MATHS QUEST HSC Mathematics General 2 4th Edition

MATHS QUEST
HSC Mathematics
4T H EDITION
General 2
ROBERT ROWLAND
Fourth edition published 2013 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2001

Second edition published 2007
Third edition published 2010
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2007, 2010, 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Author: Rowland, Robert, 1963– author.

Title: Maths quest HSC mathematics general 2 /
Robert Rowland.
Edition: 4th ed.
ISBN: 978 1 118 60659 9 (paperback)
978 1 118 60649 0 (loose-leaf)
978 1 118 60646 9 (ebook)
Notes: Includes index.
Target Audience: For secondary school students.
Subjects: Mathematics — New South Wales —
Textbooks.
Mathematics — Problems, exercises, etc.
Mathematics — Study and teaching
(Secondary) — New South Wales.
Dewey number: 510
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Contents
Introduction vi CHAPTER 4
About eBookPLUS viii
The normal distribution 95
Acknowledgements ix
4A z-scores 95
Exercise 4A 98
CHAPTER 1
4B Comparison of scores 100
Credit and borrowing 1 Exercise 4B 101
1A Credit cards 1 4C Distribution of scores 103
Exercise 1A 5 Exercise 4C 105
1B Flat rate interest 7 ■■ Summary 108
Exercise 1B 9 ■■ Chapter review 109
1C Loan repayments 11 ■■ ICT activities 113
■■ Answers 114
Exercise 1C 14
1D Present value and future
value 16 CHAPTER 5
Exercise 1D 18 Sampling and populations 115
■■ Summary 20 5A Sampling 115
■■ Chapter review 21
Exercise 5A 116
■■ ICT activities 24
5B Samples and means 118
■■ Answers 25
Exercise 5B 118
5C Estimating populations 120
CHAPTER 2
Exercise 5C 121
Annuities and loan repayments 27 ■■ Summary 123
2A Future value of an annuity 27 ■■ Chapter review 124
Exercise 2A 31 ■■ ICT activities 126
2B Present value of an annuity 32 ■■ Answers 127
Exercise 2B 35
CHAPTER 6
2C Loan repayments 36
Exercise 2C 38 Further applications of area
2D Loan repayment graphs 40 and volume 129
Exercise 2D 40 6A Relative error 129
■■ Summary 43 Exercise 6A 131
6B Area of parts of the circle 133
Exercise 6B 134
■■ Answers 47
6C Area of composite shapes 136
Exercise 6C 138
CHAPTER 3
6D Simpson’s rule 141
Interpreting sets of data 49 Exercise 6D 143
3A Grouped data 49 6E Surface area of some prisms 146
Exercise 3A 52 Exercise 6E 147
3B Measures of location and spread 54 6F Surface area of cylinders and spheres 149
Exercise 3B 57 Exercise 6F 151
3C Analysis of data sets 59 6G Volume of pyramids, cones and spheres 153
Exercise 3C 65 Exercise 6G 155
3D Comparison of data sets 69 6H Volume of composite solids 157
Exercise 3D 72 Exercise 6H 159
3E Skewness 76 6I Error in measurement 163
Exercise 3E 77 Exercise 6I 164
■■ Summary 81 ■■ Summary 167
■■ Chapter review 82 ■■ Chapter review 168
■■ ICT activities 88 ■■ ICT activities 173
■■ Answers 89 ■■ Answers 174
CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 10
Applications of trigonometry 177 Further algebraic skills and

7A Review of right-angled triangles 177 techniques 279
Exercise 7A 182 10A Addition and subtraction of algebraic
7B Using the sine rule to find side lengths 183 expressions 279
Exercise 7B 187 Exercise 10A 280
7C Using the sine rule to find angles 189 10B The index laws 281
Exercise 7C 191 Exercise 10B 283
7D Using the cosine rule to find side lengths 193 10C Expanding and simplifying 285
Exercise 7D 196 Exercise 10C 285
7E Using the cosine rule to find angles 197 10D Solving equations 286
Exercise 7E 200 Exercise 10D 287
7F Area of a triangle 202 10E Equations and formulas 290
Exercise 7F 204 Exercise 10E 291
7G Bearings 206 ■■ Summary 294
Exercise 7G 210 ■■ Chapter review 295
7H Radial surveys 213 ■■ ICT activities 297
■■ Answers 298
Exercise 7H 216
■■ Summary 219
CHAPTER 11
■■ ICT activities 225 Modelling linear
■■ Answers 226 relationships 301
11A Linear functions 301
CHAPTER 8
Exercise 11A 305
Spherical geometry 229 11B Direct variation 307
8A Arc lengths 229 Exercise 11B 308
Exercise 8A 230 11C Linear modelling 310
8B Great circles and small circles 233 Exercise 11C 311
Exercise 8B 234 11D Problem solving 313
8C Latitude and longitude 237 Exercise 11D 314
Exercise 8C 239 11E Simultaneous equations 315
8D Distances on the Earth’s surface 240 Exercise 11E 318
Exercise 8D 242 ■■ Summary 321
8E Time zones 243 ■■ Chapter review 322
Exercise 8E 245 ■■ ICT activities 324
■■ Summary 248 ■■ Answers 325
■■ ICT activities 253 CHAPTER 12
■■ Answers 254 Modelling non-linear
relationships 329
CHAPTER 9
12A Quadratic functions 329
Multi-stage events and applications Exercise 12A 332
of probability 257 12B Cubics, hyperbolas and exponential
9A Counting techniques 257 functions 334
Exercise 9A 260 Exercise 12B 336
9B Tree diagrams 261 12C Direct variation 337
Exercise 9B 263 Exercise 12C 340
9C Probability and counting techniques 265 12D Inverse variation 341
Exercise 9C 266 Exercise 12D 343
9D Expected outcomes 268 12E Graphing physical phenomena 345
Exercise 9D 269 Exercise 12E 347
■■ Summary 272 ■■ Summary 350
■■ Chapter review 273 ■■ Chapter review 351
■■ ICT activities 276 ■■ ICT activities 354
■■ Answers 277 ■■ Answers 355
iv Contents
CHAPTER 13 ICT activities — Projectsplus
Mathematics and pro-0152 Life expectancy 402

health 361 CHAPTER 14
Body measurements 361
13A Drawing scatterplots 361
Mathematics and resources 405
Exercise 13A 366 14A Interpreting information about water usage 405
13B Correlation 370 Exercise 14A 409
Exercise 13B 374 14B Collecting and using water 412
13C Fitting a regression line 377 Exercise 14B 414
Exercise 13C 379 14C Dams, land and catchment areas 415
Medication 382 Exercise 14C 417
13D Units of measurement 382 14D Energy and sustainability 421
Exercise 13D 383 Exercise 14D 423
13E Dosage rate 384 ■■ Summary 426
Exercise 13E 385
Life expectancy 386 ■■ Answers 431
13F Life expectancy 386
Exercise 13F 387 ICT ACTIVITIES — PROJECTSPLUS
■■ Summary 391 pro-0152 Water catchment 432
■■ ICT activities 396 Glossary 435
■■ Answers 397 Index 437
Contents v
Introduction
Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2 Fourth Edition is specifically designed for the Mathematics
General Stage 6 Syllabus 2012.
There are five strands and two Focus studies:
• Strand: Financial Mathematics
• Strand: Data and Statistics
• Strand: Measurement
• Strand: Probability
• Strand: Algebra and Modelling
• Focus study: Mathematics and Health
• Focus study: Mathematics and Resources
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Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples and highlighted
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Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide a clear explanation of
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into worked examples to demonstrate judicious use. MATHS QUEST
HSC Mathematics
4TH E D ITION
Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems, General 2
including multiple-choice questions. Cross-references to relevant worked
examples appear beside the first ‘matching’ question throughout the ROBERT ROWLAND
exercises. Each exercise also contains new further development questions.

Investigations, including spreadsheet investigations, provide further learning opportunities through
discovery.
A glossary of mathematical terms is provided to assist students’ understanding of the terminology
introduced in each unit of the course. Words in bold type in the theory sections of each chapter are
defined in the glossary at the back of the book.
Each chapter concludes with a summary and chapter review exercise, containing questions in a variety
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concepts.
Technology is fully integrated, in line with Board of Studies recommendations. As well as graphics
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Video icons link to videos that expand mathematical ideas.
vi Introduction
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examples.
Test yourself tests are also available and answers are provided for students to receive instant feedback.
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Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2 provides ample material, such as exercises, analysis
questions, investigations, worksheets and technology files, from which teachers may set assessment
tasks.
Maths Quest HSC Mathematics

General 2 Solutions Manual
The Solutions Manual contains fully worked solutions to every question
in the student textbook. Students are provided with explanations as well
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eBookPLUS.
MATHS QUEST
HSC Mathematics
4TH E D ITION
General 2
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
NILGÜN SAFAK LEE TOLL
Introduction vii
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Acknowledgements
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Acknowledgements ix
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x Acknowledgements
Chapter 1
Credit and borrowing
CHAPTER CONTENTS
1A Credit cards
1B Flat rate interest
1C Loan repayments
1D Present value and future value
1A Credit cards

Credit cards are the most common line of day-to-day credit that most people use. A credit card works as
a pre-approved loan up to an amount agreed upon by the customer and the bank. The card can then be
used until the amount of the debt reaches this limit.
As with other types of loan, the bank charges interest upon the amount that is owed on the card, and
repayments must be made monthly. The way in which the interest is calculated varies with different
types of credit cards.
Some cards have interest charged from the day on which the purchase was made. Others have what is
called an interest-free period. This means that a purchase that is made will appear on the next monthly
statement. Provided that this amount is paid by the due date, no interest is charged. Hence, the customer
can repay the loan within a maximum of 55 days and be charged no interest.
Generally, credit cards without an interest-free period have a lower interest rate than those with an
interest-free period. These cards, however, generally attract an annual fee. This annual fee can in some
cases be waived if a certain amount is spent on the card over the year.
The minimum monthly repayment on most credit cards is 5% of the outstanding balance, or $10,
whichever is greater.
Annual rates
The annual percentage rates for some standard credit cards are:
• 16.90% for MasterCard/Visa (up to 55 interest-free days with an annual fee)
• 15.25% for MasterCard/Visa (no interest-free days with no annual fee).
Minimum payments
For the examples and exercises in this chapter, minimum credit card account payments are calculated as
follows.
Balance less than $25

If the closing balance of the statement is less than $25, then the minimum payment is the same as the
closing balance.
Balance more than $25

Where the closing balance is greater than $25, the payment to be made is the greater of:
1. $25, or
2. 1.5% of the closing balance (rounded down to the nearest $1 if the balance exceeds $1700).
Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 1

Note: If the closing balance is greater than the credit limit of the card, then the minimum payment must
also include the excess of the balance over the credit limit.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the minimum payment due for each of the following balances using the information
supplied previously.
Tutorial a $23.40 b $1836.25
int-0900 c $280.10 d $1960 with the credit limit being $1900
Worked example 1
THINK WRITE
a Since the closing balance is under $25, it should a As $23.40 < $25, the amount due = $23.40.
be paid in full.
b 1 Since the closing balance is over $1700, b Amount due = 1.5% of $1836.25
calculate 1.5% of it. 1.5
= × 1836.25
100
= $27.54
2 Round down to the nearest dollar. Rounded down to the nearest dollar, the
amount due is $27.
c Since the closing balance is above $25 but c $25 < $280.10 < $1700
below $1700, the minimum payment is $25. Therefore payment due = $25
1.5
d 1 Since the closing balance is above $1700, d 1.5% of $1960 = × 1960
calculate 1.5% of it and round down to the 100
nearest dollar. = 29.40
= 29
2 Calculate the excess of the closing balance The excess of the closing balance above the
above the credit limit. credit limit = $1960 − $1900
= $60
3 Add the two amounts. 29 + 60 = 89. The amount due is $89.
To calculate the interest on a credit card the simple interest formula is used.
I = Prn
where P = initial quantity (Principal)
r = interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
n = number of interest periods.
Credit cards, as with most loans, have interest calculated more frequently than annually. In the following
examples you will see that interest is calculated at least monthly but often daily.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The outstanding balance on a credit card is $2563.75. If the full balance is not paid by the due
date, one month’s interest will be added at a rate of 18% p.a. Calculate the amount of interest
that will be added to the credit card.
THINK WRITE
Use the simple interest formula to calculate one I = Prn

1
month’s interest. = $2563.75 × 0.18 × 12
= $38.46
In practice, most credit cards calculate interest on the outstanding balance at a daily rate and then add
the interest monthly. If a credit card advertises its interest rate as 18% p.a., the daily rate is 0.049 315%.
2 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
An extract from a credit card statement is shown below.

Interest rate = 15% p.a. Daily rate = 0.041 096%
Tutorial
Date Credit Debit Balance int-2410
1 June $900 Worked example 3
10 June $400 – repayment $500

15 June $350 – purchase $850
22 June $140 – purchase $990
1 July ??? – interest
Calculate the interest that will be due for the month of June given that there is no interest-free
period.
THINK WRITE
Method 1: Technology-free
1 For 1 June – 9 June inclusive (9 days), the I = 0.041 096% of $900 × 9
balance owing is $900. Calculate the interest. = $3.33
5 Add each amount of interest to calculate the Total interest = $3.33 + $1.03 + $2.45 + $3.66
total interest for the month. = $10.47
Method 2: Technology-enabled
1 When doing this type of question where we
need to consider interest calculated on a daily
basis the TVM mode of your calculator is very
useful. Consider the method shown below for
Worked example 3.
From the MENU of your calculator select TVM.
2 Press 1 to select Simple Interest.
3 For 9 days the balance is $900, so enter:

n=9
I% = 15
PV = −900
4 Press 1 (SI) to get the interest for these 9 days.
Interest = $3.33

5 For 5 days the balance is $500. Press J to
return to the previous screen; change the values
of n and PV.
n=5
I% = 15
PV = −500 Interest = $1.03
Then press 1 for the simple interest.
of n and PV.
n=7
I% = 15
PV = −850 Interest = $2.45
Then again press 1 for the simple interest.
of n and PV.
n=9
I% = 15
PV = −990 Interest = $3.66
Then again press 1 for the simple interest.
8 Add each amount of interest to find the total Total interest
amount of interest for the month. = $3.33 + $1.03 + $2.45 + $3.66
= $10.47
When deciding which credit card is most suitable for your needs, consider if you will generally be able
to pay most items off before the interest-free period expires. The total cost in interest over a year will
vary according to the repayment pattern.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Kerry pays a $1200 bill for her council rates on her credit card. Kerry has a credit card
with an interest-free period and interest is then charged on the outstanding balance at a rate
of 18% p.a.
a i Kerry pays $600 by the due date. What is the outstanding balance on the card?
ii Calculate the interest Kerry must then pay for the second month.
b i An alternative credit card charges 12% p.a. interest with no interest-free period. Calculate
the interest that Kerry would have been charged on the first month.
ii Calculate the balance owing after Kerry pays $600 then calculate the interest for the second
month.
c Which credit card would be the cheapest to use for this bill?
THINK WRITE
a i Subtract the repayment from the balance. a i Balance owing = $1200 − $600
= $600
ii Use the simple interest formula to calculate ii I = Prn
1
one month’s interest (i.e. interest for the = $600 × 0.18 × 12
second month). = $9.00
b i Use the simple interest formula to calculate b i I = Prn
1
the first month’s interest. = $1200 × 0.12 × 12
= $12.00

ii Add the interest to the amount of the bill and ii Balance owing = $1200 + $12 − $600
subtract the repayment. = $612
Use the simple interest formula to calculate I = Prn
1
the second month’s interest. = $612 × 0.12 × 12
= $6.12
c Add the two months of interest together for the c The interest on the second card is $18.12 in
second card and compare with the interest for the total and therefore the card with the interest-free
first card. period is cheaper in this case.
Exercise 1A Credit cards

1 WE1 Roy has a credit card with an outstanding
balance of $2730. Calculate the minimum payment
if he must pay 1.5% of the balance, or $25,
whichever is greater.
2 The minimum monthly repayment on a credit card
is 1.5% of the balance, or $25, whichever is greater.
Calculate the minimum monthly repayment on a
balance of:
a $3500 b $1194.50
c $492.76 d $150
e $9205.20.
3 WE2 Leonie has a credit card with an outstanding
balance of $1850. If the interest rate is 18% p.a., calculate
the amount of interest that Leonie will be charged for one
month if the balance is not paid by the due date.
4 Hassim buys a refrigerator for $1450 with his credit card. The card has no interest-free period and
interest is charged at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate one month’s interest on this purchase.
5 Michelle has a $2000 outstanding balance on her credit card. The interest rate charged is 21% p.a. on
the balance unpaid by the due date.
a If Michelle pays $200 by the due date, calculate the balance owing.
b Calculate the interest that Michelle will owe for the next month.
c What will be the balance owing on Michelle’s next credit card statement?
d What will be the total amount owing on the credit card after another month’s interest is added?
6 Chandra has a credit card which charges interest at a rate of 12% p.a. but has no interest-free period.
He makes a purchase of $1750 on the credit card.
a After one month Chandra’s credit card statement arrives. What will be the out standing balance on
the statement?
b The minimum repayment will be 2% of the outstanding balance. Calculate the amount that
Chandra will owe if he makes only the minimum payment.
c In the next month Chandra makes purchases totalling $347.30. Calculate the interest charged and
the balance owing for the next month’s statement.
7 WE3 An extract of a credit card statement is shown below. Take 1 year = 365.25 days.
Interest rate = 18% p.a.
Daily rate = 0.049 28%
Date Credit ($) Debit ($) Balance ($)
1 July 256.40
10 July 40 – purchase
20 July 40 – repayment
1 August ??? – interest
a Complete the balance column. Calculate the balance owing on 10 July and 20 July.
b Calculate the interest due on 1 August and the balance on that date.

8 Study the credit card statement below.
Interest rate = 16.5% p.a.
Daily rate = ______
1 Jan. 1548.50
8 Jan. 500 – repayment
15 Jan. 399 – purchase
1 Feb. ??? – interest
8 Feb. ??? – repayment
1 March ??? – interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest, correct to 4 decimal places (take 1 year = 365.25 days).
b Calculate the interest added to the account on 1 February.
c On 8 February the minimum repayment of 5% is made. Calculate the amount of this repayment.
d Calculate the outstanding balance on the account on 1 March.
9 WE4 Kai has two credit cards. One has an interest-free period and interest is then charged on the
outstanding balance at a rate of 18% p.a. The other has no interest-free period with interest added from
the date of purchase at a rate of 14% p.a. Kai has $1500 worth of bills to pay in the coming month and
intends to use one of the cards to pay them, then pay the balance off in monthly instalments of $500.
a If Kai uses the card with the interest-free period and pays $500 by the due date, what is the
outstanding balance on the card?
b Calculate the interest Kai must then pay for the second month.
c Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing at the end
of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
d Calculate the interest payable in the first month if Kai uses the card without the interest-free period.
e Calculate the balance owing after Kai pays $500 then calculate the interest for the second
month.
f Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing at the end
of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
g Which card should Kai use for these bills?
Further development
10 A credit card has a minimum monthly repayment of the greater of $10 or 2.5% of the outstanding
balance. Calculate the largest outstanding balance for which the minimum monthly repayment
would be $10.
11 Dan and Paul each have a credit card that charges interest at 18% p.a. calculated daily.
a Dan makes a $1000 purchase on 5 July. His credit card does not begin to charge interest until
the beginning of the month following the purchase. Calculate the interest that appears on Dan’s
statement at the end of July.
b Paul’s credit card charges interest from the date of purchase. How much more interest must Paul
pay on the same purchase on the same date?
12 Mark has an outstanding balance of $1425 on his credit card. Mark is charged $6.83 for 10 days on
this balance. Calculate the annual rate of interest charged.
13 Kylie has an outstanding balance of $1280 on her credit card as of 1 August. Kylie has an interest-
free period on her credit card and as such she will not have to pay interest until 1 September.
The interest rate on the card is 21% p.a., and Kylie will make a $400 repayment on 1 September.
a Calculate the interest that will be charged in September.
b Kylie receives an offer from a rival credit card offering her an interest rate of 12% p.a. interest but
no interest-free period. Should Kylie accept the offer and transfer the balance of her current credit
card to the new card?
14 Rob has an average credit card balance of $1000 and the choice of two credit cards. Each month Rob
Digital doc
Investigation pays off $500 of the balance but averages $500 in purchases.
doc-2746 Card A — 18% p.a. with a one month interest-free period.
Researching credit
Card B — 12% p.a. with no interest-free period.
cards
Which credit card should Rob choose?

Flat rate interest is the borrowing equivalent of simple interest. Flat rate interest applies to many small interactivities
loans and hire purchase agreements. int-0745
Effects of P, r, I
When money is borrowed from a lending institution such as a bank at a flat rate of interest, the total and t
amount of interest is calculated as a percentage of the initial amount borrowed and then this is multiplied by int-2770
the term of the loan. The term of the loan is the length of time over which the loan is agreed to be repaid, n. Simple interest
As we have just seen, the formula for calculating the amount of flat interest to be paid on a loan is the
same formula as for simple interest (I):
I = Prn
where P = initial quantity
r = percentage interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
n = number of periods.
As you work through the financial mathematics strand there are several formulas that use the same
pronumerals.
While the initial quantity (P) will be the principal in an investing scenario, it will represent the
amount borrowed in a loan situation.
All of these formulas use the same pronumerals and all of them require r to be expressed as a
decimal. It should be part of your normal practice when doing such questions to convert the interest rate,
expressed as a percentage, to a decimal. In simple or flat rate interest, r will always be a rate per annum
or per year and there will be no variation on this regardless of how often interest is paid.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the flat interest to be paid on a loan of $20 000 at 7.5% p.a. if the loan is to be repaid
over 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 7.5 ÷ 100

= 0.075
2 Write the formula. I = Prn
3 Substitute the values of P, r (as a decimal) and n. = $20 000 × 0.075 × 5
4 Calculate. = $7500
Once the interest has been calculated, we can calculate the total amount that must be repaid in a loan.
This is calculated by adding the principal and the interest.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Alvin borrows $8000 to buy a car at a flat rate of 9% p.a.

interest. Alvin is to repay the loan, plus interest, over
4 years. Calculate the total amount that Alvin is
to repay on this loan.
THINK WRITE
1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 9 ÷ 100

= 0.09
2 Write the interest formula. I = Prn

3 Substitute the values of P, r and n. = $8000 × 0.09 × 4
4 Calculate the interest. = $2880
5 Calculate the total repayments by adding the Total repayments = $8000 + $2880
interest and principal. = $10 880
Most loans are repaid on a monthly basis. Once the total amount to be repaid has been calculated, this
can be divided into equal monthly, fortnightly or weekly instalments.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Narelle buys a computer on hire purchase. The cash price of the

computer is $3000, but Narelle must pay a 10% deposit with
Tutorial
the balance paid at 8% p.a. flat rate interest in equal monthly
int-2408 instalments over 3 years.
Worked example 7 a Calculate the deposit.
b Calculate the balance owing.
c Calculate the interest on the loan.
d Calculate the total amount to be repaid.
e Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
THINK WRITE
a Find 10% of $3000. a Deposit = 10% of $3000

= $300
b Subtract the deposit from the cash price to find the b Balance = $3000 − $300
amount borrowed. = $2700
c 1 Write the interest formula. c I = Prn
2 Substitute for P, r and n. = $2700 × 0.08 × 3
3 Calculate the interest. = $648
d Add the interest to the amount borrowed. d Total repayments = $2700 + $648
= $3348
e Divide the total repayments by 36 (the e Monthly repayments = $3348 ÷ 36

number of monthly instalments in 3 years). = $93.00
If given the amount to be repaid each month, we can calculate the interest rate. The interest on the loan
is the difference between the total repaid and the amount borrowed. This is then calculated as a yearly
amount and written as a percentage of the amount borrowed.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Theresa borrows $12 000 to buy a car. This is to be repaid over 5 years at $320 per month.
Calculate the flat rate of interest that Theresa has been charged.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the total amount that is repaid. Total repayments = $320 × 60

= $19 200

2 Subtract the principal from the total Interest = $19 200 − $12 000
repayments to find the interest. = $7200
3 Calculate the interest paid each year. Interest per year = $7200 ÷ 5
= $1440
4 Write the annual interest as a percentage of the $1440
Interest rate = × 100%
amount borrowed. $12 000
= 12%
Exercise 1B Flat rate interest

1 WE5 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest paid on each of the following loans.
a $5000 at 7% p.a. for 2 years
b $8000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years Digital doc
c $15 000 at 10% p.a. for 5 years SkillSHEET 1.1
doc-1284
d $9500 at 7.5% p.a. for 4 years Converting a
e $2500 at 10.4% p.a. for 18 months percentage to a
decimal
2 Roula buys a used car that has a cash price of $7500. She has saved a deposit of $2000 and borrows
the balance at 9.6% p.a. flat rate to be repaid over 3 years. Calculate the amount of interest that
Roula must pay.
3 WE6 Ben borrows $4000 for a holiday. The loan is to be repaid over 2 years at 12.5% p.a. flat rate
interest. Calculate the total repayments that Ben must make. Digital doc
SkillSHEET 1.2
4 Calculate the total amount to be paid on each of the following flat rate interest loans. doc-1285
a $3500 at 8% p.a. over 2 years Finding a
percentage of a
b $13 500 at 11.6% p.a. over 5 years quantity (money)
c $1500 at 13.5% p.a. over 18 months
d $300 at 33% p.a. over 1 month
e $100 000 at 7% p.a. over 25 years
5 Mr and Mrs French purchase a new lounge suite, which has a cash price of $5500. They purchase the Digital doc
lounge on the following terms: 30% deposit with the balance to be repaid at 9% p.a. flat interest over SkillSHEET 1.3
2 years. Calculate: doc-1286
Calculating simple
a the deposit interest
b the balance owing
c the interest to be paid
d the total amount that they pay for the lounge.
6 WE7 Yasmin borrows $5000 from a credit union at a flat interest rate of 8% p.a. to be repaid over Digital doc
4 years in equal monthly instalments. Calculate: EXCEL Spreadsheet
a the interest that Yasmin must pay on the loan doc-1287
Simple interest
b the total amount that Yasmin must repay
c the amount of each monthly repayment.
7 Ian borrows $2000 from a pawnbroker at 40% p.a. interest. The loan is to be paid over 1 year in
equal weekly payments.
a Calculate the interest on the loan. Digital doc
GC program —
b Calculate the total that Ian must repay. Casio
c Calculate Ian’s weekly payment. doc-1288
Interest
8 The Richards family purchase an entertainment system for their home. The total cost of the system is
$8000. They buy the system on the following terms: 25% deposit with the balance repaid over
3 years at 12% p.a. flat interest in equal monthly instalments. Calculate:
a the deposit
b the balance owing Digital doc
c the interest on the loan GC program — TI
doc-1289
d the total repayments
Interest
e the amount of each monthly repayment.

9 Sam buys an electric guitar with a cash price of $1200. He buys the
guitar on the following terms: one-third deposit, with the balance at
15% p.a. flat interest over 2 years in equal monthly instalments.
Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
10 MC The amount of flat rate interest on a loan of$10 000 at 10% p.a.
for 2 years is:
A $1000
B $2000
C $11 000
D $12 000
11 MC A refrigerator with a cash price of $1800 is boughton the
following terms: 20% deposit with the balancepaid in 12 equal monthly
instalments at 12% p.a. flatinterest. The total cost of the refrigerator
whenpurchased on these terms is:
A $172.80
B $216.00
C $1972.80
D $2016.00
12 WE8 Andy borrows $4000, which is to be repaid over 4 years at
$110 per month. Calculate the flat rate of interest that Andy has been
charged.
13 Sandra buys a used car with a cash price of $12 000 on the
following terms: 20% deposit with the balance paid at
$89.23 per week for 3 years. Calculate:
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the total cost of the car
d the flat rate of interest charged.
14 Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on a lounge
suite with a cash price of $5000 if it is purchased on the
following terms: 15% deposit with the balance paid at
$230.21 per month for 2 years.
Further development
15 Lennie and his sister are in a band. Lennie borrowed money to buy a new guitar and his sister, Lisa,
borrowed money to buy a drum kit.
a Lennie paid $576 in interest on a flat rate loan that charges interest at a rate of 9.5% p.a. over
4 years. How much did Lennie borrow initially?
b Lennie’s sister Lisa was also charged $576 in interest on her loan which was at 9% p.a. over
3 years. How much did Lisa initially borrow?

16 James borrowed $2500 to buy a new laptop computer. He repaid a total of $2725. The flat interest rate
charged was 4.5% p.a. charged monthly. Calculate the length of time that it took James to repay the loan.
17 MC A loan of $1000 is taken over 5 years. The simple interest is calculated monthly. The
total amount repaid for this loan is $1800. The simple interest rate per year on this loan is closest to:
A 8.9% B 16% C 36% D 5%
18 MC Emily borrowed $5000 with the intention of repaying it in 3 years. The terms of the loan
indicated that Emily was to pay 9% p.a. interest. The interest Emily paid on the loan was:
A $446.25 B $1350 C $121.88 D $1211.88
19 Ange and Jack decide to borrow money to improve their boat but cannot agree which loan is the
better value. They would like to borrow $2550. Ange goes to the Big Bank and finds that they will
lend her the money at 11.33% p.a. simple interest for 3 years. Jack finds that the Friendly Building
Society will lend the $2550 to them at 1% per month simple interest for the 3 years.
a Which institution offers the best rates over the 3 years?
b Explain why.
20 Michael borrows $40 000 to buy a car. He is repaying the loan at 9% p.a. flat rate interest over
5 years. One year into paying off the loan Michael wins $10 000 in the lottery. Should Michael invest
the money or use the $10 000 to pay off part of his loan? Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.1
Loan repayments
doc-11019
1C
When money is borrowed from a financial institution such as a bank, interest is charged.
A reducing balance loan is one where the interest is added monthly and repayments are made
monthly. Each month the balance owing on the loan is lower than the previous month and hence the
amount of interest owing each month is less. interactivity
Consider the case of a $2000 loan that is repaid at 15% p.a. (1.25% per month) over 1 year with equal int-0194
Reducing balance
monthly repayments of $180.52. depreciation
The table below shows the interest and the balance remaining on the loan at the end of each month.
At the end of the 12 months the loan has a balance of $0.
Month Opening balance Interest Closing balance

1 $2000.00 $25.00 $1844.48
2 $1844.48 $23.06 $1687.02
3 $1687.02 $21.09 $1527.59
4 $1527.59 $19.09 $1366.17
5 $1366.17 $17.08 $1202.73
6 $1202.73 $15.03 $1037.25
7 $1037.25 $12.97 $869.70
8 $869.70 $10.87 $700.05
9 $700.05 $8.75 $528.29
10 $528.29 $6.60 $354.37
11 $354.37 $4.43 $178.29
12 $178.29 $2.23 $0.00
Home loans
Home loans usually operate over a long period of time.
Consider a home loan of $250 000 at 9% p.a. reducible interest. The monthly repayment on this loan
is $2500 per month. The interest rate of 9% p.a. converts to 0.75% per month.
First month’s interest = 0.75% of $250 000
= $1875
Balancing owing = $250 000 + $1875–$2500
= $249 375

In the second month the interest is calculated on the balance owing at the end of the first month.
Second month’s interest = 0.75% of $249 375
= $1870.31
Balancing owing = $249 375 + $1870.31–$2500
= $248 745.31
The progress of this loan can be followed in the following computer application.
Computer Application 1
The actual calculation of the amount to be repaid each month to pay off the loan plus interest in the
given period of time is beyond this course. The most practical way to find the amount of each monthly
repayment is to use a table of repayments.
The progress of this loan can be followed in the following computer application.
Computer application 1: Home loan calculator

Access the spreadsheet Home Loan from the Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2 eBookPLUS.
This spreadsheet will allow you to follow the progress of a home loan as it is paid off.
Digital doc
EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1291
Home loan

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Mr and Mrs Grimes take out a $500 000 home loan at 8% p.a. reducible interest over 25 years.
Interest is calculated and added on the first of each month. They make a payment of $3875 each
month. Calculate:
a the interest added after one month b the balance owing after one month.
THINK WRITE
2
a 1 Convert 8% p.a. to a monthly rate. a 8% p.a. = 3% per month
2 Calculate 23% of $500 000 to find the Interest = 23% of $500 000

interest for one month. = $3333.33
3 State the answer. The interest added after one month is $3333.33.
b 1 Add the interest to the principal and b Balance owing = $500 000 + $3333.33 − $3875
subtract the repayment. = $499 458.33
2 State the answer. The balance owing after one month is $499 458.33
The table below shows the monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at various interest rates over various
terms. To calculate the repayment on a loan, we simply multiply the repay ment on $1000 by the number
of thousands of dollars of the loan.
Monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed

Interest rate
Year 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 15%
1 $85.61 $86.07 $86.53 $86.99 $87.45 $87.92 $88.38 $88.85 $89.32 $89.79 $90.26
2 $43.87 $44.32 $44.77 $45.23 $45.68 $46.14 $46.61 $47.07 $47.54 $48.01 $48.49
3 $29.97 $30.42 $30.88 $31.34 $31.80 $32.27 $32.74 $33.21 $33.69 $34.18 $34.67
4 $23.03 $23.49 $23.95 $24.41 $24.89 $25.36 $25.85 $26.33 $26.83 $27.33 $27.83
5 $18.87 $19.33 $19.80 $20.28 $20.76 $21.25 $21.74 $22.24 $22.75 $23.27 $23.79
6 $16.10 $16.57 $17.05 $17.53 $18.03 $18.53 $19.03 $19.55 $20.07 $20.61 $21.15
7 $14.13 $14.61 $15.09 $15.59 $16.09 $16.60 $17.12 $17.65 $18.19 $18.74 $19.30
8 $12.66 $13.14 $13.63 $14.14 $14.65 $15.17 $15.71 $16.25 $16.81 $17.37 $17.95
9 $11.52 $12.01 $12.51 $13.02 $13.54 $14.08 $14.63 $15.18 $15.75 $16.33 $16.92
10 $10.61 $11.10 $11.61 $12.13 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35 $14.93 $15.53 $16.13
11 $ 9.86 $10.37 $10.88 $11.42 $11.96 $12.52 $13.09 $13.68 $14.28 $14.89 $15.51
12 $ 9.25 $ 9.76 $10.28 $10.82 $11.38 $11.95 $12.54 $13.13 $13.75 $14.37 $15.01
13 $ 8.73 $ 9.25 $ 9.78 $10.33 $10.90 $11.48 $12.08 $12.69 $13.31 $13.95 $14.60
14 $ 8.29 $ 8.81 $ 9.35 $ 9.91 $10.49 $11.08 $11.69 $12.31 $12.95 $13.60 $14.27
15 $ 7.91 $ 8.44 $ 8.99 $ 9.56 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00 $12.65 $13.32 $14.00
16 $ 7.58 $ 8.11 $ 8.67 $ 9.25 $ 9.85 $10.46 $11.09 $11.74 $12.40 $13.08 $13.77
17 $ 7.29 $ 7.83 $ 8.40 $ 8.98 $ 9.59 $10.21 $10.85 $11.51 $12.19 $12.87 $13.58
18 $ 7.03 $ 7.58 $ 8.16 $ 8.75 $ 9.36 $10.00 $10.65 $11.32 $12.00 $12.70 $13.42
19 $ 6.80 $ 7.36 $ 7.94 $ 8.55 $ 9.17 $ 9.81 $10.47 $11.15 $11.85 $12.56 $13.28
20 $ 6.60 $ 7.16 $ 7.75 $ 8.36 $ 9.00 $ 9.65 $10.32 $11.01 $11.72 $12.44 $13.17
21 $ 6.42 $ 6.99 $ 7.58 $ 8.20 $ 8.85 $ 9.51 $10.19 $10.89 $11.60 $12.33 $13.07
22 $ 6.25 $ 6.83 $ 7.43 $ 8.06 $ 8.71 $ 9.38 $10.07 $10.78 $11.50 $12.24 $12.99
23 $ 6.10 $ 6.69 $ 7.30 $ 7.93 $ 8.59 $ 9.27 $ 9.97 $10.69 $11.42 $12.16 $12.92
24 $ 5.97 $ 6.56 $ 7.18 $ 7.82 $ 8.49 $ 9.17 $ 9.88 $10.60 $11.34 $12.10 $12.86
25 $ 5.85 $ 6.44 $ 7.07 $ 7.72 $ 8.39 $ 9.09 $ 9.80 $10.53 $11.28 $12.04 $12.81

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Calculate the monthly repayment on a loan of $85 000 at 11% p.a. over a 25-year term.
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the table to find the monthly

repayment on $1000 at 11% p.a. for 25 years.
2 Multiply this amount by 85. Monthly repayment = $9.80 × 85
= $833
This table can also be used to make calculations such as the effect that interest rate rises will have on a
home loan.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
The Radley family borrow $360 000 for a home at 8% p.a. over a 20-year term. They repay
the loan at $3009.60 per month. If the interest rate rises to 9%, will they need to increase their
repayment and, if so, by how much?
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the table to find the monthly

repayment on $1000 at 9% p.a. for 20 years.
2 Multiply this amount by 360. Monthly repayment = $9.00 × 360
= $3240
3 If this amount is greater than $3009.60, state the The Radley family will need to increase their
amount by which the repayment needs to rise. monthly repayments by $230.40.
Exercise 1C Loan repayments

1 WE9 Mr and Mrs Devcich borrow
$80 000 to buy a home. The interest rate is
Digital doc 12% p.a. and their monthly payment is
SkillSHEET 1.4 $850 per month.
doc-1292 a Calculate the interest for the first month
Finding values of n
and r in financial of the loan.
formulas b Calculate the balance owing at the end
of the first month.
2 The repayment on a loan of $180 000 at
7.5% p.a. over a 15-year term is $1668.62
Digital doc per month.
SkillSHEET 1.5 a Calculate the interest for the first month
doc-1293 of the loan and the balance owing at the
Calculating
compound interest end of the first month.
b Calculate the amount by which the balance has reduced in the first month.
c Calculate the interest for the second month of the loan and the balance at the end of the second
month.
d By how much has the balance of the loan reduced during the second month?
3 WE10 Use the table of repayments on page 13 to calculate the monthly repayment on a $75 000
loan at 7% p.a. over a 15-year term.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 1.6 4 Use the table of repayments to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the following loans.
doc-11020
a $2000 at 8% p.a. over a 2-year term
Reading tables
b $15 000 at 13% p.a. over a 5-year term

c $64 000 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term
d $100 000 at 12% p.a. over a 20-year term
e $174 000 at 9% p.a. over a 22-year term
5 Jenny buys a computer for $4000 on the following terms: 10% deposit with the balance paid in equal
monthly instalments over 3 years at an interest rate of 14% p.a.
a Calculate Jenny’s deposit. Digital doc
b Calculate the balance owing on the computer. EXCEL Spreadsheet
c Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment. doc-1299
Reducing balance
6 WE11 Mr and Mrs Dubois borrow $125 000 loans
over 20 years at 10% p.a. to purchase a house.
They repay the loan at a rate of $1500 per
month. If the interest rate rises to 12% p.a.,
will Mr and Mrs Dubois need to increase
the size of their repayments and, if so,
by how much?
7 Mr and Mrs Munro take out a $180 000 home
loan at 9% p.a. over a 25-year term.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
b After 5 years the balance on the loan has been reduced to $167 890. The interest rate then rises
to 10% p.a. Calculate the new monthly repayment required to complete the loan within the
existing term.
8 A bank will lend customers money only if they believe the customer can afford the repayments.
To determine this, the bank has a rule that the maximum monthly repayment a customer can afford
is 25% of his or her gross monthly pay. Darren applies to the bank for a loan of $62 000 at 12% p.a.
over 15 years. Darren has a gross annual salary of $36 000. Will Darren’s loan be approved? Use
calculations to justify your answer.
9 Tracey and Barry have a combined gross income of $84 000.
a Calculate Tracey and Barry’s gross monthly income.
b Using the rule applied in the previous question, what is the maximum monthly repayment on a
loan that they can afford?
c If interest rates are 11% p.a., calculate the maximum amount (in thousands) that they could
borrow over a 25-year term.
10 Mr and Mrs Yousef borrow $95 000 over 25 years at 8% p.a. interest.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on the loan.
b Mr and Mrs Yousef hope to pay the loan off in a much shorter period of time. By how
much will they need to increase the monthly repayment to pay the loan off in
15 years?
11 Mr and Mrs Bath borrow $375 000 at 8% p.a. reducible over a 25-year term, with repayments to be
made monthly.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount that Mr and Mrs Bath will repay over the term of the loan.
c What is the total amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay on the loan?
d Calculate the average amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay each year.
e Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest by expressing your answer to part d as a percentage of
the amount borrowed.
12 A loan of $240 000 is taken out over a 25-year term at an interest rate of 7% p.a. reducible.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total repayments made on the loan.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on the loan.
d Find the equivalent flat rate of interest.
e By following steps a to d above calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest if the term of the
loan is:
i 20 years
ii 15 years.

Further development
13 The average home loan in Australia at present is approximately $300 000.
a Use the table of monthly home loan repayments to calculate the monthly repayment on a loan of
$300 000 taken out at 7% p.a. over a 25-year term.
b During difficult economic times interest rates are increased by 1% p.a. Calculate the new monthly
repayment on the average $300 000 loan.
c Calculate the amount by which loan repayments will have increased over a one-year period.
d Jim has a $300 000 loan. How much extra per week should Jim budget to cover his higher loan
repayments after the interest rate rise?
14 Use the table of monthly home loan repayments to calculate the monthly increase in the repayment
of a $400 000 loan taken out over 25 years if interest rates are increased from 8% p.a. to 9% p.a.
15 At a time when interest rates are 7% p.a. Chloe applies for a loan. To ensure that customers can cope
with higher rates the bank will only allow borrowers to borrow an amount where the repayment is 13
of the borrower’s gross monthly income if interest rates were 2% higher than their current level.
a Chloe earns $72 000 per year. What is the maximum repayment that Chloe can afford
each month?
b If interest rates were 2% higher, what would be the maximum amount that Chloe could borrow
over a 25-year term (in thousands)?
16 Use the table on page 13 to estimate the monthly repayment on the average $300 000 loan over
20 years if interest rates are:
a 7% p.a. b 8% p.a. c 7.5% p.a. d 7.25 p.a.
17 Rebecca borrows $300 000 for a home loan at 9% p.a. over 25 years.
a Use the table of monthly home loan repayments to find the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Shortly after Rebecca begins to repay the loan the interest rate drops to 8% p.a. Rebecca
maintains her current repayment with the intention of paying the loan off quicker. Use the table
to estimate the number of years by which the loan will be shortened.
c Estimate the amount that will be saved on this loan.
18 Marcus borrows $300 000 at an interest rate of 8% p.a. over a 20-year period.
a Use the table of monthly home loan repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount to be repaid over the period of the loan.
c Marcus receives a lump sum payment of $20 000 and uses it to reduce the amount of his loan.
Marcus hopes this will shorten his loan by two years if he maintains the current repayment.
Determine if Marcus will achieve this goal.
1D Present value and future value

In the Preliminary Course you learned about compound interest. The compound interest formula is:
A = P(1 + r) n
interactivities
int-0810
where A = final amount,
Compound interest P = initial amount (or principal),
int-2791 r = interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
Compound interest
n = number of compounding periods.
In the financial world the initial amount P is called the present value, PV and the final amount A is
called the future value, FV. As such, the compound interest formula can be written as:
FV = PV(1 + r) n
Consider the case of $2000 invested today for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually.
FV = PV(1 + r) n
= $2000(1.08) 3
= $2519.42
This investment has a present value of $2000 as this is the value at the present time, the beginning of
the investment.
The future value of the investment is $2519.42 as this is what the investment will be worth at the end
of the investment period.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Rick has an investment with a present value of $5000. The terms of the investment are 5 years
with an interest rate of 6.5% p.a. with interest compounded annually. Calculate the future value
of Rick’s investment.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the compound interest formula. FV = PV(1 + r) n

2 Write the values of PV, r and n. PV = $5000, r = 0.065, n = 5
3 Substitute these values into the formula. FV = 5000(1.065)5
4 Calculate the future value. = $6850.43
When doing any compound interest problem it is important to remember that:

r = interest rate per interest period expressed as a decimal
Interest rates are almost always given as a rate per annum and as such if interest is compounded more
frequently than annually the values of r and n must be adapted accordingly.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Michonne has $3000 to invest. She plans to invest this money for 4 years at an interest rate of
6.4% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the future value of Michonne’s investment.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the compound interest formula. FV = PV(1 + r) n

2 Write the values of PV, r and n. PV = $3000, r = 0.064 ÷ 4, n = 4 × 4
= 0.016 = 16
3 Substitute the values into the formula. FV = 3000(1.016)16
4 Calculate the future value. = $3867.41
Rearranging this formula will allow you to calculate the present value of an investment required to
generate a pre-determined future value. That is, the amount that needs to be invested now if you want a
certain amount of money at the end of the given period of time.
Given that FV = PV(1 + r) n, making PV the subject of the formula gives
FV
PV = .
(1 + r) n
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Herchelle wants a holiday in 2 years’ time that will cost $10 000. Given that he can invest his
money at 7.4% p.a. with interest compounded six monthly, calculate the amount that Herchelle
needs to invest so that he will have $10 000 at the end of the investment.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the compound interest formula with FV

PV =
PV as the subject. (1 + r) n
2 Write the values of FV, r and n. FV = $10 000, r = 0.074 ÷ 2, n = 2 × 2
= 0.037 = 4
3 Substitute the values into the formula. 10000
PV =
(1.037) 4
4 Calculate the present value. = $8647.39

Exercise 1D Present value and future value
interactivity
1 WE12 Daryl has $2000 to invest. He invests the money at 6% p.a. for 6 years with interest
int-2400 compounded annually. Calculate the future value of Daryl’s investment.
Simple and
compound interest 2 Simon has $4000 to invest. He invests the money at 5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded
annually.
a Use the formula FV = PV(1+ r)n to calculate the amount to which this investment
will grow.
b Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
3 Use the formula FV = PV(1+ r)n to calculate the amount to which each investment will grow with
interest compounded annually.
a $3000 at 4% p.a. for 2 years b $9000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years
c $16 000 at 9% p.a. for 5 years d $12 500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years
e $9750 at 7.25% p.a. for 6 years f $100 000 at 3.75% p.a. for 7 years
4 WE13 Calculate the future value of an investment of $14 000 at 7% p.a. for 3 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
5 A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.3% p.a. Jill has $600 in such an account. Calculate the
amount in Jill’s account after 3 years, if interest is compounded quarterly.
6 Damien is to invest $35 000 at 7.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded six-monthly.
Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
7 Sam invests $40 000 in a one-year fixed deposit at an interest rate of 7% p.a. with interest
compounding monthly.
a Convert the interest rate of 7% p.a. to a rate per month.
b Calculate the future value of the investment.
8 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
a $870 for 2 years at 3.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
b $9500 for 2 years at 4.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
c $148 000 for 3 years at 9.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
d $16 000 for 6 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
e $130 000 for 25 years at 12.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
9 MC A sum of $7000 is invested for 3 years at the rate of 5.75% p.a., compounded quarterly.
The interest paid on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is:
a $1208 B $1308 C $8208 D $8308
10 MC After selling their house, Mr and Mrs Fernhill have $73 600. They plan to invest it at 7% p.a.
with interest compounded annually. The future value of their investment will first exceed $110 000
after:
A 5 years B 6 years C 8 years D 10 years
11 MC Maureen wishes to invest $15 000 for a period of 7 years. The following investment alternatives
are suggested to her. The best investment would be:
A simple interest at 8% p.a.
B compound interest at 6.7% p.a. with interest compounded annually
C compound interest at 6.6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
D compound interest at 6.5 % p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
12 MC An amount is to be invested for 5 years and compounded semi-annually at 7% p.a. Which of
the following investments will have a future value closest to $10 000?
A $700 B $6500
C $7400 D $9000
Further development
13 Daniel has $15 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 7% p.a.
a Calculate the compounded value of Daniel’s investment if the compounding period is:
i 1 year ii 6 months
iii 3 months iv monthly.
b Explain why it is advantageous to have interest compounded on a more frequent basis.

14 Jake invests $120 000 at 9% p.a. for a 1-year term. For such large investments interest is
compounded daily.
a Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places. Use 1 year = 365 days.
b Calculate the future value of Jake’s investment on maturity.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment.
d Calculate the extra amount of interest earned compared with the case where the interest is
calculated only at the end of the year.
15 Lori invests $6000 for 4 years at 8% p.a. simple interest. Shane also invests $6000 for 4 years, but
his interest rate is 7.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the future value of Lori’s investment. Digital doc
b Show that the future value of Shane’s investment is greater than Lori’s investment. WorkSHEET 1.2
c Explain why Shane’s investment is worth more than Lori’s investment despite receiving a lower doc-11021
rate of interest.

Summary
Credit cards • A credit card is a pre-approved loan up to a certain amount called the credit limit.
• There are many kinds of credit cards and the most important difference is that some cards have an
interest-free period while others attract interest from the date of making a purchase.
• Credit cards without an interest-free period generally have a lower rate of interest than those with
an interest-free period.
• Each credit card will have a monthly statement and will require a minimum payment each month.
• When evaluating the best credit card for your circumstances, you need to consider if you will be
able to pay most bills by the due date and consider any fees attached to the card.
Flat rate interest • A flat rate loan is one where interest is calculated based on the amount initially borrowed.
• Flat rate loans have the interest calculated using the simple interest formula:
I = Prn
• The total repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by adding the interest to the amount
borrowed.
• The monthly or weekly repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by dividing the total
repayments by the number of weeks or months in the term of the loan.
Loan repayments • The interest on home loans is calculated at a reducible rate. This means that the interest is
calculated on the outstanding balance at the time and not on the initial amount borrowed.
• The interest on home loans is usually calculated and added monthly while repayments are
calculated on a monthly basis.
• To calculate the total cost of a home loan, we multiply the amount of each monthly payment by the
number of payments.
• The amount of each monthly repayment is best calculated using a table of monthly repayments.
• The monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at the given rate over the given term is multiplied by the
number of thousands of dollars in the loan to find the size of each repayment.
Present and future • The present value of an investment is the amount that is invested at the beginning of the term.
values • The future value of a compound interest investment is the value the investment will have at the end
of the term.
• The compound interest formula can be written as FV = PV(1 + r)n where
FV = future value
PV = present value
r = interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
• Interest rates are usually expressed as a percentage per annum, however if interest is calculated
more frequently than annually the values of r and n need to be adjusted accordingly.

Chapter review
1 The total repayments for a $3400 loan on a flat rate interest of 8.5% p.a. over a 3-year period are:
M U LT IP L E
A $867 B $942.78 C $4267 D 4342.78 C H O IC E
2 A $115 000 loan is repaid over a 25-year term at the rate of $1211.21 per month. The total amount of
interest that is paid on this loan is:
A $30 280.25 B $145 280.25
C $248 363.00 D $363 363.00
3 A $150 000 loan is to be taken out. Which of the following loans will have the lowest total cost?
A 4% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid over 20 years
B 8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years at $1254.66 per month
C 9% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1521.40 per month
D 8.5% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1512.49 per month with a $900 loan
application fee and $12 per month account management fee
4 Look at the table of loan repayments per $1000 shown below.
Interest rate (p.a.)

Term 9% 10% 11% 12%
10 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35
15 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00
20 $9.00 $9.65 $10.32 $11.01
25 $8.39 $9.09 $9.80 $10.53
Daniel has an $80 000 mortgage at 10% p.a. over 10 years. After interest rates rise to 12% Daniel

extends the term of his loan to 15 years. What is the change in Daniel’s monthly repayments?
A They increase by $1.13 per month.
B They decrease by $1.22 per month.
C They increase by $90.40 per month.
D They decrease by $97.60 per month.
1 Stephanie has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $423. Calculate the minimum payment to S ho rt
a nsw er
be made if she must pay 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
2 Lorenzo has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $850. If the interest rate is 24% p.a.,
calculate the amount of interest that Lorenzo will be charged if the balance is not paid by the due
date.
3 Jessica pays for her car repairs, which total $256.50, using her credit card. The credit card has an
interest rate of 15% p.a. and interest is charged daily from the date of purchase. Calculate the amount
of interest charged after one month on this card.
4 Study the extract from the credit card statement below.
Interest rate = 19.5% p.a.
1 Jan. 2584.75
6 Jan. 600 – repayment
15 Jan. 39.99 – purchase
1 Feb. ??? – interest
8 Feb. ??? – repayment
15 Feb. 425.85 – purchase
1 March ??? – interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest. (Take 1 year = 365.25 days and answer correct to 4 decimal
places.)
b Calculate the interest due for January.

c If the minimum monthly payment of 5% of the outstanding balance from January is made on
8 February, calculate the amount of this repayment.
d Calculate the interest for February.
5 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest that will be paid on each of the following loans.
a $8000 at 7% p.a. for 2 years b $12 500 at 11.5% p.a. for 5 years
c $2400 at 17.8% p.a. for 3 years d $800 at 9.9% p.a. over 6 months
e $23 400 at 8.75% p.a. over 6 years
6 Calculate the total repayments made on a loan of $4000 at 23% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid
over 3 years.
7 Noel borrows $5600 at 7.6% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid in monthly instalments over 3 years.
Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
8 Shane borrows $9500 to purchase a new car. He repays the loan over 4 years at a rate of $246.60 per
month. Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on the loan.
9 Mr and Mrs Smith borrow $125 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 12% p.a. and the
monthly repayments are $1376.36. Calculate:
a the first month’s interest on the loan b the balance of the loan after the first month.
10 Mr and Mrs Buckley borrow $130 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 8% p.a. and over a
20-year term the monthly repayment is $1087.37.
a Copy and complete the table below.
Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)

1 130 000.00 866.67 129 779.29
2 129 779.29
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
b Mr and Mrs Buckley decide to increase their monthly payment to $1500. Complete the table
below.
Month Principal ($) Interest ($) Balance ($)
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 366.67
2 129 366.67
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

c How much less do Mr and Mrs Buckley owe at the end of one year by increasing their monthly
repayment?
11 Use the table of repayments on page 13 to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the
following loans.
a $25 000 at 9% p.a. over a 10-year term
b $45 000 at 14% p.a. over a 15-year term
c $164 750 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term
d $425 000 at 12% p.a. over a 15-year term
12 Mr and Mrs Rowe take out a $233 000 home loan at 12% p.a. over a 25-year term.
a Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b After 3 years the balance on the loan has been reduced to $227 657. The interest rate then rises
to 13% p.a. Calculate the new monthly repayment required to complete the loan within the
existing term.
13 Daniela is to invest $16 000 for 2 years at 9% p.a. with interest compounded annually.
a Calculate the future value of this investment.
b Calculate the amount of interest that Daniela earned.
14 Natasha invests $7000 at 6% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded six monthly. Calculate the
future value of Natasha’s investment.
1 David buys a computer that has a cash price of $4600. David pays 10% deposit with the balance in Ex tended
R es p ons e
weekly instalments at 13% p.a. flat rate interest over a period of 4 years.
a Calculate the balance owing after David has paid the deposit.
b Calculate the total repayments that David must make on this loan.
c Calculate the amount of each weekly instalment.
(1 + r) n − 1
d Use the formula E = to calculate the equivalent reducible interest rate on this loan.
n
2 Mr and Mrs Tarrant borrow $186 500 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 9% p.a. and the loan is
over a 20-year term.
a Use the table below to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
Interest rate (p.a.)

