 3 kHz) = 30 kHz
Two channels (30 kHz each); one for uplink and one for downlink
Used FM for voice and FSK for data communication
No protection from eavesdroppers
Successor to AMPS was GSM (Global System for Mobile) in early 1990s
GSM is 2G cellular telephone
Still used by nearly 50% of world’s population
GSM was a digital communication system
Modulating signal is a bit stream representing voice signal
Used Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
Channel bandwidth is 200 kHz (simultaneously shared by 32 users
This is 4.8 times improvement over AMPS
89
Digital Carrier Modulation – ASK, FSK and PSK
Amplitude
Shift Keying
Digital Signals
Frequency
Shift Keying
Phase
Shift Keying
90
Digital Phase Shift Modulation
91
Questions?
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/principles_of_communicati
on/principles_of_communication_modulation.htm
92
Additional slides
93
Triangular-Wave FM Generation
Inverter
-1
1
-
Integrator
m(t) FM(t)
Switch vout
vout vin
vin
Schmitt Trigger
time
Can generate
FM up to 30 MHz
94
Switching-Circuit Phase Modulator
Comparator
m(t) PM(t)
+ Flip-
BPF
Flop
Carrier Oscillator
Sawtooth Generator
m(t) Sawtooth wave
Comparator Output
95
FM System Improvement in SNR
96