Term 9% 10% 11% 12%
10 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35
15 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00
20 $9.00 $9.65 $10.32 $11.01
25 $8.39 $9.09 $9.80 $10.53
b Calculate the total amount that they can expect to make in repayments.
c After 10 years the outstanding balance is $132 463 and the interest rate is increased to 11%.
Calculate the amount of the monthly repayment they will need to make to complete the loan
within the term.
d The loan has a $5 per month account management fee. The Tarrants also had a $400 loan
application fee and $132.75 in stamp duty to pay in establishing the loan. Calculate the total cost
of the loan after 20 years.
3 Paul has a credit card that has an interest-free period. The interest rate is 21% p.a.
a If Paul has an outstanding balance of $275.50, calculate the minimum payment he must make by
the due date if it is 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater. Digital doc
b If Paul pays only the minimum balance by the due date, calculate the balance owing for the next Test Yourself
month. doc-11022
Chapter 1
c Calculate the interest that Paul will be charged on his next month’s statement.
d If Paul pays the whole balance off next month, is this card cheaper than a card without an interest-
free period but an interest rate of 15% p.a.? Use calculations to justify your answer.

ICT activities
1A Credit cards 1C Loan repayments
Tutorial interactivity
• WE1 int-0900: Evaluate credit card repayments. (page 2) • int-0914: Reducing balance depreciation. (page 11)
• WE3 int-2410: Calculate interest payments from a credit card Digital docs
statement. (page 3) • Spreadsheet (doc-1291): Home loan. (page 12)
Digital docs • SkillSHEET 1.4 (doc-1292): Finding values of n and r financial
• Investigation (doc-2746): Researching credit cards. (page 6) formulas. (page 14)
• SkillSHEET 1.5 (doc-1293): Calculating compound interest. (page 14)
• SkillSHEET 1.6 (doc-11020): Reading tables. (page 14)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1299): Reducing balance loans. (page 15)
Tutorial
• WE7 int-2408: Learn how to calculate repayments on hire 1d Present value and future value
purchase items. (page 8)
Interactivities
interactivities
• int-0810: Compound interest. (page 16)
• int-0745: Effects of P, r, I and t. (page 7)
• int-2791: Compound interest. (page 16)
• int-2770: Simple interest. (page 7)
• int-2400: Simple and compound interest. (page 18)
Digital docs
Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 1.1 (doc-1284): Converting a percentage to a decimal.
• WorkSHEET 1.2 (doc-11021): Loan repayments and present and
(page 9)
future values. (page 19)
• SkillSHEET 1.2 (doc-1285): Finding a percentage of a quantity
(money). (page 9)
• SkillSHEET 1.3 (doc-1286): Calculating simple interest. (page 9) Chapter review
• Spreadsheet (doc-1287): Simple interest. (page 9) Digital doc
• GC program — Casio (doc-1288): Interest. (page 9) • Test Yourself (doc-11022): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
• GC program — TI (doc-1289): Interest. (page 9) progress. (page 23)
• WorkSHEET 1.1 (doc-11019): Credit cards and flat rate interest.
(page 11)
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

Answers chapter 1
Credit and borrowing 1
b The Big Bank charges 11 % p.a. for a
3
10 B
11 C
Exercise 1A Credit cards loan while the Friendly Building Society
12 C
1 $40.95 charges 12%.
13 a i $17 745.95
2 a $52.50 b $25.00 20 It would be to Michael’s financial
ii $17 786.61
c $25.00 d $25.00 advantage to invest his winnings. As the
iii $17 807.67
e $138.08 loan is a flat rate loan, making a lump
iv $17 821.99
3 27.75 sum payment will not reduce the amount
b The more frequently the interest is paid
4 $18.13 of interest that he must pay. If Michael
the interest itself earns more interest.
5 a $1800 b $31.50 invests, he will earn some interest, which
14 a 0.0247%
c $1831.50 d $1863.55 would be to his financial advantage.
b $131 319.81
6 a $1767.50 b $1732.15 Exercise 1C Loan repayments c $11 319.81
c Interest = $20.79, 1 a $800 b $79 950 d $519.81
Balance owing = $2100.24 2 a $1125, $179 456.38 15 a $7920
7 a $296.40, $256.40 b $543.62 b $8108.46
b $4.12, $260.52 c $1121.60, $178 909.36 c Shane’s interest is compounded meaning
8 a 0.0452% b $19.34 d $547.02 his interest earns interest while Lori’s
c $73.34 d $1411.36 3 $674.25 interest is paid on maturity and earns
9 a $1000 b $15 4 a $90.46 b $341.25 nothing.
c $530.23 d $17.50 c $819.84 d $1101.00
e $11.87 f $535.55 e $1515.54 Chapter Review
g The card with the interest-free period 5 a $400 b $3600
Multiple choice
10 $400 c $123.05
11 a $0 b $13.31 6 They will not need to increase their 1 C
12 17.51% p.a. repayments. 2 C
13 a $15.68 7 a $1510.20 b $1620.14 3 A
b Kylie should not accept the offer as she 8 Yes. The repayment is $744 and the most 4 D
will be charged $21.71 in interest over he can afford is $750. Short answer
2 months compared to $15.68 with her
9 a $7000 b $1750 1 $21.15
current card. c $178 000 2 $17.00
14 Card A charges 18% p.a. on $500 unpaid
10 a $733.40 b $174.80 3 $3.21
balance, which equals $7.50 per month 11 a $2895 b $868 500 4 a 0.0534%
interest. Card B charges 12% p.a. on c $493 500 d $19 740 b $34.82
$1000 each month, which equals $10 per
e 5.264% c $102.99
month interest. Rob should choose Card A.
12 a $1696.80 b $509 040 d $32.65
Exercise 1B Flat rate interest c $269 040 d 4.484% 5 a $1120
1 a $700 b $1200 e i 4.3% ii 4.12% b $7187.50
c $7500 d $2850 13 a $2121 b $2316 c $1281.60
e $390 c $2340 d $45 d $39.60
2 $1584 14 $268 e $12 285.00
3 $5000 15 a $2000 b $238 000 6 $6760
4 a $4060 b $21 330 16 a $2325 b $2508 7 $191.02
c $1803.75 d $308.25 c $2416.50 d $2370.75 8 6.15%
e $275 000 17 a $2517 b 5 years 9 a $1250
5 a $1650 b $3850 c $151 020 b $124 873.64
c $693 d $6193 18 a $2508 b $601 920 10 a
6 a $1600 b $6600 c Marcus would only need to pay $2450
c $137.50 to pay the loan off in 18 years, so he will Principal Interest Balance
achieve this. Month ($) ($) ($)
7 a $800 b $2800
c $53.85 Exercise 1D Present value and future 1 130 000.00 866.67 129 779.30
8 a $2000 b $6000 value 2 129 779.30 865.20 129 557.12
c $2160 d $8160 1 $2837.04 3 129 557.12 863.71 129 333.47
e $226.67 2 a $4630.50 b $630.50
9 $43.33 4 129 333.47 862.22 129 108.32
3 a $3244.80 b $10 939.56
10 B c $24 617.98 d $14 678.02 5 129 108.32 860.72 128 881.67
11 C e $ 14 838.45 6 128 881.67 859.21 128 653.51
12 8% f $129 394.77
13 a $2400 b $9600 7 128 653.51 857.69 128 423.83
4 $17 240.15
c $16 319.88 d 15% 5 $605.42 8 128 423.83 856.16 128 192.62
14 15% 6 $18 503.86 9 128 192.62 854.62 127 959.87
15 a $1515.79 b $2133.33 7 a 0.583% b $42 891.60
16 2 years
10 127 959.87 853.07 127 725.56
8 a $932.52 b $10 410.00
17 B c $193 843.76 d 25 816.04 11 127 725.56 851.50 127 489.70
18 B e $3 145 511 12 127 489.70 849.93 127 252.26
19 a The Big Bank offers the best rates. 9 B

b 11 a $316.75 b $599.40
c $2110.45 d $5100
Principal Interest Balance
Month ($) ($) ($) 12 a $2453.49 b $2618.06
13 a $19 009.60 b
$3009.60
1 130 000.00 866.67 129 366.67 14 $8867.39
2 129 366.67 862.44 128 729.11 Extended response
3 128 729.11 858.19 128 087.31 1 a $4140 b $6292.80
4 128 087.31 853.92 127 441.22 c $30.25 d 15.76%
2 a $1678.50 b $402 840
5 127 441.22 849.61 126 790.83 c $1825.34 d $422 193.55
6 126 790.83 845.27 126 136.10 3 a $13.78
b $261.72
7 126 136.10 840.91 125 477.01
c $4.58
8 125 477.01 836.51 124 813.52 d The card with this interest-free period
9 124 813.52 832.09 124 145.61 is cheaper as the card without the
interest-free period would have charged
10 124 145.61 827.64 123 473.25 $6.75 interest.
11 123 473.25 823.16 122 796.40
12 122 796.40 818.64 122 115.05
c $5137.21

Chapter 2
Annuities and loan repayments
CHAPTER CONTENTS
2A Future value of an annuity
2B Present value of an annuity
2C Loan repayments
2D Loan repayment graphs
2A Future value of an annuity

An annuity is a form of investment involving regular periodic contributions to an account. On such an
investment, interest compounds at the end of each period and the next contribution to the account is
made. interactivity
Superannuation is a common example of an annuity. With superannuation, people invest in a fund int-0193
Comparing
on a regular basis, the interest on the investment compounds while each subsequent period a further
investment options
contribution is added to the principal.
In Chapter 1 we used the compound interest formula and introduced the terms present value and
future value.
The compound interest formula is:
FV = PV(1 + r) n
FV = the future value of the investment, that is, the value that the investment will have at the end of
the investment period.
PV = the present value of the annuity, that is, the single investment required at the current time to
produce the future value.
r = interest rate per compounding period expressed as a decimal.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the value of a $5000 investment made at 8% p.a. for 4 years.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the values of P, r and n. P = $5000, r = 0.08, n = 4

2 Write the formula. A = P(1 + r)n
3 Substitute values for P, r and n. = $5000 × (1.08)4
4 Calculate the value of A. = $6802.44
An annuity takes the form of a sum of compound interest investments. Consider the case of a person
who invests $1000 at 10% p.a. at the end of each year for 5 years.
To calculate the total value of this investment we would need to calculate the value of:
• The first $1000 invested for 4 years at 10% p.a.
• The second $1000 invested for 3 years at 10% p.a.
Chapter 2 • Annuities and loan repayments 27

• The third $1000 invested for 2 years at 10% p.a.
• The fourth $1000 invested for 1 year at 10% p.a.
Each of these investments would be added together with the final $1000, which is added at the end of
the investment period.
1st contribution 2nd contribution 3rd contribution 4th contribution

FV = PV (1 + r)n FV = PV (1 + r)n FV = PV (1 + r)n FV = PV (1 + r)n
= $1000(1.1)4 = $1000(1.1)3 = $1000(1.1)2 = $1000(1.1)
= $1464.10 = $1331.00 = $1210.00 = $1100.00
The future value of this annuity (FVA) is therefore

FVA = $1464.10 + $1331.00 + $1210.00 + $1100.00 + $1000.00
= $6105.10
In the case of most annuities it is not practical to find the total value of the annuity using this method.
The future value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula
(1 + r) n − 1
FVA = a e f
r
where FVA = future value of the annuity
a = the contribution per period paid at the end of the period
r = interest rate per compounding period expressed as a decimal
Consider Worked example 1.
(1 + r) n − 1
FVA = a e f
r
(1.1) 5 − 1
FVA = $1000 e f
0.1
= $6105.10
In this course you are not required to calculate the future value of an annuity using this formula. In
practice the future value of an annuity is calculated using a table of values that show the future value of
an annuity where $1 is contributed each period.
Suppose that an annuity is created where $1 is paid at the end of each year for a period of 20 years.
The interest rate is 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually.
Using the formula above
(1 + r) n − 1
FVA = a e f
r
(1.08) 20 − 1
FVA = 1 e f
0.08
= 45.7620
This value can be used to calculate the future value of any similar annuity. For example consider an
annuity where a contribution of $2500 is made at the end of each year for 20 years at an interest rate of
8% p.a. with interest compounded annually.
FVA = 2500 × 45.7620
= $114 405
We can create a table of future values using the above formula and an Excel spreadsheet.
Computer application 1: Future value of $1

Consider $1 invested into an annuity interest period. The table we are going construct on a spreadsheet
shows the future value of that $1.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Type in the following information as shown in step 3.

3. In cell B4 enter the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4−1)/B$3. (This is the future value formula from
Exercise 2A with the value of M omitted, as it is equal to 1.) Format the cell, correct to
4 decimal places.
4. Highlight the range of cells B3 to M23. From the Edit menu, use Fill Down and Fill Right functions
to copy the formula to all other cells in this range.
This completes the table. The table shows the future value of an annuity of $1 invested for up to
10 interest periods at up to 10% per interest period. You can extend the spreadsheet further for other
interest rates and longer investment periods.
The table overleaf is the set of future values of $1 invested into an annuity. This is the table you
should have obtained in Computer application 1.
A table such as this can be used to find the value of an annuity by multiplying the amount of the
annuity by the future value of $1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Use the table on page 30 to find the future value of an annuity when $1500 is invested at the end of
each year at 7% p.a. with interest compounded annually for 9 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Look up the future value of a $1 annuity at Future value of $1 = 11.9780

7% p.a. for 9 years.
2 Multiply this value by the amount of each Future value = $1500 × 11.9780
contribution, $1500. = $17 967

Future value of $1
Interest rate per period
Period 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 2.0100 2.0200 2.0300 2.0400 2.0500 2.0600 2.0700 2.0800 2.0900 2.1000 2.1100 2.1200
3 3.0301 3.0604 3.0909 3.1216 3.1525 3.1836 3.2149 3.2464 3.2781 3.3100 3.3421 3.3744
4 4.0604 4.1216 4.1836 4.2465 4.3101 4.3746 4.4399 4.5061 4.5731 4.6410 4.7097 4.7793
5 5.1010 5.2040 5.3091 5.4163 5.5256 5.6371 5.7507 5.8666 5.9847 6.1051 6.2278 6.3528
6 6.1520 6.3081 6.4684 6.6330 6.8019 6.9753 7.1533 7.3359 7.5233 7.7156 7.9129 8.1152
7 7.2135 7.4343 7.6625 7.8983 8.1420 8.3938 8.6540 8.9228 9.2004 9.4872 9.7833 10.0890
8 8.2857 8.5830 8.8923 9.2142 9.5491 9.8975 10.2598 10.6366 11.0285 11.4359 11.8594 12.2997
9 9.3685 9.7546 10.1591 10.5828 11.0266 11.4913 11.9780 12.4876 13.0210 13.5795 14.1640 14.7757
10 10.4622 10.9497 11.4639 12.0061 12.5779 13.1808 13.8164 14.4866 15.1929 15.9374 16.7220 17.5487
11 11.5668 12.1687 12.8078 13.4864 14.2068 14.9716 15.7836 16.6455 17.5603 18.5312 19.5614 20.6546
12 12.6825 13.4121 14.1920 15.0258 15.9171 16.8699 17.8885 18.9771 20.1407 21.3843 22.7132 24.1331
13 13.8093 14.6803 15.6178 16.6268 17.7130 18.8821 20.1406 21.4953 22.9534 24.5227 26.2116 28.0291
14 14.9474 15.9739 17.0863 18.2919 19.5986 21.0151 22.5505 24.2149 26.0192 27.9750 30.0949 32.3926
15 16.0969 17.2934 18.5989 20.0236 21.5786 23.2760 25.1290 27.1521 29.3609 31.7725 34.4054 37.2797
16 17.2579 18.6393 20.1569 21.8245 23.6575 25.6725 27.8881 30.3243 33.0034 35.9497 39.1899 42.7533
17 18.4304 20.0121 21.7616 23.6975 25.8404 28.2129 30.8402 33.7502 36.9737 40.5447 44.5008 48.8837
18 19.6147 21.4123 23.4144 25.6454 28.1324 30.9057 33.9990 37.4502 41.3013 45.5992 50.3959 55.7497
19 20.8109 22.8406 25.1169 27.6712 30.5390 33.7600 37.3790 41.4463 46.0185 51.1591 56.9395 63.4397
20 22.0190 24.2974 26.8704 29.7781 33.0660 36.7856 40.9955 45.7620 51.1601 57.2750 64.2028 72.0524
As shown in Chapter 1, when considering compound interest we need to consider the compounding
period and adjust the values of r and n accordingly. The same applies when calculating annuities.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Andrea invests $500 every six months into an annuity that pays 6% p.a. interest compounded
six-monthly. Calculate the future value of this annuity after 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the values of r and n. r = 6% ÷ 2, n = 5 × 2

= 3% = 10
2 Look up the future value of a $1 at 3% per Future value of $1 = 11.4639
period for 10 periods.
3 Calculate the future value by multiplying this FVA = $500 × 11.4639
value by the amount of each contribution. = $5713.95

Exercise 2A Future value of an annuity
1 WE1 Calculate the value after 5 years of an investment of $4000 at 12% p.a., with interest
compounded annually.
2 Calculate the value to which each of the following compound interest investments will grow.
a $5000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years, with interest calculated annually
b $12 000 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest calculated annually
c $4500 at 8% p.a. for 4 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
d $3000 at 9.6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
e $15 000 at 8.4% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded quarterly
f $2950 at 6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded monthly
3 At the end of each year for four years Rodney invests $1000 in an investment fund that pays
7.5% p.a. interest, compounded annually. By calculating each investment of $1000 separately,
use the compound interest formula to calculate the future value of Rodney’s investment after
four years.
4 Caitlin is saving for a holiday in two years and so every six months she invests $2000 in an account
that pays 7% p.a. interest, with the interest compounding every six months.
a Use the compound interest formula to calculate the amount to which the:
i first investment of $2000 will grow
ii second investment of $2000 will grow
iii third investment of $2000 will grow
iv fourth investment of $2000 will grow.
b If Caitlin then adds a final deposit of $2000 to her account immediately before her holiday, what
is the total value of her annuity?
5 WE2 Use the table of future values on page 30 to determine the future value of an annuity of $800
invested per year for 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
6 Use the table of future values to determine the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $400 invested per year for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2250 invested per year for 8 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $625 invested per year for 10 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $7500 invested per year for 7 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually
7 WE3 Samantha invests $500 every 6 months for 5 years in an annuity at 8% p.a., with interest
compounded every 6 months.
a What is the interest rate per interest period?
b How many interest periods are there in Samantha’s annuity?
c Use the table to calculate the future value of Samantha’s annuity.
8 Use the table to calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $400 invested every 6 months for 4 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
b $600 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
c $100 invested every month for 5 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly.
9 Use the table of future values to determine whether an annuity at 5% p.a. for 6 years or an annuity at
6% p.a. for 5 years will produce the greatest financial outcome. Explain your answer.
10 MC Use the table of future values to determine which of the following annuities will have the
greatest financial outcome.
A 6% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually
B 8% p.a. for 6 years, with interest compounded annually
C 7% p.a. for 7 years, with interest compounded annually
D 10% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
Further development
11 Barbara currently has $60 000 in an investment account that is averaging an interest rate of
6% p.a., compounded annually. She wants to calculate the amount that she will receive after
20 years.
a Use the compound interest formula to find the value of $60 000 investment at maturity.
b If she deposits $9000 each year, use the table on page 30 to find the future value of this annuity.

c If she places her $60 000 into a different savings account that can offer 8% p.a. compounded
annually and increases her deposits to $10 000 each year, find the amount available to her after
20 years.
d Over the 20-year period, calculate the extra amount saved by investing $60 000 in an investment
account and $10 000 each year at 8% p.a. compared with $9000 each year at 6% p.a.
12 Find the final value of the following annuity investments by using the compound interest formula
together with the table on page 30.
a An initial amount of $10 000 earning 6% p.a. with annual contributions of $7000 for the next
20 years.
b An initial amount of $400 000 earning 10% p.a. with annual contributions of $12 000 for the next
5 years.
c An initial amount of $100 000 earning 8% p.a. compounded six-monthly with six-monthly
contributions of $1200 for the next 9 years.
d An initial amount of $50 000 earning 12% p.a. compounded quarterly with quarterly contributions
of $1200 for the next 5 years.
13 Merle makes an investment of $1000 into an annuity at the end of each year. He has the option of
investing at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually or six-monthly.
a Calculate the future value of the annuity where interest is compounded annually.
b If Merle chooses the option where interest is compounded six-monthly he will need to
contribute $500 to the annuity at the end of each interest period. Calculate the future value of this
investment.
c Calculate the percentage increase in the future value that Merle will receive if he invests with
interest compounded six-monthly.
2B Present value of an annuity

In Chapter 1 we learned about the present value of an investment under compound interest. In the
formula
elesson FV = PV(1 + r) n
eles-0117
Small business PV is the present value of the annuity, that is, the single investment required at the current time to
produce the future value.
The same idea applies to an annuity. The present value of an annuity is the single sum investment
that can be made under compound interest that will produce the same future value as the annuity in
question.
As we learned in Chapter 1 the present value of an investment under compound interest can be
calculated using the formula
FV
PV =
(1 + r) n
Now let us consider the annuity in Worked example 2. In this example $1500 was invested at the end of
each year at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually for 9 years. This investment has a future value
of $17 967.
If we are to consider the present value of this investment we want to find the single sum that needs to
be invested at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually for 9 years, that will produce this financial
outcome.
FV
PV =
(1 + r) n
17967
=
(1.07) 9
= $9772.86
This means that making a single investment of $9772.86 at the beginning of the term is equivalent to
investing $1500 each year for 9 years.

Comparing the two investments further:
Annuity Single sum investment
Future value $17 967 $17 967

Investor’s contribution $1 500 × 9 = $13 500 $9 772.86
Interest $4 467 $8 194.14
As you can see, a single-sum contribution generates more interest from a smaller contribution
than an annuity, however for the single-sum contribution the entire contribution is required at
the beginning of the investment, whereas for the annuity a much smaller annual contribution
is made.
FV
The formula PV = is used to calculate the present value of an annuity when we know the
future value. (1 + r) n
(1 + r) n − 1
The formula PVA = a e f can be used to calculate the present value of an annuity when
r(1 + r) n
given the amount of each contribution. In this formula:
FVA = future value of the annuity
a = the contribution per period paid at the end of the period
r = interest rate per compounding period expressed as a decimal
Now consider the annuity in Worked example 3. In this example a $500 contribution was being made
every six months. The interest rate is 6% p.a. compounded six-monthly for a 5-year term.
Therefore a = 500, r = 0.03 and n = 10
(1 + r) n − 1
PVA = a e f
r(1 + r) n
(1.03) 10 − 1
PVA = 500 e f
0.03 × (1.03) 10
= $4265.10
Also, as with future values, you will not be required to calculate present values using this formula.
The formula is used to also create a table of present values of $1 under various investments.
Consider the present value of an annuity where $1 is invested each interest period at 4% per interest
period for 20 interest periods.
(1 + r) n − 1
PVA = a e f
r(1 + r) n
(1.04) 20 − 1
PVA = 1 e f
0.04 × (1.04) 20
= 13.5903
This means that a $1 annuity at 4% per interest period for 20 interest periods is equivalent to a single
investment of $13.59
Computer application 2: Present value table

The table we are about to make on a spreadsheet shows the present value of an annuity of $1 invested
per interest period.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Enter the following information.
3. In cell B4 type the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4−1)/(B$3*(1+B$3)^$A4).
4. Drag from cell B4 to K13, and then from the Edit menu use the Fill Down and Fill Right functions
to copy this formula to the remaining cells in your table.

The table created in Computer application 2 shows the present value of an annuity $1 per interest
period for up to 12% per interest period and for up to 20 interest periods.
The table below shows the results that you should obtain for the above computer application and
should be used to complete the following exercise.
Present value of $1
Period 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 0.9901 0.9804 0.9709 0.9615 0.9524 0.9434 0.9346 0.9259 0.9174 0.9091 0.9009 0.8929
2 1.9704 1.9416 1.9135 1.8861 1.8594 1.8334 1.8080 1.7833 1.7591 1.7355 1.7125 1.6901
3 2.9410 2.8839 2.8286 2.7751 2.7232 2.6730 2.6243 2.5771 2.5313 2.4869 2.4437 2.4018
4 3.9020 3.8077 3.7171 3.6299 3.5460 3.4651 3.3872 3.3121 3.2397 3.1699 3.1024 3.0373
5 4.8534 4.7135 4.5797 4.4518 4.3295 4.2124 4.1002 3.9927 3.8897 3.7908 3.6959 3.6048
6 5.7955 5.6014 5.4172 5.2421 5.0757 4.9173 4.7665 4.6229 4.4859 4.3553 4.2305 4.1114
7 6.7282 6.4720 6.2303 6.0021 5.7864 5.5824 5.3893 5.2064 5.0330 4.8684 4.7122 4.5638
8 7.6517 7.3255 7.0197 6.7327 6.4632 6.2098 5.9713 5.7466 5.5348 5.3349 5.1461 4.9676
9 8.5660 8.1622 7.7861 7.4353 7.1078 6.8017 6.5152 6.2469 5.9952 5.7590 5.5370 5.3282
10 9.4713 8.9826 8.5302 8.1109 7.7217 7.3601 7.0236 6.7101 6.4177 6.1446 5.8892 5.6502
11 10.3676 9.7868 9.2526 8.7605 8.3064 7.8869 7.4987 7.1390 6.8052 6.4951 6.2065 5.9377
12 11.2551 10.5753 9.9540 9.3851 8.8633 8.3838 7.9427 7.5361 7.1607 6.8137 6.4924 6.1944

Present value of $1 (continued )
Period 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
13 12.1337 11.3484 10.6350 9.9856 9.3936 8.8527 8.3577 7.9038 7.4869 7.1034 6.7499 6.4235
14 13.0037 12.1062 11.2961 10.5631 9.8986 9.2950 8.7455 8.2442 7.7862 7.3667 6.9819 6.6282
15 13.8651 12.8493 11.9379 11.1184 10.3797 9.7122 9.1079 8.5595 8.0607 7.6061 7.1909 6.8109
16 14.7179 13.5777 12.5611 11.6523 10.8378 10.1059 9.4466 8.8514 8.3126 7.8237 7.3792 6.9740
17 15.5623 14.2919 13.1661 12.1657 11.2741 10.4773 9.7632 9.1216 8.5436 8.0216 7.5488 7.1196
18 16.3983 14.9920 13.7535 12.6593 11.6896 10.8276 10.0591 9.3719 8.7556 8.2014 7.7016 7.2497
19 17.2260 15.6785 14.3238 13.1339 12.0853 11.1581 10.3356 9.6036 8.9501 8.3649 7.8393 7.3658
20 18.0456 16.3514 14.8775 13.5903 12.4622 11.4699 10.5940 9.8181 9.1285 8.5136 7.9633 7.4694
This table can be used in the same way as the future values table.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Liam invests $750 per year in an annuity at 6% per annum for 8 years, with interest compounded
annually. Use the table to calculate the present value of Liam’s annuity.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the table to find the present value of Present value of $1 = 6.2098
$1 annuity at 6% for 8 interest periods.
2 Multiply this value by 750. Present value = $750 × 6.2098
= $4657.35
Exercise 2B Present value of an annuity

1 WE4 Use the table of present values on page 34 to determine the present value of an annuity of
$1250 per year for 8 years invested at 9% p.a.
2 Use the table of present values to determine the present value of each of the following annuities.
a $450 per year for 5 years at 76% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2000 per year for 10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $850 per year for 6 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $3000 per year for 8 years at 9.5 p.a., with interest compounded annually
3 Use the table of present values on page 34 to determine the present value of an investment of $500 at
the end of each quarter at 12% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly for 3 years.
4 Use the table of present values to find the present value of each of the following annuities.
a $400 invested every 6 months for 4 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
b $600 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
c $100 invested every month for 1 year at 12% p.a., with interest compounded monthly
5 Calculate the present value of each of the following annuities.
a $1000 invested at the end of each year at 8% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded annually
b $500 invested at the end of June and December for 5 years with interest compounded every six
months
c $250 invested at the end of each quarter for 5 years with interest compounded quarterly
6 Jonah invests $2500 each year into his employee superannuation fund. The find earns 6% p.a., with
interest compounded annually. Given that his employer matches this investment calculate the present
value of his superannuation assuming that Jonah will work for a further 20 years.

7 Bernice invests $2000 per year into a superannuation fund that pays 8% p.a., with interest
compounded annually for 10 years.
a Calculate the present value of the annuity.
b If the annuity is split into two $1000 payments and interest is paid six-monthly, calculate the
present value.
c Find the percentage change in the present value of the annuity under the two conditions. (Give
your answer correct to two decimal places.)
Further development
8 Justin is aged 42 and plans to retire at age 60. He estimates that he needs $680 000 to provide for
his retirement. His current superannuation fund has a balance of $40 000 and is returning 12% p.a.
a Use the compound interest formula to find the future value of Justin’s current
superannuation.
b Use the future value table on page 30 to find the annual contribution needed to reach his target.
9 Johnny has an annuity of $1500 per year at 5.5% p.a., with interest compounded annually over a
20-year period.
a Use the table on page 30 to estimate the future value of a $1 annuity over a 20 year period.
b Use your answer to part a to find the future value of Johnny’s annuity.
c Use the table on page 34 to estimate the present value of this annuity.
10 Jodie has an annuity into which she pays $1800 every quarter. The interest rate is 10% p.a., with
interest compounded quarterly. The annuity is to run for 4 years.
Digital doc a Use the table to estimate the future value of Jodie’s annuity.
WorkSHEET 2.1 b Jodie’s fiancé Paul wants to make a single investment compounded annually at 10% interest with
doc-11023 a future value equal to Jodie’s annuity. Find the amount of the investment that Paul must make.
2C Loan repayments

We studied loans and the way in which they are repaid in Chapter 1. We learned that most loans have
interest calculated and added each month and at the same time a monthly repayment is made. This monthly
payment is calculated so that the outstanding balance on the loan at the end of the term is exactly zero.
A loan can be considered much like an annuity where we need to calculate the amount of each
contribution (the monthly repayment) to generate a certain future value (amount of the loan).
To begin let us consider a simple example. $5000 is to be borrowed over a three-year term at 9% p.a.
interest, which is added annually. The loan is to be repaid in three equal annual instalments.
The present value interest factor for 9% per interest period over three interest periods is 2.5313.
From our previous work we know that PVA = a × PVIF so considering PFA to be the amount of the loan
and a the amount of each monthly repayment we form the equation.
Therefore $5000 = a × 2.5313
a = $5000 ÷ 2.5313
= $1975.26
We will now examine the progress of this loan with an annual repayment of $1975.26.
Opening balance Interest Closing balance

Year 1 $5000 9% of $5000 $5000 + $450 − $1975.26
= $450 = $3474.74
Year 2 $3474.74 9% of $3474.74 $3474.74 + $312.73 − $1975.26
= $312.73 = $1812.21
Year 3 $1812.21 9% of $1812.21 $1812.21 + $163.10 − $1975.26
= $163.10 = $0.05
At the end of the third year the balance of the loan is zero (well almost!). The 5 cents that is still
owing on the loan is due to rounding to the nearest cent in each calculation. And yes, the bank will make
you pay the extra five cents in the last repayment.

In practice, because the interest and repayments on loans are made monthly the interest rates that are
used are much smaller and the interest periods much greater than those used in the table of future value
interest factors on page 30.
The table below shows the present value interest factors for common monthly interest rates and for
loans up to 25 years (300 months).
Table of present value interest factors

r 0.005 0.0055 0.006 0.0065 0.007 0.0075 0.008 0.0085 0.009 0.0095 0.01
N
12 11.6189 11.5818 11.5448 11.5080 11.4714 11.4349 11.3986 11.3625 11.3265 11.2907 11.2551
24 22.5629 22.4258 22.2899 22.1552 22.0216 21.8891 21.7578 21.6276 21.4984 21.3704 21.2434
36 32.8710 32.5791 32.2907 32.0060 31.7247 31.4468 31.1723 30.9012 30.6334 30.3689 30.1075
48 42.5803 42.0856 41.5988 41.1199 40.6486 40.1848 39.7284 39.2792 38.8372 38.4022 37.9740
60 51.7256 50.9865 50.2621 49.5520 48.8559 48.1734 47.5042 46.8481 46.2047 45.5738 44.9550
72 60.3395 59.3205 58.3253 57.3534 56.4041 55.4768 54.5710 53.6859 52.8212 51.9762 51.1504
84 68.4530 67.1236 65.8300 64.5713 63.3463 62.1540 60.9933 59.8634 58.7632 57.6918 56.6485
96 76.0952 74.4296 72.8149 71.2492 69.7310 68.2584 66.8300 65.4442 64.0995 62.7944 61.5277
108 83.2934 81.2702 79.3159 77.4277 75.6030 73.8394 72.1345 70.4860 68.8918 67.3497 65.8578
120 90.0735 87.6751 85.3666 83.1439 81.0035 78.9417 76.9552 75.0409 73.1955 71.4164 69.7005
132 96.4596 93.6720 90.9981 88.4326 85.9703 83.6064 81.3364 79.1558 77.0606 75.0468 73.1108
144 102.4747 99.2869 96.2396 93.3257 90.5383 87.8711 85.3180 82.8733 80.5317 78.2879 76.1372
156 108.1404 104.5441 101.1180 97.8527 94.7395 91.7700 88.9366 86.2318 83.6489 81.1813 78.8229
168 113.4770 109.4665 105.6585 102.0411 98.6033 95.3346 92.2252 89.2659 86.4484 83.7644 81.2064
180 118.5035 114.0753 109.8845 105.9163 102.1569 98.5934 95.2139 92.0070 88.9624 86.0704 83.3217
192 123.2380 118.3905 113.8177 109.5015 105.4251 101.5728 97.9300 94.4834 91.2203 88.1290 85.1988
204 127.6975 122.4308 117.4785 112.8186 108.4309 104.2966 100.3985 96.7205 93.2479 89.9669 86.8647
216 131.8979 126.2138 120.8857 115.8875 111.1953 106.7869 102.6419 98.7416 95.0688 91.6076 88.3431
228 135.8542 129.7558 124.0569 118.7269 113.7377 109.0635 104.6807 100.5676 96.7042 93.0723 89.6551
240 139.5808 133.0721 127.0084 121.3539 116.0760 111.1450 106.5336 102.2171 98.1728 94.3799 90.8194
252 143.0908 136.1773 129.7555 123.7844 118.2265 113.0479 108.2175 103.7074 99.4917 95.5473 91.8527
264 146.3969 139.0846 132.3123 126.0331 120.2044 114.7876 109.7479 105.0537 100.6762 96.5894 92.7697
276 149.5110 141.8067 134.6920 128.1136 122.0234 116.3781 111.1387 106.2699 101.7399 97.5198 93.5835
288 152.4441 144.3554 136.9068 130.0384 123.6963 117.8322 112.4027 107.3688 102.6952 98.3503 94.3056
300 155.2069 146.7418 138.9683 131.8193 125.2349 119.1616 113.5515 108.3615 103.5531 99.0918 94.9466
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Use the table of present value interest factors to calculate the monthly repayment of a loan of
$250 000 at 0.5% per month over 20 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the value of r and N. r = 0.005, N = 240

2 Write down the present value interest factor. PVIF = 139.5808
3 Write an equation using PVA = a × PVIF. 250 000 = a × 139.5808
4 Solve the equation for a to find the amount of a = $1791.08
each repayment.

It is important, however, to remember that unlike in Worked example 6, interest rates are usually
expressed as a percentage per annum (p.a.). These interest rates need to first be converted to a monthly
rate and then to a decimal before we are able to use the table of present value interest factors.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Mr. and Mrs Grimes borrow $500 000 to buy a home. The interest rate is 9% p.a. and is
calculated monthly. The loan is to be repaid over 25 years. Use the table of present value interest
factors to calculate the amount of each repayment.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the value of r and N. r = 0.09 ÷ 12, N = 25 × 12

= 0.0075
= 300
2 Write down the present value interest factor. PVIF = 119.1616
3 Write an equation using PVA = a × PVIF. 500 000 = a × 119.1616
4 Solve the equation for a to find the amount of a = $4195.98

each repayment.
The table can also be used to calculate the approximate length of time that it takes to repay a loan.
This is done using the same equation (PVA = a × PVIF) but solving for the interest factor. The nearest
interest factor in the table will give the approximate time taken to repay the loan.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Use the table on page 37 to calculate the length of time that it will take to repay a $20 000 loan at
an interest rate of 6% p.a. with a repayment of $900 per month.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the value of r. r = 0.005
2 Write an equation using PVA = a × PVIF, 20 000 = 900 × PVIF

with PVA = 20 000 and a = 900.
3 Solve the equation for PVIF. PVIF = 22.2222
4 Look in the 0.005 column for the interest N = 24, the loan will take 2 years to pay off.
factor closest to 22.2222 (22.5629). Read off
the corresponding value of N.
Exercise 2C Loan repayments

To calculate monthly repayments in this exercise use the table of present value interest factors on
page 37.
1 WE5 Calculate the monthly repayment on a loan of $15 000 over 5 years at 0.65% per month.
2 WE6 Yiannis takes out a $10 000 loan over 5 years at 10.2% p.a. reducible interest
with equal monthly repayments to be made. Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
3 Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on a loan of $8000 to be repaid over 4 years at
12% p.a.
4 Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on each of the following loans.
a $2000 at 12% p.a. over 2 years b $15 000 at 9% p.a. over 5 years
c $120 000 at 6% p.a. over 20 years d $23 000 at 9.6% p.a. over 5 years
e $210 000 at 7.2% p.a. over 25 years

5 Jack and Diane take out a $275 000 home loan. If the interest rate on the loan is 8.4% p.a. reducible
and the term of the loan is 25 years, calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
6 Jiro purchases a computer on terms. The cash price of the computer is $3750. The terms are
a deposit of 10.00% with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at 9% p.a.
reducible interest over 3 years.
a Calculate Jiro’s deposit on the computer.
b What is the balance owing on the computer?
c Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
7 Jeremy and Patricia spend $15 000 on new furnishings for their home. They pay a 15%
deposit on the furnishings with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at 11.4% p.a.
interest over 4 years. Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
8 Thanh is purchasing a car on terms. The cash price of the car is $35 000 and he pays a $7000 deposit.
a What is the balance owing on the car?
b If the car is to be repaid in equal monthly instalments over 5 years at an interest rate of 9% p.a.
reducible interest, calculate the amount of each monthly payment.
9 Ron borrows $33 500 to purchase a car. The loan is to be repaid in equal monthly instalments over a
3-year term at an interest rate of 12% p.a. Calculate the total repayments made on the loan.
10 Calculate the total repayments on each of the following loans.
a $4000 at 8.4% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 2 years in equal monthly repayments
b $20 000 at 6% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 6 years in equal monthly instalments
c $60 000 at 7.2% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years in equal monthly instalments
d $150 000 at 10.8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years in equal monthly instalments
11 MC A loan of $5000 is taken out at 9% p.a. reducible interest over 4 years. Which of the following
equations will be used to find the amount of each monthly repayment?
A 5000 = a × 40.1848 B 5000 = a × 38.8372
C 5000 = a × 11.4349 D 5000 = a × 11.3265
12 MC A loan of $12 000 is taken out at 12% p.a. reducible interest in equal monthly instalments over
5 years. The total amount of interest paid on the loan is:
A $266.93 B $4016.02 C $7200 D $16 016.02
13 WE7 Use the table on page 37 to calculate the length of time that it will take to repay a $50 000
loan at an interest rate of 9% p.a. with a $900 per month repayment.
14 A loan of $255 000 is taken out over 15 years at 9% p.a. reducible interest.
a Calculate the amount of the minimum monthly payment.
b If the payment is increased to $2900 per month, calculate the length of time that it will take to
repay the loan.

15 A $150 000 loan is taken out over a 25-year term. The interest rate is 9.6% p.a.
a Calculate the minimum monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
c Calculate the length of time that it will take to repay the loan at $1625 per month.
d Calculate the total saving on the loan by repaying the loan at $1625 per month.
16 Link borrows $148 000 taken out over 10 years. The loan is to be repaid in monthly instalments.
Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment at each of the following rates.
a 6% p.a. b 7.2% p.a. c 9% p.a. d 12% p.a.
17 A loan of $200 000 over 20 years has interest charged monthly at a rate of 9% p.a.
a Calculate the monthly repayment.
b After 3 years the balance owing is $187 676.80. The interest rate then rises to 9.6%. What will be
the new repayment required to pay the loan off in the remaining 17 years?
18 Ben took out of loan for $20 000 to buy a new car. The contract required that he repay the loan over
5 years with monthly instalments of $420.00. Use a trial-and-error method together with the PVIF
table to find the interest rate that Ben is paying. Give your answer as a percentage p.a. as close as the
table will allow.
2D Loan repayment graphs

A reducing balance loan is structured in such as way that in the first month the majority of the
repayment is interest and only a small amount is reducing the principal. In each subsequent month the
amount of interest is slightly less and the amount coming off the balance slightly more.
Hence the graph of a reducing balance loan will show the bulk of the loan paid off in the final few years.
A graph that shows the outstanding balance on a loan will have time on the horizontal axis, the
balance on the vertical axis while the graph itself will be a smooth curve. The following exercise will
provide opportunities for you to examine loan repayment graphs and you will be able to see how the
balance declines over time and some of the strategies that can be used to pay them off more quickly.
Exercise 2D Loan repayment graphs

1 The figure below tracks the balance owing on a loan of $250 000. The interest on the loan is charged
at 9% p.a. reducible and the monthly repayment is $2098.
Balance owing
$250 000.00
$200 000.00
Balance ($)
$150 000.00
$100 000.00
$50 000.00
0
12
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
192
204
216
228
240
252
264
276
288
300
Number of months
a What is the term of the loan?

b Approximately how much is still owing on the loan after 5 years?
c What is the outstanding balance on the loan half way through the term?
d How long does it take for half the loan to be paid off?
2 The Andersons take out a $300 000 home loan. The terms of the loan are that interest is charged at a
rate of 8.4% p.a., which is calculated and charged monthly with a minimum monthly repayment of
$2396. The Andersons decide to increase their repayment to $2600 per month.
The effect of this extra payment is shown in the following graph.

Repayment of $2396 per month
Repayment of $2600 per month
$300 000.00
$250 000.00
$200 000.00
Balance ($)
$150 000.00
$100 000.00
$50 000.00
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
154
168
182
196
210
224
238
252
266
280
294
Number of months
a Approximately how many months does it take to repay the loan:

i at $2396 per month
ii at $2600 per month?
b What is the approximate total cost of repaying the loan:
i at $2396 per month
ii at $2600 per month?
c What is the saving made by paying the loan off at the higher monthly repayment?
3 The Shorrocks take out a $425 000 home loan. The loan is over a 25-year term at an interest rate of
7.2% p.a., with interest calculated monthly. The minimum monthly repayment is $3060.
a What is the total cost of repaying this loan?
b What is the balance owing after 1 year?
c After one year a one-off $10 000 repayment is made on the loan.
The effect of this extra payment is shown by the graph below.
Minimum repayment
Minimum repayment with one off
$10 000 payment after 1 year.
$400 000.00
$350 000.00
$300 000.00
Balance ($)
$250 000.00
$200 000.00
$150 000.00
$100 000.00
$50 000.00
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
154
168
182
196
210
224
238
252
266
280
294
Number of months
By how many months is the term of the loan reduced?

d Approximately how much is saved by making the one-off repayment?

Further development
Making increased repayments, one-off extra payments or more frequent payments are methods that can
be used to repay a loan more quickly. The remaining questions require you to use the spreadsheet ‘Loan’
from eBookPLUS. Formulas in the spreadsheet work for the first 12 months of the loan. Use the ‘Fill
Down’ function to complete these formulas for the length of each loan.
4 From the eBookPLUS open the spreadsheet ‘Loan’. The sheet titled ‘Basic’ models a Loan. Use the
spreadsheet to draw graphs to model the following loans. In each case you will need to use the table
Digital doc on page 37 to calculate what the minimum monthly repayment should be.
EXCEL Spreadsheet a A $20 000 loan at 6% p.a. over 5 years
doc-1301 b A $500 000 loan at 9% p.a. over 20 years
Loan repayments
c A $1 000 000 loan at 8.4% p.a. over 25 years
5 From the eBook open the spreadsheet ‘Loan’. The sheet titled ‘Higher payment’ allows you to
explore the effects of increasing the amount of the monthly repayment.
Consider a $275 000 loan to be taken out at 9.6% p.a. over 20 years.
Draw a graph showing the path of the loan under the minimum monthly repayment and compare that
to paying an extra $400 per month.
6 From the eBook open the spreadsheet ‘Loan’. The sheet titled ‘Extra payment’ allows you to explore
the effects of making a one-off extra payment.
Consider a $395 000 loan to be taken out at 7.2% p.a. over 25 years.
Draw a graph showing the path of the loan under the minimum monthly repayment and compare that
to making a one-off $20 000 repayment after 2 years. (In the balance owing extra payment column in
the cell for the 24th month include a subtraction of $20 000 in the formula.)
Investigation: Types of loan arrangements
Research each of the following types of loans.

A. Hire purchase agreement
This is the type of loan where a major item such as a computer, wide screen television or household
appliance is purchased on terms. Usually a deposit is paid then the balance plus interest is repaid over
a period of time.
B. Personal loan
This is a loan taken from a bank or financial institution. The loan is unsecured which means the bank
has no item of property that can be claimed by the bank and sold to recoup the amount of the loan if
repayments are not made. This may mean that you need a guarantor in order to take out the loan.
C. Home loan
This is a secured loan. This means that if repayments are not made the bank can claim the property
and sell it to recoup the amount outstanding on the loan.
For each of the above loans answer the following questions.
1. What is the interest rate? Is the interest calculated as a flat rate or reducible rate of interest?
2. What is the term of the loan?
3. How regularly must repayments be made?
4. Can addition repayments be made to shorten the term of the loan?
5. Can the interest rate be altered after repayments have begun to be made?
Digital doc 6. What other fees and charges apply to borrowing the money?
WorkSHEET 2.2
7. Are there any ‘early exit’ fees? That is, additional charges made if the loan is paid out before the
doc-11024
term of the loan has expired.

Summary
Future value of an • An annuity is where regular equal contributions are made to an
annuity investment. The interest on each contribution compounds as additions are
made to the annuity.
• The future value of an annuity is the value that the annuity will have at the
end of a fixed period of time.
• A table that shows the present value of $1 in an annuity is the method used
to find the future value of an annuity.
• The future value of $1 must be multiplied by the contribution per period to
calculate its present or future value.
Present value of an • The present value of an annuity is the single sum that would need to be
annuity invested at the present time to give the same financial outcome at the end
of the term.
• A table that shows the present value of $1 under an annuity is the method
used to find the present of an annuity.
• The present of $1 must be multiplied by the contribution per period to
calculate its present or future value.
Loan repayments • The table of present values of an annuity can be used to calculate the
amount of each periodical repayment in a reducing balance loan.
• This is done by considering the present value of an annuity as the amount
borrowed and solving the equation PVA = a × PVIF, for a which is the
amount of each contribution or loan repayment.
• The total amount to be repaid during a loan is calculated by multiplying
the amount of each monthly repayment by the number of repayments
to be made.
Loan graphs • A loan graph shows the declining balance of a loan over the term of the
loan.
• Reading these graphs can demonstrate the effect that making extra
payments or increasing the amount of each payment has on how quickly
a loan can be paid off.

Chapter review
1 Jenny invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 6% p.a. and interest is
MULTIPL E
C HOICE compounded annually. The future value of the annuity is:
A $3678.50 B $16 785.60 C $35 785.60 D $36 785.60
2 Madeline invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 7% p.a. and interest is
compounded annually. The present value of the annuity is:
A $10 594.00 B $20 594.00 C $20 995.20 D $40 995.50
3 Which of the following investments has the greatest future value after 5 years?
A An annuity of $500 per year at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
B An annuity of $250 per six months at 8% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
C An annuity of $125 per quarter at 8% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
D A single investment of $2000 at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
4 A loan of $80 000 is taken out over a 20-year term at an interest rate of 9% p.a. The monthly repayment
is $719.78. What would the approximate total saving be if the term were reduced to 15 years?
A $91.63 B $16 493.40 C $21 991.20 D $26 693.40
Sh ort 1 Calculate the amount to which each of the following investments will grow.
a nswer a $3500 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
b $2000 at 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
c $15 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded quarterly
d $4200 at 13.2% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded monthly
2 $400 per year is invested into an annuity at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Use the
table on page 30 to calculate the value of the annuity after 20 years.
3 Use the table on page 37 to calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
b $1000 invested every 6 months for 10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
c $600 invested every 3 months for 5 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
d $2500 invested per month for 1½ years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded monthly
4 Jessica is saving for a car. She starts an annuity consisting of $500
deposits every month for 15 months. The interest rate is 12% p.a. and
interest is compounded monthly. Find the future value of the annuity.
5 Use the compound interest formula FV = PV(1 + r) n and solve the
equation for PV to find the present value of an annuity with a future
value of:
a $10 000 after 10 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $400 000 after 40 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $5000 after 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
d $120 000 after 8 years at 15% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly.
6 Phuong wants to purchase a car in 3 years. He feels that he will need
$15 000. The best investment he can find is at 8.5% p.a., interest
compounded quarterly. What is the present value of this investment?
7 Ruth invests $5000 per year in a retirement fund. The investment is at 9% p.a., with interest
a What is the future value of the annuity in 15 years?
b What is the present value of this annuity?
8 Use the table future values of $1 to calculate the future value of an annuity of $4000 deposited per
year at 7% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually.
9 Use the table of future values of $1 to calculate the future value of the following annuities.
b $3500 invested every six months for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
c $200 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
d $1250 invested every month for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly.

10 Use the table present values of $1 to calculate the present value of an annuity of $500 invested per
year for 6 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
11 Use the table of present values to calculate the present value of each of the following annuities.
b $2000 invested every six months for 5 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
c $500 invested every three months for 2½ years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
d $300 invested every month for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded half-yearly.
12 A home loan of $210 000 is to be repaid in equal monthly repayments over 25 years at an interest
rate of 8.4% p.a.
a Use the table on page 37 to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total cost of repaying this loan.
13 The graph below shows a $400 000 loan that is being paid off over 20 years. The interest rate is
7.2% p.a. and interest is calculated monthly.
Balance owing
$400 000.00
$350 000.00
$300 000.00
Balance ($)
$250 000.00
$200 000.00
$150 000.00
$100 000.00
$50 000.00
0
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
110
132
143
154
165
176
187
198
209
220
231
121
Number of months
a Use the table on page 37 to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total cost of repaying the loan.
c Use the graph to find an approximation for the balance still owing after 10 years.
d Use the graph to approximate when the loan is half paid.
1 Lien invests $2000 per year in an annuity. The term of the annuity is 10 years and the interest rate is Ex tended
R es p ons e
8% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
a Calculate the future value of this annuity.
b Calculate the present value of this annuity.
c By how much will the future value of the annuity increase if Lien deposits $1000 per six months
and interest is compounded every six months?
2 Eddie has the goal of saving $1 000 000 in the next 20 years. Eddie expects to be able to obtain an
average 8% p.a. in interest with interest compounded annually.
a Calculate the present value of this annuity.
b Use the table on page 37 to calculate the annual contribution to the annuity.
c For the first 10 years of the annuity Eddie makes no contributions, preferring to direct all his
money into paying off a mortgage. At that time he makes a single contribution to catch up on the
annuity. What amount must Eddie deposit?
3 Jim and Catherine take out a $350 000 loan. The interest rate on the loan is 12% p.a. and the loan is
to be repaid in equal monthly repayments over a 20-year term. Digital doc
a Use the table on page 37 to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment. doc-11025
Test yourself
b Calculate the total amount of interest that Jim and Catherine will need pay on this loan.
Chapter 2
c Calculate the saving that Jim and Catherine will make by repaying the loan over a 12-year term.

ICT activities
2A Future value of an annuity 2d Loan repayment graphs
Interactivity Digital docs
• int-0193: Comparing investment options. (page 27) • Spreadsheet (doc-1301): Loan repayments. (page 42)
• WorkSHEET 2.2 (doc-11024): Apply your knowledge of loan
2B Present value of an annuity repayments and graphs. (page 42)
elesson
• eles-0117: Small business. (page 32) Chapter review
Digital doc Test Yourself (doc-11025): Take the end of chapter practice test to test your
• WorkSHEET 2.1 (doc-11023): Apply your knowledge of future and progress. (page 45)
present values of annuities. (page 36)
2C Loan repayments

Answers chapter 2
Annuities and loan repayments 15 a $1320.98 b $396 297
c 14 years d $123 294
Exercise 2A Future value of an annuity 16 a $1643.10 b $1733.70
1 $7049.37
c $1874.80 d 2123.37
2 a $6691.13 b $6859.14
17 a 1799.45 b $1869.32
c $6158.56 d $3974.56
18 9.6% p.a.
e $17 713.21 f $3530.21
Exercise 2D Loan repayment graphs
3 $4472.93
4 a i $2217.44 1 a 25 years b $235 000
ii $2142.45 c $190 000 d 220 months
iii $2070 2 a i 300 months ii 237 months
iv $2000 b i $718 800 ii $616 200
b $10 429.89 c $102 600
5 $4787.76 3 a $918 000 b $419 000
6 a $1324.00 b $23 932.35 c 18 months d $45 080
c $7503.81 d $62 953.50 4 a $386.66
7 a 4% b 10
Balance owing
c $6003.05 $20 000.00
8 a $4103.92 b $5335.38 $18 000.00
c $7546.74 $16 000.00
9 5% for 6 years. $1 will grow to $6.8019 $14 000.00
but at 6% for 5 years it will grow to $5.6371.
Balance ($)
$12 000.00
10 D
$10 000.00
11 a $192 428.13 b $331 070.40
$8 000.00
c $737 277.43 d $213 778.90
$6 000.00
12 a $289 570.55 b $717 465.20
$4 000.00
c $233 356.13 d $122 550.04
$2 000.00
13 a $1000 b $1020
c 2% 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60
Exercise 2B Present value of an annuity Number of months
1 $6918.50
2 a $1845.09 b $12 289.20 b $4498.63
c $4455.79 d $16 604.40
3 $4997 Balance owing
$500 000.00
4 a $2388.52 b $4211.82
$450 000.00
c $1125.51
$400 000.00
5 a $3992.70 b $4055.45
$350 000.00
c $4087.85
Balance ($)
$300 000.00
6 $57 349.50
$250 000.00
7 a $13 420.20 b $27 180.60
$200 000.00
c 1.27%
$150 000.00
8 a $307 598.63 b $6679.88
$100 000.00
9 a $34.93 b $52 395
$50 000.00
c $17 955
10 a $34 916.58 b $23 520.09
0
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
110
132
143
154
165
176
187
198
209
220
231
240
121
Exercise 2C Loan repayments Number of months

1 $302.71
2 $213.46
c $7984.99
3 $210.67
4 a $94.15 b $311.38 Balance owing
c $859.72 d $484.17 $1 000 000.00
e $1511.14 $900 000.00
5 $2195.87 $800 000.00
6 a $375 b $3375 $700 000.00
Balance ($)
c $107.32 $600 000.00

7 $332.01 $500 000.00
8 a $28 000 b $581.23 $400 000.00
9 $40 056.46 $300 000.00
10 a $4359.36 b $23 864.96 $200 000.00
c $98 285.02 d $366 700.35 $100 000.00
11 A
12 B
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
154
168
182
196
210
224
238
252
266
280
294
300
13 6 years Number of months

14 a $2586.38 b 12 years

5 2 $16 398.20
3 a $36 026.20
$250 000.00 b $33 066.00
c $14 578.44
$200 000.00 d $49 036.75
4 $8048.45
Balance ($)
$150 000.00
5 a $6139.13
b $4298.72
$100 000.00
c $3219.64
d $36 945.53
$50 000.00
6 $11 654.84
7 a $146 804.50
b $40 303.42
0
11
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
110
132
143
154
165
176
187
198
209
220
231
240
121
Number of months 8 $41 039.20

6 9 a 4399.95
$400 000.00 b $34 641.25
$350 000.00
c $1842.84
d $51 014.25
$300 000.00
10 $2242.95
$250 000.00 11 a $1516.32
Balance ($)
$200 000.00 b $14 047.20

c $4055.45
$150 000.00
d $11 177.64
$100 000.00 12 a $1676.85
$50 000.00 b $503 055
13 a $3149.40
b $755 856
1
15
29
43
57
71
85
99
113
127
141
155
169
183
197
211
225
239
253
267
281
295
300
Number of months c $270 000

d 160 months
Chapter Review
Extended Response
Multiple Choice
1 a $28 973.20
1 D
b $13 420.20
2 A
3 C c $804.90
4 D 2 a $214 548.21
b $21 852.19
Short answer
c $316 563.94
1 a $4917.25
b $2960.49 3 a $3853.80
c $31 053.57 b $574 912
d $5461.06 c $262 949.76

Chapter 3
Interpreting sets of data
CHAPTER CONTENTS
3A Grouped data
3B Measures of location and spread
3C Analysis of data sets
3D Comparison of data sets
3E Skewness
3A Grouped data

Organising data
Previously you will have studied frequency tables, frequency histograms and frequency polygons, also
called ogives.
A frequency table is used to organise large data sets in a way that the nature of the distribution can be
seen easily and summary data can be easily calculated.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The scores below represent the number of wickets that Mitchell has taken in his last 20 cricket
matches.
2 3 0 1 0 2 3 1 0 1
5 2 1 1 2 4 0 0 5 3
a Put the data in a frequency table.

b Show the data in a bar graph.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw up a frequency table with five a Score Frequency

columns headed, Score, Tally, and (x) Tally (f)
Frequency.
0 |||| 5
2 In the frequency column list all 1 |||| 5
scores from lowest to highest. 2 |||| 4
3 Read the scores adding a tally mark 3 ||| 3
against each score as it is read. 4 | 1
4 Count the tally marks to calculate 5 || 2
each frequency.
Chapter 3 • Interpreting sets of data 49

b 1 Draw axes with scores on the b
horizontal axis and frequencies 6
on the vertical axis. 5
2 Draw 1-cm columns with gaps 4
Frequency
to the height of each frequency.
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Score
The data in Worked example 1 is called ungrouped data. This is because the data is not organised into
groups but rather each score is counted individually. In most cases this is not practical and the data is
organised into groups of scores. This is referred to as grouped data.
The data should be grouped in such a way as to create ‘typically’ between 5 and 10 classes or
groups. On the horizontal axis of the frequency table an extra value needs to be added for the class
centre. The middle of each grouping, the class centre, is found by averaging the first and last number in
each group.
When drawing the histogram and cumulative frequency histogram the class centres are graphed on
the horizontal axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A sample of 40 people was surveyed regarding the number of hours per week spent watching
television. The results are listed below.
12 18 9 17 20 7 24 16 9 27
7 16 26 15 7 28 11 20 9 11
23 19 29 12 19 12 16 21 8 6
16 20 17 10 24 21 5 13 29 25
Organise the data into 5 class intervals and use these to create a frequency distribution table
a
that displays the class intervals, class centres and frequencies.
b Construct a combined histogram and frequency polygon to represent the tabulated data.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Determine the size of the class intervals. a Class interval of 5 hours will create 5 groups.
Note: Intervals of 5 hours would create
5 groups, the required number.
Class intervals have been recorded as
5–<10, 10–<15; and so on, since the data
are continuous.
2 Draw a table with three columns, headed Hours of

Hours of television watched (class television
interval), Class centre (midpoint of a watched Class centre Frequency
class interval) and Frequency. Note: The 5–<10 7.5 9
midpoint of a class interval is calculated 12.5 7
10–<15
by taking the average of the two extreme
values of that class interval. For example 15–<20 17.5 10
the midpoint of the 5–<10 class 20–<25 22.5 8
interval is 5 + 10 = 7.5 25–<30 27.5 6
2
∑ f = 40

3 Systematically go through the list,
determine how many times each score
occurs and enter the information into the
frequency column.
4 Calculate the total of the frequency column.
b 1 Draw a set of axes on graph paper. b Frequency polygon of hours

Add a title to the graph. of television watched
Label the horizontal axis ‘Number of hours 10
of television’ watched and the vertical axis
‘Frequency’.
8
2 Leaving a ½ unit or interval space, draw in
Frequency
the first column so that it starts and finishes 6
halfway between class intervals and
reaches a vertical height of 9 people.
4
3 Draw in the columns for each of the other
scores. 2
4 Mark the midpoints of the tops of the
columns obtained in the histogram. 0
7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5
5 Join the midpoints by straight line
Number of hours of television
intervals. watched
6 Close the polygon by drawing lines at each
end down to the class interval (x-) axis.
The ogive
From an ogive we are able to make estimates of important summary statistics such as the median, the
quartile data and the deciles.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The following frequency distribution table

Volume (m3) Frequency
gives the number of customers who order
different volumes of concrete from a 0.0–<0.5 15
Readymix concrete company during 0.5–<1.0 12
the course of a day. Find the interquartile 1.0–<1.5 10
range of the data.
1.5–<2.0 8
2.0–<2.5 2
2.5–<3.0 3
THINK WRITE
1 An ogive can be used to estimate the Volume Class centre f cf

25th and 75th percentiles. First add a
class centre column and a cumulative 0.0–<0.5 0.25 15 15
frequency column to the frequency 0.5–<1.0 0.75 12 27
distribution table and fill them in. 1.0–<1.5 1.25 10 37
1.5–<2.0 1.75 8 45
2.0–<2.5 2.25 2 47
2.5–<3.0 2.75 3 50

2 Draw the ogive. A percentage axis
will be useful. 100% 50
90% 45
Cumulative frequency
80% 40
70% 35
60% 30
50% 25
40% 20
30% 15
20% 10
10% 5
0% 0
0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75
Volume
3 Find the upper quartile (75th QU ≈ 1.6 QL ≈ 0.4

percentile) and lower quartile (25th
percentile) from the ogive.
4 The interquartile range is the difference IQR ≈ 1.6 − 0.4
between the upper and lower quartiles. ≈ 1.2
Exercise 3A Grouped data

1 WE2 In a survey, 40 people were asked about the number of hours a week they spent watching
television. The results are listed below.
10, 13, 7, 12, 16, 11, 6, 14, 6, 11, 5, 14, 12, 8, 27, 17, 13, 8, 14, 10,
13, 7, 15, 10, 16, 8, 18, 14, 21, 28, 9, 12, 11, 13, 9, 13, 29, 5, 24, 11
a Organise the data into 5 class intervals and use these to create a frequency distribution table that
displays the class intervals, class centres and frequencies.
b Construct a combined histogram and frequency polygon to suit the table.
2 Copy and complete this grouped frequency distribution table.
Class interval Class centre Tally Frequency

0–4 2 | | | | |
5–9 7 | | |
12 12
15–19 | |
20–24 22 9
32
3 The number of phone calls made on average per week in a sample of 56 people are listed below.
21, 50, 8, 64, 33, 58, 35, 61, 3, 51, 5, 62, 16, 44,
56, 17, 59, 23, 34, 57, 49, 2, 24, 50, 27, 33, 55, 7,
52, 17, 54, 78, 69, 53, 2, 42, 52, 28, 67, 25, 48, 63,
12, 72, 36, 66, 15, 28, 67, 13, 23, 10, 72, 72, 89, 80
a Organise the data into a grouped frequency distribution table using a suitable class interval.
b Display the data as a combined histogram and frequency polygon.
4 WE2 The height, in centimetres, of 30 students in Year 12 was recorded as follows.
146, 163, 156, 168, 159, 170, 152, 174, 156, 163, 157, 161, 178, 151, 148,
167, 162, 157, 166, 154, 150, 166, 160, 155, 164, 157, 171, 168, 158, 162
a Organise the data into 7 classes, starting at 145 cm and draw up a frequency distribution table.
b Display the data as a histogram.
c How many students stood at least 160 cm tall?
d Reorganise the data into class intervals of 4 cm; that is, 145–<148 cm.
e Draw a new histogram and compare it to the previous one. Discuss any advantages or
disadvantages of having a smaller class interval.

5 Construct the following:
a a frequency distribution table using intervals 12–15, 16–19, etc.
b a combined histogram and frequency polygon for the following data.
Class sizes at Mathsville High

38 24 20 23 27 27 22 17 30 26
25 16 29 26 15 26 19 22 13 25
21 19 23 18 30 20 23 16 24 18
12 26 22 25 14 21 25 21 31 25
6 The following data give the length (in cm) of the forearm of 30 middleweight boxers.
24.0 26.5 31.4 30.8 25.7 26.9 27.2 29.9 25.2 26.3
28.4 26.3 29.2 30.5 26.0 27.2 26.0 24.9 25.8 24.7
28.3 26.3 25.7 26.9 27.8 25.7 25.0 29.3 25.8 28.0
a Construct a frequency distribution table for the data. Use a class size of 1 cm.
b Draw a histogram of the data.
7 The following data give the times (in seconds) taken for athletes to complete a 100-m sprint.
12.2 12.0 11.9 12.0 12.6 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.9 11.7
11.2 11.8 12.2 12.0 12.7 12.9 11.3 11.2 12.8 12.4
11.7 10.8 13.3 11.7 11.6 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.0 12.2
a Construct a frequency distribution table for the data. Use a class size of 0.5 seconds.
b Draw a histogram of the data.
c Add a polygon to the data.
8 The data below show the fat content (%) of 20 packs of bacon selected from a supermarket’s shelves.
6 13 3 8 9 15 18 13 4 25
21 13 18 20 8 9 16 15 18 12
a Construct a frequency distribution table for the data using a class size of 4.
b Construct a frequency distribution table for the data using a class size of 10.
c Comment upon how changing the size of the group affects the appearance of the histogram.
9 Use the ogive shown to determine the interquartile range of the data.
50 100%
Cumulative frequency (%)
40
30
50%
20
10
100 120 140 160 180

Height (cm)
10 WE3 The following frequency distribution table gives the amount of time spent by 50 people on
shopping for Christmas presents. Find the IQR of the data.
Time (h) 0–<0.5 0.5–<1 1–<1.5 1.5–<2 2–<2.5 2.5–<3 3–<3.5 3.5–<4
Frequency 1 2 7 15 13 8 2 2

Further development
11 The following frequency distribution table shows the life expectancy of 40 household batteries.
Life (hours) 50–<55 55–<60 60–<65 65–<70 70–<75 75–<80

Frequency 4 10 12 8 5 1
a Draw an ogive which represents the data in the table above.
b Use the ogive to answer the following questions.
i What is the median score?
ii What are the upper and lower quartiles?
iii What is the interquartile range?
iv How many batteries lasted less than 60 hours?
v How many batteries lasted 70 hours or more?
12 Calculate the IQR for the following data.
Class interval Frequency

120–<130 2
130–<140 3
140–<150 9
150–<160 14
160–<170 10
170–<180 8
180–<190 6
190–<200 3
3B Measures of location and spread

Consider the following set of scores that are the exam results for 10 students.
55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
interactivities To identify a score that is typical in this data set, we can use the mean or median.
int-0084 • The mean is calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores in the set.
Measures of centre
When the data is a small set of scores the mean is found using the formula
ax
int-2352
Measures of centre
int-2362
Measures of centre x=
n
where x = mean
x = individual scores (Therefore, Σx represents the sum of individual scores.)
n = number of scores.
Where the data is presented in a frequency table we use the formula
a fx
af
x=
where x = mean
x = individual scores
f = frequency.
In this formula Σfx represents the sum of the frequency × score column on the frequency table and Σf
represents the sum of frequency column.
• The median is the middle score (odd number of scores) or the average of the two middle scores (even
number of scores).
For this set of scores:
Mean = 600 ÷ 10
= 60
Median = 60
Both the mean and median are a measure of location within a data set.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
For the set of scores 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100 calculate:
a the mean
b the median.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Find the total of the scores. a Total = 600
2 Divide the total by the number of scores. Mean = 600 ÷ 10

= 60
b Average the two middle scores. b Median = (55 + 65) ÷ 2
= 60
We have now examined two data sets. Look at these data sets side by side.
Set A: 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
Set B: 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100
Although both sets of scores have the same mean and median, they are very different sets of scores.
Clearly, in Set B the scores are more spread out than in Set A. To measure the spread of a set of scores,
we use one or all of the following.
• Range: Highest score − lowest score
Set A: Range = 65 − 55 Set B = 100 − 13
= 10 = 87
• Interquartile range (IQR): The difference between the upper quartile and lower quartile.
Set A: Interquartile range = 63 − 57 Set B: Interquartile range = 92 − 31
= 6 = 61
• Standard deviation: Found using the σn (population) or sn (sample) functions on the calculator.
Set A: σn = 3.07 Set B: σn = 31.51
Each of these measures of spread show that in Set B the scores are more scattered than in Set A.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
For the set of scores 45, 62, 75, 69, 50, 87, 92 calculate:
a the range
b the interquartile range Tutorial
c the standard deviation. int-2417
Worked example 5
THINK WRITE
a Subtract the lowest score from the highest score. a Range = 92 − 45

= 47
b 1 Write the scores in ascending order. b 45, 50, 62, 69, 75, 87, 92
2 Divide the data in two halves, leaving the 45, 50, 62, 75, 87, 92
middle score out of both sets.
3 The lower quartile is the median of the lower Lower quartile = 50 Upper quartile = 87
half; the upper quartile is the median of the
upper half.
4 Subtract the lower quartile from the upper Interquartile range = 87 − 50
quartile. = 37
c Enter the set of scores into your calculator c σn = 16.36
using the statistics function.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Nadia is a gymnast. For a routine she is given the following scores by 10 judges.
9.0 8.7 9.2 9.3 9.8 9.2 8.8 9.4 9.0 9.1
Use your graphics calculator to find
a the mean b the median c the mode
d the range e the interquartile range f the population standard deviation
g the sample standard deviation.
THINK WRITE
1 From the MENU select STAT.
2 Delete any existing data, and enter the scores

above in List 1.
3 Press 2 (CALC). You may need to first

press 6 for more options.
4 Press 6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist is

set to List 1 and 1Var Freq is set to 1.
5 Press w to return to the previous screen,

Mean
and then press 1 (1Var). All statistics will
Population
now be on display using the scroll function.
standard deviation
Sample
standard deviation
Number of scores
Lowest score
Lower quartile
Median
Upper quartile
Highest score
Mode
a The mean is denoted by the symbol x. a x = 9.15
b The median is denoted by Med. b Median = 9.15

c The mode is displayed by Mod. Check the c Mode = 9.0 and 9.2
scores for yourself as the data is bimodal only
the largest mode is displayed.
d The range is the highest score (maxX) minus d Range = 9.8 − 8.7
the lowest score (minX). = 1.1
e The interquartile range is the upper quartile e Interquartile range = 9.3 − 9
(Q3) minus the lower quartile (Q1). = 0.3
f The population standard deviation is denoted by f σn ≈ 0.297
xσn.
g The sample standard deviation is denoted by g σn − 1 ≈ 0.314
xσn−1.
Exercise 3B Measures of location and spread

1 WE4 The number of goals scored by a team in 10 games of soccer are:
2, 1, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 6, 1.
a Calculate the mean number of goals scored. Digital doc
b Calculate the median number of goals scored. SkillSHEET 3.1
doc-11026
2 For each of the following sets of scores, calculate the mean, median and mode (if one exists). Finding the mean
a 56, 75, 88, 20, 37, 23, 44 SkillSHEET 3.2
doc-11027
b 2, 1, 7, 4, 6, 1, 1, 4, 5, 3 Finding the mode
c 9.9, 9.4, 9.8, 9.6, 9.0, 9.2, 9.8, 9.9
Score Frequency
d 13, 15, 16, 17, 10, 13, 15, 14, 19, 20
4 2
3 The table on the right shows the scores out of 10 by a class of
30 students on a spelling test. 5 6
a Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean 6 7 Digital doc
score. 7 9 SkillSHEET 3.3
doc-11028
b Add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use it to 8 3 Finding the median
calculate the median score.
9 2
c State the mode.
10 1
4 The table below shows the scores achieved by a football team
over a season.
Cumulative Digital docs
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Score Class centre Frequency frequency doc-1333
1–5 2 One variable
statistics
6–10 4 GC program —
Casio
11–15 8 doc-1334
16–20 7 UV Stats
GC program — TI
21–25 3 doc-1335
UV Stats
26–30 1
a Copy and complete the table.
b Calculate the mean.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and curve and use them to estimate the median.
5 WE5 Below is the number of students in each class at a small primary school.
28, 29, 27, 28, 30, 28, 25, 27, 23, 28, 27, 28 Digital doc
a Calculate the range of the distribution. SkillSHEET 3.4
doc-11137
b Calculate the interquartile range.
Finding the range
c Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation.

6 The following table shows the number of cars sold in a car yard each No. of cars Frequency
week over one year.
a Calculate the range of the number of cars sold.
6 3
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 3.5 b Add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use the table 7 5
doc-11029 to calculate: 8 9
Finding the
interquartile range i the median 9 15
SkillSHEET 3.6 ii the upper and lower quartiles
doc-11030 10 11
iii the interquartile range.
Choosing the 11 8
appropriate c Use the statistics function on the calculator to find:
standard deviation i the mean 12 1
EXCEL Spreadsheet ii the standard deviation.
doc-1339
Boxplots d Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
7 The table below shows crowds at each match for a team during football season.
Cumulative
Crowd Class centre Frequency frequency
10 000–15 000 5
15 000–20 000 8
20 000–25 000 6
25 000–30 000 4
30 000–35 000 3
b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and curve.
c Use the graph in part b to estimate the interquartile range.
d Find the mean and standard deviation. (Give your answer correct to 2 significant figures.)
8 WE6 Below are the scores of two rugby league teams over a period of 10 matches.
Team A: 14, 16, 16, 20, 10, 12, 18, 16, 18, 20
Team B: 28, 12, 32, 2, 0, 8, 40, 10, 12, 16
a For each team calculate the mean score.
b For each team calculate:
i the range
ii the interquartile range
iii the standard deviation.
c Comment on the difference between the performance of the two teams over this 10-game period.
The information below is to be used for questions 9 to 12.
A basketball squad has eight players. The mean height of the eight players is 1.8 m, and the standard
deviation in the heights of the players is 0.1 m. In the first game the tallest player, who is 1.9 m tall, is
injured and replaced in the squad by a player who is 1.98 m tall.
9 MC The mean height of the basketball squad will now be:
A 1.8 m B 1.81 m C 1.86 m D 1.96 m
10 MC As a result of the substitution:
A the standard deviation will increase
B the standard deviation will decrease
C the standard deviation will be unchanged
D the effect on the standard deviation cannot be calculated
A the range will increase
B the range will decrease
C the range will be unchanged
D the effect on the range cannot be calculated
A the interquartile range will increase
B the interquartile range will decrease
C the interquartile range will be unchanged
D the effect on the interquartile range cannot be calculated

Further development
13 a On a particular day, the number of cars that stopped at the drive-in area at a McFast restaurant
during each hour (from 8.00 am until 11.00 pm) is shown below.
15 10 4 13 12 28 25 15 19 29 24 22 25 30 15
Find the interquartile range of this set of data.
b At the nearby Kirby’s Fried Chicken restaurant on the same day, the number of cars stopping
during each hour that the restaurant was open is shown below.
6 10 15 22 18 11 13 14 21 17 25 20 19 10 17
Find the interquartile range of these data.
c What do these values suggest about the two restaurants?
14 Consider the following two groups of people.
a Calculate the mean height,
median height and mode height Group A Group B
160 170 170 170 170 170 180 160 170 170 110 230 170 180
for each group. What do you
notice?
b Are the groups really the same?
Height (cm)
c Which group would you expect

to show the greatest range in
heights?
d Which group would you expect
to show the greatest interquartile
range in heights?
e Which group would you expect to show the greatest standard deviation in heights?
f Calculate these statistics to confirm your predictions.
15 a Workers are arguing for a pay rise but the management of the factory claims that workers are well
paid because the mean salary of the factory is $23 100. Are they being honest?
Position Salary ($) Number of employees
Machine operator 19 000 50
Machine mechanic 21 000 15
Floor steward 25 000 10
Manager 63 000 4
Chief executive officer 81 000 1
b Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short submission
in support of the pay rise. How could you explain the management’s claim? Quote some other
statistics in favour of your case.

In the previous section we studied the mean, median and mode as well as the range, interquartile range
and standard deviation of a data set. You need to be able to use this information to compare data sets as
well as to examine the effect that individual scores have on them.
Consider the case of a basketball team. There are five players on the team, and their heights are: 2.01 m,
2.05 m, 1.52 m, 2.03 m and 2.19 m.
The team’s mean height is 1.96 m. Only one of the five players in the team is shorter than the mean
height. This is because there is one member of the data set whose height is much less than the others.
A score in a data set that is either much smaller or much greater than all others is called an outlier.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
In a small street there are five houses. The values of these houses are:
$450 000, $465 000, $465 000, $480 000, $495 000.
A new house is built and valued at $750 000. Describe the effect that this outlier has on the:
a mean b median c mode.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the mean before the new house a Before new house is built:
is built. Total = $2 355 000
Mean = $2 355 000 ÷ 5
= $471 000
2 Calculate the mean after the new house is After new house is built:
built. Total = $3 105 000
Mean = $3 105 000 ÷ 6
= $517 500
3 Comment on the change in the mean The outlier has caused the mean to increase by
caused by the outlier. $46 500. Only the new house is valued at more
than the mean and, as such, has made the mean
a poor measure of the typical price.
b 1 Calculate the median before the new b Before new house is built:
house is built. Median = $465 000
2 Calculate the median after the new house After new house is built:
is built. Median = ($465 000 + $480 000) ÷ 2
= $472 500
3 Comment on the change in the median The outlier has caused only a small increase in
caused by the outlier. the median and, as such, the median remains a
good measure of the typical score in this data set.
c 1 Calculate the mode before the new house c Before new house is built:
is built. Mode = $465 000
2 Calculate the mode after the new house After new house is built:
is built. Mode = $465 000
3 Comment on the change in the mode The outlier has had no effect on the mode.
caused by the outlier.
In the case of the five basketball players the outlier was fairly obvious. The player who was 1.52 m tall
was much shorter than the other four players. Worked example 7 was similar in that when the $750 000
house is added to the data set it is much greater than all others. It is difficult to exactly define an outlier
for such a small data set, however.
The question has to be asked, however, how much above or below all the other scores does a single
score need to be to be defined as an outlier.
The definition of an outlier is:
For a score lower than all others the score must be lower than QL − 1.5 × IQR
For a score higher than all others the score must be greater than QU + 1.5 × IQR
Consider the following data.
There are 10 horses in a race.

Shannon checks the form guide and notes the number of races each horse has previously won
0, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 11, 22.
There are two scores in the data set, 0 which is significantly below all others and 22 which is much
greater than all others. The question is, are they actually outliers?
For the data set QL = 5, QU = 9 and IQR = 4
The lower limit for an outlier will be QL − 1.5 × IQR
= 5 − 1.5 × 4
= −1 and so 0 is technically not an outlier.
The upper limit for an outlier will be QU + 1.5 × IQR
= 9 + 1.5 × 4
= 15 and so 22 is an outlier.
It is important that we are able to analyse the impact that an outlier has on a data set. Consider this
data set with the outlier (22) included and then without.
Data set including outlier Data set not including outlier
0, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 11, 22 0, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 11
Mean 8.2 6.7
Median 7.5 7
Mode 5, 9 5, 9
Range 22 11
Interquartile Range 4 4
Standard deviation 5.4 3.0
When considering the measures of location, removing the outlier had the greatest effect on the mean,
a small impact on the median and no impact on the modes.
With measures of spread, removing the outlier had a huge effect on the range, a significant effect on
the standard deviation and no impact on the interquartile range.
These are the effects that will generally occur in most cases although the addition or removal of an
outlier may have a small impact on the interquartile range in some cases.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
The data below shows the marks achieved by a group of 10 students in an exam.
21, 45, 46, 48, 48, 52, 54, 59, 61, 75
a Identify any outliers in the data set.
b Explain the effect that the removal of the outlier will have on the mean and standard deviation
without actually calculating their values.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Find the lower quartile, upper quartile and a 21, 45, 46, 48, 48, 52, 54, 59, 61, 75
interquartile range. QL = 46 QU = 59
IQR = 13
2 Find the lower limit for any outlier. Lower limit = QL − 1.5 × IQR
= 46 − 1.5 × 13
= 26.5
3 Find the upper limit for any outlier. Upper limit = QU + 1.5 × IQR
= 59 + 1.5 × 13
= 78.5
4 Identify any scores that are outside these 21 is the outlier in the data set.
limits.
b 1 Consider the effect of the outlier on the b The outlier is below all other scores. Removing
mean. this score will therefore increase the mean.
2 Consider the effect of the outlier on the The outlier is the further score from the mean
standard deviation. than any other score and so removing that score
will reduce the standard deviation.

In this course the display of information is an important skill. In particular we need to be able to display
two data sets in a way that allows for comparisons to be made.
interactivity
int-2773
Stem-and-leaf plots
Back-to-back Two sets of data can be displayed on the same stem-and-leaf plot. This is done by having the stem in
stem-and-leaf
plots the centre of the plot, with both sets of data back to back.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The data shown below display the marks of 15 students in both English and Maths.
English: 45 67 81 59 66 61 78 71 74 91 60 49 58 62 70
Maths: 85 71 49 66 64 68 75 71 69 60 63 80 87 54 59
Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
THINK WRITE
1 Write a key at the top of the stem-and-leaf plot. Key: 4 | 5 = 45

2 Draw the stem showing categories of 10 in English Maths
the centre of the page. 95 4 9
3 Display the information for English on the 98 5 49
left of the stem.
76210 6 034689
4 Display the information for Maths on the 8410 7 115
right of the stem.
1 8 057
1 9
This stem-and-leaf plot allows for both distributions to be easily seen, and for a judgement on the
skewness of the distribution to be made.
Box-and-whisker plots
interactivity
From a box-and-whisker plot we are able to determine where certain percentages of the population lie.
int-0802 There are 5 critical values in a box-and-whisker plot, they are:
Box plot and • The lowest score
five-number
summary
• The lower quartile
• The median
• The upper quartile
• The highest score.
Between each of these critical points lies 25% of the population.
25% 25%
25% 25%
Lowest score Q1 Median Q3 Highest score
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The box-and-whisker plot below shows the heights of a sample of plants in a nursery.
Find the percentage of plants that are
between:
a 1.1 m and 1.2 m
0.1 m
0.7 m
1.1 m
1.2 m
1.5 m
b 0.1 m and 1.1 m

c 0.7 m and 1.5 m.
Heights of plants (m)

THINK WRITE
a The median is 1.1 and the upper quartile is 1.2 a 25% of plants are between 1.1 m and 1.2 m
therefore 25% of plants are in this height range. in height.
b 0.1 is the lowest score and 1.1 is the median and so b 50% of plants lie between 0.1 m and 1.1 m
50% of plants lie in this height range in height.
c 0.7 m is the lower quartile and 1.5 m is the highest c 75% of plants lie between 0.7 m and 1.5 m
score so 75% of plants lie in this height range. in height.
A single axis can be used to draw two box-and-whisker plots that will allow the comparison of the
median, range and interquartile range of two distributions to be compared.
interactivity
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 int-2788
Parallel box plots
Use the back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot drawn in Worked example 9 to:
a calculate the median of each distribution
b calculate the range of each distribution
c calculate the interquartile range of each distribution
d draw a box-and-whisker plot of each distribution on the same scale.
THINK WRITE
a The median will be the eighth score in each a English median = 66
distribution. Maths median = 68
b To calculate the range of each distribution, subtract b English range = 91 − 45
the lowest score from the highest score. = 46
Maths range = 87 − 49
= 38
c 1 The lower quartile will be the fourth score. c English lower quartile = 59
Maths lower quartile = 60
2 The upper quartile will be the twelfth score. English upper quartile = 74
Maths upper quartile = 75
3 The interquartile range is the difference between English interquartile range = 74 − 59
the quartiles. = 15
Maths interquartile range = 75 − 60
= 15
d 1 Draw a scale. d English
2 Draw the English box-and-whisker plot. Maths
3 Draw the Maths box-and-whisker plot. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
2 Enter the data for English in List 1 and the data

for Maths in List 2.

3 Press 1 (GRPH), and then 6 (SET). We
will set the English data as GPH1 and the Maths
data as GPH2. Press 1 (GPH1) and enter the
settings shown in the screen at right.
4 Press w once these settings have been entered.

Press 6 (SET) and 2 (GPH2), and again
enter the settings shown at right.
5 To show both graphs on the same screen press

w after entering the settings above, press
4 (SEL), and set both StatGraph1 and
StatGraph2 to DrawOn as shown.
6 Press 6 (DRAW) to draw both graphs.
7 Press SHIFT 1 (TRACE), and use the arrow

keys to move around to the five key points on
each graph. The screen at right displays the
median for the Maths data.
Examining exam results

Collect data on the most recent exam that has been done in your class.
1. Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
2. Find all the information needed to display the data in a box-and-whisker plot.
3. Is there any skewness evident in the data?
4. Which measure of location best describes the typical score in this data set?
Radar and area charts

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
The table below shows the number of admissions to two hospitals, each month, over a one-year
period. Display both sets of data on a radar chart.
Month Hospital A Hospital B
January 3 15
February 6 12
March 7 9
April 9 10
May 10 8
June 15 7
July 14 9
August 16 6
September 10 8
October 5 5
November 3 9
December 7 2

THINK WRITE
1 Draw the radar with a 30° angle between the Hospital A Hospital B
months. Jan
Dec 20 Feb
2 Draw a scale around the radar. 15
Nov 10 March
3 Plot each set of points. 5
Oct 0 April
Sep May
Aug June
July
Area charts are another method of comparing information. In an area chart, line graphs are stacked on
top of each other, thus allowing the area between each line graph to serve as the comparison between the
data sets.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
The table below shows the amount of rainfall, in millimetres, in Sydney, Melbourne and
Brisbane each month throughout a year.
Tutorial
January February March April May June int-2419
Sydney 103 117.1 133.7 126.6 120.4 131.7 Worked
example 13
Melbourne 49 47.7 51.8 58.4 57.2 50.2
Brisbane 159.6 158.3 140.7 92.5 73.7 67.8
July August September October November December
Sydney 98.2 79.8 69.9 77.5 83.1 79.6
Melbourne 48.7 50.6 59.4 67.7 60.2 59.9
Brisbane 56.5 45.9 45.7 75.4 97 133.3
Show this information in an area chart.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a pair of axes. The vertical axis will need

to be at least the rainfall total of all three cities in
the wettest month.
2 Draw a line graph of Sydney’s rainfall, and shade
the area below it.
3 Add Melbourne’s rainfall to Sydney’s rainfall, Brisbane Melbourne Sydney
and draw a line graph showing these figures. 350
300
Colour the area between the two graphs, as this
Rainfall (mm)
250
area represents Melbourne’s rainfall. 200
150
4 Add Brisbane’s rainfall to the previous total. 100
Colour the area above the previous line, as this 50
0
area represents Brisbane’s rainfall.
n
b
Apr
Mr
ay
n
Au l
g
p
No t
v
c
Ju
Oc
a
De
Ja
Fe
Ju
Se
M
Exercise 3C Analysis of data sets

1 WE7 A business records the average weekly takings for five weeks. The results are $50 000,
$65 000, $65 000, $80 000, $75 000.
The following week the takings are $15 000. Describe the effect that this outlier has on the:
a mean b median c mode.

2 Ian is shopping for a new pair of shoes. His chosen shoe can be found in five stores in a shopping
centre for the following prices.
$125, $120, $124, $232, $135
a Which score in the data set could be described as an outlier?
b If the outlier is removed from the data set, explain whether this will have the greatest effect on the
mean, median or mode.
3 WE8 A television program shows the series ‘Vengeance’ every Wednesday night at 8:30 pm. The
rating figure for the 13 weeks of the series is given below.
21, 25, 26, 28, 28, 22, 24, 29, 11, 25
a Identify any outliers in the data set.
b Explain the effect that the removal of the outlier will have on the mean and standard deviation
without actually calculating their values.
4 MC A cricket player makes the following scores in 8 innings.
23, 43, 28, 33, 45, 5, 19, 22
In his next innings he makes a score of 190.
What will be the effect on the mean and standard deviation.
A The mean will increase and the standard deviation will increase.
B The mean will increase and the standard deviation will decrease.
C The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will increase.
D The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will decrease.
5 WE9 In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured and are
listed below.
Digital doc Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59, 1.60
SkillSHEET 3.7
doc-11031
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
Compiling a Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
stem-and-leaf plot
6 The number of points scored in each match by two rugby union teams are shown below.
Team 1: 34, 32, 24, 25, 8, 18, 17, 23, 29, 40, 19, 42
Team 2: 23, 20, 35, 21, 46, 7, 9, 24, 27, 38, 41, 30
Display these data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
Digital doc 7 WE11 The stem-and-leaf plot below is used to display the number of vehicles sold by the Ford and
SkillSHEET 3.8 Holden dealerships in a Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
doc-11032
Finding the mean,
Key: 1 | 5 = 15
median, mode Ford Holden
from a stem-and-
leaf plot 74 0 39
952210 1 111668
8544 2 2279
0 3 5
a State the median of both distributions.
b Calculate the range of both distributions.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions.
d Show both distributions on a box-and-whisker plot.
8 A motoring organisation tests two different brands of tyres. Twenty tyres of each brand are tested to
find out the number of kilometres each tyre could travel before the tread had worn down. The results
Digital doc are shown in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
SkillSHEET 3.9 Key: 1 | 2 = 12 000 km 1* | 7 = 17 000 km
doc-11033
Drawing a box- Brand A Brand B
and-whisker plot
98 0*
43110 1 0011224
777665 1* 5678889
4431100 2 0134
2* 55
Draw two box-and-whisker plots on the same scale to display this information.

9 The figures below show the ratings of two radio stations each week over a three-month period.
Station A: 9.2, 9.4, 9.2, 9.5, 9.7, 9.9, 10.1, 9.1, 8.8, 8.7, 9.0, 8.5, 9.3
Station B: 8.5, 8.1, 8.2, 8.9, 9.0, 9.2, 8.4, 8.7, 8.8, 10.5, 11.2, 11.4, 8.7
a Display the information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b Use the stem-and-leaf plot to display both sets of data on the same box-and-whisker plot.
10 WE10 The box-and-whisker plot drawn below displays statistical data for two AFL teams over a
season.
Team A
Team B
50 60 70 80 90 100 110120130140 150 160
Scores
a Which team had the higher median score?
b What was the range of scores for each team?
c For each team calculate the interquartile range.
11 The two five-number summaries below show the performance of Emad and Larry on their
Mathematics exams throughout the year.
Emad: 45, 64, 68, 76, 80
Larry: 51, 58, 65, 72, 75
a Compare the performance of Emad and Larry on a box-and-whisker plot.
b What is the range for both students?
c What is the interquartile range for both students?
12 MC The box-and-whisker plot drawn below shows Emma’s performance in her Physics and
Chemistry exams. Which of the following statements is correct?
Physics
Chemistry
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
A The median of Emma’s mark in Physics is greater than for Chemistry.
B The range of Emma’s marks in Physics is greater than in Chemistry.
C The interquartile range of Emma’s marks in Physics
is greater than in Chemistry.
D All of the above.
13 WE12 This radar chart shows the average daily maximum temperature Sydney temperature (°C)
for both Sydney and Melbourne for each month of a year. Melbourne temperature (°C)
J
a Which month had the lowest temperature in Sydney? D 30 F
b What was the range of temperatures in Melbourne? N 20 M
c What was the average of the temperatures in Sydney? 10
O 0 A
S M
A J
J
14 This radar chart shows the number of customers in two different supermarkets at two-hour intervals.
Supermarket X Supermarket Y
Midnight
10 pm 120 2 am
100
80
60
8 pm 40 4 am
20
0
6 pm 6 am
4 pm 8 am
2 pm 10 am
Noon
a Find the range for each supermarket.
b Describe the general pattern at each supermarket.

15 WE13 This area chart shows the average number of rainy days Brisbane Melbourne Sydney
each month in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Display this 40
Average no. of rainy days

information as a table. 35
30
per month
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
b
Apr
Ma r
Juny
Auul
g
p
No t
Dev
c
Oc
Ma
Fe
Se
J
Further development
16 The stem-and-leaf plot drawn below shows the marks obtained by 20 students in both English and
Maths.
Key: 7 | 1 = 71
English Maths
4 17
7410 5 24799
9976653110 6 133466
87752 7 4448
2 8 36
9 4
a Calculate the median mark for both English and Maths.
b Calculate the range of marks for both English and Maths.
c Comment on the distribution of marks in each of the subjects.
17 The box-and-whisker plot below shows the number of wet days in Sydney per year over a period
of time.
State the percentage of years
in which the number of wet
days was between:
a 61 and 98 32 56 61 98 147
b 56 and 147 Number of wet days in Sydney per year
c 56 and 98.
18 The box-and-whisker plot below shows the crowds at various matches in the 2013 NRL season.
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.1
doc-11034 6500 16 000 19 000 35 000 80 000
Number of people
a What was the highest number of people who attended a match of the season?
b What was the range for the season?
c What was the interquartile range for the season?
d What was the median crowd attendance?
e What percentage of matches had a crowd less than 16 000?
f What percentage of matches had a crowd greater than 16 000?
Computer application 1: Displaying statistical data

1. From the Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2 eBookPLUS access the spreadsheet Fast
Digital doc
EXCEL Spreadsheet Food Sales.
doc-1344 2. In cell B12 use the spreadsheet’s inbuilt statistical function to find McDonald’s average daily sales.
Fast Food Sales
[=AVERAGE(B4:B10)]
3. In cell B13 use the spreadsheet’s inbuilt statistical function to find the standard deviation of
McDonald’s daily sales. [=STDEV(B4:B10)]
4. Under Edit, use the Fill and Right functions to copy these formulas for KFC and Pizza Hut.
5. Use the charting facility to draw an area chart of the figures presented.

3D Comparison of data sets
When multiple data displays are used to display similar sets of data, comparisons and conclusions can
then be drawn about the data.
Multiple displays such as stem-and-leaf plots and box-and-whisker plots allow for comparison of
statistics such as the median, range and interquartile range, while radar charts and area charts allow for
trends and overall quantities to be compared.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
A bank surveys the average morning and Key: 1|2 = 1.2 minutes
afternoon waiting time for customers. The figures Morning Afternoon
were taken each Monday to Friday in the morning 7 0 788
and afternoon for one month. The stem-and-leaf 86311 1 1124456667
plot at right shows the results. 9666554331 2 2558
a Find the median morning waiting time and the 952 3 16
median afternoon waiting time. 5 4
b Calculate the range for morning waiting times 5 7
and the range for afternoon waiting times.
c What conclusions can be made from the display about the average waiting time at the bank in
the morning compared with the afternoon?
THINK WRITE
a There are 20 scores in each set and so a Morning: Median = (2.4 + 2.5) ÷ 2
the median will be the average of the = 2.45 minutes
10th and 11th scores. Afternoon: Median = (1.6 + 1.6) ÷ 2
= 1.6 minutes

b For each data set, subtract the lowest b Morning: Range = 4.5 − 0.7
score from the highest score. = 3.8 minutes
Afternoon: Range = 5.7 − 0.7
= 5 minutes
c Conclude that waiting time in the c The waiting time is generally shorter in the afternoon.
afternoon is generally less and more There is one outlier in the afternoon scores which
consistent except for one outlier. causes the range to be larger. However, apart from this
outlier the afternoon scores are less spread.
Two-way tables can also be a meaningful way of displaying data. A two-way table allows for two
variables to be compared.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
A survey of 25 000 people is taken. The sex of each respondant is noted and whether they are a
smoker or non-smoker is also noted. The results are displayed in the two-way table below.
Males Females Totals
Smokers 4 125 4 592 8 717
Non-smokers 8 436 7 847 16 283
Totals 12 561 12 439 25 000
a What percentage of the females surveyed were smokers?
b What percentage of the smokers surveyed were female?
THINK WRITE
a Write 4592 as a percentage of 12 439. a Percentage of females who smoke

4592
= × 100%
12 439
= 36.9%
b Write 4592 as a percentage of 8717. b Percentage of smokers who are female
4592
= × 100%
8717
= 52.7%
The most common method, however, for comparing data sets is to compare the summary statistics from
the data sets. The measures of location such as mean and median are used to compare the typical score
in a data set. Measures of spread such as range, interquartile range and standard deviation are used to
make assessments about the consistency of scores in the data set.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Below are the scores for two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year.
Jane: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Tutorial Pierre: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
int-2420 a Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation for
Worked each student.
example 16
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
THINK WRITE
a Enter the statistics into your calculator and use a Jane: x = 57, σn = 6
the x function for the mean and the σn function Pierre: x = 57.5, σn = 17.4
for the standard deviation.

b The student with the higher mean performed b Pierre performed slightly better overall,
better overall. as his mean mark was higher than Jane’s.
c The student with the lower standard deviation c Jane was the more consistent student,
was more consistent. as her standard deviation was much lower
than Pierre’s.
Cross tabulation
Cross tabulation is used to compare the variables within a data set. Consider the case
of an ice-cream business that has stores in both Sydney and Melbourne.
To consider how the business is performing the owners need to consider both the city
and if the weather is hot or cool.
To cross tabulate a data set, each of the variables must be organised separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Over a one-week period the following results were obtained from an ice-cream business that has
a store in both Sydney and Melbourne.
Week City Temperature Sales
Sydney Hot 178
Monday
Melbourne Hot 201
Sydney Cool 152
Tuesday
Melbourne Hot 186
Sydney Hot 212
Wednesday
Melbourne Cool 98
Sydney Cool 125
Thursday
Melbourne Cool 101
Sydney Hot 284
Friday
Melbourne Cool 111
Sydney Hot 214
Saturday
Melbourne Cool 147
Sydney Hot 201
Sunday
Melbourne Hot 222
Organise the data into a two-way table and interpret the results.
THINK WRITE
1 Reorganise the data in a two- Hot Cool

way table to show the two
Sydney 178, 212, 284, 214, 201 152, 125
stores vertically and the weather
horizontally. Melbourne 201, 186, 222 98, 101, 111, 147
2 Calculate the mean and standard Ice-cream sales

deviation of each data set
City Data Hot Cool
separately.
Sydney Mean 217.8 138.5
Melbourne Mean 203 114.25

3 Explain what this information The owner of the ice-cream business can see that while the
tells the owner of the ice-cream Sydney business is doing slightly better than the Melbourne
shops. business the weather is a much greater factor in the number of
ice-creams that each store is likely to sell.
Exercise 3D Comparison of data sets

1 WE14 The stem-and-leaf plot drawn below shows the marks obtained by 20 students in both
English and Maths.
Key: 7 | 1 = 71
English Maths
4 17
7410 5 24799
9976653110 6 133466
87752 7 4448
2 8 36
9 4
a Calculate the median mark for both English and Maths.
b Calculate the range of marks for both English and Maths.
c Comment on the distribution of marks in each of the subjects.
2 Tracey measures the heights of twenty Year 10 boys and twenty Year 10 girls and produces the
following five-number summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.47, 1.58, 1.64, 1.72, 1.81 Girls: 1.55, 1.59, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a Draw a box-and-whisker plot for both sets of data and display them on the same scale.
b What is the median of each distribution?
c What is the range of each distribution?
d What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys and the girls.
3 The following box-and-whisker plots show the heights of Year 7
a sample of Year 7 boys and a similar-sized sample of Year
Year 12
12 boys.
a Calculate the range of heights among both the Year 7 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
and Year 12 boys. Height (m)
b Calculate the interquartile range of the heights among
both the Year 7 and Year 12 boys.
c Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms Hardware Software
of measures of location and measures of spread. J
D 2.5 F
4 The values of hardware and software sales for a chain of computer stores 2
are shown for each month in the radar chart on the right. Comment on N 1.5 M
1
any relationship observed in this chart between the sales of hardware 0.5
O 0 A
and the sales of software.
S M
A J
J
5 The area chart on the right shows the rainfall in four 1200 Western region
areas of New South Wales throughout the year. 1000
Southern region
Rainfall (mm)
a Which region has the greatest rainfall? 800

b In which region is the range of rainfall figures least? 600 North/Eastern
c What relationship exists between the rainfall in each region
400
of the areas? North/Western
200 region
0
mer tumn Winter Spring
Sum Au

6 WE15 The two-way table below shows the results of random breath testing by Sydney police over
one weekend. A driver is charged if they record a reading of 0.05% prescribed concentration of
alcohol (PCA).
Males Females Totals

Over 0.05 PCA 26 7 33
Below 0.05 PCA 962 743 1705
Totals 988 750 1738
a What percentage of the drivers tested were female?
b What percentage of the drivers tested had a PCA over 0.05?
c What percentage of female drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
d What percentage of male drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
e Based on the above results, can any conclusion be drawn concerning the prevalence of drink
driving among males and females? Explain your answer.
7 Ashley is the star player of a football team. To analyse the importance of Ashley to the team, the
coach prepares the two-way table below, showing the results of games over three years both when
Ashley is playing and not playing.
Won Lost Totals

Ashley playing 38 4 42
Ashley not playing 10 8 18
Totals 48 12 60
a What percentage of games were won when Ashley played?

b What percentage of games were won when Ashley did not play?
c Do you think that Ashley has a significant impact on the performance of the team? Explain your
answer.
8 To compare the performance of city and country students in the HSC, the number of students
achieving a UAI of at least 90 is studied in six city and six country high schools.
City Country Totals

UAI ≥ 90 58 61 119
UAI < 90 551 569 1120
Totals 609 630 1239
a What percentage of city students achieved a UAI of at least 90?

b What percentage of country students achieved a UAI of at least 90?
c Of those students who achieved a UAI of at least 90, what percentage were from:
i the city? ii the country?
d Based on the above results, could any conclusion be drawn about the performance of city and
country students in the HSC?
9 WE16 Calvin recorded his marks for each test that he did in Physics and Chemistry throughout
the year.
Physics: 65, 74, 69, 66, 72, 64, 75, 60
Chemistry: 45, 85, 91, 42, 47, 72, 87, 85
a In which subject did Calvin achieve the better average mark?
b In which subject was Calvin more consistent? Explain your answer.
10 The police set up two radar speed checks in a country town. In both places the speed limit is
60 km/h. The results of the first 10 cars that have their speed checked are given below.
Point A: 60, 62, 58, 55, 59, 56, 65, 70, 61, 64
Point B: 55, 58, 59, 50, 40, 90, 54, 62, 60, 60
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the readings taken at each point.
b At which point are drivers generally driving faster?
c At which point is the spread of the readings taken greater? Explain your answer.

11 Aaron and Sunil open the batting for the local cricket team. The number of runs they have scored in
each innings this season are listed below.
Aaron: 45, 43, 33, 56, 21, 38, 0, 29, 76, 40
Sunil: 5, 70, 12, 54, 68, 11, 8, 64, 32, 69
a Calculate the mean number of runs scored for each player.
b What is the range of runs scored by each player?

c What is the interquartile range of runs scored by each player?
d Which player would you consider to be the more consistent player? Explain your answer.
12 MC Andrea surveys the age of people attending a concert Band A
given by two bands. The box-and-whisker plots shown at right
Band B
shows the results.
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn based on 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
the above information? Age (years)
A Band A attracts an older audience than Band B.
B Band A appeals to a wider age group than Band B.
C Band B attracts an older audience than Band A.
D None of the above.
13 MC Two drugs are tested to see which is more effective at fighting disease. The results are
displayed in the two-way table below.
Drug 1 Drug 2 Totals

Recovered 124 136 260
Not recovered 32 45 77
Totals 156 181 337
Of those patients who recovered, the percentage who were treated with drug 1 was:
A 46.3% B 47.7% C 69.0% D 79.5%
14 MC The figures below show the ages of the men’s and women’s
champions at a tennis tournament.
Men’s: 23, 24, 25, 26, 25, 25, 22, 23, 30, 24
Women’s: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The mean age of the men’s champions is greater than the
mean age of the women’s champions.
B The range is greater among the men’s champions than
among the women’s champions.
C The interquartile range is greater among the men’s champions
than among the women’s champions.
D The standard deviation is greater among the men’s champions
than among the women’s champions.

15 WE17 When training Craig either runs quickly or jogs slowly over either 1 km or 2 km. After each
run he records his pulse rate. The results are shown in the table below.
Distance Speed Pulse rate
1 km Quick 111
2 km Slow 96
1 km Slow 80
2 km Quick 120
1 km Quick 101
2 km Slow 109
1 km Slow 88
2 km Quick 132
1 km Quick 100
2 km Slow 104
Cross-tabulate the data to show the mean and standard deviation of Craig’s pulse rate for each
distance and speed.
16 A rugby league team plays some matches at night and others during daylight hours. According to
many people this team is very dependent on its star player named ‘Joey’. At the end of the season
the coach records the results of day and night games and whether or not Joey plays. The results are
shown below.
(A win by six points is shown as a +6, while a loss by six points is shown as −6)
Day/Night Joey? Result Day/Night Joey? Result Day/Night Joey? Result

Day Yes +6 Night No −4 Night Yes +5
Night Yes +12 Night No +6 Day No +14
Night Yes −2 Day Yes +12 Night No +6
Day Yes +14 Day Yes +20 Day No −10
Night No +2 Night Yes +10 Night Yes +4
a Cross-tabulate these results to find the mean and standard deviation for day and night matches and
whether or not Joey plays.
b Comment on the difference in performance of the team in day and night matches and whether or
not it appears that Joey is important to the team.
17 A company producing matches advertises that there are 50 matches in each box. Two machines are
used to distribute the matches into the boxes. The results from a sample taken from each machine are
shown in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 5 | 1 = 51 5* | 6 = 56
Machine A Machine B
4 4
9 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4* 5 7 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
43222211100000 5 0000011111223
5 5 5* 9
a Display the data from both machines on a box-and-whisker plot.

b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the number of matches distributed from both
machines.
c Which machine is the more dependable? Explain your answer.

Further development
18 MC The two-way table has had one figure copied incorrectly.
Men Women Total
Agree 45 92 137
Disagree 72 93 175
Total 117 195
Which figure was copied incorrectly?
A The number of men who agreed. B The number of men who disagreed.
C The number of women who agreed. D The number of women who disagreed.
19 The two-way table shows the results of a study into whether men or women prefer to live alone.
Complete all missing information from the two-way table.
Men Women Total
Live alone 12 35
Share with friends
Total 21 39
8
7
3E Skewness 6
Frequency
5
4
By examining a graph, we can make judgements about the nature of a data set. 3
Consider the first graph shown on the right. 2
This graph is symmetrical and we can see that the mean, median and mode 1
0
are all equal to 3. The majority of scores are clustered around the mean. This is 1 2 3 4 5 x
an example of a normal distribution.
We can compare the standard deviation of data sets by looking at such graphs. 6
The more clustered the data set, the smaller the standard deviation. 5
Frequency
The second graph is still normally distributed with the mean, median and 4
3
mode still equal to 3. However, there are more scores which are further away 2
from the mean and, hence, the standard deviation of the data set is greater. 1
The third graph shows a data set where the scores are not clustered and there 0
are two modes at either end of the distribution. 1 2 3 4 5 x
In this example, although it is still symmetrical there are two modes, 1 and 5,
while the mean and median are still 3. The standard deviation in this distribution 6
is greater than either of the two previous examples as there are more scores 5
Frequency
4
further away from the mean.
3
The mean and median can be seen from the graph only because it is 2
symmetrical. 1
0
1 2 3 4 5 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
The figure on the right shows the distribution of a set of scores on a 5

spelling test. 4
Frequency
Tutorial a Is the graph symmetrical? 3

int-2418 b What is the mode(s)? 2
Worked c Can the mean and median be seen from the graph? 1
example 18 0
6 7 8 9 10
THINK WRITE Score
a The columns either side of the middle are equal. a The graph is symmetrical.
b The scores that occur the most often are 7 and 9. b Mode = 7 and 9
c The middle score will be the mean and median. c Mean = 8, median = 8

When a graph is not symmetrical, the mean and median cannot be easily seen from the graph. Consider
the distribution in the graph below on the left.
The way in which the data are gathered to one end of the distribution is called the skewness. A greater
number of scores are distributed at the lower end of the distribution. In this case, the data are said to be
positively skewed. Similarly, when most of the scores are distributed at the upper end, the data are said
to be negatively skewed, as shown in the graph below on the right.
8 8
7 7
6 6
Frequency
Frequency
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 x 1 2 3 4 5 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
The distribution on the right shows the results of the Maths Trial
20
HSC at a certain school.
Frequency
16
a What is the modal class? 12
b Describe the skewness of the data set shown on the right. 8
4
0
x
00
61 0
71 0
81 0
91 –90
–6
–7
–8
–1
51
Maths results
THINK WRITE
a The class occurring the most often is the 81–90 class. a Modal class = 81−90
b The majority of data are at the upper end of the distribution. b The data are negatively skewed.
Exercise 3E Skewness

1 WE18 In the distribution shown on the right: 12
a is the graph symmetrical 10
Frequency
b what is the modal class(es) 8

c can the mean and median be seen from the graph? and, if so, what are 6
4
their values?
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 x
2 For the distribution shown on the right:
a are the data symmetrical 7
b what is the modal class(es) 6
5
c can the mean and median be seen from the graph? and, if so, what
Frequency
4
are their values? 3
3 The table on the right shows the number of goals scored by a hockey 2
team throughout a season. 1
a Show this information in a frequency histogram. 0
25 24
9
4
10 9
15 14
20 9
b Are the data symmetrical?

–2
5–
–1
0–
–
–
c What is the mode(s)? Number of goals

d Can the mean and median be seen for this distribution? and, if so,
what are their values?

4 WE19 For the following distribution: No. of goals Frequency
a what is the modal class(es)?
b describe the skewness of the distribution.
0 6
1 4
12 2 4
10
Frequency
8 3 4
6 4 4
4
2 5 6
0
5
2
3
4
1
4–
1–
2–
3–
0–
Number of goals
5 For each of the following dot plots describe the skewness of the distribution.
a b c
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
x 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10 x
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 For the stem-and-leaf plots drawn below describe the distribution
a Key 3 | 5 = 35 b Key 4 | 3 = 4.3 4* | 6 = 4.6
Stem Leaf Stem Leaf

2 259 2* 9
3 0012589 3 04
4 2289 3* 5588
5 09 4 00011344
6 0 4* 555678899
7 The table below shows the number of goals scored by a
basketball team throughout a season.
No. of goals Frequency

11–20 3
21–30 6
31–40 7
41–50 23
51–60 21
a Draw a frequency histogram of the data.
b Describe the data set in terms of its skewness.
8 MC Which of the distributions below has the smallest
standard deviation?
A
10 B 6
5
Frequency
8
Frequency
6 4
4 3
2
2 1
0 0
1 23 4 5 x 12345 x
C
6
D
5 8
Frequency
4 7
3 6
Frequency
2 5
1 4
0
1 23 4 5 x 3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 x

9 MC The distribution represented by the graph on the right is:
16
A positively skewed 14
B negatively skewed 12
Frequency
C symmetrical 10
8
D normally distributed 6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 x
10 A movie is shown at a cinema 30 times during the week.

The number of people attending each session of the
movie is shown in the table below.
No. of people Frequency

1–50 2
51–100 3
101–150 5
151–200 10
201–250 10
a Present the data in a frequency histogram.

b Are the data symmetrical?
c What is the modal class(es)?
d Describe the skewness of the distribution.
11 Year 12 at Wallarwella High School sit exams in Chemistry and Maths. The results are shown in the
table below.
Mark Chemistry Maths

31–40 2 3
41–50 9 4
51–60 7 6
61–70 4 7
71–80 7 9
81–90 9 7
91–100 2 4
a Is either distribution symmetrical?

b If either distribution is not symmetrical, state whether it is positively or negatively skewed.
c State the mode of each distribution.
d In which subject is the standard deviation greater? Explain your answer.
12 Draw an example of a graph which is:
a symmetrical
b positively skewed with one mode
c negatively skewed with two modes.

Further development
13 MC Match the box plot with its most likely histogram.
A f B f C f D f
x x x x
14 For each of the following, write down whether the mean or the median would provide a better
indication of the centre of the distribution.
a A positively skewed distribution
b A symmetric distribution
c A distribution with an outlier
d A negatively skewed distribution
15 For each of the following, state whether you would expect the distribution to be positively skewed,
negatively skewed or symmetrical.
a The number of days absent had by students of a school in one term
Digital doc b The height of Year 12 students
WorkSHEET 3.2
c The number of cars in each household
doc-11035
d The scores out of 10 by Year 12 students on a times tables quiz

Summary
Grouped data • Grouped data is used when scores spread across too large a range to remain ungrouped for the
frequency table.
• Groups should be organised so as to create 5 to 10 classes.
• A column for class centre needs to be created. The class centre is calculated by averaging the highest
and lowest score in each class. The class centre is then used in all calculations.
• For grouped data the cumulative frequency histogram and ogive are used to estimate the median,
quartiles and deciles from the data set.
Measures of location • Measures of location give the typical score in the data set. The mean, median and mode are measures
and spread of location.
• The mean of a small data set is found using:
Σx
x=
n
where x = the mean, x = individual scores and n = number of scores.
• Where data is in a table, the mean is found using:
Σfx
x=
Σf
where x = the mean, x = individual scores and f = frequency.
• Measures of spread describe how spread out the data are. The range, interquartile range and standard
deviation are measures of spread.
• An outlier is a single score that is much greater or much less than most of the scores. The outlier
may have a great effect on the mean but has only a slight effect on the median and no effect on the
mode in a small data set. The larger the data set, the less the effect a single outlier will have.
Displaying multiple • Two sets of data can be displayed on a stem-and-leaf plot by displaying the data back to back.
data sets • The summary statistics from two data sets can be displayed by using the same scale and drawing two
box-and-whisker plots.
• Two sets of data can be displayed on a radar chart to display related trends over a period of time.
• An area chart can be drawn to display several sets of data. The area in each section of the graph then
displays the quantities for comparison.
Comparison of • The summary statistics from two data sets can be compared from a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-
data sets whisker plot.
• Two-way tables are used to compare data where there are two variables involved.
• Data are most commonly compared using the mean and standard deviation.
• Data where there are two variables can be analysed by cross tabulation. To cross tabulate data it is
broken into each subset and each subset analysed separately.
Skewness • When the data are symmetrical, they are said to be normally distributed.
• The more clustered the data are around the mean, the smaller the standard deviation.
• When most of the data are below the mean, the data are said to be positively skewed.
• When most of the data are above the mean, the data are said to be negatively skewed.

Chapter review
1 The table below shows the number of patients seen each day by a local doctor.
mult ip le
ch oice No. of patients Frequency
12 3
13 8
14 15
15 23
16 18
17 13
Which of the following statements are correct?
A The range of the data is 20. B The mean of the data is 15.05.
C The standard deviation of the data is 1.34. D The median of the data is 15.
2 The data below show the number of people that live in each house in a small street.
4, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 11, 2
The outlier in this data set has:
A the greatest effect on the mean B the greatest effect on the median
C the greatest effect on the mode D an equal effect on the mean, median and mode
3 The two data sets below show the number of goals scored in 15 matches by two soccer teams.
Manchester: 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 6, 0, 0, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
Liverpool:
5
4
Frequency
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Number of goals
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The Manchester data are negatively skewed, while the Liverpool data are positively skewed.
B The Liverpool data are negatively skewed, while the Manchester data are positively skewed.
C Both sets of data are positively skewed.
D Both sets of data are negatively skewed.
4 The two-way table below shows the number of men and women who work in excess of 45 hours
per week.
Men Women Totals
≤ 45 hours 132 128 260
> 45 hours 69 34 103
Totals 201 162 363
The percentage of men who work greater than 45 hours per week is closest to:
A 28% B 34% C 51% D 67%
5 The figures below show the number of attempts that the boys and girls in a Year 12 class take to get
their driver’s licence.
Boys: 1, 2, 4, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1
Girls: 2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2
When comparing the performance of the boys and the girls, it is found that the boys have:
A a lower mean and a lower standard deviation
B a lower mean and a higher standard deviation
C a higher mean and a lower standard deviation
D a higher mean and a higher standard deviation

1 The figures below show the marks obtained out of 100 in an exam by 50 Year 12 students on their
S ho rt
half-yearly exam. a nsw er
68 91 92 55 95 59 55 54 69 92
58 67 64 64 63 59 91 95 76 78
64 65 84 53 85 52 52 56 82 90
80 68 81 80 79 82 81 78 98 50
69 80 87 57 96 51 71 96 61 71
a Display the results in a frequency table using a class size of 10.
b Use the table to estimate the mean.
c Reconstruct the frequency table using a class size of 5.
d Use the new table to do another estimate of the mean.
e Which table would give the most accurate estimate of the mean? Explain your answer.
2 Below are the ages of 15 players in a soccer squad.
23, 28, 25, 19, 17, 28, 29, 29, 22, 21, 35, 30, 22, 27, 26
a Calculate the mean age of the players in the squad.
b Find the median age of players in the squad.
3 The table below shows the number of house calls that a doctor has been required to make each day
over a 32-day period.
Number of house calls Frequency
0 1
1 6
2 8
3 9
4 6
5 2
a Copy the table into your workbook and add a cumulative frequency column.
b Calculate the mean number of house calls per day.
c Find the median number of house calls per day.
d What is the modal number of house calls per day?
4 The set of figures shown below shows the number of pages in a daily newspaper every day for
two weeks.
72, 68, 76, 80, 64, 60, 132, 72, 84, 88, 60, 56, 76, 140
a What is the mean number of pages in the newspaper?
b What is the range?
c What is the interquartile range?
d Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the standard deviation.
5 The table below shows the number of rescues that are made each weekend at a major beach.
Number of rescues Frequency

8 2
9 5
10 12
11 3
12 0
13 1
14 3
Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and the standard deviation of these data.

6 The table below shows the customer waiting time at 10 am each morning at a bank over an 8-week
period.
Waiting time Class centre Frequency Cumulative frequency
0–1 minute 1
1–2 minutes 4
2–3 minutes 10
3–4 minutes 13
4–5 minutes 9
5–6 minutes 3
b Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
d Use the graph to estimate the interquartile range of the data.
7 The figures below show the marks obtained by 20 students in English and Maths.
English: 56, 45, 57, 56, 65, 82, 74, 80, 91, 84, 68, 52, 67, 64, 60, 66, 74, 77, 77, 66
Maths: 65, 66, 58, 60, 61, 70, 74, 66, 69, 68, 71, 55, 51, 49, 50, 71, 99, 85, 70, 66
a Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b For each subject find the median.
c For each subject state the range.
d For each subject find the interquartile range.
8 Betty runs a surf and ski shop. The table below shows the monthly sales of both types of equipment.
Month Surf sales ($) Ski sales ($)
January 20 000 5 000
February 18 000 6 000
March 12 000 8 000
April 9 000 10 000
May 6 000 12 000
June 4 000 12 000
July 5 000 9 000
August 8 000 8 000
September 10 000 6 000
October 11 000 3 000
November 15 000 4 000
December 22 000 9 000
a Display both sets of data on the same radar chart.
b Use the chart to compare trends in the sales.

9 The data below give the cost per minute of a long-distance telephone call with three companies.
Telecomm Omtus Tel One

Day 21c 25c 17.5c
Economy 18c 15c 17.5c
Night 12c 12c 17.5c
Display this information in an area chart.

10 The stem-and-leaf plot below compares the crowds (correct to the nearest thousand) at a football
team’s home and away matches.
Key: 2 | 5 = 25 000
Home Away
8 0 67
732 1 0116899
6632 2 45
552 3
a Calculate the median of both data sets.
b Calculate the range of both data sets.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both data sets.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.
11 The figure below shows a box-and-whisker plot showing the average number of weekly car sales
made in 2003 and 2004.
2003
2004
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Average weekly car sales
a What was the median for each year?

b In which year was the range of sales greatest?
c In which year was the interquartile range of sales greatest?
d In which year did the car yard perform better? Explain your answer.
12 The two-way table below compares the number of men and women who are right- and left-handed.
Men Women Totals

Right-handed 158 172 330
Left-handed 17 15 32
Totals 175 187 362
a What percentage of males are left-handed?

b What percentage of females are left-handed?
c Based on the above data, is there any significant difference between the percentage of male and
female left-handers?
13 Hsiang compares her marks in 10 English exams and 10 Maths exams.
English: 76, 74, 80, 77, 73, 70, 75, 37, 72, 76
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62, 70, 71
a Calculate Hsiang’s mean mark in each subject.
b Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c Calculate the standard deviation of marks in each subject.
d Based on the above data, in which subject would you say that Hsiang performs more consistently?

14 Kelly is interested in the surf at his local beach. He wants to reference the size of the swell against
the direction of the wind, and if the weather is wet or dry. The results are shown in the table below.
Weather Wind Swell (m) Weather Wind Swell (m)
Wet North 1.5 Wet South 1.8
Dry South 1.4 Wet South 2.6
Dry East 2.3 Wet North 1.8
Dry West 1.0 Dry South 1.6
Dry West 0.9 Dry East 1.9
Dry North 1.7 Wet North 1.7
Wet West 1.2 Dry West 1.2
Wet South 1.4 Dry North 1.9
15 The figures below show the number of points scored by a basketball player in six matches of a
tournament.
36, 2, 38, 41, 27, 33
a Calculate the mean number of points per game.
b Calculate the median number of points per game.
c Explain why there is such a large difference between the mean and the median.
16 Consider the data set represented by the frequency histogram on the right.
8
a Are the data symmetrical? 7
b Can the mean and median of the data be seen? 6
Frequency
c What is the mode of the data? 5
4
3
2
1
0
15 16 17 18 19 20 x
17 The table below shows the number of attempts that 20 members of a Year 12 class took to obtain a
driver’s licence.
Number of attempts Frequency
1 11
2 4
3 2
4 2
5 0
6 1
a Show these data in a frequency histogram.
b Are the data positively or negatively skewed?
18 Draw an example of a frequency histogram for which the data are negatively skewed.
Ext end ed 1 The data below show the weekly income among ten Year 12 boys and girls.
R esp ons e
Boys: $80, $110, $75, $130, $90, $125, $100, $95, $115, $150
Girls: $50, $80, $75, $90, $90, $60, $250, $80, $100, $95
a Calculate the median of both sets of data.
b Calculate the range of both sets of data.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both sets of data.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.

e Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation of both
sets of data.
f Discuss whether the boys or girls have a more consistent average weekly income.
2 In the week leading up to the NRL grand final, Kylie records the number of points scored by both
teams in each game throughout the season and displays the information on the stem-and-leaf plot
below.
Key: 1 | 8 = 18
Sharks Bulldogs
8 0
84422 1 5558889
88644432200 2 0022226668889
886200 3 000222
862 4
a Find the median of both sets of data. Digital doc
b Which team’s scores are the more consistent? Test Yourself
doc-11036
c Describe the skewness of the Sharks’ scores.
Chapter 3
d Find the mean and standard deviation of the Bulldogs’ scores.

ICT activities
3B Measures of location and speed • SkillSHEET 3.9 (doc-11033): Drawing a box-and-whisker plot. (page 66)
• WorkSHEET 3.1 (doc-11034): Apply your knowledge of statistics to
interactivities problems. (page 68)
• int-0084: Measures of centre. (page 54) • EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1344): Fast Food Sales. (page 68)
• int-2352: Measures of centre. (page 54)
• int-2362: Measures of centre. (page 54) 3D Comparison of data sets
Digital docs Tutorial
• SkillSHEET 3.1 (doc-11026): Finding the mean. (page 57) • WE16 int-2420: Learn how to compare performance using
• SkillSHEET 3.2 (doc-11027): Finding the mode. (page 57) statistics. (page 70)
• SkillSHEET 3.3 (doc-11028): Finding the median. (page 57)
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1333): One variable statistics. (page 57) 3E Skewness
• GC program — Casio (doc-1334): UV Stats. (page 57)
• GC program — TI (doc-1335): UV Stats. (page 57) Tutorial
• SkillSHEET 3.4 (doc-11137): Finding the range. (page 57) • WE18 int-2418: Learn how to determine skewness. (page 76)
• SkillSHEET 3.5 (doc-11029): Finding the interquartile range. (page 58) Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 3.6 (doc-11030): Choosing the appropriate standard • WorkSHEET 3.2 (doc-11035): Apply your knowledge of statistics to
deviation. (page 58) problems. (page 80)
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1339): Boxplots. (page 58)
Chapter review
Digital doc
interactivities • Test Yourself (doc-11036): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
• int-2773: Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots. (page 62) progress. (page 87)
• int-0802: Box plot and five-number summary. (page 62)
• int-2788: Parallel box plots. (page 63) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
Tutorial
• WE13 int-2419: Learn to standardise scores. (page 65)
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 3.7 (doc-11031): Compiling a stem-and-leaf plot. (page 66)
• SkillSHEET 3.8 (doc-11032): Finding the mean, median, mode from a
stem-and-leaf plot. (page 66)

Answers chapter 3
Interpreting sets of data 4 a 5 a
Exercise 3A Grouped data Class Class Class Class
1 a interval centre Tally Frequency interval centre Tally Frequency
Class Class 145–<150 147.5 || 2 12–15 13.5 |||| 4
interval centre Tally Frequency
150–<155 152.5 |||| 4 16–19 17.5 |||| || 7
5–<10 7.5 |||| |||| | 11 20–23 21.5 |||| |||| | 11
155–<160 157.5 |||| ||| 8
10–<15 12.5 |||| |||| |||| |||| 19 24–27 25.5 |||| |||| ||| 13
160–<165 162.5 |||| || 7
15–<20 17.5 |||| 5 28–31 29.5 |||| 4
165–<170 167.5 |||| 5 32–35 33.5 — 0
20–<25 22.5 || 2
170–<175 172.5 ||| 3 36–39 37.5 | 1
25–<30 27.5 ||| 3
175–<180 177.5 | 1 Total 40
Total 40
Total 30 b Mathsville class sizes
Hours of TV watched
b per week 12
Frequency
10
20 b Heights of Year 9 students 8
18 8 6
16 7 4
Frequency
Frequency
14 6 2
12
10 5 0
8 4 13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5
6 3 17.5 25.5 33.5
4 2 Class size
2 1
0 0 6 a Frequency column: 3, 7, 8, 3, 3, 3, 2, 1
7.5 17.5 27.5 x 147.5 157.5 167.5 177.5
12.5 22.5 152.5 162.5 172.5 b
Number of hours Forearm length of boxers
Heights (cm)
2 8
Class Class c 16 7
interval centre Tally Frequency
Frequency
d 6
5
0–4 2 |||| | 6 Class Class 4
interval centre Tally Frequency 3
5–9 7 ||| 3 2
145–<148 146.5 | 1 1
10–14 12 |||| |||| | 12 24.5 25.5 26.5 27.5 28.5 29.5 30.5 31.5
Forearm length (cm)
15–19 17 || 2 148–<151 149.5 || 2
7 a Frequency column: 2, 5, 8, 8, 5, 2
20–24 22 |||| |||| 9 151–<154 152.5 || 2 b, c
Total 32 154–<157 155.5 |||| 4 100 m sprint times
8
3 a
Frequency
157–<160 158.5 |||| 5 6
Class Class 4
160–<163 161.5 |||| 4
interval centre Tally Frequency 2
163–<166 164.5 ||| 3
0–9 4.5 |||| | 6 10.75 11.25 11.75 12.25 12.75 13.25
166–<169 167.5 |||| 5 Time (s)
10–19 14.5 |||| || 7
169–<172 170.5 || 2 8 a Frequency Fat content of packs of bacon
20–29 24.5 |||| ||| 8 column:
172–<175 173.5 | 1 1, 2, 4, 6, 6
Frequency
30–39 34.5 |||| 5 4, 2, 1

175–<178 176.5 — 0 4
40–49 44.5 |||| 4
178–<181 179.5 | 1 2
50–59 54.5 |||| |||| || 12
Total 30 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
60–69 64.5 |||| ||| 8 Fat content (%)
e b Frequency column: Fat content of
70–79 74.5 |||| 4
Heights of Year 9 students 7, 10, 3 packs of bacon
10
Frequency
80–89 84.5 || 2 5
4
3 8
Total 56 2
Frequency
1
0 6
b Number of phone calls made per week 146.5 152.5 158.5 164.5 170.5 176.5
12 149.5 155.5 161.5 167.5 173.5 179.5 4
Frequency
10 Heights (cm)
8 2
6 Discuss in class.
4
2
0 0 10 20 30
4.5 24.5 44.5 64.5 84.5 Fat content (%)
14.5 34.5 54.5 74.5 c The data appear more
Number of phone calls clustered if the group size is larger.

9 22 6 a 6 Exercise 3C Analysis of data sets
10 0.6 b i 9 1 a The outlier will greatly reduce the mean.
11 a 40 ii Lower quartile = 8, b The outlier will have no effect on the
upper quartile = 10 median
35
30 iii 2 c The outlier will have no effect on the
25 c i Mean = 9.04 mode.
20 ii σn = 1.44 2 a $232
15
10 d b The greatest effect will be on the mean
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 as the total of all wages will be greatly
0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 7 a reduced.
Battery life (h) 3 a 11
b i 62.5 Class Cumulative b Removing the outlier will increase the
ii Q1 = 58, Q3 = 67 Crowd centre Frequency frequency mean and reduce the standard deviation.
iii 9 4 A
5000–10 000 0 0 0 5 Key: 1.5 | 5 = 1.55
iv 14
v 6 10 000–15 000 12 500 5 5 Boys Girls
12 997 1.5 1256788
55 15 000–20 000 17 500 8 13
50 98665540 1.6 4467899
45 20 000–25 000 22 500 6 19
40 4421 1.7 0
35 25 000–30 000 27 500 4 23
30 6 Key: 1 | 8 = 18
25 30 000–35 000 32 500 3 26 Team 1 Team 2
20
15 b cf 8 0 79
10 30 987 1
5 25 75%
0 20 50% 9543 2 01347
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 15
10 25%
Class interval 5 42 3 058
IQR = 24 0
20 4 16
0 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Exercise 3B Measures of location Q1 Q2 Q3
7 a Ford: median = 15, Holden: median = 16
and spread Crowd numbers
b Ford: range = 26, Holden: range = 32
1 a 1.6 b 1 c 9500 c Ford: interquartile range = 14,
2 a Mean = 49, median = 44, d x = 21 000, σn = 6300 Holden: interquartile range = 13.5
mode = no mode 8 a Team A = 16, Team B = 16 d Ford
b Mean = 3.4, median = 3.5, b i Team A = 10, Team B = 40
mode = 1 ii Team A = 4, Team B = 20 Holden
c Mean = 9.575, median = 9.7, iii Team A = 3.1, Team B = 12.5
mode = 9.8, 9.9 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Scale
c Both teams had the same mean score.
d Mean = 15.2, median = 15, However, Team A was more consistent 8 Brand A
mode = 13, 15 as shown by a lower reading in all three
3 a 6.5 b 6.5 c 7 Brand B
measures of spread.
4 a 9 B 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 Scale
10 A 9 a Key: 8 | 5 = 8.5
Class Cumulative
11 A
Score centre Frequency frequency Station A Station B
12 C
1–5 3 2 2 13 a 12 875 8 12457789
6–10 8 4 6 b 9 975432210 9 02
c The IQRs (middle 50%) are similar
11–15 13 8 14 for the two restaurants, but McFeast is 1 10 5
16–20 18 7 21 busier around lunch time. 11 24
14 a Group A: mean = median = mode =
21–25 23 3 24 b
170 cm Station A
26–30 28 1 25 Group B: mean = median = mode =
Station B
b 14.6 170 cm
c Median = 14 b No 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 Scale
25 c Group B
10 a Team A
20 d Group B
b Team A: range = 60, Team B: range = 90
15 e Group B
c Team A: interquartile range = 13,
10 f Group A: range = 20, interquartile
Team B: interquartile range = 11
5 range = 0, σ = 5.345 11 a
0
3 8 13 18 23 28
Group B: range = 120, interquartile Emad
Class centre range = 20, σ = 32.51 Larry
5 a 7 b 1 15 a Yes
c Mean = 27.3, σn = 1.7 b Check with your teacher. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale

b Emad: range = 35, Larry: range = 24 5 a Southern 17 a Machine A
c Emad: interquartile range = 23.5, b Western
Larry: interquartile range = 19 c Similar peaks and troughs Machine B
12 C 6 a 43.2% 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 Scale
13 a July b 13° c 21.7° b 1.90%
b Machine A: x = 49.96, sn = 2.90,
14 a Supermarket X, range = 111 c 0.93%
Machine B: x = 50.12, sn = 2.44
Supermarket Y, range = 90 d 2.63%
c Machine B has a lower standard
b Both supermarkets follow a similar e More evident in males with three times
deviation and so is more dependable.
pattern. There are very few customers the number of drivers over the limit
18 D
from midnight to 6 am. Then the 7 a 90.48% b 55.56%
19
number peaks between 10 am and noon, c Yes, as a much greater percentage of Men Women Total
remaining fairly constant until 8 pm, games are won with Ashley playing. Live alone 12 23 35
when the number reduces. 8 a 9.5%
15 b 9.7% Share with 9 16 25
c i 48.7% friends
Month Sydney Melbourne Brisbane ii 51.3% Total 21 39 60
January 12 8 13 d There is no significant difference
Exercise 3E Skewness
February 12 7 14 between the city and country results.
9 a Chemistry, 69.25 1 a Yes
March 13 9 15 b Physics, because of the lower standard b 3
April 12 12 11 deviation c Yes, both equal 3
10 a Point A: x = 61, σn = 4.27, 2 a No
May 12 14 10
Point B: x = 58.8, σn = 12.06 b 5–9 and 20–24
June 12 14 8 b Point A because of more people driving c No
over the limit 3 a
July 10 15 7 6
c Point B because of the greater standard 5
August 10 16 7
Frequency
deviation 4
3
September 10 15 7 11 a Aaron: x = 38.1, Sunil: x = 39.3 2
b Aaron: range = 76, Sunil: range = 65 1
October 12 14 9
c Aaron: interquartile range = 16, 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
November 11 12 10 Sunil: interquartile range = 57 Number of goals
December 12 11 12 d Aaron is more consistent because b Yes

although he has a larger range this c 0 and 5
16 a English: 66; Maths: 63.5 is caused by one outlier. Aaron’s d Yes, both equal 2.5
b English: 32; Maths: 53 interquartile range is much less, showing 4 a 1–2
c Marks are more spread in Maths. his consistency. b Positively skewed
17 a 25% b 75% c 50% 12 C (based on the interquartile range) 5 a Negatively skewed
18 a 80 000 b 73 500 c 19 000 13 B b Symmetrical
d 19 000 e 25% f 75% 14 A c Positively skewed
Exercise 3D Comparison of data sets 15 6 a Positively skewed
1 a English 66, Maths 63.5 Pulse rate b Negatively skewed
b English 32, Maths 53 7 a
Distance Data Quick Slow
Frequency
c The marks are more spread in Maths 25

20
than in English. 1 km Mean 104 84 15
10
2 a Boys Standard 5.0 4 5
deviation 0
x
Girls
21 0
31 0
41 0
51 0
0
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
2 km Mean 126 103

11
1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 Scale Number of goals
Standard 6 5.4
b Boys 1.64, girls 1.62 b Negatively skewed
deviation
c Boys 0.34, girls 0.18 8 A
d Boys 0.14, girls 0.07 16 a 9 A
e The spread of heights is much greater RL Results
10 a
among boys than among girls.
Frequency
Joey Data Day Night 10

8
3 a Year 7: range = 0.45, 6
Yes Mean 13 5.8
Year 12: range = 0.26 4
2
b Year 7: interquartile range = 0.15, Standard 5.8 5.5 0
deviation x
Year 12: interquartile range = 0.11
51 50
10 100
15 150
20 200
0
25
1–
c The range of heights is greater in Year 7

–
1–
1–
1–
No Mean 2 2.5
as shown by the range and the IQR. The Number of people
heights become less spread by the time Standard 12 4.7 b No
they get to Year 12. deviation c 151–200 and 201–250
4 The pattern of software sales follows after b The team seems to perform better in day d Negatively skewed
the pattern of hardware sales with a slight matches but performs significantly less 11 a Chemistry is symmetrical.
time delay. well when Joey is not playing. b Maths is negatively skewed.

c Chemistry: mode = 41–50 and 81–90, b 2.593 75 9 Day Economy Night
Maths: mode = 71–80 c 3 30

d Maths, because there are more scores d 3
Price per minute

further away from the centre of the 4 a 80.57 20
distribution. b 84 10
12 Check with your teacher. c 20
13 B d 24.4 0 x
Telecomm Omtus Tel One
14 a Median b Mean 5 x = 10.3, σn = 1.64 Company
c Median d Median 6 a 10 a Home: 23 000 Away: 16 000

15 a Negatively skewed Waiting Class Cumulative b Home: 27 000 Away: 19 000
b Symmetrical time centre Frequency frequency c Home: 19 000 Away: 9000
c Positively skewed
0–1 0.5 1 1 d Home
d Negatively skewed
minute
Away
Chapter Review 1–2 1.5 4 5
minutes Scale
00
00
12 00
15 00
18 00
21 00
24 00
27 00
30 00
33 00
36 00
0
Multiple choice
00
30
60
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 B, C and D 2–3 2.5 10 15
minutes 11 a 2003: median = 7, 2004: median = 8
2 A
b 2004
3 A 3–4 3.5 13 28 c 2003
4 B minutes
d 2004 — Higher median, lower limit,
5 C 4–5 4.5 9 37 lower quartile and upper limit
Short answer minutes 12 a 9.7%
1 a 5–6 5.5 3 40 b 8.0%
Marks Frequency
minutes c No significant difference
50−<60 13 13 a English: x = 71, maths: x = 69.3
b x = 3.35, σn = 1.17
60−<70 11 b English: range = 43, maths: range = 37
c 40 c English: σn = 11.64, maths: σn = 11.96
70−<80 6 35
75% 30 d English, because of the lower standard
80−<90 10 25 deviation
20
90−100 10 15
14
b 73.6 25% 10 Swell (m)
5
c Marks Frequency 0 Weather Data North South East West
0.51.52.53.54.55.5 x
50−<55 6 Waiting time (minutes) Wet Mean 1.67 1.93 - -
Q1 Q3
55−<60 7 Standard 0.12 0.50 - -
d 2 deviation
60−<65 5 7 a Key: 5 | 6 = 56
65−<70 6 English Maths Dry Mean 1.8 1.5 2.1 1.03
70−<75 2 5 4 9 Standard 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.12
deviation
75−<80 4 7662 5 0158
80−<85 8 8766540 6 01566689 15 a 29.5
b 34.5
85−<90 2 7744 7 00114
c Outlier reduces the mean greatly.
90−<95 5 420 8 5 16 a Yes
95−100 5 1 9 9 b Both are 17.5.
b English: median = 66.5, c 17 and 18
d 73.5 17 a
Maths: median = 66 12
e In this example there is not much
c English: range = 46, Maths: range = 50 10
difference in the answer whether the
d English: interquartile range = 18.5,
Frequency
8
class size is 5 or 10. Generally, smaller 6
Maths: interquartile range = 11.5
class sizes result in more accurate results. 4
8 a Surf sales Ski sales 2
2 a 25.4 b 26 D $25 000 J 0
F
3 a 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
Number of Cumulative N
$20 000
$15 000 M
Class centre
house calls Frequency frequency $10 000
b Positively skewed
$5 000
0 1 1 O $0 A 18 A histogram that shows more columns to
the right of centre than to the left.
1 6 7 S M
Extended response
2 8 15 A J
J 1 a Boys: median = $105,
3 9 24 b There is a peak in surf sales through Girls: median = $85
4 6 30 summer, while the ski sales are greatest b Boys: range = $75, Girls: range = $200
in winter, with a short peak occurring c Boys: interquartile range = $35,
5 2 32 around Christmas. Girls: interquartile range = $20

d Boys
the best measure of consistency is the d Using a calculator, Sharks mean = 26.12,
interquartile range which is lower for the standard deviation = 10.37
Girls girls. Disregarding, the outlier the girls Bulldogs mean = 23.96,
0 Scale
standard deviation is $15.5. standard deviation = 5.57
2 a Sharks: median = 24, Bulldogs:
20
40
60
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
26
e Boys: x = $107, σn = $22.4, median = 24
Girls: x = $97, σn = $53.1 b Bulldogs’ scores are more clustered
f Generally, the girls’ is more consistent. around the mean and so can be seen to
The range and standard deviation for be more consistent.
the girls is inflated by the outlier so c Slight positive skew

Chapter 4
The normal distribution
CHAPTER CONTENTS
4A z-scores
4B Comparison of scores
4C Distribution of scores
4A z-scores
Symmetrical distributions
A normal distribution is a statistical occurrence where a data set of scores
is symmetrically distributed about the mean. Most continuous variables in
a population, such as height, mass and time, are normally distributed. In a interactivity
normal distribution, the frequency histogram is symmetrical and begins to int-0257
take on a bell shape as shown by the figure on the right. The normal
The normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean, which has the x– distribution
same value as the median and mode in this distribution. The graph of a normal distribution will extend
symmetrically in both directions and will always remain above the x-axis.
The spread of the normal distribution will depend on the standard deviation. The lower the standard
deviation, the more clustered the scores will be around the mean. The figure below, on the left, shows a
normal distribution with a low standard deviation, while the figure below, on the right, shows a normal
distribution with a much greater standard deviation.
x– x–
Standardised scores
To gain a comparison between a particular score and the rest of the population, we use the z-score. The
z-score (or standardised score) indicates the position of a particular score in relation to the mean. z-scores
are a very important statistical measure and later in the chapter some of their uses will be explained.
A z-score of 0 indicates that the score obtained is equal to the mean, a negative z-score indicates that
the score is below the mean and a positive z-score indicates a score above the mean.
The z-score measures the distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation. A score that is
exactly one standard deviation above the mean has a z-score of 1. A score that is exactly one standard
deviation below the mean has a z-score of −1.
To calculate a z-score we use the formula:
x−x
z=
s
where x is the score, x is the mean and s is the standard deviation.
Chapter 4 • The normal distribution 95

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
In an IQ test the mean IQ is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. Dale’s test results give an IQ
of 130. Calculate this as a z-score.
THINK WRITE
x−x
1 Write the formula. z=
s
130 − 100
2 Substitute for x, x and s. =
15
3 Calculate the z-score. =2
Dale’s z-score is 2, meaning that his IQ is exactly two standard deviations above the mean.
Not all z-scores will be whole numbers; in fact most will not be whole numbers. A whole
number indicates only that the score is an exact number of standard deviations above or below
the mean.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A sample of professional basketball players gives the mean height as 192 cm with a standard
deviation of 12 cm. Dieter is 183 cm tall. Calculate Dieter’s height as a z-score.
Tutorial THINK WRITE
int-2438
Worked example 2 x−x
1 Write the formula. z=
s
183 − 192
12
3 Calculate the z-score. = −0.75
The negative z-score in Worked example 2 indicates that Dieter’s height is below the mean but, in this
case, by less than one standard deviation.
When examining z-scores, care must be taken to use the appropriate value for the standard
deviation. If examining a population, the population standard deviation (σn) should be used and if
a sample has been taken, the sample standard deviation (σn − 1 or sn) should be used. Remember:
Your graphics calculator displays all of this information once data is stored and calculated using the
statistics function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
To obtain the average number of hours of study done by students in her class per week, Kate
surveys 20 students and obtains the following results.
12 18 15 14 9 10 13 12 18 25
15 10 3 21 11 12 14 16 17 20
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation (correct to 3 decimal places).
b Robert does 16 hours of study each week. Express this as a z-score based on the above results.
(Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.)
THINK WRITE
Method 1: Use a calculator
a 1 Enter the data into your calculator. a
2 Obtain the mean from your calculator. x = 14.25

3 Obtain the standard deviation from your sn = 4.753
calculator using the population standard
deviation.
x−x
b 1 Write the formula. b z=
s
16 − 14.25
4.753
3 Calculate the z-score. = 0.368
a 1 From the MENU select STAT. a
2 Delete any existing data and enter the

scores from Worked example 3 in List 1.
3 Press 2 (CALC). You may need to

press 6 first for more options.
4 Press 6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist is

set to List 1 and 1Var Freq is set to 1.

and then press 1 (1VAR) to display the
summary statistics.
b 1 Press m and then select RUN. b
2 Press K 6 for more options and then

3 (PROB).
3 Again press 6 for more options and then

4 t(). This is the z-score function, so enter
16, close brackets and press w.

Exercise 4A z-scores
1 WE1 In a Maths exam the mean score is 60 and the standard deviation is 12. Chifune’s mark is 96.
Digital doc Calculate her mark as a z-score.
SkillSHEET 4.1 2 In an English test the mean score was 55 with a standard deviation of 5. Adrian scored 45 on the
doc-11037
Finding the mean English test. Calculate Adrian’s mark on the test as a z-score.
3 a In a normal distribution the mean is 32 and the standard deviation 6. Convert a score of 44 to a
z-score.
b In a normal distribution the mean is 1.2 and the standard deviation is 0.3. Convert a score of 0.6 to
Digital doc a z-score.
SkillSHEET 4.2 c The mean of a distribution is 254 and the standard deviation is 39. Write a score of 214 as a
doc-11038 standardised score, correct to 2 decimal places.
Finding the
standard deviation d The mean mark on an exam is 62 and the standard deviation is 9.5. Convert a mark of 90 to a
z-score. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
4 Tracy is a nurse and samples the mass of 50 newborn babies born in the hospital in which she works.
She finds that the mean mass is 3.5 kg, with a standard deviation of 0.4 kg. What would be the
Digital doc standardised score of a baby whose birth mass was:
SkillSHEET 4.3 a 3.5 kg
doc-11039 b 3.9 kg
Choosing the
appropriate c 2.7 kg
standard deviation d 4.7 kg
e 3.1 kg?
5 Ricky finds that the mean number of hours
spent watching television each week by
Year 12 students is 10.5 hours, with a
standard deviation of 3.2 hours. How
many hours of television is watched by a
person who has a standardised score of:
a 0
b 1
c 2
d −1
e −3?
6 WE2 IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Calculate the z-score for a person
with an IQ of 96. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
7 The mean time taken for a racehorse to run 1 km is 57.69 s, with a standard deviation of 0.36 s.
Calculate the z-score of a racehorse that runs 1 km in 58.23 s.
8 In a major exam every subject has a mean score of 60 and a standard deviation of 12.5. Clarissa
obtains the following marks on her exams. Express each as a z-score.
a English 54 b Maths 78 c Biology 61
d Geography 32 e Art 95
9 The mean time for athletes over 100 m is 10.3 s, with a standard deviation of 0.14 s. What time
would correspond to a z-score of:
a 0 b 2 c 0.5
d −3 e −0.35 f 1.6?
10 a Explain what is meant by a z-score of 1.
b Explain what is meant by a z-score of −2.
11 WE3 The length of bolts being produced by a machine needs to be measured. To do this, a sample
of 20 bolts are taken and measured. The results (in mm) are given below.
20 19 18 21 20 17 19 21 22 21
17 17 21 20 17 19 18 22 22 20
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.
b A bolt produced by the machine is 22.5 mm long. Express this result as a z-score. (Give your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.)

12 A garage has 50 customers who have credit accounts with them. The amount spent by each credit
account customer each week is shown in the table below.
Amount ($) Class centre Frequency
0–< 20 2
20–< 40 8
40–< 60 19
60–< 80 15
80–< 100 6
b Calculate the mean and standard deviation.
c Calculate the z-score that corresponds to a customer’s weekly account of:
i $50 ii $100 iii $15.40.
13 a In a distribution, the mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10. What score corresponds to a
z-score of 0?
b In a distribution the mean score is 60. If a mark of 76 corresponds to a standardised score of 2,
what is the standard deviation?
14 MC In a normal distribution, the mean is 21.7 and the standard deviation is 1.9. A score of 20.75
corresponds to a z-score of:
A −1 B −0.5 C 0.5 D 1
15 MC In a normal distribution, the mean is 58. A score of 70 corresponds to a standardised score of
1.5. The standard deviation of the distribution is:
A 6 B 8 C 10 D 12
16 MC In a normal distribution, a score of 4.6 corresponds to a z-score of −2.4. It is known that the
standard deviation of the distribution is 0.8. The mean of the distribution is:
A 2.2 B 2.68 C 6.52 D 6.8
17 The results of 24 students sitting a Maths exam are listed below.
95 63 45 48 78 75 80 66 60 58 59 62
52 57 64 75 81 60 65 70 65 63 62 49
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks.
b Calculate the standardised score of the highest score and the lowest score, correct to 2 decimal places.
18 The results of Luke’s exams are shown in the table below.
Subject Luke’s mark Mean Standard deviation

English 72 60 12
Maths 72 55 13
Biology 76 64 8
Computing studies 60 70 5
Visual arts 60 50 15
Music 50 58 10
Convert each of Luke’s results to a standardised score.
Further development
19 To qualify for an elite sports camp an applicant must be able to run 3 km with a z-score less than
−1.5 in comparison with the general population.
For males the mean time is 15 min with a standard deviation of 1 min 12 sec
For females the mean time is 16 min 30 sec with a standard deviation of 1 min 30 sec.
Calculate the qualification time for both males and females.
20 Explain why each of the following statements is true.
a In any normally distributed data set the z-score of the mean is equal to 0.
b In any normally distributed data set a person who performs one standard deviation better than the
mean will have a z-score of 1.

21 The following set of scores represent the ages of the members of a choir.
23 45 32 70 61 44 49 22 36 20
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the data set.
b Convert each of the scores to a z-score.
c What is the mean and the standard deviation of the z-scores found in part b?
d Explain why you can give the answer to part c without doing any calculations.
22 Ten people are surveyed for their weekly income and the results are shown below.
$485, $623, $312, $1754, $86, $740, $595, $700, $490, $642
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the data set.
b Which scores in the data set could be identified as outliers?
c Find the z-score for any scores which you have identified as outliers.
23 John obtained a mark of 76 in an exam. The standard deviation on this test was 8 and John’s score
corresponded to a z-score of 1.
Find the z-score for each of the following students.
a Anthea, who scored 60 b Bianca, who scored 88
c Carl, who scored 68 d Demetria, who scored 40
Digital doc 24 The mean height for an adult male is 174 cm with a standard deviation of 8.4 cm. Barney, who is
WorkSHEET 4.1
doc-11040
165 cm tall, is generally considered by most people to be short. Fred, who is 187 cm tall, is generally
considered by most people to be tall. Compare Fred’s tallness with Barney’s shortness.

An important use of z-scores is to compare scores from different data sets. Suppose that in your Maths exam
your result was 74 and in English your result was 63. In which subject did you achieve the better result?
It may appear, at first glance, that the Maths result is better, but this does not take into account the
difficulty of the test. A mark of 63 on a difficult English test may in fact be a better result than 74 if it
was an easy Maths test.
The only way that we can fairly compare the results is by comparing each result with its mean and
standard deviation. This is done by converting each result to a z-score.
x−x
If for Maths x = 60 and s = 12, then z=
s
74 − 60
=
12
= 1.17
x−x
And if for English x = 50 and s = 8, then z =
s
63 − 50
=
8
= 1.625
The English result is better because the higher z-score shows that the 63 is higher in comparison to the
mean of each subject.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Janine scored 82 in her Physics exam and 78 in her Chemistry exam. In Physics, x = 62 and
s = 10, while in Chemistry, x = 66 and σn = 5.
Tutorial
a Write both results as a standardised score. b Which is the better result? Explain your answer.
int-2439
Worked example 4 THINK WRITE
x−x x−x
a 1 Write the formula for each subject. a Physics: z = Chemistry: z =
s s
82 − 62 78 − 66
2 Substitute for x, x and s. = =
10 5
3 Calculate each z-score. = 2 = 2.4
b Explain that the subject with the highest b The Chemistry result is better because of the higher
z-score is the better result. z-score.

In each example the circumstances must be read carefully to see whether a higher or lower z-score is
better. For example, if we were comparing times for runners over different distances, the lower z-score
would be the better one.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
In international swimming the mean time for the men’s 100 m freestyle is 50.46 s with a
standard deviation of 0.6 s. For the 200 m freestyle, the mean time is 1 min 51.4 s with a
standard deviation of 1.4 s. Sam’s best time is 49.92 s for 100 m and 1 min 49.3 for 200 m. At a
competition Sam can enter only one of these events. Which event should he enter?
THINK WRITE
x−x x−x
1 Write the formula for both events. 100 m: z = 200 m: z =
s s
49.92 − 50.46 109.3 − 111.4
2 Substitute for x, x and s. (For 200 m convert = =
time to seconds.) 0.6 1.4
3 Calculate the z-scores. = −0.9 = −1.5

4 The best event is the one with the lower The z-score for 200 m is lower, indicating that
z-score. Sam’s time is further below the mean and that this
is the event that he should enter.
Exercise 4B Comparison of scores

1 WE4 Ken’s English mark was 75 and his Maths mark was 72. In English the mean was 65 with a
standard deviation of 8, while in Maths the mean mark was 56 with a standard deviation of 12.
a Convert the mark in each subject to a z-score. Digital doc
b In which subject did Ken perform better? Explain your answer. EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1412
2 In the first Maths test of the year the mean mark was 60 and the standard deviation was 12. In the One variable
second test the mean was 55 and the standard deviation was 15. Barbara scored 54 in the first test statistics
and 50 in the second test. In which test did Barbara do better? Explain your answer.
3 MC The table below shows the mean and standard deviation in four subjects.
Subject Mean Standard deviation

English 60 12
Maths 65 8
Biology 62 16
Geography 52 7.5
Kelly’s marks were English 66, Maths 70, Biology 50 and Geography 55. In which subject did Kelly
achieve her best result?
A English
B Maths
C Biology
D Geography
4 MC The table below shows the mean and standard deviation of house prices in four Australian
cities. The table also shows the cost of building the same three-bedroom house in each of the cities.
City Mean Standard deviation Cost

Sydney $230 000 $30 000 $215 000
Melbourne $215 000 $28 000 $201 000
Adelaide $185 000 $25 000 $160 000
Brisbane $190 000 $20 000 $165 000

In which city is the standardised cost of building the house least?
A Sydney B Melbourne C Adelaide D Brisbane
5 WE5 Karrie is a golfer who scored 70 on course A,
which has a mean of 72 and a standard deviation of 2.5.
On course B, Karrie scores 69. The mean score on
course B is 72 and the standard deviation is 4. On which
course did Karrie play the better round? (In golf the lower
score is better.)
6 Steve is a marathon runner. On the Olympic course in
Sydney the mean time is 2 hours and 15 minutes with a
standard deviation of 4.5 minutes. On Athens’ Olympic
course the mean time is 2 hours and 16 minutes with
a standard deviation of 3 minutes. In Sydney Steve’s
time was 2 hours 17 minutes and in Athens his time was
2 hours 19 minutes.
a Write both times as a z-score.
b Which was the better performance? Explain your
answer.
7 MC The table below shows the mean and standard
deviation of times in the 100 m by the same group of
athletes on four different days. It also shows Matt’s time
on each of these days.
Day Mean Standard deviation Matt’s time

8 Jan. 10.21 0.15 10.12
15 Jan. 10.48 0.28 10.30
22 Jan. 10.14 0.09 10.05
29 Jan. 10.22 0.12 10.11
On what day did Matt give his best performance?

A 8 Jan. B 15 Jan. C 22 Jan. D 29 Jan.
8 MC In which of the following subjects did Alyssa achieve her best standardised result?
Subject Alyssa’s mark Mean Standard deviation

English 54 60 12
Maths 50 55 15
Biology 60 65 8
Music 53 62 9
A English B Maths C Biology D Music

9 Shun Mei received a mark of 64 in her Maths exam and 63 in her Chemistry exam. To determine
how well she actually did on the exams, Shun Mei sampled 10 people who sat for the same exams
and the results are shown below.
Maths: 56 45 82 90 41 32 65 60 55 69
Chemistry: 55 63 39 92 84 46 47 50 58 62
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for Shun Mei’s sample in each subject.
b By converting each of Shun Mei’s marks to z-scores, state the subject in which she performed best.
10 Ricardo scored 85 on an entrance test for a job. The test has a mean score of 78 and a standard
deviation of 8. Kory sits a similar exam and scores 27. In this exam the mean is 18 and the standard
deviation is 6. Who is better suited for the job? Explain your answer.
11 a Cynthia scored a mark of 65 in English where the mean was 55 and the standard deviation is 8. In
Maths Cynthia scored 66 where the mean was 52 and the standard deviation 10. Convert the mark
in each subject to a z-score.
b In which subject did Cynthia achieve her best result?

Further development
12 Eamon is a swimmer who can swim 100 m in 55 s at the state championships. The mean time for his
age group at the championships is 58 s with a standard deviation of 1.5 s. Stephanie swims 100 m in
61.5 s, when the mean is 63 s with a standard deviation of 1 s.
Whose performance is better? Explain your answer.
13 The mean price of a litre of milk is $1.30 with a standard deviation of 10 c, and the mean price of a
loaf of bread is $3.10 with a standard deviation of 25 c.
Joe’s convenience store charges $1.55 for a litre of milk and $3.70 for a loaf of bread. Determine
which of the milk and the bread is relatively more expensive.
14 The average number of tourists visiting Cairns each year is 240 000 with a standard deviation of
15 000. During 2009 the number of visitors fell to 205 000.
a Find this number of visitors as a standardised score. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.)
b What does this tell you about the number of visitors for 2009?
c Suggest some possible reasons for this result.
15 The mean number of visitors on a weekday to a theme park is 2000 and on the weekend is 3500. The
number of visitors on a particular Saturday is 4550 and this corresponds to a z-score of 1.6.
a Find the standard deviation for the number of weekend visitors.
b On weekdays the standard deviation is 345. Calculate the equivalent number of
weekday visitors.
16 A liquid dispenser on a production line is responsible for pouring motor oil into 1.5-L containers.
The mean amount poured is 1.5 L and the standard deviation is 8 mL.
To test that the each dispenser is working properly, a sample of five containers is taken and the
contents of each measured. If any container has a z-score of greater than 2.5 or less than −1.5, the
machine is closed down until further testing takes place.
From a sample of five the following results were obtained: 1490 mL, 1508 mL, 1519 mL, 1486 mL
and 1500 mL.
Determine if the machine needs to be closed down for further testing.
17 Jerry and Sammy are brothers. Jerry lives in London where the mean January temperature is 8 °C
and the standard deviation is 1.5 °C. Sammy lives in Sydney where the mean January temperature is
27 °C with a standard deviation of 2.8 °C. Digital doc
During a telephone call Jerry comments on how warm it is in London when the temperature is 11 °C Investigation
Comparison of
and Sammy says that it is cool in Sydney at 22 °C.
subjects
Explain what each of the two brothers mean by their comments, and compare the warmth in London doc-1413
with Sydney’s cool weather.
4C Distribution of scores

In any normal distribution, the percentage of scores that lie within a certain number of standard
deviations of the mean is always the same, provided that the sample is large enough. This is true
irrespective of the values of the mean and standard deviation. interactivity
In any normal distribution, approximately 68% of the values will lie int-0182
within one standard deviation of the mean. This means 68% of scores The 68-95-99.7%
rule of z-scores
will have a z-score between −1 and 1. This can be shown on a normal
curve as: 68%
z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Approximately 95% of the values lie within 2 standard deviations,

or have a z-score of between −2 and 2.
95%
z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

Approximately 99.7% of scores lie within 3 standard deviations,
or have a z-score that lies between −3 and 3.
If we know that a random variable is approximately normally
distributed, and we know its mean and standard deviation, then we can
99.7%
use this rule to quickly make some important statements about the way in
z
which the data values are distributed. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be assumed to
be normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Approximately what
Tutorial percentage of the distribution lies:
int-2440 a between 85 and 115? b between 70 and 130? c between 55 and 145?
Worked example 6
THINK WRITE
85 − 100 115 − 100

a 1 Calculate the z-scores for 85 and 115. az = z =
15 15
= −1 = 1
2 68% of scores have a z-score between −1 and 1. 68% of the scores will lie between
85 and 115.
70 − 100 130 − 100
b 1 Calculate the z-scores for 70 and 130. bz = z =
15 15
= −2 = 2
2 95% of scores have a z-score between −2 and 2. 95% of the scores will lie between
70 and 130.
55 − 100 145 − 100
c 1 Calculate the z-scores for 55 and 145. c z = z =
15 15
= −3 = 3
2 99.7% of scores have a z-score between −3 and 3. 99.7% will lie between 55 and 145.
We can also make statements about the percentage of scores that lie in the tails of the distribution by
using the symmetry of the distribution and remembering that 50% of scores will have a z-score greater
than 0 and 50% will have a z-score less than 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
In an exam x = 60 and s = 12. What percentage of candidates in the exam scored above 84?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate 84 as a z-score. x−x

z =
s
84 − 60
=
12
= 2
2 Draw a sketch showing 95% of z-scores lie
between −2 and 2.
3 5% of z-scores therefore lie outside this range. Half
of these scores lie below −2 and half are above 2.
2.5% 95% 2.5%
60 84
4 Give a written answer. 2.5% of scores are greater than 84.
Some important terminology is used in connection with this rule. We can say that if 95% of scores have
a z-score between −2 and 2, then if one member of the population is chosen, that member will very
probably have a z-score between −2 and 2.

If 99.7% of the population has a z-score between −3 and 3, then if one member of that population is
chosen, that member will almost certainly have a z-score between −3 and 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A machine produces tyres that have a mean thickness of 12 mm, with a standard deviation
of 1 mm. If one tyre that has been produced is chosen at random, within what limits will the
thickness of the tyre:
a very probably lie? b almost certainly lie?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Tyre thickness will very probably have a a If z = −2 If z = 2

z-score between −2 and 2. x = x − 2s x = x + 2s
= 12 − 2 × 1 = 12 + 2 × 1
2 A z-score of −2 corresponds to a tyre of = 10 = 14
10 mm thickness.
3 A z-score of 2 corresponds to a tyre of 14 mm A tyre chosen will very probably have
thickness. a thickness of between 10 and 14 mm.
b 1 Tyre thickness will almost certainly have a b If z = −3 If z = 3
z-score between −3 and 3. x = x − 3s x = x + 3s
= 12 − 3 × 1 = 12 + 3 × 1
2 A z-score of −3 corresponds to a tyre of 9 mm = 9 = 15
thickness.
3 A z-score of 3 corresponds to a tyre of 15 mm A tyre chosen will almost certainly have
thickness. a thickness of between 9 and 15 mm.
Because it is almost certain that a member of the data set will lie within three standard deviations of the
mean, if a possible member of the data set is found to be outside this range one should suspect a problem.
For example, if a machine is set to deposit 200 mL of liquid into a bottle, with a standard deviation
of 5 mL, and then a bottle is found to have contents of 220 mL, one would expect there to be a problem
with the settings on the machine.
This knowledge of z-scores is then used in industry by the quality control department. In the above
example a sample of bottles would be tested and the z-scores recorded. The percentage of z-scores
between −1 and 1, −2 and 2, and −3 and 3 are checked against the above rule. If these percentages are
not correct, the machinery needs to be checked for faults.
Exercise 4C Distribution of scores

1 WE6 The temperature on a January day in a city is normally distributed with a mean of 26° and
a standard deviation of 3°. What percentage of January days lie between:
a 23° and 29° b 20° and 32° c 17° and 35°?
2 The marks of students sitting for a major exam are normally distributed with mean equal to 57 and
standard deviation equal to 13. What percentage of marks on the exam were between:
a 44 and 70 b 31 and 83 c 18 and 96?
3 The mean thickness of bolts produced by a machine is 2.3 mm, with a standard deviation of
0.04 mm. What percentage of bolts will have a thickness between 2.22 mm and 2.38 mm?
4 WE7 Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be assumed
to be normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. What percentage of
scores lie above 115?
5 The heights of young women are normally distributed with a mean x = 160 cm and a standard
deviation equal to 8 cm. What percentage of the women would you expect to have heights:
a between 152 and 168 cm b greater than 168 cm c less than 136 cm?
6 The age at which women give birth to their first child is normally distributed with x = 27.5 years
and σn = 3.2 years. From these data we can conclude that about 95% of women have their first child
between what ages?

7 Fill in the blanks in the following statements. For any normal distribution:
a 68% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___
b ___% of the values have a z-score between −2 and 2
c ___% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___.
8 MC Medical tests indicate that the amount of an antibiotic needed to destroy a bacterial infection
in a patient is normally distributed with x = 120 mg and σn = 15 mg. The percentage of patients who
would require more than 150 mg to clear the infection is:
A 0.15% B 2.5% C 5% D 95%
9 MC The mean mark on a test is 55, with a standard deviation of 10. The percentage of students who
achieved a mark between 65 and 75 is:
A 13.5% B 22.5% C 34% D 95%
10 In a factory, soft drink is poured into cans such that the mean amount of soft drink is 500 mL with
a standard deviation of 2 mL. Cans with less than 494 mL of soft drink are rejected and not sold to
the public. What percentage of cans are rejected?
11 The distribution of IQ scores for the inmates of a certain prison is approximately normal with a mean
of 85 and a standard deviation of 15.
a What percentage of this prison population have an IQ of 100 or higher?
b If someone with an IQ of 70 or less can be classified as mentally disabled, what percentage of the
prison population could be classified as mentally disabled?
12 The distribution of blood pressures (systolic) among women of similar ages is normal with a mean of
120 (mm of mercury) and a standard deviation of 10 (mm of mercury). Determine the percentage of
women with a systolic blood pressure:
a between 100 and 140 b greater than 130 c between 120 and 130
d between 90 and 110 e between 110 and 150.
13 WE8 The mass of packets of chips is normally distributed with x = 100 g and σn = 2.5 g. If I
purchase a packet of these chips, between what limits will the mass of the packet:
a very probably lie b almost certainly lie?
14 The heights of army recruits are normally distributed about a mean of 172 cm and a standard
deviation of 4.5 cm. A volunteer is chosen from the recruits. The height of the volunteer will very
probably lie between what limits?
15 A machine is set to deposit a mean of 500 g of washing powder into boxes with a standard deviation
of 10 g. When a box is checked, it is found to have a mass of 550 g. What conclusion can be drawn
from this?
16 The average mass of babies is normally distributed with a mean of 3.8 kg and a standard deviation of
0.4 kg. A newborn baby will almost certainly have a mass between what limits?
Further development
17 The force required to tear a piece of fabric is normally distributed. A sample of the fabric is tested
and it is found that the mean breaking force was 6 N with a standard deviation of 0.15 N.
Write down the values between which:
a 68% of the scores would lie
b 95% of the scores would lie
c 99.7% of the scores would lie.
18 MC A distribution of scores is normally distributed with a mean of 42. It is known that 68% of
scores lie between 32 and 52.
The standard deviation of the data set is:
A 5 B 10 C 15 D 20
19 The salaries of a group of business people is normally distributed. The mean salary is $65 000 with
a standard deviation of $5000.
Find the percentage of business people who:
a have a salary less than $70 000
b have a salary less than $50 000
c have a salary more than $55 000
d have a salary between $50 000 and $75 000.

20 In a school the number of days absent by students is normally distributed. The mean number of days
absent is 15 days with a standard deviation of 4 days.
Find the percentage of students who have:
a more than 19 days off per year b fewer than 3 days off per year
c more than 7 days off per year d between 11 and 23 days off per year.
21 The volume of soft drink poured into bottles is measured by the quality control department, and the Digital doc
results are found to be normally distributed. The department found that the mean was 375 mL and WorkSHEET 4.2
doc-11041
the standard deviation was 5 mL.
From a sample of 400 bottles, how many would be expected to have a volume of:
a more than 375 mL b more than 370 mL
c more than 380 mL d less than 365 mL?
Digital doc
22 The masses of each ball bearing in a batch are normally distributed. The mean mass of a ball bearing Investigation
is 25 g and the standard deviation is 1 g. Examining a
normal distribution
The manufacturer rejects all ball bearings that are less than 23 g in mass and more than 26 g in mass.
doc-1415
From a sample of 2500 ball bearings, how many ball bearings will be rejected?

Summary
z-scores • A data set is normally distributed if it is symmetrical about the mean.
• A z-score measures the position of a score relative to the mean and
standard deviation.
• A z-score is found using the formula
x−x
z=
s
x–
where x is the score, x is the mean, and s is the standard deviation.
Comparison of scores • Standardising both scores best compares scores from different data sets.
• When comparing exam marks, the highest z-score is the best result.
Distribution of scores • A data set that is normally distributed will be symmetrical about the mean.
• 68% of scores will have a z-score of between −1 and 1.
• 95% of scores will have a z-score between −2 and 2. A score chosen from
this data set will very probably lie in this range.
• 99.7% of scores will have a z-score of between −3 and 3. A score chosen
from the data set will almost certainly lie within this range.

Chapter review
1 The mean time for 12-year-old boys to swim 50 m is 50.5 s with a standard deviation of 4.2 s. Kyle
M U LTIP L E
swims 50 m in 44.2 s. Kyle’s time as a standardised score is: CHOICE
A −6.3
B −1.5
C 1.5
D 6.3
2 A teacher converts the marks on every test that she
gives her class to a standardised score. On a test the
mean mark was 50 and the standard deviation was
10. Adam’s standardised score on the test was −0.6.
Adam’s mark on the test was:
A 40
B 44
C 56
D 60
3 The details of Andrea’s half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Andrea’s Standard
Subject mark Mean deviation
English 65 50 12
Maths 62 52 6
History 75 58 15
Geography 50 44 4
In which subject did Andrea achieve her best result?

A English B Maths
C History D Geography
4 The details of Brett’s half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Brett’s Standard
Subject mark Mean deviation
English 40 50 12
Maths 48 52 6
History 49 58 15
Geography 42 44 4
In which subject did Brett achieve his best result?

A English B Maths
C History D Geography
5 A data set is normally distributed with x = 25 and s = 2.5. The percentage of scores that will lie in
the range 25 to 30 is:
A 34% B 47.5%
C 68% D 95%
6 A fishing boat catches a load of fish and finds the mass of
each fish. The masses of the fish are normally distributed
with a mean of 800 g and a standard deviation of 75 g.
If a fish is chosen from the catch, its mass will almost
certainly lie between:
A 725 g and 875 g
B 650 g and 950 g
C 575 g and 1025 g
D 800 g and 1025 g

1 Measurements of the amount of acid in a
Sh ort
a nswer certain chemical are made. The results are
normally distributed such that the mean is
6.25% and the standard deviation is
0.25%. Harlan gets a reading of 5.75%.
What is Harlan’s reading as a z-score?
2 A set of scores is normally distributed
such that x = 15.3 and s = 5.2. Convert
each of the following members of the
distribution to z-scores.
a 15.3
b 20.5
c 4.9
d 30.9
e 10.1
3 On an exam the results are normally distributed with a mean of 58 and a standard deviation of
7.5. Jennifer scored a mark of 72 in the exam. Convert Jennifer’s mark to a z-score, giving your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
4 A set of scores is normally distributed with a mean of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 0.6. Convert
each of the following members of the data set to z-scores, correct to 2 decimal places.
a 2.9 b 3.9
c 1 d 1.75
e 1.6
5 Anji conducts a survey on the water temperature at her local beach each day for a month. The results
(in °C) are shown below.
20 21 19 22 21 18 17 23 17 16
20 21 18 22 17 16 20 20 22 19
22 20 20 20 21 21 22 23 24 20
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the scores.

b Find the highest and lowest temperatures in the data set and express each as a z-score.
6 The table below shows the length of time for which a sample of 100 light bulbs will burn.
Length of time
(hours) Class centre Frequency
0–< 500 3
500–< 1000 28
1000–< 1500 59
1500–< 2000 10
a Find the mean and standard deviation for the
data set.
b A further sample of five light bulbs are chosen.
The length of time for which each light bulb burned
is given below. Convert each of the following to a
standardised score.
i 1000 hours
ii 1814 hours
iii 256 hours
iv 751 hours
v 2156 hours

7 Betty sat exams in both Physics and Chemistry. In
Physics the exam results showed a mean of 48 and
a standard deviation of 12, while in Chemistry the mean
was 62 with a standard deviation of 9.
a Betty scored 66 in Physics. Convert this result to
a z-score.
b Betty scored 71 in Chemistry. Convert this result
to a z-score.
c In which subject did Betty achieve the better result?
Explain your answer.
8 In Geography Carlos scored a mark of 56, while in
Business studies he scored 58.
In Geography x = 64 and s = 10. For Business studies
x = 66 and s = 15.
a Convert each mark to a standardised score.
b In which subject did Carlos achieve the better result?
9 A psychologist records the number of errors made on
a series of tests. On a literacy test the mean number
of errors is 15.2 and the standard deviation is 4.3. On
the numeracy test the mean number of errors is 11.7
with a standard deviation of 3.1. Barry does both tests
and makes 11 errors on the literacy test and 8 errors on
the numeracy test. In which test did Barry do better?
Explain your answer.
10 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 8. What percentage
of scores will lie in the range:
a 32 to 48 b 24 to 56 c 16 to 64?
11 The value of sales made on weekdays at a store appears to be normally distributed with a mean of
$1560 and a standard deviation of $115. On what percentage of days will the days’ sales lie between:
a $1445 and $1675 b $1330 and $1790 c $1215 and $1905?
12 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 56 and a standard deviation of 8. What percentage
of scores will:
a lie between 56 and 64 b lie between 40 and 56 c be less than 40
d be greater than 80 e lie between 40 and 80?
13 A machine is set to produce bolts with a mean diameter of 5 mm with a standard deviation of
0.1 mm. A bolt is chosen and it is found to have a diameter of 4.5 mm. What conclusion can be
drawn about the settings of the machine?

1 Theresa attempts to review her exam results in Physics and Chemistry. Theresa samples 10 of her
Ext end ed
R espons e friends and finds the following results.
Physics: 65 64 67 69 72 50 66 66 63 69
Chemistry: 72 50 69 55 62 68 51 75 78 44
a Find the mean and standard deviation in each subject.
b Theresa’s marks were 65 in Physics and 67 in Chemistry. Convert each to a standardised score.
c In which subject did Theresa score her best result? Explain your answer.
d A student is chosen at random from the Physics class. Between what two marks will this person’s
result very probably lie?
e If the marks within the class follow a normal distribution, within what two marks will
approximately 99.7% of all Chemistry scores lie?
2 A machine is set to cut lengths of metal such that the mean length of metal cut is 12.5 cm with a
Digital doc standard deviation of 0.05 cm.
Test Yourself a A piece of metal is measured to have a length of 12.4 cm. Express this as a standardised score.
doc-11042
b A second piece of metal is measured and found to have a length of 13 cm. What conclusion can be
Chapter 4
drawn from this measurement?

ICT activities
4A z-scores 4C Distribution of scores
interactivity interactivity
• int-0257: The normal distribution. (page 95) • int-0182: The 68-95-99.7% rule of z-scores. (page 103)
Tutorial Tutorial
• WE2 int-2438: Perform a calculation of a z-score. (page 96) • WE6 int-2440: Estimate distribution scores. (page 104)
Digital docs Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 4.1 (doc-11037): Finding the mean. (page 98) • WorkSHEET 4.2 (doc-11041): Apply your knowledge of distribution
• SkillSHEET 4.2 (doc-11038): Finding the standard deviation. (page 98) scores. (page 107)
• SkillSHEET 4.3 (doc-11039): Choosing the appropriate standard • Investigation (doc-1415): Examining a normal distribution. (page 107)
deviation. (page 98)
• WorkSHEET 4.1 (doc-11040): Apply your knowledge of z-scores.
Chapter review
(page 100)
• Test Yourself (doc-11042): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
progress. (page 112)
Tutorial To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
• WE4 int-2439: Perform a comparison of scores. (page 100)
Digital docs
• Spreadsheet (doc-1412): One variable statistics. (page 101)
• Investigation (doc-1413): Comparison of subjects. (page 103)

Answers chapter 4
The normal distribution c $1754 is a z-score of 2.54; $86 is a 11 a 16% b 16%
z-score of −1.27 12 a 95% b 16% c 34%
Exercise 4A z-scores 23 a −1 b 2.5 d 15.85% e 83.85%
1 3
c 0 d −3.5 13 a 95 g to 105 g
2 −2 24 Barney’s height corresponds to a z-score of b 92.5 g to 107.5 g
3 a 2 b −2 −1.07, and Fred’s height corresponds to a 14 163 cm − 181 cm
c −1.03 d 2.95 z-score of 1.55. It can be said that Fred is 15 Faulty, as the one chosen has a z-score
4 a 0 b 1 c −2 taller than Barney is short. greater than 3
d 3 e −1 16 2.6 kg − 5 kg
Exercise 4B Comparison of scores
5 a 10.5 b 13.7 c 16.9 17 a 5.85 N and 6.15 N
1 a English 1.25, Maths 1.33
d 7.3 e 0.9 b 5.7 N and 6.3 N
b Maths mark is better as it has a higher
6 −0.27 c 5.55 N and 6.45 N
z-score.
7 1.5 18 B
2 2nd test, Barbara’s z-score was −0.33
8 a −0.48 b 1.44 c 0.08 19 a 84% b 0.15%
compared to−0.5 in the first test.
d −2.24 e 2.8 c 97.5% d 97.35%
3 B
9 a 10.3 s b 10.58 s 20 a 16% b 0.15%
4 D
c 10.37 s d 9.88 s c 97.5% d 81.5%
5 Course A, z-score of −0.8 compared to
e 10.251 s f 10.524 s 21 a 200 b 336
−0.75 on course B
10 a One standard deviation above the mean c 64 d 10
6 a Sydney 0.44, Athens 1
b Two standard deviations below the mean 22 462
b In Sydney because of the lower z-score
11 a x = 19.55, sn = 1.76 b 1.68
7 C
12 a Class 8 B
Amount ($) centre Frequency
Chapter Review
9 a Maths x = 59.5, sn = 17.9
$10 2 Chemistry x = 59.6, sn = 16.8 Multiple choice
0–<20
b Maths 0.25, Chemistry 0.20. Maths is 1 B 2 B 3 B
20–<40 $30 8
the better result. 4 D 5 B 6 C
40–<60 $50 19 10 Kory is the better candidate with a z-score
Short answer
60–<80 $70 15 of 1.5 compared with 0.875 for Ricardo.
1 −2
80–<100 $90 6 11 a English 1.25, Maths 1.4
2 a 0 b 1 c −2
b Maths
b x = 56, σn = 20.1 d 3 e −1
12 Eamon’s z-score = −2; Stephanie’s
c i −0.30 ii 2.2 iii −2.0 3 1.87
z-score = −1.5. Eamon’s performance is
13 a 50 b 8 4 a 0.17 b 1.83 c −3
better as he is more below the mean that
14 B Stephanie. d −1.75 e −2
15 B 13 Milk z-score = 2.5, Bread z-score = 2.4. 5 a x = 20.1, σn = 2.1
16 C The milk is relatively more expensive. b Highest = 1.86, Lowest = −1.98
17 a x = 64.7, σn = 11.4 14 a −2.33 6 a x = 1130, σn = 334.2
b Highest score z = 2.66, Lowest score b The number of visitors was extremely b i −0.39
z = −1.73 low. ii 2.05
18 English 1, Maths 1.31, Biology 1.5, c Possible causes include weather, the iii −2.62
Computing studies −2, Visual arts 0.67, economy, airline schedules etc. iv −1.13
Music −0.8 15 a 656.25 b 2552 v 3.07
19 Male: 13 min 12 s; female: 14 min 15 s 16 The machine must be closed for further 7 a 1.5
20 a True. Each score is measured by how testing. One bottle (1486 mL, z = −1.75) b 1
many standard deviations above or has a z-score less than −1.5. c Physics, higher z-score
below the mean it is. Therefore, the 17 In London z = 2. In Sydney z = −1.78. It 8 a Geography: −0.8, Business
z-score of the mean must be 0. is relatively warmer in London compared studies: −0.53
b True. A person performing one standard to the average there than it is cooler in b Business studies: higher z-score
deviation better than the mean could Sydney relative to the average there. 9 Numeracy: lower z-score
have a z-score of −1 if a lower value is 10 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
Exercise 4C Distribution of scores
better, e.g. the time taken to run a race. 11 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
1 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
But a person performing one standard 12 a 34% b 47.5% c 2.5%
2 a 68% b 95% c 99.7%
d 0.15% e 97.35%
deviation better than the mean would 3 95%
13 Faulty, as it is more than three standard
have a z-score of 1 if a higher score 4 16%
is better, e.g. the marks achieved on a deviations from the mean.
5 a 68% b 16% c 0.15%
Maths test. 6 21.1 and 33.9 Extended response
21 a x = 40.2, σn = 16.0 7 a 68% of the values have a z-score 1 a Physics x = 65.1, sn = 5.9
b −1.075, 0.3, −0.5125, 1.8625, 1.30, between −1 and 1. Chemistry x = 62.4, sn = 11.8
0.55, −1.1375, −0.2625, −1.2625 b 95% of the values have a z-score b Physics −0.02, Chemistry 0.39
c Mean of the scores = 0, standard between −2 and 2. c Chemistry has a higher z-score.
deviation = 1 c 99.7% of the values have a z-score d 53.3 and 76.9
d This is the mean and standard deviation between −3 and 3. e 27 and 97.8
of any set of standardised scores. 8 B 2 a −2
22 a x = $642.70, σn−1 = 436.9 9 A b Faulty, more than three standard
b $1754 and $86 10 0.15% deviations from the mean

Chapter 5
Sampling and populations
CHAPTER CONTENTS
5A Sampling
5B Samples and means
5C Estimating populations
5A Sampling
A sample is taken from an entire population when it is not feasible to obtain information from every
member of the target population.
For example, suppose that you want to know the average number of attempts needed for people to get interactivity
their driver’s licence. It is not feasible for us to survey every driver and so we could sample a selection of int-0219
drivers and if the sample is well chosen, the information obtained should be representative of the entire Classifying data
population.
The selection of an appropriate sample can be done best by one of three methods.
1. Random sample. The participants in the sample are chosen randomly. If the sample is large enough
and the process repeated the sample characteristics should be similar to the entire population.
2. Stratified sample. The sample is deliberately chosen in the same proportion as the entire population.
For example in a workplace there may be 60% male workers. If a sample is chosen from within this
workplace then 60% of the participants should be male. Within each strata or group the participants
should be chosen randomly.
3. Systematic sample. A systematic method is used to select the sample. For example, a store may
sample every tenth person that makes a purchase.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
In each of the following state the type of sample that has been taken.
a A school holds a public meeting. Present are 40 parents, 80 students and 20 teachers. A committee
is selected that consists of 2 parents, 4 students and 1 teacher.
b When renewing a driver’s licence every fifth person is asked the number of attempts they needed
to obtain their licence.
c A computer randomly selects two hundred telephone numbers and the people who have these
numbers are asked to complete a survey on their Internet usage.
THINK WRITE
a The committee is chosen in the same proportion as the attendees a This is a stratified sample.
at the meeting.
b There is a systematic method in the way the people to be asked b This is a systematic sample.
are chosen.
c The participants in the sample are chosen randomly. c This is a random sample.
When selecting a random sample it is essential that the sample be free from any external bias. It is
therefore best to use a random number generator to select a sample.
Chapter 5 • Sampling and populations 115

Your calculator will have a random number generator function. You can use this function to generate a
random decimal between 0 and 1. This decimal is multiplied by the sample size and rounded up to the
Interactivity
next whole number to determine each participant.
int-0089
Random number
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
generator
A factory has 500 workers and one person is to represent the factory at a union conference.
If the person is to be chosen using a random number generator on a calculator, show how
this would be done.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the random number generator on your Random number = 0.257 (your number will
calculator to generate a decimal. most likely be different)
2 Multiply the decimal by 500. 0.257 × 500 = 128.5
3 Round the result up to the next whole number. The 129th person on the list should be chosen.
In the Preliminary course we also studied stratified samples and how the selection of the participants
needs to be in the same proportion as with the entire target population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The same factory with 500 workers has 350 male workers and 150 female workers. A union
committee of ten is to be selected using a stratified sample. How many of each sex should be
represented on the committee?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the percentage of male workers and 350

Percentage male = = 70%
percentage of female workers. 500
2 The number of male representatives is 70% 70% of 10 = 7
of 10.
3 The number of female representatives is 30% 30% of 10 = 3
of 10.
4 Answer the question. There should be 7 men and 3 women on the
committee.
Exercise 5A Sampling

1 WE1 In each of the following state the type of sample that has been chosen.
a Every fiftieth person to pass through the gate at a sporting event is surveyed.
b Every person at a meeting is given a raffle ticket. Five are selected to participate in a further study.
c Participants for a poll are selected by a computer selecting phone numbers.
d From a group of 80 men and 40 women
a panel of 4 men and two women are
selected.
2 A caryard has 500 cars, 60 trucks and
180 motorbikes for sale. An inspection team
is coming in to examine the vehicles for
defects. In each of the following describe
the type of sample that has been chosen.
a 25 cars, 3 trucks and 9 motorbikes are
chosen.
b A computer selects the number plates of
vehicles to be examined.

c Every third vehicle sold is examined.
d All the vehicles parked in the front row of the yard are examined.
e 50 vehicles are chosen in proportion to the number of each make in the yard.
3 WE2 Judy has to select one person from
a group of 250. She allocates each person a
number from 1 to 250 and uses her
calculator to generate the random decimal
0.517. The person holding which number
should be chosen?
4 A school has 1150 students. The Principal
must select 10 students for an interview.
Use your calculator’s random number
generator to assign 10 numbers for the
principal to interview.
5 At the same school there are 75 teachers. A
uniform committee is to be set up consisting
of both students and teachers. If there are
12 places on the committee how many
students and how many teachers should
be selected if a stratified sample is to be
chosen?
6 WE3 In an Australian Olympic team there
are 260 men and 240 women. If 50 athletes are to be drug tested how many of each sex should be
chosen in a stratified sample?
7 Kingston Park is a horse stud farm where there are 10 stallions, 140 mares and 100 foals.
A vet health check on 25 horses is to be conducted. If those horses to be checked are chosen in the
form of a stratified sample, how many of each category should be examined?
8 A football club consists of 10 people in management, 5 on the coaching staff, 15 support staff and
30 players. A survey of 20 people from within the club is to be conducted. How many should be
selected from each category?
9 A survey is to be conducted on 20 staff at a factory. In each of the following, state what is wrong
with the selection of samples.
a The first 20 people to arrive for work in the morning are surveyed.
b The 20 people who work the night shift are selected. Digital doc
c All 20 participants are chosen from the office staff. WorkSHEET 5.1
doc-11043
10 Explain the term stratified random sample.

5B Samples and means
When information needs to be obtained from a large population we usually complete a sample, as a
census, which involves the entire population, is impractical. We need to be as sure as possible that the
data obtained from the sample chosen reflects the data from the whole population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Consider a group of four people. We are examining the average height of these four people.
The four people are:
Aiden 193 cm Jake 187 cm Isaac 178 cm Chaz 166 cm
a Calculate the mean height of the four boys.
b A sample of two from the four is to be chosen. List all possible samples of two that could be selected.
c Calculate the mean of each possible sample of two.
d Calculate the mean of all samples taken.
THINK WRITE
a Add the scores together and divide a Mean = (193 + 187 + 178 + 166) ÷ 4
by 4. = 181 cm
b There are six pairs – list each by b Aiden and Jake
taking them two at a time. Aiden and Isaac
Aiden and Chaz
Jake and Isaac
Jake and Chaz
Isaac and Chaz
c Find the mean of each sample by c Aiden and Jake: Mean = (193 + 187) ÷ 2
adding each possible pair of heights = 190 cm
and dividing by 2. Aiden and Isaac: Mean = (193 + 178) ÷ 2
= 185.5 cm
Aiden and Chaz: Mean = (193 + 166) ÷ 2
= 179.5 cm
Jake and Isaac: Mean = (187 + 178) ÷ 2
= 182.5 cm
Jake and Chaz: Mean = (187 + 166) ÷ 2
= 176.5 cm
Isaac and Chaz: Mean = (178 + 166) ÷ 2
= 172 cm
d Find the mean of each pair in part c. d Mean = (190 + 185.5 + 179.5 + 182.5 + 176.5 + 172) ÷ 6
= 1086 ÷ 6
= 181 cm
What can be seen here is that the mean of each possible sample of two is equal to the mean of the entire
population.
This demonstrates an important result:
The mean of all possible samples taken will be the mean of the entire population.
In a wider context this demonstrates that a repeated sample will increasingly reflect the mean of the
population that we are attempting to sample.
Exercise 5B Samples and means

1 WE4 Consider a group of three people. The number of
televisions owned in each household is recorded.
Erin 3 Tegan 5 Madeline 1
a Calculate the mean number of televisions per household.
b A sample of two from the three is to be chosen. List all
possible samples of two that could be selected.

2 In a family of five children the number of days off from school each had
in a year is recorded.
Dylan 10, Lachlan 16, Connor 21, Cameron 5, and Aiden 1.
a Calculate the mean number of days off from school.
b How many samples of two can be chosen from the five boys?
d Show that the mean of each possible sample is equal to the mean
number of days off found in part a.
3 A group of five students each have their monthly mobile phone spend
recorded.
Lane $215.00 Maya $154.00 Elly $119.00 Meridee $98.00
Maddy $54.00
a Calculate the mean spend among the five girls.
b Calculate the number of samples of three girls that could be selected.
c List each sample of three and find the mean of each sample.
d Verify that the mean of each possible sample is equal to the mean
mobile phone spend found in part a.
4 The figures below show the number of people that live in 20 homes in a particular street.
House No. Number of residents House No. Number of residents

1 2 11 4
2 5 12 4
3 6 13 5
4 2 14 6
5 1 15 5
6 6 16 3
7 4 17 2
8 2 18 2
9 3 19 3
10 4 20 4
a Display the results in a frequency table.

b Use the frequency table to calculate the mean number of residents per
household.
c Use your calculator to randomly select three households from the street.
d Find the mean of your sample of three and compare this to the mean found in part b.
e Randomly select three more samples of three and find the mean of each sample.
f What was the greatest and least of the four sample means found?
g Find the mean of the four sample means and compare the result to the mean found in part b.
5 Craig is a big fan of horse racing. During the Melbourne Cup carnival he records the number of
horses that run in the 38 races during the week.

The results are given below.
10 12 16 8 14 11 9 16 15 11 16 16 14 15 16 24 16 12 13
12 11 16 11 12 16 9 10 11 12 15 16 13 14 15 16 15 12 13
a Calculate the mean number of horses per race.
b Randomly select a sample of two races and find the mean number of horses in these two races.
c Randomly select a sample of three races and find the mean number of horses in these three races.
d Randomly select a sample of four races and find the mean number of horses in these four races.
e Randomly select a sample of five races and find the mean number of horses in these five races.
f Compare each of the means obtained in parts b to e with the mean obtained in part a.
g Is there any pattern apparent as the sample size is increased?
h In part e you randomly selected a sample of five races. Find the mean of the other 33 races not
selected and compare this result with that obtained in part a.

Statistics are used to estimate populations
that are too difficult to count accurately.
An example of this is the number of fish
in a lake. The method used to estimate
the population is the capture–recapture
technique.
In this technique, a sample of the
population is captured, tagged and then
released back into the population. A
second sample is then captured. The
percentage of the second sample that
have been previously tagged (that is,
recaptured) becomes an estimate of the
percentage of the entire population that
has been tagged.
INVESTIGATE: Estimating a population
Make a large collection of marbles, jelly beans, matches or toothpicks.

1. Select a sample of these items and identify/tag them with a dab of liquid paper.
2. Put those selected back in with the others and mix them thoroughly.
3. Select another sample and see how many are tagged.
4. Estimate the total number.
5. Put those selected back and repeat the process to see if you get a similar answer.
6. Count the number of items to see how accurate your estimates were.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
A group of marine biologists want to estimate the fish population in a lake. To do this, they catch
100 fish, tag them and release them back into the lake. The next day, they catch 200 fish and find
that 10 of them have been previously tagged. What would be their estimate of the population?
THINK WRITE
10
1 Calculate the percentage of the second sample Percentage tagged = 200 × 100%
that has been tagged. = 5%
2 Use this percentage to calculate what 100% of 5% of population = 100
the population would be. so 1% of population = 20
and 100% of population = 2000
3 Give a written answer. Their estimate of the fish population in the lake
is 2000.

Exercise 5C Estimating populations
1 WE5 The fish population of a river is to be estimated. A sample of 400 fish are caught, tagged and
released. The next day another sample of 400 fish are caught and 40 of them have tags. Estimate the
fish population of the river.
2 A colony of bats live near a school. Wildlife officers try to estimate the bat population by catching
60 bats and tagging them. These bats are then released and another 60 are caught, 9 of which had
tags. Estimate the size of the bat population living near the school.
3 A river’s fish population is to be estimated. On one day 1000 fish are caught, tagged and released.
The next day another 1000 fish are caught. Estimate the population of the river if in the second
sample of fish:
a 100 had tags b 40 had tags c 273 had tags.
4 A certain fish population is said to be endangered if the population falls below 15 000. A sample
of 1000 fish are caught, tagged and released. The next day another sample of 1200 fish are caught,
60 of which had tags. Is the fish population endangered?
5 To estimate the fish population of a lake, 300 fish were caught. These 300 fish (150 trout, 100 bream
and 50 perch) were tagged and released. A second sample of fish were then caught. Of 100 trout,
24 had tags; of 100 bream, 20 had tags; and of 100 perch, 8 had tags.
a Estimate the number of trout in the lake.
b Estimate the number of bream in the lake.
c Estimate the number of perch in the lake.
6 The kangaroo population in a national park is to be estimated. On one day, 100 kangaroos were
caught and tagged before being released.
(Note: For each sample taken, the kangaroos
are released after the number with tags is
counted.)
a The next day 100 were caught, 12 of
which had tags. Estimate the population.
b The following day another estimate was
done. This time 200 were caught and 20
had tags. Estimate the population again.
c A third estimate was done by catching 150
and this time 17 had tags. What will the
third estimate for the population be?
d For a report, the average of the three
estimates is taken. Calculate this average.
Further development
7 MC The table below shows the results of a capture–recapture fish population estimate in four lakes.
Number caught and Number caught in Number tagged in

Lake tagged in initial capture second capture second capture
Alpha 100 100 2
Bravo 200 200 5
Charlie 100 200 3
Delta 200 100 1
Which lake would be estimated to have the greatest population?

A Alpha
B Bravo
C Charlie
D Delta
8 In two lakes, a sample of 100 fish are captured and tagged. Kylie claims that when the second
population is captured the more that are tagged the greater the population. Is Kylie correct? Explain
your answer.

9 Below are the steps for completing a capture–recapture task. Place the steps a, b, c and d in the
correct order.
a Capture a second sample.
b Capture and tag a sample of the population.
c Write the population as a percentage of the whole and use the unitary method to find the
population.
d Return the tagged samples to the general population.
10 Explain how a method similar to capture–recapture could be used to estimate a static population such
as trees in a national forest.
11 A lake is known to be populated with flathead and whiting. To estimate the population of each the
following capture–recaptures are performed.
interactivity Flathead: 100 are caught, tagged and released. In the second capture of 200 fish 4 are tagged.
int-2790 Whiting: 200 are caught, tagged and released. In the second capture of 100 fish 4 are tagged.
Compare statistical Is the population of flathead or whiting greater?
reports
12 Two bird populations are to be estimated.
In population A, 500 birds are tagged and released. A second capture of 200 population A birds
is made.
In population B, 400 birds are tagged and released. A second capture of 100 population B birds
Digital doc is made.
WorkSHEET 5.2 Given that in both second captures the same numbers of tagged birds are found, which population is
doc-11044
greater and how many times greater is this population than the other?

Summary
Sampling • There are three types of sample:
––Random sample where each participant is chosen by luck
––Stratified sample where the participants are chosen such that the sample
has the same characteristics as the entire population
––Systematic sample is where a particular method is used to select the
sample.
• When selecting a stratified sample the participants within each strata (or
group) should be selected randomly.
Exploring samples • When collecting information it is more practical to take a sample rather
and means than survey the whole population.
• If we take all possible samples from a data set and then find the mean
of each sample, the mean of these samples will be the mean of the
population. This shows that if we repeat the investigation with a different
sample the results will be more accurate.
• The larger the sample size the closer we can expect the mean to be to the
population mean.
Estimating populations • The capture–recapture method is used to estimate populations that cannot
be accurately counted.
• A sample is caught, tagged and released back into the population.
• A second sample is then captured and the percentage tagged is an estimate
of the percentage in the whole population that has been tagged.
• The unitary method is then used to estimate the entire population.

Chapter review
1 A television ratings survey is conducted by surveying house number 1 in every street in a particular
MULTIPL E
C HOICE suburb. This is an example of what type of sample?
A Random sample
B Systematic sample
C Stratified sample
D Stratified random sample
2 When taking a sample, which of the following could be used to try and ensure the mean of the
sample is reflects the mean of the entire sample.
A Repeat the survey using several different samples.
B Taking a larger sample
C Neither A or B
D Both A and B
3 A lake has a population of fish. A sample of 50 fish is taken, tagged and released. A second
sample of 50 fish is caught and it is found that only 2 fish are tagged. The best estimate of the fish
population in the lake is
A 200 B 250 C 1250 D 2000
Sh ort 1 In each of the following state the type of sample that has been used.
a nswer a George is collecting statistics on Rugby League games. He samples the matches that are shown
on television every Friday night.
b Veronica is researching the height of buildings in a country town. She selects 20 addresses by
opening the phone book and putting a pin in the page.
c James is researching the number of hours the employees of a company do each week. He selects
equal numbers of men and women.
2 The table below shows the makes of cars in a car yard.
Make Number of cars

Holden 75
Ford 40
Mazda 50
Toyota 85
A sample of 20 cars is to be inspected. If a stratified sample is to be used how many cars of each
make should be selected?
3 Explain how to use a calculator to randomly select a number between 1 and 700.
4 Consider a group of four people. We are examining the average weight of these four people. The four
people are:
Luke 101 kg Lewis 92 kg Max 81 kg Jamie 68 kg
a Calculate the mean weight of the four boys.
b A sample of three from the four is to
be chosen. List all possible samples of
three that could be selected.
c Calculate the mean of each possible
sample of three.
5 Kimberley has a worm farm. To estimate
the population of her farm, she catches
150 worms and tags them before
releasing them. The next day, she catches
120 worms and finds that 24 of them
have tags. Estimate the population of the
worm farm.

6 A sample of 200 fish are caught, tagged and released back into the
population. Later Barry, Viet and Mustafa each catch a sample of fish.
Barry caught 40 fish and 3 had tags.
Viet caught 75 fish and 9 had tags.
Mustafa caught 55 fish and 7 had tags.
a Find the estimate of the population that each would have calculated.
b Give an estimate for the population, based on all three samples.
Ex tended
R es p ons e
1 Consider a population of six people. Rick rolls a die to choose
two people to form a sample.
a What type of sample did Rick use?
b It is known that the mean age of the six people is 34. Rick’s sample
has a mean age of 22. What could Rick do to try and ensure that his
data better reflects the population mean?
c How many samples of three people from six would it be possible to
choose?
d Explain why Rick would get more accurate results with a sample of
three people.
2 Carolyn is a marine biologist. She spends the day on a boat and 500 fish
are netted. Carolyn notes the types of fish netted. There are 173 blackfish,
219 drummer and 108 mullet.
a Are Carolyn’s data categorical or quantitative?
b The fish are tagged and released back into the school from which they
were caught. Another 250 are then caught and it is noted that 63 have
tags. Estimate the population of the school.
Digital doc
doc-11045
Test Yourself
Chapter 5

ICT activities
5A Sampling Chapter review
interactivities • Test Yourself (doc-11045): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
• int-0219: Classifying data. (page 115) progress. (page 125)
• int-0089: Random number generator. (page 116)
Digital doc To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
• WorkSHEET 5.1 (doc-11043): Apply your knowledge of samples and
populations to problems. (page 117)

interactivity
• int-2790: Compare statistical reports. (page 122)
Digital doc
• WorkSHEET 5.2 (doc-11044): Apply your knowledge of samples and
populations to problems. (page 122)

Answers chapter 5
Sampling and Populations 3 a $128 as a percentage of the total area and the
b 10 population could then be found using the
Exercise 5A Sampling c The 10 means are $162.67, $155.67, unitary method.
1 a systematic b random
$141, $144, $129.33, $122.33, $123.67, 11 The populations are approximately equal.
c random d stratified
$109, $102, $90.33 12 Population A is greater by a factor of 2.5.
2 a Stratified b random
d Check with your teacher.
c systematic d systematic
e stratified 4 a Number of Frequency Chapter Review
3 130 residents (x) (f) f×x Multiple Choice
4 Check with your teacher. 1 1 1 1 B
5 1 2 D
6 26 men and 24 women
2 5 10
3 C
7 1 stallion, 14 mares and 10 foals 3 3 9
Short Answer
8 3 managers, 2 coaching staff, 5 support 4 5 20
staff and 10 players 1 a Systematic
9 a Early arrivals are possibly the most 5 3 15 b random
enthusiastic people. 6 3 18 c stratified
b Night shift presents other problems that 2 Holden − 6, Ford − 3, Mazda − 4,
Σf = 20 Σf × x = 73 Toyota − 7
other shifts may not have and hence the b Mean = 3.65
survey is not balanced. 3 Check with your teacher
c−g Check with your teacher. 4 a 85.5
c The office staff is only one section of
5 a 13.5 b Luke − Lewis − Max, Luke − Lewis −
the business and so the survey will not b−g Check with your teacher.
consider the issues in other areas. Jamie, Luke − Max − Jamie, Lewis −
10 A random sample is where the participants Exercise 5C Estimating populations Max − Jamie
are only chosen by luck. The sample 1 4000 c 91.3, 87, 83.3, 80.3
should therefore be free from bias and be 2 400 d 85.5
representative of the entire population. 3 a 10 000 b 25 000 c 3663 5 750
4 No — estimated population 20 000 6 a Barry − 2667
Exercise 5B Samples and means
5 a 625 b 500 c 625 Viet − 1667
1 a 3 Mustafa − 1571
6 a 833 b 1000
b Erin − Tegan, Erin − Madeline, b 1968
c 882 d 905
Tegan − Madeline 7 D
c Erin − Tegan Mean = 4, Erin − Extended Response
8 Kylie is incorrect. The fewer tagged fish
Madeline Mean = 2, Tegan − Madeline means that the 100 with tags represent 1 a random
Mean = 3 a smaller percentage of the population; b Repeat the experiment a number of
d 3
hence the overall population must be times.
2 a 10.6 c 20
greater.
b 10 d A larger sample will usually obtain
9 b − d − a − c
c The 10 means are 13, 15.5, 7.5, 5.5,
10 An area of the forest could be cordoned
results closer to the population mean.
18.5, 10.5, 8.5, 13, 11, 3 2 a Categorical
off, its area measured and tree population
d Check with your teacher. b 1984
counted. This area would then be found

Chapter 6
Further applications of
area and volume
CHAPTER CONTENTS
6A Relative error
6B Area of parts of the circle
6C Area of composite shapes
6D Simpson’s rule
6E Surface area of some prisms
6F Surface area of cylinders and spheres
6G Volume of pyramids, cones and spheres
6H Volume of composite solids
6I Error in measurement
6A Relative error

How far is it from your house to school? If you live very close to school you may give your answer
in metres, or if you are a bit further away you would probably answer in kilometres. In either case the
answer you give would not be exact. In fact, no measurement is exact. We are able to measure a quantity
only to the degree of accuracy that our instruments allow.
All measurements are approximations.
In practice, we usually choose a degree of accuracy that is convenient. For example, you may
say that it is 4 km from your home to school. In this case, the measurement would be given to the
nearest kilometre. The actual distance from your home to school could be anything between 3.5 km
and 4.5 km.
Someone who lives close to school may say it is 600 m to school. This measurement is probably given
to the nearest 100 m. The actual distance would be between 550 m and 650 m.
When rounding off measurements, the maximum error possible is half the degree of accuracy stated.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Hilary has her height measured at 164 cm. This measurement is given to the nearest centimetre.
Between what values would her actual height be?
THINK WRITE
1 The maximum error is half the degree of Maximum error = 0.5 cm

accuracy used (1 cm).
2 Subtract 0.5 cm from 164 cm to find the Lower limit = 164 − 0.5
smallest possible measurement. = 163.5 cm
3 Add 0.5 cm to find the largest possible Upper limit = 164 + 0.5
measurement. = 164.5 cm
4 Give a written answer. Hilary’s height is between 163.5 cm and 164.5 cm.
Chapter 6 • Further applications of area and volume 129

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The mass of a trailerload of soil is given as 260 kg. The mass is given to the nearest 10 kg.
Between what two masses would the true mass of the trailer load actually be?
THINK WRITE
1 The maximum error is half the Maximum error = 5 kg

degree of accuracy used (10 kg).
2 Subtract 5 kg from 260 kg to find Lower limit = 260 − 5
the smallest possible measurement. = 255 kg
3 Add 5 kg to 260 kg to find the Upper limit = 260 + 5
largest possible measurement. = 265 kg
4 Give a written answer. The soil’s mass is between 255 kg and 265 kg.
The true degree of accuracy in a measurement is found by determining the maximum percentage error.
To do this we find the greatest possible error and then write that as a percentage of the measurement
given.
maximum error
Percentage error = × 100%
measurement
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A car’s fuel tank has a capacity of 65 litres. If this capacity is given to the nearest litre, find the
degree of accuracy as a percentage (answer correct to 2 decimal places).
THINK WRITE
1 Find the maximum error. This is half Maximum error = 0.5 L

the degree of accuracy used (1 L).
0.5
2 Write the percentage error rule. Percentage error = × 100%
65
3 Calculate the percentage error to = 0.77%
2 decimal places.
4 Give a written answer. The degree of accuracy is 0.77%.
The degree of accuracy as a percentage shows how accurate a measurement is.

No measuring instrument is perfect and different people can sometimes obtain a different reading
from the same instrument. For example, one person may measure a person’s height as 162 cm while
another may get an answer of 163 cm. To reduce the likelihood of error, we can average several readings
of the same measurement.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Taylor has her height measured by 8 people. They obtain the following results:
169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 170 cm, 169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 168 cm.
What is the average result?
THINK WRITE
1 Find the total of the 8 readings. Total = 169 + 169 + 168 + 170 + 169 + 169 + 168 + 168
= 1350
2 Divide the total by 8 to find the Average = 1350 ÷ 8
average. = 168.75 cm

Exercise 6A Relative error
1 WE1 Each of the following measurements are given to the nearest centimetre. State the
limits between which the true length lies.
a 5 cm b 12 cm c 34 cm Digital doc
d 59 cm e 90 cm f 2 m SkillSHEET 6.1
doc-11046
2 WE2 Each of the following measurements are given to the nearest 10 m. State the limits Writing one
between which the true length lies. quantity as a
percentage of
a 40 m b 90 m c 250 m another
d 300 m e 1000 m f 2 km
3 Each of the following measurements are given correct to 1 decimal place. State the limits
between which the true length lies.
a 5.3 cm b 9.8 m c 7.2 km Digital doc
d 5.0 mm e 9.9 km f 0.1 m EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1461
4 WE3 The distance between two towns is given as 45 km, correct to the nearest kilometre. Calculations with
a Between what two limits does the true distance lie? percentages
b What is the greatest possible error in the distance?
c Write the degree of accuracy in this measurement as a percentage, correct to
2 decimal places.
5 For each of the following measurements, write the degree of accuracy as a percentage, correct
to 2 decimal places.
a A person’s mass is given as 67 kg, correct to the nearest kilogram.
b The capacity of a bucket is 7 L, correct to the nearest litre.
c The length of a park is said to be 180 m, correct to the nearest 10 m.
d The volume of water in a tank is 38.6 L, correct to 1 decimal place.
e The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is 1000 km, correct to the nearest 100 km.
6 a Measure each of the following lines to the nearest centimetre.
i ________________________
ii ____________________
iii _____________________________
b For each, find the maximum percentage error in the measurement, correct to
2 decimal places.
7 a Measure each of the lines in question 6, correct to the nearest millimetre.
b When the lines are measured correct to the nearest millimetre, what is the maximum
percentage error for each line?
8 Janice estimates that it takes 1 hour and 20 minutes to drive to a friend’s house.
a If Janice’s estimate is to the nearest 10 minutes, between what two lengths of time does it
take Janice to make the journey?
b What is the maximum error in Janice’s estimate?
c Find the degree of accuracy of Janice’s estimate, as a percentage, correct to 2 decimal places.
9 MC The length of a house, correct to 2 decimal places, is given as 19.95 m. Which of the
following statements is the most accurate?
A The length of the house is between 19.9 m and 20 m.
B The length of the house is between 19.945 m
and 19.955 m.
C The length of the house is between 19.94 m
and 19.96 m.
D The length of the house is between 19.955 m
and 20 m.
10 MC The world record for 100 m is 9.58 s. This is
the time correct to 2 decimal places. What is the
maximum possible error in this time?
A 0.5 s B 0.05 s
C 0.005 s D 0.1 s

11 MC An aeroplane trip takes 17 hours, correct to the nearest hour. The degree of accuracy, correct
to 2 decimal places, is:
A 0.29% B 1.76%
C 2.94% D 5.88%
12 MC Which of the following four measurements has the greatest degree of accuracy?
A The mass of a bag of beans is 400 g, correct to the nearest 50 g.
B A water container contains 10 L of water, correct to the nearest litre.
C The distance from home to school is 1.6 km, correct to 1 decimal place.
D A roast is to cook for 1 hour and 30 min, correct to the nearest 5 minutes.
13 A paddock needs a fence which is 30 m long and 20 m wide, when measured to the
nearest metre.
a Between what two measurements does the length lie?
b Between what two measurements does the width lie?
c What is the smallest possible length of fencing needed?
d What is the greatest possible length of fencing needed?
e What is the maximum error in the length of fencing needed?
14 For the paddock in question 13, the area is found by multiplying the length by the width.
a By multiplying the smallest possible length and width, find the smallest possible area.
b By multiplying the largest possible length and width, find the largest possible area.
c What is the maximum error in the area of the paddock?
15 WE4 The capacity of a jug is measured by 5 people to be 750 mL, 752 mL, 749 mL, 753 mL and
748 mL. Calculate the average of these 5 readings.
16 The distance between two towns is given on 4 different maps as 79 km, 81 km, 77 km and 80 km.
Calculate the average of these 4 readings.
Further development
17 The mass of a gold nugget is found to be 230 grams. Find the percentage error (correct to one
decimal place) if the measurement is correct to:
a two significant figures
b three significant figures
c four significant figures.
18 Australia’s richest professional foot race is the Stawell Gift run over 120 m. In 2010 the track was
incorrectly measured as being 3.2 metres too long.
a Calculate the percentage error in the measurement, correct to one decimal place.
b Travis claims that an error of 3.2 metres too short is the same as an error of 3.2 metres too long.
Explain whether or not Travis is correct.
19 A measurement that is taken to the nearest centimetre is known to have a maximum percentage error
of 4.55%. What is the given measurement length?
20 Jonas claims that a measurement correct to one decimal place is ten times more accurate than a
measurement taken to the nearest whole number. By considering a measurement of 5.0 metres,
determine if Jonas is correct.
21 The length of a rectangle is given as 7 metres and breadth is given as 4 metres correct to the
nearest metre.
a Find the area of the rectangle.
b What are the smallest possible length and breadth of the rectangle?
c What is the smallest possible area of the rectangle?
d Find the percentage error in the area of the rectangle if these measurements are used.
e What are the largest possible length and breadth of the rectangle?
f Find the largest possible area of the rectangle.
g What is the percentage error in the area of the rectangle if these measurements
are used?
h What is the greatest possible percentage error in the area of the rectangle?
22 Find the maximum possible percentage error in the area of a rectangle with a length of 4.8 cm and
a breadth of 5.2 cm.

INVESTIGATE: Measuring heights
In your class, get each person to measure the height of one class member. Each person writes down their
reading, without showing it to anyone else. When all readings are taken, answer the following questions.
1. What unit did you use to measure height?
2. What is the maximum error?
3. Calculate the percentage error using your reading.
4. What was the smallest height measured?
5. What was the greatest height measured?
6. Calculate the average reading.
6B Area of parts of the circle

From previous work you should know that the area of a circle can be calculated using the formula:
A = πr2
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 7.2 cm. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = πr2

2 Substitute for the radius. = π × (7.2)2
3 Calculate the area. = 162.86 cm2
A sector is the part of a circle between two radii and an arc as shown on the right.
To calculate the area of a sector we find the fraction of the circle formed
by the sector. For example, a semicircle is half of a circle and so the area
of a semicircle is half the area of a full circle. A quadrant is a quarter
of a circle and so the area is quarter that of a full circle.
For other sectors the area is calculated by using the angle between the
radii as a fraction of 360° and then multiplying by the area of the full
circle. This can be written using the formula:
θ 2
A= πr
360
where θ is the angle between the two radii.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the area of the sector drawn on the right. Give your answer
correct to 1 decimal place.
5 cm
80°
THINK WRITE
θ
1 Write the formula. A= πr2
360
80
2 Substitute for θ and r. = 360 × π × 52
3 Calculate the area. = 17.5 cm2

An annulus is the area between two circles that have the same centre (i.e. concentric circles). The area
of an annulus is found by subtracting the area of the smaller circle from the area of the larger circle. This
translates to the formula A = π(R2 − r2), where R is the radius of the outer circle and r is the radius of the
inner circle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the area of the annulus on the right. Give your answer
Tutorial 5.7 cm
int-2411
Worked example 7
3.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = π(R2 − r2)

2 Substitute R = 5.7 and r = 3.2. = π (5.72 – 3.22)
3 Calculate. = 69.9 cm2
Exercise 6B Area of parts of the circle

1 WE5 Calculate the area of the following circle, correct to 1 decimal place.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.2
doc-11047 6.4 cm
Area of a circle
2 Calculate the area of each of the circles drawn below, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
33 mm
9 cm 7.4 m
d e f
6.02 m
26.5 cm 3.84 m
3 Calculate the area of a circle that has a diameter of 15 m. Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
4 WE6 Calculate the area of the sector drawn on the right. Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
7.2 m

5 Calculate the area of each of the sectors drawn below. Give each answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
5.2 cm 23 m
135°
60° 74 mm
20°
d e f
9.2 mm 39 mm
240°
150°
19.5 m 72°
6 Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the area of a semicircle with a diameter of 45.9 cm.
7 WE7 Calculate the area of the annulus shown at right, correct to
1 decimal place. 12 cm
6 cm
8 Calculate the area of each annulus drawn below, correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c
20 cm 9.7 m
77 mm
18 cm 13 mm
4.2 m
9 A circular garden of diameter 5 m is to have concrete laid around it. The concrete is to be 1 m wide.
a What is the radius of the garden?
b What is the radius of the concrete circle?
c Calculate the area of the concrete, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 MC The area of a circle with a diameter of 4.8 m is closest to:
A 15 m2 B 18 m2 C 36 m2 D 72 m2
11 MC Which of the following calculations will give the area of the sector
shown on the right?
1 1
A × π × 42 B × π × 82 45°
8 8
1 1
C × π × 42 D × π × 82
4 4 8m
Further development
12 A circular area is pegged out and has a diameter
of 10 m.
a Calculate the area of this circle, correct to
1 decimal place.
b A garden is to be dug which is 3 m wide around
the area that has been pegged out. Calculate the
area of the garden to be dug. Give your answer
c In the garden a sector with an angle of 75° at the
centre is to be used to plant roses. Calculate the
area of the rose garden, correct to 1 decimal place.

13 The area in front of a building is rectangular in shape, measuring 50 metres by 15 metres. At night
a security light scans the area. The security light, if positioned vertically against the wall at ground
level, illuminates an area of the wall that is a sector of a circle of radius 15 m and has an angle of 60°
at the centre.
a What is the area of the rectangular frontage?
b What is the area that is illuminated at any one time by the security light? Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
c What percentage of the frontage is illuminated at any one time? Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
14 A circular island is in the centre of a circular lake such that the surface of the water in the lake forms
an annulus. The radius of the lake is 10 m greater than the radius of the island.
a Given that the island has a radius of 20 m, find the area of the surface of the water. Give your
answer correct to the nearest square metre.
b Tori claims that the surface area of the lake will remain the same regardless of the two radii as
long as the difference of 10 metres remains unchanged. Is Tori correct? Use calculations to justify
your response.
15 An arc of length 1 cm stands on a circle of radius 1 cm. Find the size of the angle subtended at the
centre correct to the nearest degree.
6C Area of composite shapes

A composite shape is a shape that is made up of two or more regular shapes. The area of a composite
shape is found by splitting the area into two or more regular shapes and calculating the area of each
Interactivity
separately before adding them together. In many cases it will be necessary to calculate the length of a
int-0005 missing side before calculating the area. There will sometimes be more than one way to split the
Area composite shape.
int-2350
Area of a triangle
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the area of the figure on the right. 6 cm
18 cm
10 cm
12 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Copy the diagram and divide the shape into two rectangles. 6 cm
A1 8 cm
18 cm
A2 10 cm
12 cm
2 Calculate the length of the missing side in rectangle 1. 18 − 10 = 8 cm

(Write this on the diagram.)
3 Calculate the area of rectangle 1. A1 = 6 × 8
= 48 cm2
4 Calculate the area of rectangle 2. A2 = 10 × 12
= 120 cm2
5 Add together the two areas. Area = 48 + 120
= 168 cm2

Composite areas that involve triangles may require you to also make a calculation using Pythagoras’
theorem.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the area of the figure on the right. 13 m
Tutorial
int-2412
10 m Worked example 9
24 m
THINK WRITE
1 Draw the triangle at the top and cut the isosceles 13 m

triangle in half. a
12 m
2 Calculate the perpendicular height using a2 = c2 − b2

Pythagoras’ theorem. = 132 − 122
= 169 − 144
= 25
a = !25
= 5 m
3 Calculate the area of the triangle. A = 12 × 24 × 5

= 60 m2
4 Calculate the area of the rectangle. A = 24 × 10
= 240 m2
5 Add the two areas together. Area = 60 + 240
= 300 m2
Composite areas can also be calculated by using subtraction rather than addition. In these cases we
calculate the larger area and subtract the smaller area in the same way as we did with annuluses in the
previous section.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the shaded area in the figure on the right.

6 cm
20 cm
30 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the area of the rectangle. A = 30 × 20

= 600 cm2
2 Calculate the area of the circle. A = π × 62
= 113.1 cm2
3 Subtract the areas. Area = 600 − 113.1
= 486.9 cm2

Exercise 6C Area of composite shapes
1 WE8 Copy the figure on the right into your workbook and calculate 4m
its area by dividing it into two rectangles.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.3 18 m
doc-11048 11 m
Areas of squares,
rectangles and
triangles 20 m
2 Find the area of each of the figures below. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a 7 cm b c 5 cm
18 cm
12 cm 19 cm
16 cm
25 cm 6 cm
40 cm
5 cm
22 cm
d e f 4 cm
12 cm 8 cm
8 cm 4 cm
16 cm 4 cm
3 Look at the triangle on the right. 10 cm

a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the perpendicular height of 17 cm
Digital doc the triangle.

SkillSHEET 6.4 b Calculate the area of the triangle.
doc-11049
6 cm 15 cm
Using Pythagoras’ 4 Below is an isosceles triangle.
theorem
8m
12 m
a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the perpendicular height of the triangle, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the area of the triangle.
5 Calculate the area of each of the triangles below. Where necessary, give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
Digital doc a b 25 cm c
EXCEL Spreadsheet 26 m
doc-1306 48 cm
Pythagoras
24 m
124 mm
6 WE9 Find the area of each of the composite figures drawn below.
a b c
13 cm 17 m 25 mm 52 mm
Digital doc
GC program —
Casio
15 mm 48 mm
doc-1307
12 cm 13 m 54 mm
Mensuration
30 m

7 MC The area of the composite figure on the right is closest to:
A 139 m2
B 257 m2
C 314 m2
D 414 m2
10 m
8 MC The area of the figure drawn on the right is:
A 36 m2
B 54 m2 12 m
C 72 m2
D 144 m2
6m
9 A block of land is in the shape of a square with an equilateral triangle on top. Each side of the block
of land is 50 m.
a Draw a diagram of the block of land.
b Find the perimeter of the block of land.
c Find the area of the block of land.
10 WE10 In each of the following, find the area of the shaded region. Where necessary, give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a 12 m b c
4 cm
10 cm
9 cm
3 cm
8m 16 cm
9 cm
d e f
3.1 m
112 mm
1.9 m
36 mm 7.4 m
cm
1
40 mm
7.
10 cm
95 mm
11 An athletics track consists of a rectangle with two semicircular ends. The dimensions are shown in
the diagram below.
70 m 82 m
90 m
The track is to have a synthetic running surface laid. Calculate the area which is to be laid with the
running surface, correct to the nearest square metre.
12 A garden is to have a concrete path laid around it. The garden is rectangular in shape and measures
40 m by 25 m. The path around it is to be 1 m wide.
a Draw a diagram of the garden and the path.
b Calculate the area of the garden.
c Calculate the area of the concrete that needs to be laid.
d If the cost of laying concrete is $17.50 per m2, calculate the cost of laying the path.
Further development
13 Find the area of each of the following figures.
a 10 cm b c
30 cm 20 m
25 cm
20 cm
40 m
4 cm
25 cm
24 cm

d e f
12
cm
6 cm
12 cm
76 mm
15
m
m
c m
32
40 cm
14 Convert the following areas to the units given in brackets.

a 20 000 mm2 (cm2) b 3 500 000 cm2 (m2)
2 2
c 0.005 m (cm ) d 0.035 m2 (mm2)
2 2
e 13 400 m (km ) f 375 000 m2 (hectares)
2 2
g 2 750 000 000 mm (m ) h 0.043 km2 (m2)
15 Find the area of the regular hexagon shown in the diagram below.
0m
2.4
4.16 m
16 A cutting blade for a craft knife has the dimensions shown in the diagram. What is the area of steel
in the blade (to the nearest mm2)?
32 mm
20 mm
5 mm
38 mm
17 Emma left her horse tied to a railing in a paddock while she chatted to a friend.
a The horse is tied to one end of the railing as shown below.
2m
Railing
2m
Find the area that the horse has access to correct to 1 decimal place.
b The horse is now tied to the centre of the railing as shown below.
r=1m
r=2m
r=1m
Find the area that the horse now has access to.

18 Find the areas of the following figures (to 1 decimal place).
a 16 m b c
14 m
12 m
4.5 m
19 m
25 m
2m
30 m 14 m
d 36 mm
80 mm
e 32 cm f 11 m
24 mm c m
m
5.5 m
20 16 cm
6.5
95 mm cm
20 cm
17 m
22 m
24
42 cm
3.5 m
10 m
6D Simpson’s rule

Simpson’s rule is a method used to approximate the area of an irregular
figure. Simpson’s rule approximates an area by taking a straight boundary
and dividing the area into two strips. The height of each strip (h) is
dm dl
measured. Three measurements are then taken perpendicular to the
straight boundary, as shown in the figure on the right. The formula for df
Simpson’s rule is: h h
h
A ≈ (df + 4dm + dl)
3
where h = distance between successive measurements
df = first measurement
dm = middle measurement
dl = last measurement.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Use Simpson’s rule to approximate the area shown on the right.
30 m
10 m
THINK WRITE 90 m
1 Calculate h. h = 90 ÷ 2 = 45
2 Write down the values of df , dm and dl. df = 10, dm = 30, dl = 0
h
3 Write the formula. A ≈ (df + 4dm + dl)
3
45
4 Substitute. A≈ (10 + 4 × 30 + 0)
3
5 Calculate. = 15 × 130
≈ 1950 m2

Could Simpson’s rule be used to estimate the areas of these irregular shapes from nature?
Simpson’s rule can be used to approximate the area of an irregular shape without a straight edge. This
is done by constructing a line as in the diagram in the worked example below and approximating the
area of each section separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for the area shown on

the right. 30 m
30 m 30 m 10 m
17 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the value of h. h = 30

2 For the top area, write down the values of df , dm and dl. df = 0, dm = 30, dl = 10
h
3
30
4 Substitute. A≈ (0 + 4 × 30 + 10)
3
5 Calculate the top area. ≈ 10 × 130
≈ 1300 m2
6 For the bottom area, write down the values of df, df = 0, dm = 17, dl = 0
dm and dl.
h
7 Write down the formula. A ≈ (df + 4dm + dl)
3
30
8 Substitute. A≈ (0 + 4 × 17 + 0)
3
9 Calculate the bottom area. ≈ 10 × 68

≈ 680 m2
10 Add the two areas together. Area ≈ 1300 + 680

≈ 1980 m2
Simpson’s rule approximates an area, it does not give an exact measurement. To obtain a better
approximation, Simpson’s rule can be applied several times to the area. This is done by splitting the
area in half and applying Simpson’s rule separately to each half.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Use two applications of Simpson’s rule to approximate the area on

the right.
32 m
31 m
24 m
29 m
30 m
Tutorial
int-2413
105 m Worked
THINK WRITE example 13
1 Calculate h by dividing 105 by 4. (We are using h = 105 ÷ 4

4 sub-intervals.) = 26.25
2 Apply Simpson’s rule to the left half. Write the df = 32, dm = 31, dl = 24
values of df, dm and dl.
h
3
26.25
4 Substitute. A≈ (32 + 4 × 31 + 24)
3
5 Calculate the approximate area of the left half. ≈ 8.75 × 180
≈ 1575 m2
6 Apply Simpson’s rule to the right half. Write the df = 24, dm = 29, dl = 30
values of df, dm and dl.
h
3
26.25
8 Substitute. A≈ (24 + 4 × 29 + 30)
3
9 Calculate the approximate area of the right half. ≈ 8.75 × 170
≈ 1487.5 m2
10 Add the areas together. Area ≈ 1575 + 1487.5
≈ 3062.5 m2
Exercise 6D Simpson’s rule

1 WE11 The diagram on the right
is of a part of a creek.
a State the value of h.
Digital doc
b State the value of df, dm and dl. SkillSHEET 6.5
c Use Simpson’s rule to doc-11050
40 m
Substitution into
approximate the area of this
18 m
formulas
section of the creek.
9m
60 m

2 Use Simpson’s rule to approximate each of the areas below.
a b c
40 m
28 m
16 m
12 m
6m
35 m
0m
12 m
10 m
72 m 54 m
48 m
3 WE12 The irregular area on the right has been divided into two areas A1
labelled A1 (upper area) and A2 (lower area).
5 m 18 m
a Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for Al.
19 m 11 m
b Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for A2. 30 m 80 m
7m
c What is the approximate total area of the figure?
A2
4 Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
a b c
17 m
22 m 11 m
31 m
27 m
14 m 6 m
21 m
12 m 10 m
45 m 45 m
0 16 m 16 m
12 m
27 m 27 m
21 m
23 m
40 m
5 MC Consider the figure drawn on the right.
Simpson’s rule gives an approximate area of:
A 1200 m2
51 m
B 2400 m2
22 m
7m
C 3495 m2
D 6990 m2 90 m
6 MC If we apply Simpson’s rule twice, how many measurements from the traverse line need to be
taken?
A 4 B 5 C 7 D 9
7 WE13 Use Simpson’s rule twice to approximate the area
on the right.
50 m
45 m
36 m
25 m
10 m
18 m 18 m 18 m 18 m
8 Use Simpson’s rule twice to approximate each of the areas drawn below.
a b c
71 m
20 m
44 m
50 m
42 m
33 m
22 m
11 m
60 m 60 m 60 m 60 m
102 m
21 m 21 m 21 m 21 m
87 m
54 m
63 m
45 m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
9 The figure on the right is of a cross-section of a waterway. 32 m

a Use Simpson’s rule once to find an approximate area of this section
15 m
of land.
27 m
b Use Simpson’s rule twice to obtain a better approximation for the

36 m
cross-section.

10 Apply Simpson’s rule four times to approximate the area on the right.
45 m
41 m
38 m
36 m
30 m
35 m
24 m
30 m
20 m
9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m
Further development
11 Explain why Simpson’s rule cannot be used to find the area of the figure below.
18 m 21 m
12 m 15 m
10 m 10 m 10 m
12 The figure below shows the entrance to a cave.
7m
1.8 m 1.9 m
6m 6m
a Find the area of the entrance.
b The cave is 25 metres long and approximately has the same cross-section for its entire depth.
Approximate the volume of the cave.
13 The figure below shows the cross-section of a river.
15 m 15 m
8m
Find the area of the cross-section.

14 The figure below shows a semicircle of radius 12 cm.
12 cm
a Find the area of the semicircle correct to the nearest cm2.

b Joe finds the area of the semicircle using Simpson’s rule, taking h = 12 cm, the middle value as
12 cm, while the first and last values are both zero. What answer does Joe get?
c Find the percentage error in using Simpson’s rule to find the area of this semicircle.
15 A botanist needs to estimate the number of trees in a certain
headland area. It is known that there are approximately 32 trees
in every 100 square metres. A diagram of the area is drawn below.
35 m
20 m
17 m
60 m
Complete the estimate of the number of trees to the nearest 10 trees.

16 The figure below is a top view of an in ground swimming pool.
The pool is symmetrical and has a length of 16 metres. At its two widest points the width of the pool
is 10 metres and at the narrow point in the middle it is 5 metres wide. The pool is 2.5 metres deep at
all points.
Use Simpson’s rule to estimate the volume of the pool.

Area usually refers to the space inside a 2-dimensional shape. Surface area refers to the total area
occupied by the faces of a 3-dimensional shape. Surface area is measured in square units as are
2-dimensional area problems. In general, the surface area of a solid needs to be calculated by adding the
area of each face separately. However, for some solids there is a unique formula.
Cube
A cube has six identical faces, each of which is a square. Consider a cube of side length s.
Each face can have its area calculated using the formula A = s2. Therefore, we have
the formula for the surface area (SA) of a cube:
SA = 6s2 s
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Find the surface area of the cube at right.
4.3 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 6s2

2 Substitute the side length. = 6 × 4.32
3 Calculate the surface area. = 110.94 cm2
Rectangular prism
Consider a rectangular prism with a length of l, a breadth of b and a
height of h. h
Each pair of opposite faces are equal. Using the formula for a rectangle: b
l
Front and back A = l × h
Top and bottom A = l × b
Left and right A=b×h
Adding these gives the formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism:
SA = 2(lh + lb + bh)

WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Find the surface area of the rectangular prism at right.
9.7 m
3.2 m
4.3 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 2(lh + lb + bh)

2 Substitute the length, breadth and height. = 2(4.3 × 9.7 + 4.3 × 3.2 + 3.2 × 9.7)
3 Calculate the surface area. = 173.02 m2
For other prisms the surface area is found by adding the area of each face separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Find the surface area of the following

triangular prism. 13 cm
5 cm
10 cm
12 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Find the area of the triangular base. A = 12 bh

= 12 × 12 × 5
= 30 cm2
2 Find the area of each rectangular side. A = lb A = lb A = lb
= 5 × 10 = 12 × 10 = 13 × 10
= 50 cm2 = 120 cm2 = 130 cm2
3 Add the two bases (front and back) and the SA = 2 × 30 + 50 + 120 + 130
three rectangles. = 360 cm2
Exercise 6E Surface area of some prisms

1 WE14 Find the surface area of each of the cubes below.
a b c
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.6
5 cm doc-11051
Surface area
9 cm of cubes and
32 cm rectangular prisms
d e f
2.7 cm
62 mm
2.8 m

2 WE15 Find the surface area of each of the following rectangular prisms.
a b c
12 cm
Digital doc 3m 42 cm 21 cm
SkillSHEET 6.7 4m
doc-11052 7m 7.5 m
Surface area of
triangular prisms 3.5 m
2.5 m
d e f
4 cm
4.1 cm 20 cm 42 mm
3.9 cm
13 cm
14 cm 7 mm
7 mm
3 Oliver is making a box in the shape of a rectangular prism. The box is to be 2.5 m long, 1.2 m
wide and 0.8 m high. Calculate the surface area of the box.
4 Calculate the surface area of an open box in the shape of a cube, with a side length of 75 cm.
(Hint: Since the box is open there are only five faces.)
5 A room is in the shape of a rectangular prism. The floor is 5 m long and 3.5 m wide. The room
has a ceiling 2.5 m high. The floor is to be covered with slate tiles, the walls are to be painted blue
and the roof is to be painted white.
a Calculate the area to be tiled.
b Each tile is 0.25 m2. Calculate the number of tiles needed.
c Calculate the area to be painted blue.
d Calculate the area to be painted white.
e One litre of paint covers an area of 2 m2. How many litres of paint are needed to paint
the room?
6 MC Two cubes are drawn such that the side length on the second cube is double the side length
on the first cube. The surface area of the larger cube will be:
A twice the surface area of the smaller cube
B four times the surface area of the small cube
C six times the surface area of the small cube
D eight times the surface area of the small cube
7 WE16 Calculate the surface area of the triangular
prism below.
5 cm
4 cm
2 cm
3 cm
8 Calculate the surface area of the prism below.
3.2 m
1m
2m
4m
6m

9 Find the surface area of the cube shown at right.
10 Find the surface area of a rectangular prism with a length
of 8 cm, a breadth of 5 cm and a height of 6 cm. 9c
m
11 Find the surface area of the triangular prism below.
10 cm 8 cm
20 cm
6 cm
Further development
12 Find the width of the prism in the figure below:
8m
w=?
12 m
TSA = 592 m2
13 A cardboard box is designed to contain a clothes dryer

which is 1 m × 1 m × 1 m. The box is to allow an extra
5% on each side to allow the dryer to be placed in and
taken out of the box. Find the surface area of the box.
14 A bread bin has the following design.
90
cm
60 cm
Find the surface area of the bread bin.

15 The figure below shows the packaging for a chocolate bar.
Digital doc
ARIS-CHOC WorkSHEET 6.1
doc-11053
19.5 cm 3.5 cm
Find the area of cardboard used if the area is increased by 10% for overlap.

From earlier work you should remember that surface area is the area of all surfaces interactivity
int-2782
of a 3-dimensional shape.
Surface area of
Consider a closed cylinder with a radius (r) and a perpendicular height (h). a sphere
The surface of the cylinder consists of two circles and a rectangle.
Area of top = πr2
h
Area of bottom = πr2
The rectangular side of the cylinder will have a length equal to the circumference
of the circle (2πr) and a width equal to the height (h) of the cylinder. r
Area of side = 2πrh
The surface area of the closed cylinder can be calculated using the formula:
SA = 2πr 2 + 2πrh

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Calculate the surface area of the closed cylinder drawn on the right.
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
10 cm
9 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh

2 Substitute the values of r and h. = 2 × π × 92 + 2 × π × 9 × 10
For cylinders, before calculating the surface area you need to consider whether the cylinder is open or
closed. In the case of an open cylinder there is no top and so the formula needs to be written as:
SA = πr2 + 2πrh
Note: On the formula sheet in the exam, only the formula for the closed cylinder is provided. You will
need to check the question and adapt the formula yourself if necessary.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 6.5 cm and a height of 10.8 cm.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = πr2 + 2πrh

2 Substitute the values of r and h. = π × (6.5)2 + 2 × π × 6.5 × 10.8
A sphere is a round 3-dimensional shape, and the only measurement given

is the radius (r). The surface area of a sphere can be calculated using the
formula: r
SA = 4πr2
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Calculate the surface area of the sphere drawn on the right. Give the answer
2.7 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. SA = 4πr2

2 Substitute the value of r. = 4 × π × (2.7)2

Exercise 6F Surface area of cylinders and spheres
1 WE17 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 11 cm.
2 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below. Give each answer correct to Digital doc
1 decimal place. SkillSHEET 6.8
doc-11054
a b c Circumference of
a circle
5 cm
1.6 m
20 cm
12 cm
1.1 m
3 cm
d e f
20 cm 5.9 cm 1.5 m
5.9 cm 2.3 m
r r = 5 cm
3 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a diameter of 3.4 m and a height of 1.8 m. Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
4 WE18 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 4 cm and a height of 16 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
5 Calculate the surface area of each of the following open cylinders. Give each answer correct to
1 decimal place.
a b c
13.3 cm 22 cm 30 cm
9.6 cm 20 cm
r r = 4.1 cm
d e f
50 cm
3.2 m
23.2 cm
2.4 cm
4m
4 cm
6 Find the outside surface area of a cylinder open at both ends with a radius of 5 cm and a height
of 10 cm.
7 A can of fruit is made of stainless steel. The can has a radius of 3.5 cm and a height of 7 cm. A label
is to be wrapped around the can.
a Calculate the amount of steel needed to make the can (correct to the nearest whole number).
b Calculate the area of the label (correct to the nearest whole number).
8 WE19 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a radius of 3 cm. Give your answer correct to the
nearest whole number.
9 Calculate the surface area of each of the spheres drawn below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal
place.
a b c
2.1 cm
8 cm 14 cm

d e f
1m 3.4 cm 1.8 m
10 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 42 cm. Give your answer correct to the
11 MC An open cylinder has a diameter of 12 cm and a height of 15 cm. Which of the following
calculations gives the correct surface area of the cylinder?
A π × 62 + 2 × π × 6 × 15 B 2 × π × 62 + 2 × π × 6 × 15
C π × 122 + 2 × π × 12 × 15 D 2 × π × 122 + 2 × π × 12 × 15
12 MC Which of the following figures has the greatest surface area?
A A closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm
B An open cylinder with a radius of 6 cm and a height of 10 cm
C A cylinder open at both ends with a radius of 7 cm and a height of 10 cm
D A sphere with a radius of 6 cm
13 An open cylinder has a diameter and height of 12 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b A sphere sits exactly inside this cylinder. Calculate the surface area of this sphere (correct to the
nearest whole number).
Further development
14 A cylindrical can is to contain three tennis balls each having a diameter of 6 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of each ball.
b The three balls fit exactly inside the can. State the radius and height of the can.
c The can is open and made of stainless steel, except the top which will be plastic. Calculate the
area of the plastic lid (correct to the nearest whole number).
d Calculate the amount of stainless steel in the can (correct to the nearest whole number).
e Calculate the area of a paper label that is to be wrapped around the can (correct to the nearest
whole number).
15 Calculate the surface area of the hemisphere drawn below given that it is open at the base.
22 cm
Give your answer correct to the nearest hundred cm2.

16 Calculate the outside surface area of the hemisphere in question 15 if it is
8 cm
closed at the base.
17 Find the surface area of the largest sphere that can be placed inside the cylinder 4 cm
on the right.
18 A tennis ball has a diameter of 7 cm. Calculate
the surface area of a cylindrical tennis ball canister that is
to hold four tennis balls exactly.
19 Soccer balls have a diameter of 30 cm.
a The soccer ball is to be placed in the
smallest possible cubic box. Calculate the
surface area of this box.
b Calculate the percentage of material saved by
placing the ball in a spherical box of diameter
30 cm. Give your answer to the nearest whole
number.

Computer Application 1: Minimising surface area
Access the spreadsheet Volume from the Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2 eBookPLUS. Digital doc
A cylindrical drink container is to have a capacity of 1 litre (volume = 1000 cm3). We are going to EXCEL Spreadsheet
calculate the most cost-efficient dimensions to make the container. To do this, we want to make the doc-1311
Volume
container with as little material as possible. In other words, we want to minimise the surface area of the
cylinder. The spreadsheet should look as shown below.
1. In cell B3 enter the volume of the cylinder, 1000.
2. In cell A6 enter a radius of 1. In cell A7 enter a radius of 2 and so on up to a radius of 20.
3. The formula that has been entered in cell B6 will give the height of the cylinder corresponding to the
radius for the given volume.
4. The surface area of each possible cylinder is in column D. Use the charting function on the
spreadsheet to graph the surface area against the radius.
5. What are the most cost-efficient dimensions of the drink container?
Digital doc
Challenge exercise Investigation
Use one of the other worksheets to find the most efficient dimensions to make a rectangular prism of doc-2747
Packaging
volume 1000 cm3 and a cone of volume 200 cm3.
6G Volume of pyramids, cones

and spheres interactivity
int-1150
Maximising the
volume of a cube
Pyramids
The volume of any pyramid is one-third of the volume of the corresponding prism.
This leads us to the general formula for the volume of any pyramid:
V = 13Ah
where A is the area of the base and h is the height of the pyramid.

WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Find the volume of the pyramid on the right.
7 cm Area = 45 cm2
THINK WRITE
1 We are given A and h, so use the general formula. V = 13Ah
2 Substitute the value of A and h. = 13 × 45 × 7
3 Calculate V. = 105 cm3
In other cases we may need to calculate the area of the base before we are able to use the general
formula for the volume of a pyramid.
Cones
A cone is a circular pyramid. By substituting the formula for the area of a circle into the general formula
for the volume of a pyramid, we find the formula for the volume of any cone.
A = πr2 when substituted into V = 13 Ah becomes
V = 13πr2h
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Find the volume of the cone on the right, correct to 2 decimal places. 8.5 cm
3.2 cm
Tutorial
int-2482
Worked
example 21 THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. V = 13πr2h

2 Substitute the radius and height. = 13 × π × 3.22 × 8.5
3 Calculate the volume. = 91.15 cm3
Spheres
A sphere is a solid that looks like a ball. To find the volume of a sphere we need only the radius. The
volume is calculated using the formula:
V = 43πr3
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Find the volume of a sphere with a radius of 9.5 cm, correct to the nearest cm3.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. V = 43πr3

2 Substitute the radius. = 43 × π × 9.53
3 Calculate the volume. = 3591 cm3

Exercise 6G Volume of pyramids, cones and spheres
1 WE20 Find the volume of each of the pyramids below.
a b
8m
6m
A = 25 cm2 A = 47 cm2
c d
2.5 m
9 cm
A = 62 cm2
A = 13.5 m2
2 For each of the following pyramids, calculate the volume by first calculating the area of the
base shape.
a b
8 cm
6 cm
15 cm 8 cm
14 cm
c d
12 m 8 cm
6 cm
5 cm
6m
12 cm
10 m
1
3 Use the formula V = Ah to find the volume of the following cones.
3
a b Digital doc
EXCEL Spreadsheet
6 cm
doc-1482
A = 46 cm2 Volume of a cone
10 cm
A = 30 cm2
c d
14 cm 52 mm A = 12 mm2
A = 150 cm2
4 WE21 Find the volume of each of the following cones, correct to the nearest whole number.
a b
10 cm
5 cm 12 cm
12 cm
c d 42 cm
33 mm
8 mm 42 cm

5 A cone has a base with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 12 cm. Calculate the volume of that cone,
6 WE22 Calculate the volume of each of the following spheres, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c d
3.2 m
6 cm 8 cm 12.5 m
7 Calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 2.3 cm. Answer correct to 2 decimal places.
8 MC Which of the following solids could not be described as a pyramid?
A B
C D
9 MC A triangular pyramid and a square pyramid both have a base area of 20 cm2 and a height of
15 cm. Which has the greater volume?
A The triangular pyramid B The square pyramid
C Both have equal volume D This can’t be calculated.
10 MC A spherical balloon has a volume of 500 cm3. It is then inflated so that the diameter of the
balloon is doubled. The volume of the balloon will now be:
A 1000 cm3 B 2000 cm3 C 3000 cm3 D 4000 cm3
11 Find the volume of the solid on the right. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
12 A hollow rubber ball is to be made with a radius of 8 cm, and the rubber to 4 cm
be used is 1 cm thick.
a What would be the radius of the hollow inside? 12 cm
b Calculate the volume of the ball.
c Calculate the volume of space inside the ball.
d Calculate the amount of rubber (in cm3) needed to make the ball.
13 The figure on the right is a truncated cone, that is, a cone with the top cut off.
15 cm
a Calculate the volume of the cone before it was truncated.
3 cm
b The portion cut off was itself a cone. Calculate its volume.
c Calculate the volume of the truncated cone. 6 cm
6 cm
14 Use the same method as in question 13 to find the volume
5 cm
of the truncated pyramid shown at right.
3 cm
1 cm
3 cm 2.5 cm
15 The figure at right is of an ice-cream cone, containing a spherical scoop
of ice-cream.
a Calculate the volume of the cone.
8 cm
b Calculate the volume of the scoop of ice-cream.
c Calculate the total volume of the shape. (Hint: Only half the sphere
sits above the cone.)

Further development
16 Find the volume of each of the following correct to one decimal place.
a b c d 60 cm
12.6
22.4 cm cm
8.4
cm
18.5
cm 64
cm
80 cm
12 cm
17 The following diagram shows a tennis canister that contains four tennis balls each of 7 cm
diameter 7 cm.
a What is the radius and height of the canister?
b Find the volume of the canister correct to the nearest cm3.
c Find the amount of empty space in the canister.
18 A cosmetic eye mask is 12 mm thick and filled will a special liquid. Find the volume of
the liquid given that the mask has a cross sectional area of 140 cm2.
19 Fifty small chocolates are to be placed inside a spherical ball. Given that each chocolate
has a volume of 0.8 cm3, find the diameter of the spherical ball.
20 One hundred spherical marbles of diameter 1 cm are put into a larger sphere
12 cm
of diameter 10 cm. Find the percentage of space inside the larger sphere that
is occupied.
24
21 The vase drawn on the right is a frustum, which is a cone with part cut off. cm
The height of the frustum is 24 cm, which is two-thirds the height of the full cone.
Find the volume of the frustum.
6H Volume of composite solids

Many solid shapes are composed of two or more regular solids. To calculate the volume of such a figure,
we need to determine the best method for each particular part. Many irregular shapes may still be prisms. interactivity
int-2754
A prism is a shape in which every cross-section taken parallel to the base shape is equal to that Volume of prisms
base shape. The base shape must be a polygon.
The formula for the volume of a prism is:
V = Ah
where A is the area of the base shape and h is the height.
Remember that the base of the prism is not necessarily the bottom. The base is the shape that is
constant throughout the prism and will usually be drawn as the front of the prism. This means that the
height will be drawn perpendicular to the base. To calculate the volume of any prism, we first calculate
the area of the base and then multiply by the height.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Find the volume of the figure drawn on the right. 4 cm
12 cm
6 cm
3 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Divide the front face into two rectangles. 4 cm
12 cm
A1
6 cm
A2
10 cm
2 Calculate the area of each. A1 = 4 × 12 A2 = 6 × 6

= 48 cm2 = 36 cm2
3 Add the areas together to find the value of A. A = 48 + 36
= 84 cm2
4 Write the formula. V=A×h
5 Substitute A = 84 and h = 3. = 84 × 3
6 Calculate. = 252 cm3
If the shape is not a prism, you may need to divide it into two or more regular 3-dimensional shapes. You
could then calculate the volume by finding the volume of each shape separately. You will need to use
important volume formulas that appear on the formula sheet:
Cone: V = 13πr2h Cylinder: V = πr2h Pyramid: V = 13Ah Sphere: V = 43πr3
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Calculate the volume of the figure drawn on the right, correct to

2 decimal places.
2.4 cm
1.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 The shape is a cylinder with a hemisphere on top.

2 Write down the formula for the volume of a V = πr2h
cylinder.
3 Substitute r = 1.2 and h = 2.4. = π × (1.2)2 × 2.4
4 Calculate the volume of the cylinder. = 10.857 cm3
5 Write down the formula for the volume of V = 43πr3 ÷ 2
a hemisphere. (This is the formula for the
volume of a sphere divided by 2.)

6 Substitute r = 1.2. = 43 × π × (1.2)3 ÷ 2
7 Calculate the volume of the hemisphere. = 3.619 cm3
8 Add the two volumes together. Volume = 10.857 + 3.619
= 14.48 cm3
In many cases a volume question may be presented in the form of a practical problem.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
A water storage tank is in the shape of a cube of side length 1.8 m, surmounted by a cylinder of
diameter 1 m with a height of 0.5 m. Calculate the capacity of the tank, correct to the nearest
100 litres.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram of the water tank. 0.5 m

1m
1.8 m
2 Calculate the volume of the cube using the V = s3

formula V = s3. = 1.83
= 5.832 m3
3 Calculate the volume of the cylinder using the V = πr2h
formula V = πr2h. = π × 0.52 × 0.5
= 0.393 m3
4 Add the volumes together. Volume = 5.832 + 0.393
= 6.225 m3
5 Calculate the capacity of the tank using Capacity = 6.225 × 1000
1 m3 = 1000 L. = 6225 L
6 Give an answer in words. The capacity of the tank is approximately
6200 litres.
Exercise 6H Volume of composite solids 6 cm

1 WE23 Look at the figure drawn on the right.
a Find the area of the front face. Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.9
18 cm
b Use the formula V = A × h to calculate the volume of the prism. doc-11055

5 cm
2 Find the volume of the following prisms (to 2 decimal place). Volume of cubes
and rectangular
a b 4 cm prisms
20 cm
18 mm
15 cm
[Base area: 35 mm2] [Base area: 28 cm2]

c
6 mm
d
15 mm
14 mm
26.5 mm
8 mm 6 mm
(Note: This is called as
annular cylinder)
3 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below.

a 5 cm b
10 cm
15 cm
12 cm
4 cm
20 cm 12 cm
5 cm
20 cm
c d 0.7 m
12 cm
25 cm
2.3 m
40 cm 3 cm 0.4 m
2.1 m
e f
4 m 0.5 m
0.6 m
1m
5m 1.5 m
2m
4 WE 24 Consider the figure on the right. 1.5 m

The shape consists of a cube with a square pyramid on top.
Digital doc
a What is the volume of the cube?
SkillSHEET 6.10 b What is the volume of the square pyramid?
doc-11056 c What is the total volume of this figure?
Volume of
triangular prisms
2m
5 The figure on the right is a cylinder with a cone mounted on top.

a Calculate the volume of the cylinder, correct to the nearest cm3. 40 cm
b Calculate the volume of the cone, correct to the nearest cm3.
c What is the total volume of the figure?
50 cm
12 cm

6 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
Digital doc
3 cm SkillSHEET 6.11
doc-11057
34 cm Volume of
5 cm
cylinders
r r =12 cm 50 cm
7 MC Which of the figures drawn below is not a prism?

A B
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.12
doc-11058
Volume of a
sphere
C D
8 MC The volume of the figure on the right is closest to:

A 718 cm3
B 1437 cm3
C 2155 cm3 14 cm
D 2873 cm3 7 cm
9 A fish tank is in the shape of a rectangular prism.

The base measures 45 cm by 25 cm. The tank is
filled to a depth of 15 cm.
a Calculate the volume of water in the tank in cm3.
b Given that 1 cm3 = 1 mL calculate, in litres,
the amount of water in the tank.
10 WE25 A hemispherical wine glass of radius 2.5 cm
is joined to a cylinder of radius 1 cm and height
5 cm. The glass then rests on a solid base.
a Draw a diagram of the wine glass.
b Calculate the capacity of the glass, to the
nearest 10 mL.
c How many glasses of wine can be poured
from a 1 litre bottle?
11 The figure on the right is the cross-section of an annular cylinder for a concrete pipe used as a
sewage outlet.
a Calculate the area of a cross-section of the pipe, shown in blue, correct to
2 decimal places.
b Calculate the amount of concrete needed to make a 10-m length
of this pipe. 3m
12 A commemorative cricket ball has a diameter of 7 cm. It is to be preserved in 2.5 m

a cubic case that will allow 5 mm on each side of the ball.
a What will the side length of the cubic case be?
b Calculate the amount of empty space inside the case, to the nearest
whole number.
c Calculate the percentage of space inside the case occupied by the ball, to the nearest whole
number.

Further development
13 A diamond is cut into the shape of two square-based pyramids as shown on
6 mm
the right. Each mm3 of the diamond has a mass of 0.04 g. Calculate the mass
Digital doc of the diamond.
SkillSHEET 6.13 6 mm
doc-11059
Volume of a
pyramid
14 Find the volume of these objects (to the nearest whole unit).
a b 8 cm
m 5 cm
9c
r= 12 cm
5 cm
6 cm
c 2 cm d
5 cm
3 cm
2.5 cm
3 cm
e f
2m
20 cm 4.2 m
12 m
35 cm
5m
12 cm
g h
21 m
19 m
3m
60 m
21 m
1.6 m
14 cm
15 The medicine cup on the right has the shape of a cone with a diameter of 4 cm
and a height of 5 cm (not including the cup’s base). Find the volume of the cone
15 cm
to the nearest millilitre, where 1 cm3 = 1 mL.

16 Tennis balls have a diameter of 6.5 cm and are packaged in a cylinder that can
hold four tennis balls. Assuming the balls just fit inside a cylinder, find:
a the height of the cylindrical can
b the volume of the can (to 1 decimal place)
c the volume of the four tennis balls (to 1 decimal place)
d the volume of the can occupied by air
e the fraction of the can’s volume occupied by the balls.

17 MC The ratio of the volume of a sphere to that of a cylinder of similar r
dimensions, as shown in the diagram, is best expressed as:
4 2
A B
3 3
3 3
C D
4 2
18 A model aeroplane is controlled by a tethered string of 10 metres length. r
The operator stands in the middle of an oval. (Give all answers to the
nearest whole unit.)
a What is the maximum area of the oval occupied by the plane in
flight?
b If the plane can be manoeuvred in a hemispherical zone, find:
i the surface area of the airspace that the plane can occupy Digital docs
ii the volume of airspace that is needed by the operator for controlling Investigation
doc-2748
the plane. Maximising
c Repeat part b with a new control string with a length of 15 metres. volume
6I Error in measurement

Earlier in this chapter we saw that all measurements are approximations. The degree of accuracy
in any measurement is restricted by the accuracy of the measuring device and the degree of
practicality.
We have previously seen that the maximum error in any measurement is half of the smallest unit of
measurement. This error is compounded when further calculations such as surface area or volume
are made.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
In the rectangular prism on the right, the length, breadth

and height have been measured, correct to the nearest
centimetre.
8 cm
15 cm
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism.
b Calculate the greatest possible error in the volume. 20 cm
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism. a V=l×w×h

= 20 × 15 × 8
= 2400 cm3
b 1 Write the smallest possible dimensions of the b Smallest possible dimensions:

prism. l = 19.5, w = 14.5, h = 7.5
2 Calculate the smallest possible volume. V=l×w×h

= 19.5 × 14.5 × 7.5
= 2120.625 cm3
3 Write the largest possible dimensions of the Largest possible dimensions:

prism. l = 20.5, w = 15.5, h = 8.5
4 Calculate the largest possible volume. V=l×w×h

= 20.5 × 15.5 × 8.5
= 2700.875 cm3
5 Calculate the maximum error. Maximum error = 2700.875 − 2400

= 300.875 cm3

As can be seen in the above example, a possible error of
0.5 cm in the linear measurement compounds to an error
of 300.875 cm3 in the volume measurement.
Errors in measurement will compound errors in all
further calculations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
A swimming pool is built in the shape of a rectangular prism with a length of 10.2 m, a width of
7.5 m and a depth of 1.5 m. The floor and the sides of the pool need to be cemented.
Tutorial
a Calculate the area that is to be cemented.
int-2414 b The concreter incorrectly measured the length of the pool as 9.4 m. Calculate the error in the
Worked area calculation.
example 27
c Calculate the percentage error (correct to 1 decimal place) in the area calculation.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the area of the pool floor. a Area of f loor = 10.2 × 7.5
= 76.5 m2
2 Calculate the area of the ends. Area of ends = 7.5 × 1.5
= 11.25 m2
3 Calculate the area of the sides. Area of sides = 10.2 × 1.5
= 15.3 m2
4 Calculate the total area to be cemented. Total area = 76.5 + 2 × 11.25 + 2 × 15.3
= 129.6 m2
b 1 Use the incorrect measurement to repeat b Area of f loor = 9.4 × 7.5
all the above calculations. = 70.5 m2
Area of ends = 7.5 × 1.5
= 11.25 m2
Area of sides = 9.4 × 1.5
= 14.1 m2
Total area = 70.5 + 2 × 11.25 + 2 × 14.1
= 121.2 m2
2 Find the difference between the two Error = 129.6 − 121.2
answers. = 8.4 m2
8.4
c Write the error as a percentage of the correct c Percentage error = × 100%
answer. 129.6
= 6.5%
Exercise 6I Error in measurement

1 WE26 In the figure on the right each measurement has been taken to
Digital doc
12 cm
SkillSHEET 6.14 the nearest centimetre.

doc-11060 a Calculate the volume of the figure.
Error in linear 6 cm
b Calculate the maximum error in the volume calculation.
measurement 16 cm
2 The radius of a circle is measured as 7.6 cm, correct to 1 decimal place.
a What is the maximum possible error in the measurement of the radius?
b Calculate the area of the circle. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle.
d Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle as a percentage of the area.

3 A cube has a side length of 16 mm, correct to the nearest millimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the cube.
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cube.
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cube.
d Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the volume of the cube.
e Calculate the surface area of the cube.
f Calculate the smallest possible surface area of the cube.
g Calculate the largest possible surface area of the cube.
h Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the surface area of the cube.
4 A cylinder has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 6 cm with each measurement being taken correct to
the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
d Calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the volume of the cylinder.
5 For the cylinder in question 4, calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the surface area of
the cylinder.
6 The radius of a sphere is 1.4 m with the measurement taken correct to 1 decimal place.
a Calculate the volume of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the maximum possible error in the volume of the sphere.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume.
d Calculate the surface area of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
e Calculate the maximum possible error in the surface area of the sphere.
f Calculate the maximum percentage error in the surface area.
7 WE27 An open cylindrical water tank has a radius of 45 cm and a height of 60 cm.
a Calculate the capacity of the tank, in litres (correct to the nearest whole number).
b If the tank’s radius is given as 50 cm, correct to the nearest 10 cm, calculate the error in the
capacity of the tank.
c Calculate the percentage error in the capacity of the tank.
8 A rectangular prism has dimensions 56 cm × 41 cm × 17 cm.
a Calculate the volume of the prism.
b Calculate the surface area of the prism.
c If the dimensions are given to the nearest 10 cm, what will the dimensions of the prism be given as?
d Calculate the percentage error in the volume when the dimensions are given to the nearest 10 cm.
e Calculate the percentage error in the surface area when the dimensions are given to the nearest 10 cm.
9 The four walls of a room are to be painted. The length of the room is 4.1 m and the width is 3.6 m.
Each wall is 1.8 m high.
a Calculate the area to be painted.
b One litre of paint will paint an area of 2 m2. Each wall will need two coats of paint. Calculate the
number of litres of paint required to complete this job.
c Karla incorrectly measures the length of the room to be
3.9 m. If Karla does all her calculations using this
incorrect measurement, how many litres will she
be short of paint at the end of the job?
10 The dimensions of a rectangular house are 16.6 m by 9.8 m.
a Simon takes the dimensions of the house to the nearest
metre for all his calculations. What dimensions does
Simon use?
b Simon plans to floor the house in slate tiles. What is the
area that needs to be tiled?
c The tiles cost $27.50/m2 and Simon buys an extra 10%
to allow for cutting and breakage. Calculate the cost of
the tiles.
d How much extra has Simon spent than would have been
necessary had he used the original measurements of
the house?

Further development
11 The dimensions of a rectangular courtyard are 20 metres by 12 metres, correct to the nearest metre.
The area is to be paved with pavers that are squares of side length 50 cm.
a Calculate the number of pavers that will be needed to ensure that the entire courtyard is paved,
allowing for possible measurement error in the courtyard measurements.
b If this number of pavers are ordered what would be the maximum number of pavers that could be
left over at the end of the job?
12 The area of a square is measured as being 4900 m2, correct to the nearest 100 m2. Find:
a the side length of the square
b the maximum possible side length (correct to 1 decimal place)
c the minimum possible side length (correct to 1 decimal place)
d the maximum percentage error in the side length (correct to 2 decimal places).
13 The volume of a sphere is found to be 23 000 cm3, correct to the nearest 1000 cm3. Find the
maximum percentage error in:
a the volume of the sphere
b the radius of the sphere.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
14 A cylinder has given radius of 10 cm and a height of 30 cm, correct to the nearest centimetre.
a Find the volume of the cylinder, correct to the nearest cm3.
b A liquid is to be poured into the cylinder. The liquid can expand by as much as 10% in hot
weather. Allowing for possible error in measurement, what is the maximum amount of the liquid
that can be poured into the cylinder such that none will spill in the event of expansion? Give your
answer correct to the nearest 100 mL.
15 a Find the area of a sector of a circle of radius 15 cm and subtending a 74° angle at the centre.
b Find the length of the arc formed.
c Find the maximum percentage error in
i the area of the sector
ii the arc length
given that the radius was measured to the nearest centimetre and the angle was measured to
the nearest degree.
16 The figure below is of a field. The area is to be approximated using Simpson’s rule.
30 m 30 m
5m
Digital doc 18 m
WorkSHEET 6.2
doc-11061 67 m
a Estimate the area.

b Given that each measurement is taken correct to the nearest metre, find the smallest possible area
of the field.
c Find the largest possible area of the field.
d Find the maximum percentage error.

Summary
Relative error • All measurements are approximations.
• Every measuring instrument is limited in the degree of accuracy that it allows.
• The maximum error is half the degree of accuracy used.
• A true gauge of the accuracy of a measurement is to calculate the maximum error as a
percentage of the measurement taken.
Area of parts of the circle • The area of a circle can be calculated using the formula A = πr2.
• The area of a sector is found by multiplying the area of the full circle by the fraction of
the circle occupied by the sector. This is calculated by looking at the angle that the sector
makes with the centre.
• An annulus is the area between two circles. The area is calculated by subtracting the area of
the smaller circle from the area of the larger circle or by using the formula A = π(R2 − r2),
where R is the radius of the large circle and r is the radius of the small circle.
• The area of an ellipse is calculated using the formula A = πab, where a is the length of
the semi-major axis and b is the length of the semi-minor axis.
Area of composite shapes • The area of a composite figure is calculated by dividing the figure into two or more
regular figures.
• When calculating the area of a composite figure, some side lengths will need to be
calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem.
Simpson’s rule • Simpson’s rule is used to find an approximation for an irregular area.
h
• The formula for Simpson’s rule is A ≈ (df + 4dm + dl).
3
• To obtain a better approximation for an area, Simpson’s rule can be applied twice. This is
done by dividing the area in half and applying Simpson’s rule separately to each half.
Surface area of prisms • The surface area is the total area of all faces on the solid shape.
• Surface area formulas
Cube: SA = 6s2
Rectangular Prism SA = 2(lh + lb + bh)
• Many solid shapes have their surface area calculated by separately calculating the area of
each face.
Surface area of cylinders and • The surface area of a closed cylinder is found by using the formula SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh.
spheres • If the cylinder is an open cylinder, the surface area is found using SA = πr2 + 2πrh.
• The surface area of a sphere is calculated using the formula SA = 4πr2.
Volume of pyramids, cones • All pyramids can have their volume calculated using the formula V = 13Ah.
and spheres. • The volume of a cone is found using V = 13πr2h.
• The volume of a sphere is found using the formula V = 43πr3.
Volume of composite solids • The volume of solid prisms is calculated using the formula V = A × h.
• The volume of a cone is found using the formula V = 13πr2h.
• The volume of a cylinder is found using the formula V = πr2h.
• The volume of a sphere is found using the formula V = 43πr3.
• The volume of a pyramid is found using the formula V = 13Ah.

• Other solids have their volume calculated by dividing the solid into regular solid shapes.
Error in measurement • All measurements are approximations. The maximum error in any measurement is half
the smallest unit used.
• Any error in a measurement will compound when further calculations using the
measurement need to be made.

Chapter review
1 MC A cube has a side length of 4 cm.
mult ip le
ch oice I: The surface area of the cube is 64 cm2.
II: The volume of the cube is 96 cm3.
Which of the above statements is correct?
A I only B II only
C Both I and II D Neither I nor II
2 The field drawn below is to have its area approximated by two applications of Simpson’s rule.
The value of h is:
A 16 B 20
C 40 D 80
30 m
25 m
20 m
15 m
10 m
80 m
3 The following figure is an open cylinder. Which of the calculations below will
correctly give the surface area of the cylinder?
A π × 52 + 2 × π × 5 × 20 B 2 × π × 52 + 2 × π × 5 × 20
C π × 102 + 2 × π × 10 × 20 D 2 × π × 102 + 2 × π × 10 × 20 20 cm
10 cm
4 A closed cylinder is measured as having a radius of 1.2 m and a height of 1.4 m.
The maximum error in the calculation of the surface area is:
A 1.2 m2 B 1.5 m2 C 1.6 m2 D 19.6 m2
Sh ort 1 An elevator has a capacity of 1.3 tonnes. If 18 people who each weigh an average of 66 kg are on the
a nswer
elevator, how much under the capacity is the total weight?
2 In each of the following, a measurement and its degree of accuracy are given. State the limits
between which the measurement lies.
a 34 cm, correct to the nearest centimetre b 8.9 kg, correct to 1 decimal place
c 500 km, correct to the nearest 100 km d 2.25 L, correct to 2 decimal places
e 800 km, correct to the nearest 10 km
3 For each of the measurements in question 2, find the degree of accuracy as a percentage, correct to
1 decimal place.
4 Calculate the area of each of the circles below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
3.7 cm 52 mm 1.7 m
5 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
92 mm 237°
30° 12.5 cm
4.8 m
6 Calculate the area of each of the annuluses below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
3.7 m 34 cm
81 mm
94 mm 1.3 m 17 cm

7 Calculate the area of the figure on the right. 35 cm
15 cm
10 cm 10 cm
12 cm
8 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Where appropriate,
give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a 0.7 m b
1.5 cm
c
3 cm
4.1 m
0.9 m
1.5 cm 36 cm
3.9 m 6 cm
9 Use Simpson’s rule to approximate the area below.
50 m
21 m
13 m
42 m 42 m
10 Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
a b c 2m
57 m
29 m
31 m
14 m
36 m
30 m
96 m 62 m
57 m
24 m 42 m
11 By dividing the area shown below into two sections, use Simpson’s
rule to find an approximation for the area.
50 m
27 m
19 m 11 m
30 m 30 m
25 m
62 m
12 Use Simpson’s rule twice to find an approximation for the area below.
33 m
38 m
23 m
44 m
9m
15 m 15 m 15 m 15 m
13 Find the surface area of each of the following solids.
a b 2.1 m
0.8 m
3.9 m
4.2 cm
c d 4.6 m
0.9 m
1.8 m

14 Calculate the surface area of each of the figures below, by calculating the area of each face separately
and adding them.
a b 10 cm c 5m
6 cm
5m 5 cm
4m
4 cm 15 m
2m
12 cm
3m 3.5 m
3m
12 m
15 Below is a diagram of an Olympic swimming pool.
a Calculate the area of one side wall. 50 m
b Use the formula V = A × h, to calculate the volume of the pool. 1m
22 m
c How many litres of water will it take to fill the pool?
(1 m3 = 1000 L)
2m
d The walls and floor of the pool need to be painted. Calculate
the area to be painted.
16 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below, correct to
1 decimal place.
a b c
25 cm 60 cm
10 cm 1.1 m
7 cm
4 cm
17 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 15 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
18 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with:
a a radius of 5 cm b a radius of 2.4 m
c a diameter of 156 mm.
Give each answer correct to the nearest whole number.
1
19 Use the formula V = 3Ah to calculate the volume of each of the pyramids below.
a 9 cm b 19 mm c
2.3 m
A = 16 cm2 A = 126 mm2 A = 6.9 m2

20 Calculate the volume of each of the pyramids, cones and spheres below.
a b c
2.6 m
25 m 3.2 m
36 m
7.9 m
52 mm
19 mm
d 19.5 mm e f
23 mm 70 cm
23.5 mm

21 Calculate the volume of the solid drawn below.
0.5 m
3.1 m
1.9 m
0.6 m
2.7 m
22 Calculate the volume of each of the solids drawn below. Where necessary, give your answer correct
to the nearest whole number.
a b c 12 cm
3 cm
9 cm
19 cm
12 cm
20 cm
3 cm
15 cm
3 cm
22 cm 10 cm
17 cm 40 cm 10 cm
23 Calculate the volume of the following figure, correct to 2 decimal places.
15 cm
9 cm
24 A sphere has a diameter of 16 cm when measured to the nearest centimetre.

a State the maximum error made in the measurement of the
radius.
b Calculate the volume of the sphere. Answer correct to the
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume of
the sphere.
25 An aluminium soft drink can has a diameter of 8 cm and a
height of 10 cm.
a Calculate the capacity of the can, in millilitres, correct to
the nearest 10 millilitres.
b The machine that cuts the aluminium for the can is
mistakenly set to 12 cm. Calculate the percentage error
in the capacity of the can (correct to the nearest whole
number).
1 The figure on the right shows a section of a concrete drainage pipe. Ex tended
R es p ons e
a Calculate the area of the annulus, correct to 1 decimal place.
2.5 m
b Calculate the volume of concrete needed to make a 5 m length of this pipe
(correct to 1 decimal place).
1.5 m
c Calculate the volume of water that will flow through the 5 m length of the pipe
(in litres, to the nearest 100 L).
d Calculate the surface area of a 5 m section of pipe (correct to the nearest m2).
(Hint: Include the area of the inside of the pipe.)

2 The diagram on the right shows the cross-section of a river.
a Use two applications of Simpson’s rule to find the approximate area 60 m
of the river’s cross-section.
4.9 m
Digital doc
5.1 m
b If the river flows with this cross-section for approximately 800 m,
9.2 m
doc-11062
Test yourself calculate the volume of the river.
chapter 6
c The length of the river has been approximated to the nearest 100 m.
Calculate the maximum percentage error in calculating this volume.

ICT activities
6A Relative error 6G Volume of pyramids, cones and spheres
DIGITAL DOCS INTERACTIVITY
• SkillSHEET 6.1 (doc-11046): Writing one quantity as a percentage of • int-1150: Maximising the volume of a cube. (page 153)
another. (p. 131) TUTORIAL
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1461): Calculations with percentages. • WE21 int-2482: Learn how to calculate the volume of a cone.
(p. 131) (page 154)
DIGITAL DOC
6B Area of parts of the circle • EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1482): Volume of a cone. (page 155)
TUTORIAL
• WE7 int-2411: Learn to calculate the area of an annulus. 6H Volume of composite solids
(page 134)
INTERACTIVITY
DIGITAL DOC • int-2754: Volume of prisms. (page 157)
• SkillSHEET 6.2 (doc-11047): Area of a circle. (page 134)
DIGITAL DOC
• SkillSHEET 6.9 (doc-11055): Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms.
6C Area of composite shapes (page 159)
INTERACTIVITies DIGITAL DOCS
• int-0005: Area. (page 136) • SkillSHEET 6.10 (doc-11056): Volume of triangular prisms. (page 160)
• int-2350: Area of a triangle. (page 136) • SkillSHEET 6.11 (doc-11057): Volume of cylinders. (page 161)
TUTORIAL • SkillSHEET 6.12 (doc-11058): Volume of a sphere. (page 161)
• WE9 int-2412: Learn how to find the area of a composite figure. • SkillSHEET 6.13 (doc-11059): Volume of a pyramid. (page 162)
(page 137) • Investigation (doc-2748): Maximising volume. (page 163)
DIGITAL DOCS
• SkillSHEET 6.3 (doc-11048): Areas of squares, rectangles and 6I Error in measurement
triangles. (page 138) TUTORIAL
• SkillSHEET 6.4 (doc-11049): Using Pythagoras’ theorem. • WE27 int-2414: Learn how to apply area concepts to a real
(page 138) situation. (page 164)
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1306): Pythagoras. (page 138)
• GC program — Casio (doc-1307): Mensuration. (page 138) DIGITAL DOCS
• SkillSHEET 6.14 (doc-11060): Error in linear measurement. (page 164)
• WorkSHEET 6.2 (doc-11061):Apply your knowledge of measurement
6D Simpson’s rule to problems. (page 166)
DIGITAL DOCS
• WE13 int-2413: Learn how to apply Simpson’s rule. Chapter review
(page 143)
• SkillSHEET 6.5 (doc-1308): Substitution into formulas. DIGITAL DOC
(page 143) • Test Yourself (doc-11062): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
DIGITAL DOCS
• SkillSHEET 6.6 (doc-11051): Surface area of cubes and rectangular
prisms. (page 147)
• SkillSHEET 6.7 (doc-11052): Surface area of triangular prisms.
(page 148)
• WorkSHEET 6.1 (doc-11053): Apply your knowledge of measurement
to problems. (page 149)

INTERACTIVITY
• int-2782: Surface area of a sphere. (page 149)
DIGITAL DOCS
• SkillSHEET 6.8 (doc-11054): Circumference of a circle. (page 151)
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1311): Volume. (page 153)
• Investigation (doc-2747): Packaging. (page 153)

Answers chapter 6
Further applications of 4 40.7 m2 Exercise 6D Simpson’s rule
5 a 14.16 cm2 1 a 30 m
area and volume b 6451.26 mm2 b df = 40 m, dm = 9 m, dl = 18 m
Exercise 6A Relative error c 92.33 m2 c 940 m2
1 a 4.5 cm to 5.5 cm d 110.79 mm2 2 a 1296 m2 b 1560 m2 c 936 m2
b 11.5 cm to 12.5 cm e 796.39 m2 3 a 620 m2 b 880 m2 c 1500 m2
c 33.5 cm to 34.5 cm f 955.67 mm2 4 a 2535 m2 b 1184 m2 c 2934 m2
d 58.5 cm to 59.5 cm 6 827.3 cm2 5 C
e 89.5 cm to 90.5 cm 7 339.3 cm2 6 B
f 199.5 cm to 200.5 cm 8 a 239 cm2 b 240 m2 7 2514 m2
2 a 35 m to 45 m c 18 100 mm2 8 a 2970 m2 b 11 840 m2
b 85 m to 95 m 9 a 2.5 m b 3.5 m c 18.8 m2 c 1386 m2
c 245 m to 255 m 10 B 9 a 768 m2 b 640 m2
d 295 m to 305 m 11 B 10 2484 m2
e 995 m to 1005 m 12 a 78.5 m2 b 122.5 m2 c 25.5 m2 11 The figure cannot be divided into an even
f 1995 m to 2005 m 13 a 750 m2 b 117.8 m2 c 15.7% number of equal strips.
3 a 5.25 cm to 5.35 cm 14 a 1571 m2 12 a 63.4 m2 b 1585 m3
b 9.75 m to 9.85 m b Tori is incorrect. Your explanation 13 160 m2
c 7.15 km to 7.25 km should include another example of 14 a 226 cm2 b 192 cm2
d 4.95 mm to 5.05 mm two radii differing by 10 m, giving a c 15.04%
e 9.85 km to 9.95 km different answer to that in part (a). 15 350 trees
f 0.05 m to 0.15 m 15 57° 16 300 m3
4 a 44.5 km to 45.5 km
Exercise 6C Area of composite shapes Exercise 6E Surface area of some prisms
b 0.5 km c 1.11%
1 248 m2 1 a 150 cm2 b 486 cm2
5 a 0.75% b 7.14% c 2.78%
2 a 222 cm2 b 375 cm2 2
c 6144 cm d 43.74 cm2
d 0.13% e 5%
c 335 cm2 d 228.5 cm2 e 23 064 mm2 f 47.04 m2
6 a i 4 cm ii 3 cm iii 5 cm
e 44.6 cm2 f 130.3 cm2 2
2 a 122 m b 107.5 m2
b i 12.5% ii 16.67% iii 10%
3 a 8 cm b 84 cm2 c 3276 cm2 d 95.98 cm2
7 a i 40 mm ii 27 mm iii 52 mm
4 a 5.3 m b 31.8 m2 2
e 1444 cm f 1274 mm2
b i 1.25% ii 1.85% iii 0.96%
5 a 120 m2 b 168 cm2 3 11.92 m2
8 a 1 h 15 min to 1 h 25 min
c 6658.2 mm2 4 28 125 cm2
b 5 minutes c 6.25%
6 a 174 cm2 b 510 m2 5 a 17.5 m2 b 70
9 B
c 4032 mm2 c 42.5 m2 d 17.5 m2
10 C
7 A e 30 L
11 C
8 B 6 B
12 D
9 a 250 m c
b 3582.5 m2 7 36 cm2
13 a 29.5 m to 30.5 m
8 95.6 m2
b 19.5 m to 20.5 m
9 486 cm2
c 98 m d 102 m e 2 m
10 236 cm2
14 a 575.25 m2 b 625.25 m2
50 m 11 568 cm2
c 25.25 m2
2
10 a 80 m b 109.7 cm 2 12 10 m
15 750.4 mL
c 12.2 cm2 d 58.4 cm2 13 6.615 m2
16 79.25 km
2
e 4600 mm f 20.1 m 2 14 2.65 m2
17 a 2.2% b 0.2% c 0.02%
11 2513 m 2 15 236.89 cm2
18 a 2.67%
b Travis is correct as the percentage error
42 m Exercise 6F Surface area of cylinders
is the same. 12 a and spheres
1m
19 11 cm 1 502.7 cm2
25 m
20 Jonas is correct as a whole number gives a 2 a 282.7 cm2 b 18.7 m2
27 m 2
percentage error of 10% while one decimal 40 m c 3141.6 cm d 785.4 cm2
place gives 1%. e 437.4 cm2 f 54.9 m2
21 a 28 m2 b 6.5 m and 3.5 m b 1000 m c 2 2
134 m d $2345 3 37.4 m 2
c 22.75 m2 d 18.75% 13 a 306 cm2 b 625 cm2 4 452 cm2

e 7.5 m and 4.5 m f 33.75 m2 c 1428.3 cm 2
d 1147.6 cm 2 5 a 395.4 cm2 b 1616.5 cm2
g 20.5% h 20.5% e 17 121.8 mm2 f 670.9 cm2 c 2199.1 cm2 d 367.9 cm2
2
22 2% 2
14 a 200 cm b 350 m 2 e 640.9 cm f 52.8 m2
Exercise 6B Area of parts of the circle c 50 cm2 d 35 000 mm2 6 314.16 cm2
1 128.7 cm2 e 0.0134 km2 f 37.5 ha 7 a 231 cm2 b 154 cm2
2 a 254.47 cm2 g 2750 m2 h 43 000 m2 8 113 cm2
b 3421.19 mm2 15 14.98 m2 9 a 804.2 cm2 b 55.4 cm2
c 172.03 m2 16 661 mm2 c 2463.0 cm2 d 12.6 m2
d 2206.18 cm2 17 a 12.6 m2 b 9.4 m2 e 145.3 cm2 f 40.7 m2
e 46.32 m2 18 a 1026 m2 b 10.6 m2 10 5542 cm2
f 113.85 m2 c 266 m2 d 4209.1 mm2 11 A
3 176.7 m2 e 1252 cm2 f 172.9 m2 12 B

13 a 565 cm2 b 452 cm2 10 a 2.5 cm Chapter Review
14 a 113 cm2
Multiple choice
b r = 3 cm, h = 18 cm c 28 cm2
d 368 cm e 2
339 cm 2 1 D
5 cm 2 B
15 3041 cm2
16 4562 cm2 3 A
17 201 cm2 4 C
b 50 mL c 20
18 693 cm2 Short answer
11 a 8.64 m2 b 86.4 m3
19 a 5400 cm2 b 47.64%
12 a 8 cm b 332 cm3 c 35% 1 112 kg
Exercise 6G Volume of pyramids, cones 2 a 33.5 cm to 34.5 cm
13 5.76 g
and spheres 14 a 3054 cm3 b 840 cm3 b 8.85 kg to 8.95 kg
1 a 6666.7 cm3 b 9400 cm3 c 48 cm3 d 42 c m3 c 450 km to 550 km
c 186 cm3 d 11.25 m3 e 10 379 cm3 f 312 m3 d 2.245 L to 2.255 L
2 a 96 cm3 b 560 cm3 g 9448 m3 h 33 m3 e 795 km to 805 km
c 120 m3 d 100 cm3 15 770 mL 3 a 1.5% b 0.6%
3 a 100 cm3 b 92 cm3 16 a 26 cm b 862.8 cm3 c 10% d 0.2%
c 700 cm3 d 208 mm3 c 575.2 cm3 d 287.6 cm3 e 0.6%
4 a 262 cm3 b 1810 cm3 e
2
4 a 43.0 cm2 b 8494.9 mm2
3
c 2212 mm3 d 77 585 cm3 17 B c 2.3 m 2
5 254.5 cm3 18 a 314 m2 5 a 2215.9 mm2 b 18.1 m2

6 a 904.8 cm3 b 2144.7 cm3 b i 628 m 2
ii 2094 m 3 c 323.2 cm 2
c 8181.2 m3 d 137.3 m3 c i 1414 m2 ii 7069 m3 6 a 7147.1 mm2 b 37.7 m2

7 6.37 cm3 c 2723.8 cm 2
Exercise 6I Error in measurement
8 A 7 705 cm2
1 a 1152 cm3
9 C 8 a 5.75 m2 b 27 cm2
b 188.625 cm3
10 D c 1804.94 c m 2
2 a 0.05 cm b 181.5 cm2
11 335.1 cm3 9 1722 m2
3 c 2.4 cm2 d 1.3%
12 a 7 cm b 2144.7 cm 10 a 840 m2 b 2672 m2
3 a 4096 mm3
c 1436.76 cm3 d 707.9 cm3 c 5548 m 2
b 3723.875 mm3
13 a 565.487 cm3 b 84.83 cm3 3 11 4190 m2
c 4492.125 m m
c 480.7 cm3 12 2010 m2
d 9.7%
14 14.33 cm3 13 a 105.84 cm2 b 25.98 m2
e 1536 mm2
15 a 52.4 cm3 b 65.45 cm3 c 19.44 m d 2 18.18 m2
f 1441.5 mm2
c 85.1 cm3 1 4 a 54 m 2 b 352 cm2
g 1633.5 mm2
16 a 1241.4 cm3 b 1075.2 cm3 c 340 m 2
h 6.3%
c 768.9 cm3 d 43 306.7 cm3 15 a 75 m2 b 1650 m3
4 a 302 cm3 b 212 cm3
17 a r = 3.5 cm, h = 28 cm c 1 650 000 L d 1316.2
c 414 cm3 d 37%
b 1078 cm3 c 360 cm3 16 a 747.7 cm2 b 728.8 cm2
5 24%
18 168 cm3 c 11.7 m 2
6 a 11.5 m3 b 1.3 m3
19 4.2 cm 17 488 cm2
c 11.3% d 24.6 m2
20 10% 18 a 314 cm2 b 72 m2
e 1.8 m2 f 7.3%
21 5227.6 cm3 c 76 454 mm2
7 a 382 L b 89 L
Exercise 6H Volume of composite 19 a 48 cm3 b 798 mm3
c 23% 3
solids c 5.29 m
8 a 39 032 cm3
1 a 178 cm2 b 712 cm3 20 a 10 800 m3 b 10.95 m3
b 7890 cm2 3 d
3 3 c 19 6 58 m m 2339 mm3
2 a 630 mm b 420 cm c 60 cm × 40 cm × 20 cm 3
c 3152.68 mm3 e 50 965 mm f 179 594 cm3
d 23% 3
d 1319.47 mm 3 2 1 3.438 m
e 11.5%
3 a 700 cm3 b 3000 cm3 22 a 5797 cm3 b 14 283 cm3
9 a 27.72 m2 b 28 L c 1L 3
3 3 c 1260 c m
c 3720 cm d 2.128 m 10 a 17 m × 10 m b 170 m2
e 12.75 m3 f 18 m3 23 5343.85 cm3
c $5142.50 d $221.43
3
4 a 8 m b 2 m 3 24 a 0.25 cm b 2145 cm3
11 a 1025 b 128
c 10 m3 c 9.7%
12 a 70 m b 70.4 m
5 a 22 619 cm3 b 6032 cm3 25 a 500 mL b 20%
c 69.6 m d 0.57%
c 28 651 cm3 13 a 2.17% b 0.74% Extended response
6 a 19 000.4 cm3 b 103.7 cm3 14 a 9425 cm3 b 7500 mL 1 a 12.6 m2 b 62.8 m3
c 157 724.9 cm3 15 a 145.3 cm2 b 19.4 cm
7 B c i 7.5% ii 4%
c 62 800 mL d 125.7 m2
2
8 D 16 a 2910 m2 b 2832 m2 2 a 292 m b 233 600 m3
3
9 a 16 875 cm b 16.875 L c 2989 m2 d 2.7% c 6.25%

Chapter 7
Applications of trigonometry
CHAPTER CONTENTS
7A Review of right-angled triangles
7B Using the sine rule to find side lengths
7C Using the sine rule to find angles
7D Using the cosine rule to find side lengths
7E Using the cosine rule to find angles
7F Area of a triangle
7G Bearings
7H Radial surveys
7A Review of right-angled triangles

Previously we have studied right-angled triangles and discovered that we can calculate a side length of a Interactivity
triangle when given the length of one other side and one of the acute angles. int-2405
SOHCAHTOA
To do this we need to use one of the formulas for the three trigonometric ratios.
opposite side
sin θ =
hypotenuse
θ
adjacent hypotenuse adjacent side
cos θ =
hypotenuse
opposite side
opposite tan θ =
adjacent side
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the length of the side marked a in the following triangle.
13.2 cm
43°
a
THINK WRITE
1 Label the relevant sides of the diagram.

Hypotenuse
13.2 cm
43°
a
Adjacent
Chapter 7 • Applications of trigonometry 177

adjacent side
2 Choose the cosine ratio and write the formula. cos θ =
hypotenuse
a
3 Substitute all known information into the formula. cos 43° =
13.2
4 Make a the subject of the formula. a = 13.2 × cos 43°
5 Calculate the value of a. ≈ 9.65 m
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the length of the side marked x in the figure on the right
(correct to 1 decimal place). 42°
x
29.2 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Label the relevant sides of the diagram.
42° hyp
x
29.2 cm
opp
opposite side
2 Choose the sine ratio and write the formula. sin θ =
hypotenuse
29.2
3 Substitute the values for the opposite side, the hypotenuse sin 42° =
x
and for the angle.
4 Make x the subject of the formula. x sin 42° = 29.2
29.2
x=
sin 42°
5 Calculate the value of x. x = 43.6 m
1 From the MENU select EQUA.
2 Press 3 (SOLV).
3 Delete any equation, enter the equation sin 42 = 29.2 ÷ X

and press w.
Note: Your calculator may display a different value of X at this stage.
This is just the last value of X stored in the calculator’s memory.

4 Press 6 (SOLV) to solve the equation.
The same formulas can be used to calculate the size of an angle if we are given two side lengths in the
triangle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the size of the angle marked θ in the figure on the right 47 mm
(correct to the nearest degree).
35 mm
THINK WRITE
1 Label the sides of the triangle. Opposite = 47 mm
Adjacent = 35 mm
opposite side
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write the formula. tan θ =
adjacent side
47
3 Substitute values for the opposite side and the adjacent side. tan θ =
35
Make θ the subject of the formula. 47

4 θ = tan −1 a b
35
5 Calculate θ. θ = 53°
2 Press 3 (SOLV).
3 Delete any existing equation, then enter the equation tan X = 47

$ and press w.
Note: Your calculator may display a different value of X at this
stage. This is just the last value of X stored in the calculator’s
memory.

Using these results, we are able to solve problems that involve more than one right-angled
triangle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Greg stands 70 m from the base of a building and measures the
angle of elevation to the top of the building as being 35°. Julie is
Tutorial standing 40 m from the base of the building on the other side
int-2415 of the building as shown in the following figure.
Worked example 4
h
θ 35°
40 m 70 m
Calculate the height of the building, correct to 2 decimal places.

a
Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the building that
b
Julie would measure, correct to the nearest degree.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw the triangle showing the angle of elevation from a

where Greg is standing and label the sides.
h
35°
70 m
opposite side
adjacent side
h
3 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side. tan 35° =
70
4 Make h the subject of the formula. h = 70 × tan 35°
5 Calculate the value of h. h = 49.01 m
b 1 Draw the triangle from where Julie is standing and label b
the sides.
49.01 m
θ
40 m
opposite side
adjacent side
49.01
3 Substitute for the opposite side and the adjacent side. tan θ =
40
49.01
4 Make θ the subject of the formula. θ = tan −1 a b
40
5 Calculate θ, correct to the nearest degree. θ = 51°

One of the main B
applications of right- Angle of depression
angled trigonometry
will be solving
problems that involve
angles of elevation
and/or angles of
depression.
The angle of
elevation is the angle
through which you must
look up to see an object A
that is higher than
yourself. Similarly the Angle of elevation
angle of depression is the angle through which you must look down to see an object lower than yourself.
In any example the angle of elevation is equal to the angle of depression.That is, the angle
of elevation from point A to point B, is the same as the angle of depression from point B to point A.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Jeff is on a yacht and sights the top

of a lighthouse at an angle of elevation
of 56° as shown. If Jeff is 50 m away from the
lighthouse, calculate the height of the lighthouse
correct to the nearest metre.
56°
50 m
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram to represent the situation.

Label the sides and select the correct
trigonometric ratio.
Opposite
x
56°
50 m
Adjacent
Opposite
tan θ =
Adjacent
2 Substitute the known values into the formula. x
tan 56° =
50
3 Make x the subject of the formula. 50 × tan 56° = x
4 Calculate the value of x. x ≈ 74
5 Write the answer to the question. The lighthouse is approximately 74 metres tall.

Exercise 7A Review of right-angled triangles
1 WE1, 2 Calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumerals in each of the following,
Digital doc a b b c
SkillSHEET 7.1 13.2 cm
doc-11063
142 mm
c
Right-angled 61°
trigonometry —
23°
finding a side
a 38°
length 11.4 m
d 314 mm e f
17°
5°
d e f
50° 19.2 cm
9.1 m
2 WE3 Calculate the size of each of the angles marked with the pronumerals, correct to the nearest
degree.
Digital doc a b 9.5 m c 113 cm
SkillSHEET 7.2 θ
36 mm
doc-11064
cm
Using the inverse
trigonometric θ
61
ratios
71 mm 11.4 m
θ
3 Andrew walks 5 km from point P to point Q. At the same time Bianca walks from P to R such that
PQ is perpendicular to PR. Given that ∠PQR = 28°:
Digital doc a draw a diagram of ΔPQR
SkillSHEET 7.3 b calculate the distance walked by Bianca, correct to the nearest metre
doc-11065 c calculate the distance that Andrew would need to walk in a straight line to meet Bianca, correct to
Rounding angles
to the nearest the nearest metre.
degree 4 WE4 Sally and Tim are both sighting the top of a building, as shown in
the figure on the right. Sally is 40 m from the base of the building and h
sights the angle of elevation to the top of the building as 35°. Tim is
60 m from the base of the building.
Digital doc a Calculate the height of the building, correct to 2 decimal
SkillSHEET 7.4 35°
places. 40 m 60 m θ
doc-11066
Right-angled b Calculate the angle of elevation at which Tim will sight the
trigonometry — building. S
finding an angle G D
5 George and Diego are both flying a kite from the same point.
George’s kite is flying on 50 m of string and the string makes a 70°
angle with the ground. Diego’s kite is flying on a 60 m piece of string 50 m 60 m
and is at the same height as George’s kite, as shown in the figure on the
right. Calculate the angle that the string from Diego’s kite makes with
the ground. Give your answer correct to the nearest degree.
6 The angle of depression from the top of a cliff to a boat sailing 100 m
offshore is 32°. Calculate the height of the cliff, correct to the nearest
70°
metre.
100 m
32°

7 A lighthouse is 40 m tall and the beacon atop the lighthouse is sighted
by a ship 150 m from shore, as shown in the figure on the right.
Calculate the angle of elevation at which the lighthouse is sighted 40 m
from the ship, correct to the nearest degree.
θ
8 From a point 65 m above the ground, a second point is sighted on the 150 m
ground at a distance of 239 m.
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the angle of depression from the first point to the second point.
Further development
9 MC The shadow cast by a statue 2 metres tall is 0.6 metres. The angle of the sun to the ground is
closest to:
A 17° B 18°
C 72° D 73° θ
10 In the diagram find x (to 1 decimal place), and θ (to the nearest degree).
60° 8m 6.5 m
11 The sun is overhead, casting a shadow of length 90 cm from a 1.75 m x
scarecrow, which is no longer standing upright. Determine the angle
(to the nearest degree) that the scarecrow makes with the ground.
12 A kite is hovering in strong winds, 10 m vertically above the ground. It is being held in place by a
taut 12 m length of rope from the kite to the ground. Find the angle (to the nearest degree) that the
rope makes with the ground.
13 A ramp joins two points, A and B. The horizontal distance between A and B is 1.4 m, and B is 30 cm
vertically above the level of A.
a Find the length of the ramp (in metres to 2 decimal places).
b Find (to the nearest degree) the angle that the ramp makes with the horizontal.
14 A chairlift follows a direct line from a mountain peak (altitude 1400 m) to a ridge (altitude 960 m).
If the horizontal distance between the peak and the ridge is 510 m, find the angle of descent (to the
nearest degree) from one to the other.
7B Using the sine rule to find

side lengths
In this section you will be learning about trigonometry as it applies to triangles which are not right
angled. In right-angled triangles you have been able to find the length of sides and the size of angles
using the sine, cosine and tangent ratios and in doing so you have applied these ratios to acute
angles only.
A non-right-angled triangle can be drawn with three acute angles, or with one obtuse angle and two
acute angles.
For this reason we need to explore trigonometric ratios as they apply to obtuse angles.
Trigonometric ratios for obtuse angles

Many non-right-angled triangles have one obtuse angle. In the following sections we will be solving
non-right-angled triangles and will need to investigate the trigonometric ratios for obtuse angles.
1. Use your calculator to give each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
(a) sin 100° (b) cos 100° (c) tan 100°
(d) sin 135° (e) cos 135° (f) tan 135°
(g) sin 179° (h) cos 179° (j) tan 179°
2. Which of the answers to question 1 are positive and which are negative?
3. Calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of several other obtuse angles and see if the established pattern
continues.
4. Can you develop a rule for the sign of trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles?
Every obtuse angle has a corresponding acute angle for which the three trigonometric ratios are
related.

5. Find each of the following using your calculators, giving your answers correct to three decimal places.
(a) sin 60° and sin 120° (b) cos 40° and cos 140° (c) tan 20° and tan 120°
6. What do you notice about each of the angle pairs in question 5?
7. Use what you have discovered to complete each of the following using an acute angle.
(a) sin 150° = sin ___ (b) sin 115° = sin ___ (c) sin 166° = sin ___
Finding side lengths

The trigonometry we have studied so far has been applicable to only C
right-angled triangles. The sine rule allows us to calculate the lengths C
of sides and the size of angles in non-right-angled triangles. Consider b a
the triangle drawn on the right.
A B
The sine rule states that in any triangle, ABC, the ratio of each A c B
side to the sine of its opposite angle will be equal.
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Derivation of the sine rule

A, B and C represent the three angles in the triangle ABC and a, b and c C
represent the three sides, remembering that each side is named with the
lower-case letter of the opposite vertex.
Construct a line from C to a point, D, perpendicular to AB. CD is the b a
perpendicular height of the triangle, h. h
Now consider ΔACD and ΔBCD separately.
A B
C C A D B
c
b a
h h
A D D B
Use the formula for the sine ratio:

opp opp
sin θ = hyp sin θ =
hyp
h h
sin A = sin B =
b a
h = b sin A h = a sin B
We are now able to equate these two expressions for h.
a sin B = b sin A
Dividing both sides by sin A sin B we get:
a sin B b sin A
=
sin A sin B sin A sin B
a b
=
sin A sin B
c
Similarly, we are able to show that each of these is also equal to . Try it!
sin C
This formula allows us to calculate the length of a side in any triangle if we are given the length of
one other side and two angles. When using the formula we need to use only two parts of it.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the length of the side marked x in the triangle on the right, A
80°
16 cm
40°
B x C
THINK WRITE
a b
1 Write the formula. =
sin A sin B
x 16
2 Substitute a = x, b = 16, A = 80° and B = 40°. =
sin 80° sin 40°
16 sin 80°
3 Make x the subject of the equation by multiplying by sin 80°. x=
sin 40°
4 Write the value of x. x = 24.5 cm
2 Press 3 (SOLV).
3 Delete any existing equation, enter the equation

X ÷ sin 80 = 16 ÷ sin 40, and then press w.
Note: Your calculator may display a different value of X
at this stage. This is just the last value of X stored in the
calculator’s memory.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the unknown length, x cm, in the 7 cm

130°
triangle at right (to 1 decimal place).
30°
THINK
x WRITE Tutorial
int-0465
1 Draw the triangle. Assume it is non-right-angled. Worked example 7
B
c = 7 cm
2 Label the triangle appropriately for the sine rule. 130°
A
30°
C b=x

a b c
3 Confirm that it is the sine rule that can be used as you have the angle = =
sin A sin B sin C
opposite to the unknown side and a known side ratio.
angle b=x B = 130°
c = 7 cm C = 30°
x 7
4 Substitute known values into the two ratios. =
sin 130° sin 30°
7 × sin 130°
5 Make x the subject and evaluate. x=
sin 30°
x = 10.7246
x = 10.7
6 Write the answer. The unknown length is
10.7 cm, correct to
1 decimal place.
Note: Some questions may ask for you to give the answer in a form other than a number and as such
the graphics calculator method cannot be used. For example, the question above could be worded to,
16 sin 80°
say, show x = , in which case you must manipulate the equation to arrive at the desired
sin 40°
expression.
To use the sine rule we need to know the angle opposite the side we are finding and the angle opposite
the side we are given. In some cases these are not the angles we are given. In such cases we need to use
the fact that the angles in a triangle add to 180° to calculate the required angle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Calculate the length of the side labelled m in the figure on the right, A
correct to 4 significant figures.
65°
m
75°
B 16 m C
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the size of angle C. C = 180° − 65° − 75°

= 40°
a c
sin A sin C
16 m
3 Substitute a = 16, c = m, A = 65° and C = 40°. =
sin 65° sin 40°
16 sin 40°
4 Make m the subject of the equation. m=
sin 65°
5 Calculate. = 11.35 m
As mentioned in the previous investigation, we need to apply the sine rule to obtuse-angled triangles.
In such examples the method used is exactly the same with the substitution of an obtuse angle.
Using the sine rule allows us to solve a number of more complex problems. As with our earlier
trigonometry problems, we begin each with a diagram and give a written answer to each.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Georg looks south and observes an aeroplane at an angle of A

elevation of 60°. Henrietta is 20 km south of where Georg is and
she faces north to see the aeroplane at an angle of elevation of 75°.
Calculate the distance of the aeroplane from Henrietta’s x
observation point, to the nearest metre.
60° 75°
G 20 km H
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the size of ∠GAH. A = 180° − 60° − 75°

= 45°
g a
sin G sin A
x 20
3 Substitute g = x, a = 20, G = 60° and H = 75°. =
sin 60° sin 45°
20 sin 60°
4 Make x the subject. x=
sin 45°
5 Calculate the value of x. x = 24.495 km
6 Give a written answer. The distance of the aeroplane from Henrietta’s
observation point is 24.495 km.
Exercise 7B Using the sine rule to find side lengths

1 Write down the sine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below.
a A b X c P
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.5
c b doc-11067
Angle sum of a
triangle
B a C Z Y
R Q
2 WE6 Use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the
following, correct to 3 significant figures.
a A b L c R Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.6
x 63° 52° doc-11068
16 cm 1.9 km t Solving fractional
equations
50° 45°
B C 59° 84°
M q N T 89 mm S
3 WE7 In each of the following, use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked with the
pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place, by first finding the size of the third angle.
a G x H b N c B
74° 74° 85° y
19.4 km
80° m
18.2 mm 62° P 27°
C
A
35.3 cm
I M

4 MC Look at the figure drawn on the right. Which of the following
42 cm
expressions gives the value of m?
42 sin 117° 42 sin 117° 35° 28°
A m = B m = m
sin 28° sin 35°
42 sin 28° 42 sin 35°

C m = D m =
sin 117° sin 117°
5 MC Look at the figure drawn on the right. Which of the following
expressions gives the value of n? n
42 sin 117° 42 sin 117° 35° 28°
A n = B n =
sin 28° sin 35° 42 m
42 sin 28° 42 sin 35°

C n = D n =
sin 117° sin 117°
6 ABC is a triangle in which BC = 9 cm, ∠BAC = 54° and ∠ACB = 62°. Calculate the length of side
AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
7 WE8 XYZ is a triangle in which y = 19.2 m, ∠XYZ = 42° and ∠XZY = 28°. Calculate x, correct
to 3 significant figures.
8 WE7 X and Y are two trees, 30 m apart on one side of a river. Z is a tree on the opposite side of the
river, as shown in the diagram below.
Z
59° 72°
X 30 m Y
It is found that ∠XYZ = 72° and ∠YXZ = 59°. Calculate the distance XZ, correct to 1 decimal
place.
Further development
9 WE9 From a point, M, the angle of elevation to the top of a building, B, is 34°. From a point, N,
20 m closer to the building, the angle of elevation is 49°.
b Calculate the distance NB, correct to 1 decimal place. Y
c Calculate the height of the building, correct to the nearest metre.
10 Look at the figure on the right.
80 sin 30°
a Show that XY can be given by the expression . h
sin 40°
80 sin 30° sin 70°
b Show that h can be found using the expression . W 30° 70° Z
c Calculate h, correct to 1 decimal place.
sin 40° 80 m X
11 Steel trusses are used to support a heavy gate at the entrance to a 0.8 m
shipping yard.
The struts in the truss shown are each made from 0.8 m steel lengths 130° 130° 130°
and are welded at the contact points with the upper and lower sections
of the truss.
a On the lower section of the truss, what is the distance (to the nearest centimetre) between each
pair of consecutive welds?
b What is the height (to the nearest centimetre) of the truss?
12 A scenic flight leaves Town A and flies west of north for the 80 km direct journey to Town B. At
Town B the plane turns 92° to the right to fly east of north to Town C. From here the plane turns
129° to the right and flies the 103 km straight back to Town A. Find the distance (to the nearest km)
of the direct flight from Town B to Town C.

7C Using the sine rule to find angles
Finding angles
Using the sine rule result, we are able to calculate angle sizes as well. To do this, we need to be given the
length of two sides and the angle opposite one of them. For simplicity, in solving the triangle we invert
the sine rule formula when we are using it to find an angle. The formula is written:
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
Your formula sheet has the sine rule to find a side length. You need to invert this formula when finding
an angle. As with finding side lengths, we use only two parts of the formula.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the size of the angle, θ, in the figure on the right, correct to the A
nearest degree. 110°
6 cm
θ C
20 cm
B
THINK WRITE
sin A sin C
a c
sin 110° sin θ
2 Substitute A = 110°, C = θ, a = 20 and c = 6. =
20 6
6 sin 110°
3 Make sin θ the subject of the equation. sin θ =
20
4 Calculate a value for sin θ. sin θ = 0.2819
5 Calculate sin−1(0.2819) to find θ. θ = 16°
2 Press 3 (SOLV).

sin 110° ÷ 20 = sin X ÷ 6 and press w.
Note: Your calculator may display a different value of X
at this stage. This is just the last value of X stored in the
calculators memory.

The ambiguous case of the sine rule
As we saw earlier that a triangle can be drawn with three acute angles or one obtuse angle with two
Elesson acute angles
eles-0051
Ambiguous case of
Consider finding the angle θ in the triangle below
the sine rule A
θ 15 m
10°
B 17 m C
sin A sin B
=
a b
sin θ sin 10°
=
17 15
17 sin 10°
sin θ =
15
≈ 0.1968
Using your calculator gives the result θ ≈ 11°.
However sin 169° = sin 11°. (Check this on your calculator)
So there are two possible answers to this question, one acute (11°, giving angles in the triangle 10°,
11° and 159°) and one obtuse (169°, giving angles 10°, 169° and 1°).
11°
A
10°
159° 15 m
B C
17 m
A
169° 15 m
10° 1°
B 17 m C
In this course, when asked to find an angle, if two answers are possible you will be told whether to find
the acute or obtuse angle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Find the size of the obtuse angle θ in the following triangle. B

10 m θ
20°
A 12 m C
THINK WRITE
sin B sin C
1 Write the formula for the sine rule. =
b c
sin B sin 20°
2 Substitute the known values for b, c and sin C. =
12 10
12 sin 20°
3 Make sin B the subject. sin B =
10
4 Calculate the value of sin B. ≈ 0.4104
5 Use your calculator to find the acute angle B as the possible B = sin −1 1 0.4104 2
acute angle. ≈ 24°
6 Subtract the acute angle from 180° to find the obtuse angle θ. θ ≈ 180 – 24
= 156°
Note: When using the graphics calculator, you do not need to remember to invert the sine rule.
If you enter 20 ÷ sin 110 = 6 sin x, the graphics calculator will still solve the equation.
As with finding side lengths, some questions will be problems that require you to draw a diagram to
extract the required information and then write the answer.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
P is a point that is due north of a second point Q. A ship (S) is located 12.4 km from
P and 31.2 km from Q such that ∠QPS = 43°.
Find ∠PQS correct to the nearest degree. Tutorial
THINK WRITE int-2416
Worked
example 12
1 Draw a diagram. P
12.4 km
43° S
31.2 km
sin Q sin P
q p
sin Q sin 43°

3 Substitute for p, q and P. =
12.4 31.2
12.4 sin 43°

4 Make sin Q the subject. sin Q =
31.2
5 Calculate a value for sin Q. sin Q = 0.271

6 Calculate sin−1(0.271) to find Q. Q = 16°
Exercise 7C Using the sine rule to find angles

1 WE10 Find the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct to the
nearest degree.
a A b P c L
32 cm ϕ
100°
29.5 m 153 mm
θ C 79 mm
B
46 cm
Q 60° R 117° α
18.9 m M N
d V e X f 27 mm
170°
16.5 cm
23.6 km 23.6 km 27.6 cm θ 156 mm
75° θ 86° β
U W Y Z
2 MC Which of the statements below give the correct value for sin θ?
7 13
13 sin 36° 7 sin 36° θ
A sin θ = B sin θ = 36°
7 13
36 sin 13° 7 sin 13°

C sin θ = D sin θ =
7 36

3 MC In which of the triangles below is the information insufficient to use the sine rule?
A B
θ θ
14.8 m 12.7 m
57° 45°
12.6 m 16.2 m
C D 8.7 m
115° 6.2 m 12.7 m
θ 9°
θ
12.9 m
4 In Questions a–c find the size of the angle marked θ, correct to the nearest degree.
a b c
θ 44 cm
65 cm 23°
41 m θ 4.9 m
31°
60° θ
32 m 3.6 m
5 WE11 Find the size of the angle θ in the triangle drawn below.
4.1 m 4.5 m
22° θ
Give your answer correct to the nearest degree.

6 Find the size of the angle θ in each of the triangles below given that θ is obtuse.
a θ b
3.6 m 10.1 cm
3.3 cm
20° 19° θ
9.2 m
c
12.1 cm
8.7 cm
33° θ
7 In ΔPQR, q = 12 cm, r = 16 cm and ∠PRQ = 56°. Find the size of ∠PQR, correct to the nearest degree.
8 In ΔKLM, LM = 4.2 m, KL = 5.6 m and ∠KML = 27°. Find the size of ∠LKM, correct to the
nearest degree, given that the angle is obtuse.
9 WE12 A, B and C are three towns marked on
a map. Judy calculates that the distance
between A and B is 45 km and the distance
between B and C is 32 km. ∠CAB is 45°.
Calculate ∠ACB, correct to the nearest
degree.
10 A surveyor marks three points X, Y and Z in
the ground. The surveyor measures XY to be
13.7 m and XZ to be 14.2 m. ∠XYZ is 60°.
a Calculate ∠XZY to the nearest degree.
b Calculate ∠YXZ to the nearest degree.
11 Two wires support a flagpole. The first wire
is 8 m long and makes a 65° angle with the
ground. The second wire is 9 m long.
Find the angle that the second wire makes
with the ground.

12 Construct a suitable triangle from the following instructions and find all unknown sides and angles.
The smallest side is 17 cm and one of the other sides is 25 cm. The smallest angle is 32°.
13 MC A yacht sails the three-leg course shown.
The smallest angle between any two legs within the course, to the nearest 15 km
degree, is:
78° 18 km
A 34° B 55°
C 45° D 78° 13 km
14 MC The correct expression for angle S in the given triangle is: S
41°
40 × sin 41° 30 × sin 41° 30 40
A sin −1 a b B sin −1 a b
30 40
41 × sin 41° 30
C sin −1 a b D sin −1 a b
30 40 × sin 41°
15 Ben is planning to hike in the mountains out of the snow season. From a position in front of the ski
lodge, Ben can see the chairlift station and the start of the ski run in the distance. He notes that in
moving his eye from the ski lodge station to the start of the run, the angle is 34°. Ben then walks in
a straight line to the chairlift station, a distance of 365 m, turns and walks the 230 m straight line
distance to the start of the ski run. From here, what angle (to the nearest degree) would he note
between the ski lodge and the chairlift station?
7D Using the cosine rule to find

side lengths
Finding side lengths
When given the length of one side and two angles in a triangle, we can use the sine rule to find another
side length. However, in many cases we do not have this information and need another method of
calculating the side lengths. The cosine rule allows us to calculate the length of the third side of a
triangle when we are given the length of the other two sides and the included angle.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
The formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an adaptation of the same rule.
It is important to notice that the formula is given in terms of a2, b2 or c2. This means that to find the
value of a, b or c we need to take the square root of our calculation.
Derivation of the cosine rule

Consider ΔABC on the right. In this triangle, h is the perpendicular height C
of the triangle and meets AB at D. We will let AD = x, and therefore
BD = c − x. a b
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on ΔBCD: a2 = (c − x)2 + h2 h
a2 = c2 − 2cx + x2 + h2 [1]
From ΔACD: b = x + h
2 2 2 B c– x D x A
Therefore: h2 = b2 − x2 c
Substituting for h2 in [1]: a2 = c2 − 2cx + x2 + b2 − x2
a2 = c2 − 2cx + b2 [2]
x
Now in ΔACD: cos A =
b
Therefore: x = b cos A
Substituting for x in [2]: a2 = c2 − 2c(b cos A) + b2
a2 = c2 + b2 − 2bc cos A
This becomes the formula for the cosine rule. A similar formula can be used for finding sides b and c.
You may like to try it for yourself.

1 Start with ΔABC and draw a perpendicular line from A to BC.
2 Use this diagram and follow the method shown to obtain the following version of the cosine rule:
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B.
3 Can you obtain c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C?
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the length of the side marked b in the triangle below, correct to 1 decimal place.
B
70°
10 m 12 m
A b C
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula with b2 as the subject. b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
2 Substitute a = 12, c = 10 and B = 70°. = 122 + 102 − 2 × 12 × 10 × cos 70°
3 Calculate the value of b2. = 161.915
4 Find b by taking the square root of b2. b = !161.915
= 12.7 m
2 Press 3 (SOLV).
3 Delete any existing equation, enter B2 = 122 +

102 − 2 × 12 × 10 × cos 70 and then press
w.
As with sine rule questions, we can apply the cosine rule to obtuse-angled triangles. You should recall
from the earlier investigation that the cosine ratio of an obtuse angle is negative. The method of solution
remains unchanged.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Find the unknown length (to 2 decimal places), x, in the following triangle.
7 cm x Tutorial
int-0468
Worked
80°
example 14
6 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Identify the triangle as non-right-angled.

2 Label the triangle appropriately for the sine B
rule or cosine rule.
c=7 a=x
80°
A b=6 C
3 Identify that it is the cosine rule that is b = 6 A = 80°

required as you have the two sides and the c = 7 a=x
angle in between.
4 Substitute the known values into the cosine a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc × cos (A)
rule formula. x2 = 62 + 72 − 2 × 6 × 7 × cos (80°)
x2 = 36 + 49 − 84 × cos (80°)
x2 = 70.4136
5 Remember to get the square root value, x. x = !70.4136
= 8.391
6 Evaluate the length and include units with the x = 8.39
answer. The unknown length is 8.39 cm, correct to
2 decimal places.
The cosine rule also allows us to solve a wider range of practical problems. The important part of
solving such problems is marking the correct information on your diagram. If you can identify two side
lengths and the included angle, you can use the cosine rule.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
A surveyor standing at a point, X, sights a point, M, 50 m away and a point, N, 80 m away. If the
angle between the lines XM and XN is 45°, calculate the distance between the points M and N,
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram and mark all given X

information on it. 45° 80 m
50 m
N
M
2 Write the formula with x2 as the subject. x2 = m2 + n2 − 2mn cos X
3 Substitute m = 80, n = 50 and X = 45°. = 802 + 502 − 2 × 80 × 50 × cos 45°
4 Calculate the value of x2. = 3243.15
5 Calculate x by taking the square root of x2. x = !3243.15
6 Give a written answer. = 56.9 m

Exercise 7D Using the cosine rule to find side lengths
1 Write down the cosine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below. In each case, make
the bold pronumeral the subject.
a A b P c L n M
r q m
c b
l
Q R
B C p
a N
2 WE13 Find the length of the side marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct to
3 significant figures.
a A b P c X
x 13 cm
12 m r 60°
C 12 m 12 m
35° 42°
14 m Q 21 cm R
B
Y x Z
3 WE14 In each of the following obtuse-angled triangles, find the length of the side marked with the
pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place.
a X b A c R
114 cm b q
112 cm 110° 6.1 m
Z 130° 160° 63 mm
B C P
x 9.7 m 43 mm Q
Y
4 MC In which of the following triangles are we unable to use the cosine rule to find x?
A B 14.8 cm
16.4 m 16.2 cm 132°
x
x
32°
18.2 m
C D
63°
8.3 km 9.6 km 10.5 m 9.7 m
63°
x x
5 MC Look at the triangle drawn on the right. The value of x, correct to
1 decimal place, is: 50°
A 7.2 m 8m 9m
B 7.3 m
C 52.4 m
D 52.5 m x
6 MC Lieng is asked to find the value of a, correct to 1 decimal place,
in the figure drawn on the right. Below is Lieng’s solution.
Line 1: a2 = 122 + 82 − 2 × 12 × 8 × cos 60° 60°
Line 2: = 144 + 64 − 192 × cos 60° 8 cm 12 cm
Line 3: = 208 − 192 cos 60°
Line 4: = 16 × cos 60°
Line 5: =8
Line 6: a = 2.8 m a
Lieng’s solution is incorrect. In which line did she make her error?
A Line 2 B Line 3 C Line 4 D Line 5
7 In ΔABC, a = 14 cm, c = 25 cm and ∠ABC = 29°. Calculate b, correct to 1 decimal place.

8 In ΔPQR, PQ = 234 mm, QR = 981 mm and ∠PQR = 128°. Find the length of side PR, correct to
9 Len and Morag walk separate paths that diverge from one another at an angle of 48°. After three
hours Len has walked 7.9 km and Morag 8.6 km. Find the distance between the two walkers at this
time, correct to the nearest metre.
10 A cricketer is fielding 20 m from the batsman and at an angle of 35° to the pitch. The batsman hits
a ball 55 m and straight behind the bowler. How far must the fieldsman run to field the ball? (Give
your answer to the nearest metre.)
11 The sides of a parallelogram are 5.3 cm and 11.3 cm. The sides meet at angles of 134° and 46°.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram showing this information and mark both diagonals on it.
b Calculate the length of the shorter diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the length of the long diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
12 The cord supporting a picture frame is 58 cm long. It is hung over 58 cm
a single hook in the centre of the cord and the cord then makes an
angle of 145° as shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the length 145°
of the backing of the picture frame, to the nearest centimetre.
Further development ?
13 During a sailing race, the boats followed a course as shown.
105° 7 km
Find the length, x, of its third leg (to 1 decimal place).
10 km
14 Two circles, with radii 4 cm and 7 cm, overlap slightly as shown.
If the angle between the two radii that meet at the point of
intersection of the circumferences is 110°, find the distance x
between the centres of the circles (to 1 decimal place).
15 Two hikers set out from the same point. The hikers walk 1200 m
and 1500 m respectively and diverge at an angle of 100°. How far apart 4 cm 7 cm
to the nearest metre are the two hikers?
16 An advertising balloon is attached to two ropes 120 m and 100 m long. 110°
The shorter rope makes a 70° angle with the ground and is attached
to the bottom of the balloon. The longer rope makes an 80° angle Digital doc
doc-11069
with the horizontal and is attached to the top of the balloon. How tall is WorkSHEET 7.1
the balloon? Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
7E Using the cosine rule to find angles

Finding angles
We can use the cosine rule to find the size of the angles within a triangle. Consider the cosine rule formula.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
We now make cos A the subject of this formula.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
a + 2bc cos A = b2 + c2
2
2bc cos A = b2 + c2 − a2
b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
In this form, we can use the cosine rule to find the size of an angle if we are given all three side lengths.
We should be able to write the cosine rule in three forms depending upon which angle we wish to find.
b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
a2 + c2 − b2
cos B =
2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab
Again, the formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an adaptation of
the same rule.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Find the size of angle B in the triangle, correct to the nearest degree.
A
7 cm 5 cm
B C
9 cm
THINK WRITE
a2 + c2 − b2
1 Write the formula with cos B as the subject. cos B =
2ac
92 + 72 − 52
2 Substitute a = 9, b = 5 and c = 7. cos B =
2×9×7
105
3 Calculate the value of cos B. cos B =
126
= 0.8333
4 Make B the subject of the equation. B = cos−1(0.8333)
5 Calculate B. B = 34°
2 Press 3 (SOLV).

cos B = (92 + 72 − 52) ÷ (2 × 9 × 7), and then
press w.
Your formula sheet will give you two versions of the cosine rule, one for finding a side length and one
for finding an angle. When using the equation solver it does not matter which version you use to find a
side or an angle.
Try using the solver on the equation 52 = 92 + 72 − 2 × 9 × 7 × cos B.
As we found earlier, the cosine ratio for an obtuse angle will be negative. So, when we get a negative
result to the calculation for the cosine ratio, this means that the angle we are finding is obtuse. Your
calculator will give the obtuse angle when we take the inverse.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Find the size of angle Q in the triangle, correct to the nearest degree.
Q
4 cm 3 cm
P R
6 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula with cos Q as the subject. p2 + r2 − q2

cos Q =
2pr
2 Substitute p = 3, q = 6 and r = 4. 32 + 42 − 62
cos Q =
2×4×3
3 Calculate the value of cos Q. −11
cos Q =
24
= −0.4583
4 Make Q the subject of the equation. Q = cos−1(−0.4583)
5 Calculate Q. Q = 117°
In some cosine rule questions, you need to work out which angle you need to find. For example, you
could be asked to calculate the size of the largest angle in a triangle. To do this you do not need to
calculate all three angles. The largest angle in any triangle will be the one opposite the longest side.
Similarly, the smallest angle will lie opposite the shortest side.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Find the size of the largest angle in the triangle.

R
3.4 m 4.9 m
S
5.7 m T
THINK WRITE
1 ST is the longest side, therefore angle R is the largest angle.

2 Write the formula with cos R the subject. s2 + t2 − r2
cos R =
2st
3 Substitute r = 5.7, s = 4.9 and t = 3.4. 4.92 + 3.42 − 5.72
cos R =
2 × 4.9 × 3.4
4 Calculate the value of cos R. 3.08
cos R =
33.32
= 0.0924
5 Make R the subject of the equation. R = cos−1(0.0924)
6 Calculate R. R = 85°
7 Give a written answer. The largest angle in the triangle is 85°.

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Two paths diverge from a point, A. The first path goes for 1.25 km to a point, B. The second path
goes for 1.4 km to a point, C. B and C are exactly 2 km apart. Find the angle at which the two
paths diverge.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram. B
1.25 km 2 km
A
1.4 km C
2 Write the formula with cos A as the subject. b2 + c2 − a2

cos A =
2bc
3 Substitute a = 2, b = 1.4 and c = 1.25. 1.42 + 1.252 − 22
cos A =
2 × 1.4 × 1.25
4 Calculate the value of cos A. −0.4775
cos A =
3.5
= −0.1364
5 Make A the subject of the equation. A = cos−1(−0.1364)
6 Calculate the value of A. = 98°
7 Give a written answer. The roads diverge at an angle of 98°.
Exercise 7E Using the cosine rule to find angles

1 For each of the following, write the cosine rule formula as it applies to the triangle drawn with the
bold angle as the subject.
a A b P c A
P M
B C R Q
2 WE16 Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following triangles,
correct to the nearest degree.
a A b B c M
θ θ
8 cm 11 cm 3.2 m 2.8 m 4.5 m 5.4 m
C
θ
B C A 4.0 m N O
13 cm 6.2 m
3 WE17 In each of the obtuse-angled triangles below find the size of the angle marked with the
pronumeral, to the nearest degree.
a θ b c
6m 8m 9.6 m θ
12.9 m
4.2 m 9.2 m
α
11 m 6.1 m
4.2 m

4 MC Look at the figure drawn below.
3 cm 5 cm
θ
7 cm
Which of the following correctly represents the value of cos θ?
32 + 72 − 52 32 + 72 − 52
A cos θ = B cos θ =
2×3×7 2×5×7
3 +5 −7
2 2 2 5 + 72 − 32
2
C cos θ = D cos θ =
2×3×5 2×5×7
5 MC In which of the following is the angle θ obtuse?
A B
θ θ
3 cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm
5 cm 4 cm
C D
θ
3 cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm
θ 6 cm
4 cm
6 In ΔPQR, p = 7 m, q = 9 m and r = 6 m. Find ∠QRP, correct to the nearest degree.
7 In ΔKLM, k = 85 mm, l = 145 mm and m = 197 mm. Find the size of the smallest angle, correct to
the nearest degree.
8 WE18 Calculate the size of all three angles (correct to the nearest degree) in a triangle with side
lengths 12 cm, 14 cm and 17 cm.
9 WXYZ is a parallelogram. WX = 9.2 cm and XY = 13.6 cm. The diagonal WY = 14 cm.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram.
b Calculate the size of ∠WXY, correct to the nearest degree.
10 WE19 Two roads diverge from a point, P. The first road is 5 km long and leads to a point, Q. The
second road is 8 km long and leads to a point, R. The distance between Q and R is 4.6 km. Calculate
the angle at which the two roads diverge.
11 A soccer goal is 8 m wide.
a A player is directly in front of the goal such that he is 12 m from each post. Within what angle
must he kick the ball to score a goal?
b A second player takes an angled shot. This player is 12 m from the nearest post and 17 m from the
far post. Within what angle must this player kick to score a goal?

12 The backing of a picture frame is 50 cm long and is hung over a picture
52 cm
hook by a cord 52 cm long as shown in the figure on the right.
Calculate the angle made by the cord at the picture hook. θ
Further development
50 cm
13 A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with sides
of length 3 m, 4.5 m and 5.2 m.
a Calculate the smallest angle.
b Hence, find the area of the garden.
14 A hockey goal is 3 m wide. When Sophie is 7 m from one post and 5.2 m from the other, she shoots
for goal. Within what angle must the shot be made if it is to score a goal?
15 A plane flies 80 km and then turns 120° right and flies a further 150 km.
a How far is the plane from its starting point?
b What angle must the plane then turn to return to its starting point?
16 Three circles of radii 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are positioned so that they just touch one another. Their
centres form the vertices of a triangle. Find the largest angle in the triangle.
17 From the top of a vertical cliff 68 m high, an observer notices a yacht at sea. The angle of depression
to the yacht is 47°. The yacht sails directly away from the cliff, and after 10 min the angle of
depression is 15°. How fast is the yacht sailing?
7F Area of a triangle

You should be familiar with finding the area of a triangle using the A
formula Area = 12 bh. In this formula, b is the base of the triangle and h is
the perpendicular height. This formula cannot be used in triangles where c b
we do not know the perpendicular height. Trigonometry allows us to find h
the area of such triangles when we are given the length of two sides and
the included angle. B C
D
Consider the triangle drawn on the right. In this triangle: a
1
Area = bh [1]
2
(a = base of triangle, h = height)
Now consider ΔACD. Since this triangle is right angled:
opp
sin C =
hyp
h
sin C =
b
h = b sin C
Substituting for h in [1]:
1
Area = absin C
2
This becomes the formula for the area of a triangle. There are three equivalent formulas for the area of
a triangle.
Area = 12 ab sin C
Area = 12 ac sin B
Area = 12 bc sin A
The formula sheet gives the first version of this formula only. The others are an adaptation of the same
rule. These formulas allow us to find the area of any triangle where we are given the length of two sides
and the included angle. The included angle is the angle between the two given sides. The formula chosen
should be the one that uses the angle you have been given.

WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Find the area of the triangle (to 2 decimal places).
Tutorial
int-0469
9m Worked
37° 6 m example 20
THINK WRITE
1 Identify the shape as a triangle with two known A

sides and the angle in between.
B
b=9
37° a = 6
C
2 Identify and write down the values of the two sides, a=6
a and b, and the angle in between them, C. b=9
C = 37°
1
3 Identify the appropriate formula and substitute the Areatriangle = ab sin (C)
known values into it. 2
1
= × 6 × 9 × sin (37°)
2
= 16.249
4 Write the answer in correct units. The area of the triangle is 16.25 m2, correct to
2 decimal places.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Two paths diverge at an angle of 72°. The paths’ lengths are 45 m and 76 m respectively.
Calculate the area between the two paths, correct to the nearest square metre.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram.
45 m
72° 76 m
1
2 Write the formula. Area = ab sin C
2
1
3 Substitute a = 45, b = 76 and C = 72°. = × 45 × 76 × sin 72°
2
4 Calculate. = 1626 m2
5 Give a written answer. The area between the paths is 1626 m2.

Exercise 7F Area of a triangle
1 Write down the formula for the area of a triangle in terms of each of the triangles drawn below. Write
the formula using the bold angle.
a B b X c A
A C Y Z G M
2 For each of the triangles drawn below, state whether the area would be best found using the formula
1 1
Area = ab sin C or Area = bh.
a
2 2 b
6 cm
1.9 m
60°
12 cm
2.6 m
c d
6.2 m
8.3 m
9.1 m
60°
12.4 m
3 WE20 Find the area of each of the following triangles, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
11 cm
196 mm 207 mm
117 mm
40° 10° 120°

12 cm 92 mm
1 1
4 Use either Area = ab sin C or Area = bh to find the area of each of the following triangles.
2 2
Where necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
32 cm
38 cm
19 cm
66°
14 cm 38 cm 32 cm
1
5 MC In which of the following triangles can the formula Area = ab sin C not be used to find the
area of the triangle? 2
A B
4 cm
4 cm
60°
9 cm
9 cm
C D
4 cm 75°
9 cm
120°
4 cm 9 cm

6 MC The area of the triangle on the right (correct to 1 decimal place) is:
A 4.4 cm2
B 14.7 cm2 5 cm 7 cm
C 17.1 cm2
D 20.5 cm2
78°
6 cm
7 In ΔPQR, p = 4.3 cm, q = 1.8 cm and ∠PRQ = 87°. Calculate the area of
ΔPQR, correct to 4 significant figures.
8 The figure on the right is of a parallelogram, ABCD. A B
a Copy the diagram into your workbook and draw the diagonal AC on 2.5 m
your diagram.
b By considering the parallelogram as two equal triangles, calculate 70°
D 5.2 m C
its area, correct to 1 decimal place.
9 On the right is a diagram of a pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 5 cm.
a Calculate the size of each of the angles made at the centre.
b Calculate the area of the pentagon, correct to the nearest square
centimetre.
10 WE21 A surveyor sights the four corners of a block of land and

makes the following notebook entry. Calculate the area of the block of 18 m
land, correct to the nearest square metre.
90° 20 m
80° 70°
15 m
120°
25 m
Further development
11 Find the area of an equilateral triangle with a side length of 10 cm.
12 MC
4m 30° 6 m
50°
The correct expression for the area of the shape above is:
1
A × 6 × 4 × sin 80°
2
1
B × 6 × 4 × cos 80°
2
1
C × 6 × 4 × sin 30°
2
1
D × 6 × 4 × sin 100°
2

13 MC The correct expression for the area of the octagon shown is: 4
A 11 sin 45°
B 88 sin 67.5° 5.5
C 88 sin 45°
D 11 sin 67.5°
14 Consider the triangle ABC drawn below.
B
105°
15 m 18 m
A C
a Find the area of the triangle.
1
b Use your answer to part a together with the formula A = bh to find the shortest distance of the
point A from the line BC. 2
15 The triangle PQR has side lengths PQ = 15 cm, QR = 22 cm and ∠PQR = 75°.
a Find the area of the triangle.
b Betty draws the triangle by mistake with ∠PQR = 105°. Show that Betty will still get the correct
answer.
c Explain why the same answer for the area of the triangle is obtained.
16 Penny is making a triangular display case as shown in the diagram. 30 cm 30 cm
The two sides are to be 30 cm in length. Find the angle between the two
sides that will maximise the area of the triangular cross-section.
7G Bearings
A bearing is an angle used to describe direction. Bearings are used in navigation and are a common
application of trigonometry to practical situations. We can therefore apply our trigonometrical formulas
to make calculations based upon these bearings. There are two types of bearing that we need to be able
to work with: compass bearings and true bearings.
Compass bearings NW
N
NE
Compass bearings use the four points of the compass. With compass
bearings there are four main directions: north, south, east and west. In
Interactivity between each of these main directions there are four others: north-east, W E
int-0190 south-east, south-west and north-west. Each of these directions is at 45° to
Navigation and two of the four main directions.
specifications of
locations Trigonometry can then be used to solve problems about distances and SW SE
angles using these eight basic directions. S
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
A ship (A) is 10 nautical miles due east of a lighthouse. A second ship (B) bears SE of the
lighthouse and is due south of the first ship. Calculate the distance of the second ship from the
lighthouse, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram labelling the sides of the triangle. N adj

L 10 M A
45°
opp
hyp
x

adj
hyp
10
3 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side. cos 45° =
x
4 Make x the subject of the equation. x cos 45° = 10
10
x=
cos 42°
5 Calculate the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place. = 14.1 M
6 Give a written answer. The second ship is 14.1 nautical miles from
the lighthouse.
These eight compass points do not allow us to make calculations about more precise directions. For this
reason an alternative method of describing bearings is needed for any direction other than these basic
eight points.
True bearings N
A true bearing is an angle measured from north in a clockwise direction.
As there are 360° in a revolution, all true bearings are represented as a
three-digit number between 000° and 360°. For example, east is at a
bearing of 090°, south has a bearing of 180° and west 270°. 270° 090°
When given information about a bearing, we can solve problems using
trigonometry by constructing a right-angled triangle.
180°
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
A ship sails on a bearing of 130° for a distance of 10 nautical miles. Calculate how far south of its
starting point the ship is, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram completing a right-angled triangle N

and label the sides. 130°
50° hyp
adj 10 M
x
opp
adj
hyp
x
3 Substitute for θ and the hypotenuse. cos 50° =
10
4 Make x the subject of the equation. x = 10 cos 50°
5 Calculate the value of x. x = 6.43 M
6 Give a written answer. The ship is 6.43 nautical miles south of its
starting point.
We can also use our methods of calculating angles to make calculations about bearings. After solving the
right-angled triangle, however, we need to provide the answer as a bearing.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24
On a hike Lisa walked south for 3.5 km and then turned west for 1.2 km. Calculate Lisa’s bearing
from her starting point.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram and label the sides of the triangle. N
3.5 km
hyp
adj
1.2 km
opp
opp
adj
1.2
3 Substitute for the opposite and adjacent sides and tan θ =
simplify. 3.5
= 0.3429
4 Make θ the subject of the equation. θ = tan−1(0.3429)
5 Calculate θ. = 19°
6 From the diagram we can see the angle lies Bearing = 180° + 19°
between south and west. South has a bearing of = 199°
180°, and so we must add 19° to 180° to calculate
the true bearing.
7 Give a written answer. Lisa is at a bearing of 199° from her starting
point.
With many bearing questions it will be necessary to use the work completed or sine rule and/or
cosine rule.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Soldiers on reconnaissance set off on a return journey from their base camp. The journey
consists of three legs. The first leg is on a bearing of 150°T for 3 km; the second is on a bearing of
Tutorial 220°T for 5 km. Find the direction (to the nearest minute) and distance (correct to 2 decimal
int-0473 places) of the third leg by which the group returns to its base camp.
Worked
example 25 THINK WRITE
1 Draw a diagram of the journey and indicate or N

superimpose a suitable triangle. Base
camp 150°
3 km
N
220°T
5 km

2 Identify the side of the triangle to be found. B
Redraw a simple triangle with the most important
information provided. 3 km
N
150° 30°
x 110° C
30°
30° 110°
5 km
220° 40°

A 40°
3 Identify that the problem requires the use of the a = 3 km b = 5 km C =110° c = x km
cosine rule, as you are given two sides and the
angle in between.
4 Substitute the known values into the cosine rule and c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab× cos (C)
evaluate. x2 = 32 + 52 − 2 × 3 × 5 × cos (110°)
x2 = 44.260 604
x = !44.260 604
= 6.65
5 For direction, we need to find the angle between the

B
direction of the second and third legs using the sine
or cosine rules. N
N C
θ
40°
A
40°
A

a = 3 b = 5 c = 6.65 or !44.260 604
b2 + c2 − a2
6 Substitute the known values into the rearranged cos (A) =
cosine rule. 2×b×c
52 + 44.260 604 − 32
Note: Use the most accurate form of the length of cos (A) =
side c. 2 × 5 × !44.260 604
cos (A) = 0.9058
A = 25.07°
= 25°4′
7 Calculate the angle of the turn from the north θ = 40°− 25°4′
bearing. = 14°56′
Bearing is N14°56′E.
8 Write the answer in correct units and to the required The distance covered in the final leg is
level of accuracy. 6.65 km, correct to 2 decimal places, on a
bearing of N14°56′E, correct to the nearest
minute.

Exercise 7G Bearings
1 Specify the following directions as compass bearings.
a N b N
25°
W E W E
10°
S S
c N d N
W E W E
310° 12°
S S
e N f N
12° 12°
W E W E
S S
2 Specify the following directions as true bearings.

a N b N
W E W E
22 12 °
45°
S S
c N d N
67 12 °
135°
W E W E
S S

e N f N
112 12 °
W E W E
SW
22 12 °
S S
3 WE22 A road runs due north. A hiker leaves the road and walks for 4.2 km in a NW direction.
b How far due east must the hiker walk to get back to the road? (Give your answer correct to Digital doc
3 decimal places.) SkillSHEET 7.7
doc-11070
4 A driver heads due south for 34 km, then turns left and drives until he is SE of his starting point. Converting
a Draw a diagram to show the driver’s journey. nautical miles to
kilometres
b Calculate the distance the driver travelled in an easterly direction from his starting point.
5 Two boats, A and B, sail from a port. A heads due west, while B heads NW for a distance of
43 nautical miles, where it drops anchor. Boat A drops anchor due south of boat B.
a Draw a diagram showing the positions of boats A and B.
b Calculate the distance between boats A and B in nautical miles, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the distance in kilometres between A and B.
6 MC A true bearing of 315° is equivalent to a compass
bearing of:
A NE
B NW
C SE
D SW
7 MC A compass bearing of SE is equivalent to a true bearing
of:
A 045°
B 135°
C 225°
D 315° A d B
8 WE23 Two hikers, Adrian and Bertrand, set out on a walk. Adrian
walks 5 km due north to a point, A, and Bertrand walks on a bearing of
052° to a point, B. Bertrand lets off a flare and Adrian notices Bertrand
5 km
is now due east of him, as shown in the diagram on the right. Calculate
the distance between the two hikers, correct to 1 decimal place. 52°
9 A yacht sights a lighthouse on a bearing of 060°. After sailing another
eight nautical miles due north, the yacht is due west of the lighthouse.
b Calculate the distance from the yacht to the lighthouse when it is due west of it (correct to
1 decimal place).
10 An aeroplane takes off from an airport and flies on a bearing of 220° for a distance of 570 km.
Calculate how far south of the airport the aeroplane is (correct to the nearest kilometre).
11 A camping ground is due east of a car park. Eden and Jeff walk 3.8 km due south from the camping
ground until the car park is on a bearing of 290°.
a Draw a diagram showing the car park, the camping ground, and Eden and Jeff’s position.
b Calculate the distance Eden and Jeff need to walk directly back to the car park, correct to
1 decimal place.
12 MC A ship is on a bearing of 070° from a lighthouse. The bearing of the lighthouse from the ship
will be:
A 070° B 160° C 200° D 250°

13 MC A camping ground is SW of a car park. The bearing of the car park from the camping ground
will be:
A NE B NW C SE D SW
14 WE24 A search party leaves its base and head 4 km due west before turning south for 3.5 km.
b Calculate the true bearing of the search party from its base, correct to the nearest degree.
15 WE25 A ship is two nautical miles due west of a harbour. A yacht that sails 6.5 nautical miles from
that harbour is due north of the ship. Calculate the true bearing (correct to the nearest degree) of the
course on which the yacht sails from the harbour.
16 A plane takes off at 10.00 am from an airfield and flies at 120 km/h on a bearing of 325°. A second
plane takes off from the same airfield and flies on a bearing of 100° at a speed of 90 km/h. How far
apart are the planes at 10.25 am?
17 a Two lighthouses are 17 kilometres apart on an east–west line. From lighthouse A, a ship is seen
on a bearing of 130°. From lighthouse B, the same ship is spotted on a bearing of 200°. Which
lighthouse is the ship closer to? How far is that lighthouse from the ship?
b Two lighthouses are 25 kilometres apart on a south–north line. From lighthouse A, a ship is
reported on a bearing of 082°T. The same ship is detected from lighthouse B on a bearing of
165°T. Which lighthouse is closer to the ship and how far is that lighthouse from the ship?
c Two fire-spotting towers are 33 km apart on an east–west line. From Tower A a fire is spotted on a
bearing of 63°, while from Tower B the same fire is spotted on a bearing of 290°T. How far away
from the nearer tower is the fire? Which tower is this?
18 Two lighthouses are 25 km apart on a north–south line. The northern lighthouse spots a ship on a
bearing of 1200. The southern lighthouse spots the same ship on a bearing of 050°T.
a Find the distance from the northern lighthouse to the ship.
b Find the distance from the southern lighthouse to the ship.
19 A light aircraft has strayed into a major
air corridor. It has been detected by two air
traffic control towers.
Tower 1 has the light aircraft on a bearing of
315°T. N
Tower 2 has the light aircraft on a bearing of
Tower 2
north. E
The two towers are 300 kilometres apart on a N
NE line as shown. How far is the light plane 300 km
from each tower?
Tower 1
Further development
20 Two army camps A and B are on the same east–west line. Radio tower T is located 20 km from camp
A, SE of camp A. The tower is a distance of 15 km from camp B. Find the bearing of the radio tower,
T, from camp B.
21 Maria cycles 12 km in a direction 292° and then 7 km in a direction of 034°E.
a How far is she from her starting point?
b What is the bearing of the starting point from her finishing point?
22 For each of the following, find how far north/south and east/west position A is from position O.
a N 40°E b N75°E
A 100 m A
100 m N 50°E
N
200 m
200 m
O
O

c O d O
30 km A
240°T 750 m N10°W
25 cm 150 m
160°T S60°E
A
23 The distances covered in a yachting regatta are shown in the diagram. N
Find (to the nearest metre): Starting
a how far south the yacht is from the starting point point
b how far west the yacht is from the starting point
c the distance from the starting point N50°W
d the direction of the final leg to return to the starting point. 0.5 km
3 km
N40°W
1.5 km
S15°W
7H Radial surveys

In the preliminary course we examined the offset survey. In this survey method an area is measured
by drawing a traverse line and measuring offsets at right angles to the traverse line. Because the offset
survey created right-angled triangles, the length of each boundary could be calculated using Pythagoras’
1
theorem and the area could be calculated using the formula Area = bh.
2
An alternative survey method to this is a radial survey. One type of radial survey is the plane table
radial survey. The following steps are taken in a plane table survey.
1. A table is placed in the centre of the field to be surveyed, each corner of the field is sighted and a line
is ruled on the paper along the line of sight.
2. The distance from the plane table to each corner is then measured.
m
25
20
m
28 m
26 m
3. The angle between each radial line is then measured and the radial lines joined to complete the
diagram.
m
25
20
m 115°
60°
115°
70° 28
m
26 m

The field will then be divided into triangles. The length of each side of the field can then be calculated
by using the cosine rule. The perimeter of the field is then found by adding the lengths of each side.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
The figure on below is a plane table survey of a block of land. Calculate the perimeter of the
block of land, correct to the nearest metre.
A
B
23
30 m
m
110°
125° 40°17 m
85°
C
X
28 m
D
THINK WRITE
1 Apply the cosine rule in ΔAXB to calculate For ΔAXB:

the length of AB. x2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos X
= 302 + 232 − 2 × 30 × 23 × cos 110°
= 1900.99
x = 43.6 m
The length of AB is 43.6 m.
2 Apply the cosine rule in ΔBXC to calculate the For ΔBXC:
length of BC. x2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos X
= 172 + 302 − 2 × 17 × 30 × cos 40°
= 407.63
x = 20.2 m
The length of BC is 20.2 m.

3 Apply the cosine rule in ΔCXD to calculate For ΔCXD:
the length of CD. x2 = c2 + d2 − 2cd cos X
= 282 + 172 − 2 × 28 × 17 × cos 85°
= 990.03
x = 31.5 m
The length of CD is 31.5 m.
4 Apply the cosine rule in ΔDXA to calculate For ΔDXA:
the length of DA. x2 = d2 + a2 − 2da cos X
= 232 + 282 − 2 × 23 × 28 × cos 125°
= 2051.77
x = 45.3 m
The length of DA is 45.3 m.
5 Calculate the perimeter by adding the length of Perimeter = 43.6 + 20.2 + 31.5 + 45.3
each side and rounding the answer to the nearest = 140.6 m
metre. = 141 m (correct to the nearest metre)
A similar approach is used to calculate the area of such a field. The area of each triangle is found using
the formula Area = 12 ab sin C. The total area is then found by adding the area of each triangle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Calculate the area of the field on the right. Give A

your answer correct to the nearest square metre. B
52
m
48
m
96°
144° 120°
X
67 m
C
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the area of ΔAXB. 1

For ΔAXB: Area = ab sin X
2
1
= × 48 × 52 × sin 96°
2
= 1241.2 m2
2 Calculate the area of ΔBXC. 1
For ΔBXC: Area = bc sin X
2
1
= × 67 × 48 × sin 120°
2
= 1392.6 m2
3 Calculate the area of ΔCXA. 1
For ΔCXA: Area = ca sin X
2
1
= × 52 × 67 × sin 144°
2
= 1023.9 m2
4 Calculate the total area by adding the area of Total area = 1241.2 + 1392.6 + 1023.9
each triangle. = 3657.7 m2
= 3658 m2 (correct to the nearest m2)
An alternative to the plane table radial survey is the compass radial survey. In this survey the bearing of
each radial line is calculated and this bearing is used to calculate the angle between each radial, as in the

worked example below. The method of calculating the perimeter and area of the field is then the same
as for the plane table radial survey.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
The figure on the right shows a compass radial A

survey of a block of land. 338°
B
a Calculate the size of ∠AXB. 067°
58
m
Hence, calculate the distance AB, correct to the
m
b
49
nearest metre.
57 m
m
55 X C
D 114°
239°
THINK WRITE
a A is 22° west of North, B is 67° east of North. a 22° + 67° = 89°
b 1 Write the cosine rule formula. b For ΔAXB:

x2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos X
2 Substitute for a, b and X. = 492 + 582 − 2 × 49 × 58 × cos 89°
3 Calculate the value of x2. = 5665.8
4 Calculate x. x = 75 m (correct to the nearest metre)
5 Write your answer. The distance AB is 75 m.
Exercise 7H Radial surveys

1 WE26 The figure below is a plane table radial survey of a block of land. Use the cosine rule to
calculate the perimeter of the block of land, correct to the nearest metre.
15
m
m 100°
10
70° 80°
110° 25
m m
20
2 Calculate the perimeter of each of the following areas, correct to the nearest metre.
a b c
114
100 m
m
60
1
m
m
12
m
45
70° 95° 75 m 90° 40°

85° 80° 115° 60°
150° 89 m
125° 45 92 m 140° 30°
55 m
m
m 78
80
3 WE27 The figure below is a plane table survey of a block of land. Calculate the area of the block,
correct to the nearest square metre.
90 m 160°
0m
60° 100° 8
40°
0m
100 m
11

4 For each of the plane table surveys shown in question 2 calculate the area, correct to the nearest
square metre.
5 WE28 The figure on the right is a compass radial survey of a field. A
315°
a Calculate the size of ∠AXB. B
040°
50
b Hence, use the cosine rule to calculate the distance AB, correct to m
60
m
the nearest metre. X
70 m
40 m
110° C
170°
D
6 Calculate the perimeter of the field given by the compass radial survey
below. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
350°
100 m
90 m
30 m
110°
250°
7 Calculate the perimeter of each of the compass radial surveys shown below.
a 327° 030° b 339° c 319° 020°
052°
114
m
m
53
m
72
m
8
42
m
63
10
m
38 m 49 m 085°
24 m m
99 m
29 38
215° 097°
226°
m
196° 170°
8 For each of the compass radial surveys in question 7 calculate the area, correct to the nearest square
metre.
Further development
9 The figure below is that of a triangular field.
A000°
20 m
30 m 35 m
B240°
C120°
a Find the area of the field correct to 2 decimal places.

b Find the perimeter of the field correct to 2 decimal places.
c An alternative formula for the area of a triangle is A = !s(s − a) (s − b) (s − c), where a, b and
a+b+c
c are the side lengths of the triangle and s = . Use this formula and compare the result
2
with that obtained in question 9a.
10 ABCD is a square field. O is a point in the centre of the square such that it is 10 metres from each corner.
a Use the cosine rule to find each side length.
b Find the area of triangle OAB and find the area of the square by multiplying this result by the
number of triangles that make up the square.
c Compare the answer to part b to the area of the square found using A = l 2.

11 A surveyor, at point S sights two trees, A and B, on the opposite side of a river as being a distance of
52 m and 64 m away on bearings of 320° and 030° respectively.
a Find the distance AB correct to 2 decimal places.
b Find the area of the triangle ABS correct to 2 decimal places.
c Use your answers to a and b to find the width of the river.
12 Jason is at point A. Peta is 100 m from Jason on a bearing 090° at point X. Jason observes a tower at
point B on a bearing 050° and a tree at a bearing of 150° at Y. Peta notes the bearing of the tower as
310° and tree as 240°.
a Use this information to draw a 1:1000 sketch.
b Use this diagram to find the length of:
i AX
ii BX
iii AY
iv YB
v XY
c An observer is at X. Give the bearing of:
i A
ii B
iii Y
d Calculate the area of ABXY to the nearest 100 m2.
13 Cameron sets up a plane table at O and from this point makes the following notes about the
surrounding features A to E.
Feature Distance to feature Bearing of feature from O

A 25 m 045°
B 35 m 120°
C 20 m 180°
D 40 m 250°
E 65 m 325°
a What surveying method is Cameron using?

b Draw a neat sketch representing this information. Use a 1:1000 scale.
c An observer is at E. From E, what would you expect to be the bearings of A, B, C and D?
d Estimate the area enclosed by the perimeter linking features of A to E. Express to the nearest
10 m2.
14 Margaret places a plane table directly over point A and sights B, 60 m from her on a bearing of 020°,
and D, 50 m away on a bearing of 100°. She moves the plane table to B and notes the bearing of C,
70 m from her, to be 090°.
a Draw a neat 1:1000 sketch showing this information.
b Margaret then moves the plane table to C. What bearing is expected of:
i D
ii B?
c What is the distance from C to:
i A
ii D?
d Determine the area of ABCD to the nearest 100 m2.
Investigate: Conducting a radial survey
Choose an appropriate area in or near your school to conduct a radial survey.

1. Set up a table in the centre of the area and tape a large piece of paper to the table.
2. Mark a point in the middle of the piece of paper and sight each corner of the field from this point,
Digital doc
doc-11071 ruling a line from the point in that direction.
WorkSHEET 7.2 3. Use a tape or trundle wheel to measure the distance from the table to each corner of the field.
4. Use your protractor to measure the angle between each radial line.
5. Calculate the area and the perimeter of the field.

Summary
Review of right-angled • The formulas to be used when solving right-angled triangles are:
triangles opposite side
sin θ =
hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos θ =
hypotenuse
opposite side
tan θ =
adjacent side
• To calculate a side length, you need to be given the length of one other side and one angle.
• To calculate the size of an angle, you need to be given two side lengths.
• If a question is given as a problem, begin by drawing a diagram and give a written answer.
Sine rule to find side • The sine rule allows us to calculate sides and angles in non-right-angled C
lengths triangles. C
• When finding a side length you need to be given the length of one b a
other side and two angles.
a b c A B
• The sine rule formula is = = A c B
sin A sin B sin C
Sine rule to find angles • When finding an angle you need to be given two side lengths and one angle.
sin A sin B sin C
• The sine rule formula when finding an angle is = =
a b c
Cosine rule • The cosine rule allows you to calculate the length of sides and size of angles of non-right-angled
triangles where you are unable to use the sine rule.
• To find a side length using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of two sides and the
included angle and use the formula c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.
• To find an angle using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of all three sides and use
a2 + b2 − c2
the formula cos C = .
2ab
Area of a triangle • When you do not know the perpendicular height of a triangle, you can calculate the area using the
1
formula Area = ab sin C.
2
• To calculate the area using this formula, you need to be given the length of two sides and the
included angle.
Bearings • Bearings are a measure of direction.

• A compass bearing uses the four main points of the compass, north, south, east and west, as well
as the four intermediate directions, north-east, north-west, south-east, south-west.
• More specific directions are given using true bearings. A true bearing describes a direction as a
three-digit angle taken in a clockwise direction from north.
• Most bearing questions will require you to draw a diagram to begin the question and require a
written answer.

Surveying • A plane table radial survey sights each corner of a field and draws a
m
radial line in that direction. This divides the field into triangles. 25
20
The length of each radial line and the angle between radial lines are m 115°
then measured. 60°
115°
• The cosine rule can then be used to calculate the length of each 70° 28
m
boundary.
1
26 m
• The formula Area = ab sin C can be then used to calculate the area
of the field. 2
• A compass radial survey takes the bearing of each radial line and this
is then used to calculate the angles between them.
A
338°
B
067°
58
m
m
49
57 m
m
55 X C
D 114°
239°

Chapter review
1 In the following figure, which of the following will give the value of x?
M U LT IP L E
13 sin 36° C H O IC E
A x =
sin 64°
13 sin 64° 13 m
B x =
sin 36° 64°
13 sin 64°
C x =
sin 80° x
36°
13 sin 80°
D x =
sin 64°
2 In the following figure, which of the following will give the value of cos θ?
62 + 72 − 82
A cos θ =
2×6×7 6m 7m
6 + 82 − 72
2
B cos θ =
2×6×8
7 + 82 − 62
2 θ
C cos θ = 8m
2×7×8
62 + 72 − 82
D cos θ =
2×7×8
3 Maurice walks 3 km on a true bearing of 225°. To return to his starting point he must walk on a
compass bearing of:
A north-east
B north-west
C south-east
D south-west
4 The following figure is a compass radial survey. ∠AXB is: B 80°
A 35° 305° A
B 55°
C 85° X
D 135°
C 174°
1 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the right-angled triangles below, S ho rt
a nsw er
a b t c
72° 7.9 cm
17.2 cm 42 km
m
45°
60°
x
2 In each of the following right-angled triangles, find the size of the angle marked with the
pronumeral, correct to the nearest degree.
a b 8.3 km c
α
35 cm
16 m
20.1 km 24.8 cm
ϕ θ
9m
3 An aeroplane at an altitude of 2500 m sights a ship at an angle of depression of 39°. Calculate, to the
nearest metre, the horizontal distance from the aeroplane to the ship.

4 When a yacht is 500 m from shore, the top of a cliff
is sighted at an angle of elevation of 12°.
a Calculate the height of the cliff, correct to the nearest
metre.
b Calculate what the angle of elevation of the top of the
cliff will be when the yacht is 200 m from shore.
5 Two aircraft are approaching an airport. The Qantas
plane (Q) is 40 km due north of the runway (R), while
a Jetstar plane (J) is due east of the Qantas plane and
north-east of the runway. Calculate the distance of
the Jetstar plane from the runway. (Give your answer
correct to the nearest metre.)
6 A car rally requires cars to travel for 25 km on a bearing
of 240°. The cars are then required to travel due north
until they are due west of the starting point. Calculate
the distance from the cars to the starting point. (Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
7 A yacht sails due west for 45 nautical miles before
turning north for 23 nautical miles.
a Calculate the bearing of the yacht from its starting
point.
b On what bearing must the yacht sail to return to its starting point?
8 Use the sine rule to calculate each of the sides marked with a pronumeral, correct to 3 significant
figures.
a a b d c e
117° 19°
70° 31° 28° 4.6 km
4.6 cm
136 mm
20°
9 In ΔXYZ: x = 9.2 cm, ∠XYZ = 56° and ∠YXZ = 38°. Find y, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 Use the sine rule to calculate the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral, correct to the nearest
degree.
a b c
α
9.7 cm 7.1 m 9°
8 cm 9 cm
123° ϕ
63° θ 4.1 cm 1.2 m
11 In ΔABC: b = 46 cm, c = 37 cm and ∠BAC = 72°. Find the area of the triangle, correct to the nearest
square centimetre.
12 Find the area of a triangular field with two sides of 80 m and 98 m, which meet at an angle of 130°
(correct to the nearest hundred square metres).
13 Use the cosine rule to find each of the following unknown sides, correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c 6.9 cm
6.2 cm 128°
9m
b
a c
5.7 m
50°
117°
11 m 4.6 m

14 In ΔLMN: LM = 63 cm, MN = 84 cm and ∠LMN = 68°.
Find the length of LN, correct to 1 decimal place.
15 During a stunt show two aeroplanes fly side by side until they
suddenly diverge at an angle of 160°. After both planes have
flown 500 m what is the distance between the planes, correct
to the nearest metre?
16 Use the cosine rule to find the size of the angle in each of the
following, correct to the nearest degree.
a
θ
6 cm
6 cm
6 cm
b θ
4.2 m 5.3 m
7.9 m
c 9 cm θ 7 cm
15 cm
17 In ΔXYZ: x = 8.3 m, y = 12.45 m and z = 7.2 m. Find ∠YZX,

to the nearest degree.
60 m
18 Two wooden fences are 50 m and 80 m long respectively.

Their ends are connected by a barbed wire fence 44 m long. m
40
Find the angle at which the two wooden fences meet. 80°
120° 50°
19 The following figure is a plane table radial survey of a field. 110° 70 m
a Use the cosine rule to calculate the perimeter of the field.
m
30
b Calculate the area of the field.

20 The figure below is a compass radial survey.
a Calculate the perimeter of the field. 340°
b Calculate the area of the field.
15
m0
160 m 080°
90 m
260°
140 m
190°
1 The distance between football goal posts is 7 m. If Soon Ho is 20 m from one goal post and 25 m Ex tended
R es p ons e
from the other:
a draw a diagram showing the goal posts and Soon Ho’s position.
b calculate the angle within which Soon Ho must kick to score a goal. (Give your answer correct to
the nearest degree.)
2 An observer sights the top of a building at an angle of elevation of 20°. From a point 30 m closer to
the building, the angle of elevation is 35° as shown in the following figure.
a Calculate the size of ∠ATB.
30 sin 20°
b Show that the distance BT can be given by the expression BT = .
sin 15°

30 sin 20° sin 35°
c Show that the height of the building can be given by the expression h = .
sin 15°
d Calculate the height of the building correct to 1 decimal place.
T
h
20° 35°
A 30 m B C
3 The figure below shows a compass radial survey of a field.
a Calculate the length of the boundary CD, correct to 1 decimal place.
Digital doc b Calculate the area of ΔAXB, correct to the nearest square metre.
Test Yourself A 345°
doc-11072
Chapter 7
110 m
X 30 m B
30 085°
80 m m
D 250° 125° C

ICT activities
7A Review of right-angled triangles 7F Area of a triangle
Interactivity Tutorial
• int-2405: SOHCAHTUA. (page 177) • WE 20 int-0469: Calculate the bearing of a ship from a specified
Tutorial position. (page 203)
• WE 4 int-2415: Use trigonometric ratios to solve problems.
(page 180) 7G Bearings
Digital docs Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 7.1 (doc-11063): Right-angled trigonometry — finding a • int-0190: Navigation and specifications of locations. (page 206)
side length. (page 182) Tutorial
• SkillSHEET 7.2 (doc-11064): Using the inverse trigonometric ratios.
• WE 25 int-0473: Apply knowledge of bearings to solve problems.
(page 182)
(page 208)
• SkillSHEET 7.3 (doc-11065): Rounding angles to the nearest degree.
(page 182) Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 7.4 (doc-11066): Right-angled trigonometry — finding • SkillSHEET 7.7 (doc-11070): Converting nautical miles to kilometres.
an angle. (page 182) (page 211)
7B Using the sine rule to find side lengths 7H Radial surveys

Tutorial Digital doc
• WE 7 int-0465: Learn how to apply Simpson’s rule. (page 185) • WorkSHEET 7.2 (doc-11071): Apply your knowledge of the sine and
cosine rules to problems. (page 218)
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 7.5 (doc-11067): Angle sum of a triangle. (page 187)
• SkillSHEET 7.6 (doc-11068): Solving fractional equations. (page 187) Chapter review
Digital doc
7C Using the sine rule to find angles • Test Yourself (doc-11072): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
Elesson
• eles-0051: Ambiguous case of the sine rule. (page 190)
Tutorial
• WE 12 int-2416: Calculate the bearing of a ship from a specified
position. (page 191)
7D Using the cosine rule to find side lengths

Tutorial
• WE 14 int-0468: Learn how to apply the cosine rule. (page 195)
Digital doc
• WorkSHEET 7.1 (doc-11069): Apply your knowledge of trigonometry
to problems. (page 197)

Answers chapter 7
Applications of 2 B 12 148°
3 B 13 a 35°6' b 6.73 m2
trigonometry 4 a 43° b 50° c 32° 14 22.94°
Exercise 7A Review of right-angled 5 19.96° 15 a 130 km b S22.2°E
triangles 6 a 119° b 95° c 131° 16 70°49'
1 a 12.2 cm b 110.9 mm 7 38° 17 1.14 km/h
c 10.0 m d 409.9 mm 8 20° Exercise 7F Area of a triangle
e 29.8 m f 19.3 cm 9 84° 1
1 a Area = ab sin C
2 a 27° b 56° c 57° 10 a 57° b 63° 2
1
3 a R 11 54° b Area = yz sin X
2
12 51.2, 96.8, 31.85 1
c Area = am sin G
13 C 2
28° 1
P 5 km Q 14 B 2 a Area = ab sin C
2
b 2.659 km c 5.663 km 15 63° 1
4 a 28.01 m b 25° b Area = bh
Exercise 7D Using the cosine rule to find 2
5 52° side lengths c Area = bh
1
6 62 m 2
1 a a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A 1
7 15° d Area = bh
b r2 = p2 + q2 − 2pq cos R 2
8 a b 16° c n2 = l2 + m2 − 2lm cos N 3 a 42.4 cm2 b 3522.6 mm2
239 m 2 a 8.05 m b 14.3 cm c 12.0 m
65 m c 4660.9 mm2
3 a 185.1 cm b 14.4 m 4 a 133 cm2 b 555.4 cm2
9 D c 104.4 mm c 608 cm2
10 θ = 20°, x = 4.0 m 4 D 5 D
11 59° 5 A 6 B
12 56° 6 C 7 3.865 cm2
13 a 1.43 m b 12° 7 14.4 cm 8 a A B
14 41° 8 1140 mm
m
9 6.742 km
2.5
Exercise 7B Using the sine rule to find 70°
10 40 m
side lengths D 5.2 m C
11 a 134° b 8.5 cm
a b c b 12.2 m2
cm
1 a = = 46° 9 a 72° b 59 cm2

5.3
sin A sin B sin C

x y z 11.3 cm 10 710 m2
b = = c 15.5 cm 11 43.3 cm2
sin X sin Y sin Z
p q r 12 55 cm 12 C
c = = 13 13.6 km 13 B
sin P sin Q sin R
14 9.2 cm 14 a 130.4 cm2 b 14.5 m
2 a 14.8 cm b 1.98 km c 112 mm 15 2218 m 15 a 159.4 cm2
3 a 10.0 mm b 22.1 cm c 39.6 km 16 27.65 m b Check with your teacher.
4 B c Because sin 75° = sin 105°
Exercise 7E Using the cosine rule to find
5 C 16 90°
6 9.8 cm angles
7 27.0 m b2 + c2 − a2 Exercise 7G Bearings
1 a cos A =
8 37.8 m 2bc 1 a N25°E b S10°W
9 a B p2 + r2 − q2 c N50°W d S78°W
b cos Q = e N78°E f S78°E
2pr
34° 2 a 135°T b 247.5°T
49° M a2 + m2 − p2 c 135°T d 292.5°T
N 20 m c cos P =
b 43.2 m c 33 m 2am e 202.5°T f 247.5°T
10 a ∠WYX = 40° 2 a 85° b 83° c 45° 3 a x b 2.970 km
80 XY 3 a 103° b 137° c 10°
In ΔWYX = 4 A
4.2 km 45°
sin 40° sin 30°
80 sin 30° 5 D
∴ XY = 6 42° 4 a
sin 40°
34 km
45°
h 7 23°
b In ΔYXZ sin 70° = 8 82°, 54°, 44°
XY x
80 sin 30° 9 a W 9.2 cm X
h= × sin 70° b 34 km
sin 40° 5 a B
c 58.5 m 13.6 cm 14 cm
x 43 M
11 a 145 cm b 34 cm 13.6 cm
12 68 km A 45°
Exercise 7C Using the sine rule to find Z 9.2 cm Y b 30.4 M
angles b 73° c 56.3008 km
1 a 43° b 35° c 27° 10 32° 6 B
d 75° e 37° f 2° 11 a 38.94° b 25.26° 7 B

8 6.4 km 3 12 992 m2 3 3087 m
9 a d
L 4 a 4923 m2 b 8861 m2 4 a 106 m b 28°
2 5 56.569 km
c 18 382 m
5 a 85° b 75 m 6 21.7 km
8M
60° 6 389 m 7 a 297° b 117°

b 13.9 M 7 a 214 m b 531 m c 301 m 8 a 1.67 cm b 81.7 mm
10 437 km 8 a 2719 m2 b 12 425 m2 c 9.81 km
11 a CP CG b 11.1 km c 5809 m2 9 12.4 cm
9 a 1017.58 m2 10 a 52° b 21° c 68°
3.8 km
b 148.16 m
70° c You should obtain the same result. 11 809 cm2
10 a 14.14 m b 50 m2, 200 m2 12 3000 m2
290° c You should obtain the same result. 13 a 8.64 m b 8.80 m
12 D 11 a 67.26 m b 1563.65 m2 c 11.8 cm
13 A c 46.5 m 14 84.0 cm
14 a 4 km b 229° 12 a Check with your teacher. 15 985 m
3.5 km
b i 100 m ii 66 m iii 50 m 16 a 60° b 112° c 139°

iv 90 m v 86 m 17 34°
c i 270° ii 310° iii 240° 18 29°
15 342° d 4300 m2 19 a 284 m b 4020 m2
16 80.98 km 13 a Radial 20 a 783 m b 34 910 m2
17 a B, 11.6 km b Check with your teacher.
Extended response
b A, 6.5 km c A, 123°; B, 136°; C, 152°; D, 180°
c A, 15.4 km d 3160 m2 1 a A 7 B
18 a 20.38 km 14 a Check with your teacher.
b 23.04 km b i 212° ii 270° 20
19 199.47° N c i 107 m ii 77 m 25
20 199.47° d 3800 m2
21 a 12.57 km θ
b 534°1’E Chapter review C
22 a 276.6 m north, 64.28 m east
Multiple choice b Approximately at an angle of 13°
b 154.44 m north, 249.80 east
1 D 2 a ∠ABT = 15°
c 38.49 km south, 17.43 km west
2 B 30 sin 20°
d 227.28 m south, 623.47 m east b BT =
23 a 1428 m b 1358 m 3 A sin 15°
4 D 30 sin 20°
c 1970 m d N43°34’E c h = × sin 35°
sin 15°
Exercise 7H Radial surveys Short answer d Approximately 22.7 m
1 102 m 1 a 8.6 cm b 13.6 km c 11.2 cm 3 a Approximately 100.3 m
2 a 286 m b 432 m c 540 m 2 a 61° b 66° c 45° b Approximately 1625 m2

Chapter 8
Spherical geometry
CHAPTER CONTENTS
8A Arc lengths
8B Great circles and small circles
8C Latitude and longitude
8D Distances on the Earth’s surface
8E Time zones
8A Arc lengths

An arc is a section of the circumference of a circle. To calculate an arc length we must first revise finding
the circumference of a circle. The circumference of a circle can be found using either of the formulas:
C = πd, where d is the diameter
C = 2πr, where r is the radius.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 6 m. Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. C = 2πr

2 Substitute the value of r. C=2×π×6
3 Calculate the circumference. C = 37.70 m
The length of an arc can be calculated as the fraction of the circle determined by l
the angle subtended by the arc at the centre, as shown in the figure on the right.
The arc length, l, can be calculated using the formula:
θ
l= 2πr r
360
where θ = number of degrees in the central angle. θ
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right, correct to l

1 decimal place.
Tutorial
int-2443
7.1 cm Worked example 2
60°
Chapter 8 • Spherical geometry 229

THINK WRITE
θ°
1 Write the formula. l= 2πr
360°
60°
2 Substitute the value of θ and r. = × 2 × π × 7.1
360°
3 Calculate the arc length. = 7.4 cm
The arc length formula is used to make calculations about the distance between points on the Earth’s
surface.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The radius of the Earth at the equator is approximately 6400 km.

a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest kilometre.
b Two points on the equator subtend at a 5° angle at the centre of the Earth. Calculate the
distance between them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula. a C = 2πr
2 Substitute the value of r. = 2 × π × 6400

3 Calculate the circumference. = 40 212 km
θ°
b 1 Write the formula. b d= 2πr
360°
5°
2 Substitute for θ and r. = × 2 × π × 6400
360°
3 Calculate the distance. = 559 km
Exercise 8A Arc lengths

1 WE1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to
1 decimal place.
Digital doc a b c
SkillSHEET 8.1 62 mm
doc-11073
Circumference of 4 cm
a circle 9m
d e f
8.3 m
13.9 km
4.1 km
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle with a radius of 100 km. Give your answer correct to the
nearest 10 km.

3 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles. Give your answer correct to
a b c
14 cm 60 km
39 m
d e f
117 mm
3.7 km 219 km
4 Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a diameter of 3000 km. Give your answer correct to
the nearest 100 km.
5 Use the formula C = πd to find the diameter of a circle with a circumference of 100 cm. Give your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
6 Find (correct to 3 significant figures):
a the diameter of a circle with a circumference of 80 m
b the radius of a circle with a circumference of 42.3 cm
c the diameter of a sphere with a circumference of 2500 km.
7 WE2 Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right, correct to
2 decimal places.
50°
10 cm
8 Calculate the lengths of each of the arcs drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 8.2
mm
doc-11074
45°
43
Calculating arc
120° length
13 m 72 cm
d e f
220° 72 km
150°
7.2 cm
7.9 km
4°
9 WE3 The radius of the Earth at the equator is 6400 km.

a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest 100 km.
b Two points on the equator subtend an angle of 40° at the centre. Calculate the distance between
them, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 A circle has a radius of 30 km.
a Two points on the circle subtend an angle of 100° at the centre. Calculate the length of the arc
joining them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
b The outer arc between the two points subtends an angle of 260°. Calculate the length of the outer
arc, correct to the nearest kilometre.
c Show that the sum of the lengths of the two arcs is equal to the circumference of the circle.

11 A sphere has a radius of 40 cm.
a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the distance between two points on the sphere that subtend an angle of 90° at the centre,
12 Calculate the distance, correct to 1 decimal place, between two points on a sphere:
a of radius 10 cm, which subtend an angle of 30° at the centre
b of radius 2 m, which subtend an angle at 122° at the centre
c of radius 6400 km, which subtend an angle of 51° at the centre.
13 Calculate the distance between two points on the Earth’s surface that subtend an angle of 1° at the
centre. Give your answer correct to the nearest kilometre.
Further development
14 Find the radius of each of the following circles given the circumference. Give each answer correct to
a 100 cm b 26.7 m c 12 000 km
15 An arc has a length of 24 cm and subtends an angle of 45° at the centre of the circle. Find, correct to
1 decimal place, the radius of the circle on which the arc stands.
16 A 42-metre long arc stands on a circle of radius 30 metres. Find the angle that is subtended at the
centre of the circle by this arc. Give your answer correct to the nearest degree.
17 A sphere has a diameter of 50 cm. Two points A and B on the surface of the sphere subtend an angle
of 125°.
a Calculate the distance AB correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the length of the larger arc AB (i.e. the arc formed by travelling from A to B in the
opposite direction).

18 The Earth has a radius of approximately 6400 km. Two points on the Earth’s surface are 5000 km
apart.
a Calculate the angle subtended by these two points at the centre of the Earth. Give your answer to
the nearest minute.
b A circle between the two points can be drawn on the Earth’s surface that has a radius of 4000 km.
Calculate the angle that is subtended at the centre of this circle.
19 Two points on the surface of the Earth are 1675 km apart. A circle can be drawn on the surface of the
Earth that passes through the two points and the two points subtend an angle of 19°26' at the centre
of this circle. Find the radius of this circle, correct to the nearest 10 km.
8B Great circles and small circles

Consider the sphere drawn on the right. The axis of the sphere is a diameter of Pole Axis
that sphere. The ends of the axis are called the poles.
If we draw any lines around the sphere passing through both poles,
a great circle is formed. A great circle is the largest possible circle that can
be drawn around the sphere.
Great circle
Pole
The length of a great circle is found using the formulas for the cir-cumference of a circle:
C = πd, where d is the diameter of the sphere
or C = 2πr, where r is the radius of the sphere.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the length of a great circle on a sphere with a radius of 40 cm. Give your answer
correct to the nearest centimetre.
THINK WRITE

2 Substitute the radius of the sphere. = 2 × π × 40
3 Calculate the length of the great circle. = 251 cm
Now consider a circle drawn perpendicular to the axis of the sphere. Only one circle, called the
equator, will be a great circle. The centre of the equator will be the centre of the sphere as
shown below.
Equator

Other circles that are perpendicular to the axis of the sphere will be smaller than a great circle and are
called small circles.
Small circle
Equator
To calculate the length around a small circle, we need to know the small circle’s radius. The small
circle will have a radius smaller than that of the great circle, as shown in the figure below.
Radius of small circle
Radius of great circle
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the length of the small circle on the right, correct to

1 decimal place.
Tutorial
int-2444 2m
Worked example 5
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the circumference of a circle. C = 2πr

2 Substitute for r. = 2 × π × 1.5
3 Calculate the circumference. = 9.4 cm
Exercise 8B Great circles and small circles

1 WE4 Calculate the length of a great circle around a sphere of radius 7 cm. Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.
2 Calculate the length of a great circle on each of the spheres drawn below. Give each answer correct
to 3 significant figures.
a b c
9m
30 m
74 mm
3 The Earth is a sphere with a radius of approximately 6400 km. Calculate the length of a great circle
around the Earth’s surface, correct to the nearest 10 km.
4 Calculate the length of a great circle that lies on a sphere with a diameter of 1 m. Give your answer

5 Below are the diameters of the other planets in our solar system. Calculate the length of a great circle
on the surface of each planet, correct to the nearest 10 km.
a Mercury 4878 km b Venus 12 100 km c Mars 6796 km d Jupiter 142 984 km
e Saturn 120 540 km f Uranus 51 118 km g Neptune 49 100 km
6 WE5 Calculate the length of a small circle on a sphere of radius 4 m if the radius of the small circle
is 2 m. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
7 Calculate the length of each of the small circles below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 1100 km
6.4 m
25° 80°
7.1 m
6400 km
9m
10°
8.8 m
8 MC The diameter of the moon is 3476 km. The length of a great circle on the moon’s surface is
closest to:
A 5460 km B 10 920 km C 21 840 km D 43 680 km
9 The diameter of the sphere drawn on the right is 50 cm. Calculate the
distance along the surface from one pole to the other. Give your answer
50 cm
10 Calculate the distance between the north and south poles along the Earth’s
surface, correct to the nearest 100 km. (Take the radius of the Earth to be
6400 km.)
11 A and B are two points on a small circle of radius 60 cm, as shown in the
figure on the right.
a Calculate the circumference of the small circle, correct to the nearest
centimetre. 60 cm
b Calculate the length of the arc, AB, correct to the nearest centimetre. B
A
12 Calculate the length of each arc below, correct to 3 significant figures.
a b
1000 km
X 100° Y
50 m
60° Q
P
Further development
13 The sphere below has four circles on it, labelled (a), (b), (c) and (d).
(b)
(c)
(a)
(d)
Label each as being either a great circle or a small circle.

14 The figure on the right shows a great circle and a small circle drawn on a
sphere of radius 50 cm. y
a The small circle is at an angle of elevation of 40° to the great circle.
50 cm θ
Find the size of the angle marked θ. 40°
b Use trigonometry to find the radius of the small circle correct to the 50 cm
nearest centimetre.
c Find the circumference of the small circle correct to the nearest
centimetre.
15 The radius of a small circle can be found using the formula r = Rcosθ, where r is the radius
of the small circle, R is the radius of the great circle and θ is the angle subtended by the small
circle with the great circle at the centre of the sphere.
a Verify this formula using the information given in question 14.
b Use the formula to find the radius and circumference of a small circle that subtends a 25°
angle at the centre of the sphere radius 5.2 m with a great circle. Give each answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
16 The Earth has a radius of approximately 6400 km.
a Use the formula given in question 15 to find the radius of a small circle that makes
a 20° angle with a great circle. Give your answer correct to the nearest
kilometre.
b X and Y are two points on the small circle in 16a that subtend an angle of 40° at the centre
of the small circle. Find the length of arc XY correct to the nearest 10 km.
17 a Find the radius of a small circle that makes a 45° angle with a great circle of radius 6400 km.
Give your answer correct to the nearest kilometre.
b Find the distance to the nearest kilometre between two points on the small circle in 17a
that subtend a 75° angle at the centre of the small circle.
18 X and Y are two points on a great circle upon the Earth’s surface that subtend a 65° angle at the
centre. X and Z lie on the same small circle that has a radius of 3200 km and subtend an angle of
Digital doc 65° at the centre of the same small circle. Jude claims that the distance XY will be
WorkSHEET 8.1 twice the distance XZ. Is Jude correct? Explain your answer.
doc-11075

8C Latitude and longitude North Pole
As the Earth is a sphere, great circles and small circles on the surface of the eLESSON
Earth are used to locate points on the surface. eles-0138
Understanding
Consider the axis of the Earth to be the diameter joining the North Pole and the Equator map scales and
South Pole. The only great circle that is perpendicular to this axis is the equator. distances
The angular distance either north or south of the equator is the latitude.
Small circles parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude. These
small circles are used to describe how far north or south of the equator a
South Pole
place is. For example Sydney lies close to the small circle 30°S.
This means Sydney subtends a 30° angle at the centre of the Earth and is
south of the equator.
The maximum latitude for any point on the Earth is 90°N or 90°S. The
north and south poles lie at these points.
For latitude, the equator is the line of reference for all measurements.
To locate a place on the globe in an east–west direction, the line of 30°
30°S
reference is the Greenwich Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian is half a Sydney
great circle running from the North to the South Pole.
North Pole
n
enwich Meridia
Equator
G re
South Pole
The Greenwich Meridian is named after Greenwich, a suburb of London through which the circle runs.
All other places on the globe are located by the half great circle on which they lie. These half great
circles are called meridians of longitude.
Each meridian of longitude is identified by the angle between it and the Greenwich Meridian and by
whether it is east or west of Greenwich.
40°
The meridian of longitude opposite the Greenwich Meridian is the International Date Line. The
International Date Line has longitude 180° either east or west. On either side of the International Date
Line the day changes. (This will be explained in more detail later in the chapter.)
For the convenience of some small island nations and Russia, the International Date Line is bent so as
not to pass through them.
World maps or globes are drawn with both parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude shown. Any
location on a map or globe can be given a pair of coordinates: the first is the parallel of latitude that it lies
on, the second is the meridian of longitude. For example, the coordinates of Sydney are 30°S, 150°E.
Greenwich International
Meridian Date Line

60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0°
ARCTIC OCEAN
FINLAND Alaska
ICELAND SWEDEN (U.S.A.)
NORWAY RUSSIA Anchorage
60°N 60°N
UNITED Oslo
KINGDOM Moscow CANADA
IRELAND NETHERLANDS
London Amsterdam

Vancouver Montreal
FRANCE
ITALY
PORTUGAL Madrid Rome Beijing NORTH KOREA UNITED STATES New York
SPAIN SOUTH KOREA OF AMERICA
IRAQ CHINA Tokyo Los Angeles
Baghdad Shanghai JAPAN
30°N Cairo 30°N
ALGERIA LIBYA JAMAICA
EGYPT INDIA
TAIWAN MEXICO ATLANTIC
Hawaii (U.S.A.) Mexico City OCEAN
MALI PHILIPPINES
NIGER Manila PACIFIC
OCEAN
SOMALIA SRI LANKA
Colombo
COLOMBIA
International Date Line
0° Equator KampalaUGANDA SINGAPORE 0°
KENYA PAPUA NEW Quito
INDONESIA ECUADOR
EAST GUINEA
TIMOR Port Moresby PERU BRAZIL
ATLANTIC Darwin Lima
OCEAN ANGOLA
FIJI BOLIVIA
MADAGASCAR Suva
NAMIBIA INDIAN PARAGUAY
Johannesburg OCEAN AUSTRALIA CHILE
Brisbane
30°S 30°S
SOUTH AFRICA Perth URUGUAY
Cape Town Adelaide Sydney NEW Santiago
Buenos Aires
Melbourne ZEALAND
Wellington ARGENTINA
Hobart
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 km

N
30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Identify the major cities closest to each of the following locations using the map on page 238.
a 30°S, 30°E b 30°N, 120°E c 45°N, 75°W
THINK WRITE
a Look for the city closest to the intersection of the 30°S parallel of latitude a Johannesburg
and the 30°E meridian of longitude.
b Look for the city closest to the intersection of the 30°N parallel of latitude b Shanghai
and the 120°E meridian of longitude.
c Look for the city closest to the intersection of the 45°N parallel of latitude c Montreal
and the 75°W meridian of longitude.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Write down the approximate coordinates of each of the following cities using the map on page 238.
a Singapore b Perth c Los Angeles
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to estimate the latitude. a
2 Use the meridians of longitude drawn to estimate the longitude. 1°N, 104°E
b 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to estimate the latitude. b
2 Use the meridians of longitude drawn to estimate the longitude. 32°S, 115°E
c 1 Use the parallels of latitude drawn to estimate the latitude. c
2 Use the meridians of longitude drawn to estimate the longitude. 35°N, 118°W
Exercise 8C Latitude and longitude

For the following questions use the map on page 238.
1 WE6 Write down the name of the city closest to each of the following pairs of coordinates.
a 30°N, 30°E b 30°N, 120°E c 15°S, 135°E d 45°N, 75°W
e 50°N, 0° f 37°S, 175°E g 35°N, 140°E h 40°N, 115°E
1
i 222 °S, 43°W j 60°N, 11°E
2 WE7 State the approximate latitude and longitude of each of the following major cities or islands.
a Melbourne
b New York
c Jamaica
d Johannesburg
e Rome
f Buenos Aires
g Baghdad
h Moscow
i Singapore
j Suva
Further development
3 For each of the following points on the Earth’s surface, state whether the two points lie on (or close
to) the same great circle or the same small circle.
a Shanghai and Los Angeles b Montreal and Lima c Rome and Oslo
d Manila and Shanghai e Baghdad and Shanghai f Singapore and Quito

4 The following cities are close to lying on the same great circle. Use the map on page 238 to estimate
the angle that is subtended at the centre of the Earth.
a Perth and Beijing b Kampala and Singapore
c Quito and Kampala d Cairo and Kampala
5 The following cities are close to lying on the same small circle. Use the map on page 238 to estimate
the angle subtended at the centre of the small circle.
a Baghdad and Los Angeles b Cape Town and Sydney
c Oslo and Anchorage d Santiago and Sydney
Important parallels of latitude

Four significant parallels of latitude on the surface of the Earth are the:
1. Arctic Circle
2. Antarctic Circle
3. Tropic of Cancer
4. Tropic of Capricorn.
Find out the latitude of these small circles and state the significance of each.
8D Distances on the Earth’s surface

From the previous section on latitude and longitude it can be seen that
angular geometry is of great importance when making measurements on the
Earth’s surface.
Now consider a meridian of longitude on the Earth’s surface with two
θ
points on it. The angular distance between them will be the difference between
their latitudes.
The angular distance is calculated by subtracting the latitudes of points if
both are on the same side of the equator and adding the latitudes if on opposite
sides of the equator.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
The coordinates of A are (20°S, 130°E) and the coordinates of B are (15°N, 130°E). Find the
angular distance between them.
THINK WRITE
A and B are on opposite sides of the equator so Angular distance = 20° + 15°
add the latitudes. = 35°

Now consider two points on the same great circle that have an angular distance of 1 minute. (Remember
60′ = 1°.) The distance between these two points is defined to be 1 nautical mile (M). Therefore, an
angular distance of 1° on a great circle will equal 60 nautical miles.
1 nautical mile ≃ 1.852 km
Using this information, we are able to calculate the distance between two points on a great circle on
the Earth’s surface in both nautical miles and kilometres.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
P and Q are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (27°N, 30°W) and (39°N, 30°W)
respectively.
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles. Tutorial
b Use 1 M ≃ 1.852 km to give the distance, PQ, to the nearest kilometre. int-2445
Worked example 9
THINK WRITE
a 1 P and Q are on the same great circle. a
2 Calculate the angular distance, PQ. Angular distance = 39° − 27°

= 12°
3 Convert the angular distance to nautical miles Distance = 12 × 60
using 1° = 60 M. = 720 M
b Multiply 720 by 1.852 to convert to kilometres. b Distance = 720 × 1.852
= 1333 km
We can also calculate the distance between two points on the same great circle, in kilometres, using the
fact that the radius of the Earth is 6400 km.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
X and Y are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (32°N, 120°E) and (45°S, 120°E).
Calculate the distance, XY, correct to the nearest 100 km.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the angular distance, XY. Angular distance = 32° + 45°

= 77°
θ°
2 Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance between l= 2πr
X and Y, correct to the nearest 100 km. 360°
77°
= × 2πr
360°
77°
= × 2 × π × 6400
360°
= 8600 km
In marine and aerial navigation, speed on the Earth’s surface is measured in knots.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile/hour

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
The coordinates of two points on the Earth’s surface are given by the coordinates A (50°N, 120°W)
and B (30°S, 120°W). Calculate the time taken for a ship to sail the shortest distance between
these two points at an average speed of 40 knots.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the angular distance between A and B. Angular distance = 50° + 30°
= 80°
2 Calculate the distance, AB, in nautical miles. Distance = 80 × 60
= 4800 M
distance distance
3 Use the formula time = to calculate the time Time =
speed speed
taken for the journey.
4800
=
40
= 120 hours (5 days)
Exercise 8D Distances on the Earth’s surface

1 WE8 Two points, A and B, on the Earth’s surface are at (30°N, 25°W) and (20°S, 25°W). Calculate
the angular distance between A and B.
2 In each of the following calculate the angular distance between the pairs of points given.
a (70°N, 150°E) and (30°N, 150°E)
b (25°N, 40°W) and (15°S, 40°W)
c (64°N, 0°) and (7°S, 0°)
d (42°S, 97°W) and (21°S, 97°W)
e (0°, 60°E) and (0°, 20°W)
3 The city of Durban is at approximately (30°S, 30°E) while Cairo is at approximately (30°N, 30°E).
What is the angular distance between Durban and Cairo?
4 WE9 P and Q are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (45°N, 10°W) and (15°N,
10°W) respectively.
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles (M).
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest km.
5 Calculate the distance between each of the points below in nautical miles.
a A (10°N, 45°E) and B (25°S, 45°E)
b C (75°N, 86°W) and D (60°S, 86°W)
c E (46°S, 52°W) and F (7°S, 52°W)
d G (34°N, 172°E) and H (62°S, 172°E)
6 The city of Osaka is at (37°N, 135°E) while Alice Springs is at (23°S, 135°E).
a Calculate the distance between Osaka and Alice Springs in nautical miles.
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to write this distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
1 1
7 The Tropic of Cancer is at latitude 222°N while the Tropic of Capricorn is at latitude 222 °S.
Calculate the distance between these two tropics along the same great circle in:
a nautical miles
b kilometres (correct to the nearest km).
8 WE10 M and N are two points on the Earth’s surface with coordinates (56°N, 122°W) and
(3°S, 122°W). Calculate the distance, MN, correct to the nearest 100 km, using the arc length
formula. (Take the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.)
9 Calculate the distance between each of the points below, correct to the nearest kilometre, using the
arc length formula and taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.
a P (85°S, 89°E) and Q (46°S, 89°E)
b R (24°N, 0°) and S (12°S, 0°)
c T (34°S, 17°W) and U (0°, 17°W)

10 MC Perth is at approximately (31°S, 115°E) while Hong Kong is at approximately (22°N, 115°E).
The distance between Perth and Hong Kong is approximately:
A 9 M B 53 M C 540 M D 3180 M
11 MC Rachel is a flight navigator. She is responsible for calculating the distance between
Stockholm (60°N, 18°E) and Budapest (47°N, 18°E). Rachel calculates the distance using the
arc length formula, assuming the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Rachel’s answer would be
closest to:
A 1445 km B 1452 km C 11 952 km D 11 890 km
12 WE11 The coordinates of two points on the Earth’s surface are X (40°S, 30°E) and Y (10°S, 30°E).
Calculate the time taken for a plane to fly from X to Y at a speed of 240 knots.
13 Quito (0°, 78°W) and Kampala (0°, 32°E) are two cities on the Equator.
a Calculate the angular distance between Quito and Kampala.
b Calculate the distance between them in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to find the distance, correct to the nearest 100 km.
d Calculate the time taken to fly from Quito to Kampala at a speed of 480 knots.
14 Calculate the distance between the North Pole and the South Pole in nautical miles.
15 The city of Kingston is at approximately (18°N, 76°W). Ottawa is at approximately (46°N, 76°W).
a Calculate the angular distance between Kingston and Ottawa.
b Calculate the distance between Kingston and Ottawa in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
d Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance between the two cities, correct to the nearest
kilometre.
e Explain the discrepancy between the two answers.
Further development
16 The point X has coordinates (25°N, 20°E).
a Give the coordinates of two possible points on the globe that have a difference in latitude of
35° to point X.
b Find the distance (in km) between X and these two points
17 Two places on the equator have an angular distance of 200°. What is the shortest distance between
these two places (to the nearest kilometre)?
18 Find the distance in kilometres to the nearest 100 km from each of the following places to the closer
pole. Indicate which pole (north or south) is the closer.
a Warwick (28°S, 152°E) b Vancouver (49°N, 123°W)
c St Moritz (46°N, 10°E) d Thursday Island (10°S, 142°E)
19 Find the distance (in km) between the following places.
a (40°S, 130°E) and (40°S, 159°E) b (70°N, 15°E) and (70°N, 100°E)
c (50°S, 66°W) and (50°S, 106°W) d (80°S, 67°W) and (80°S, 89°W)
e (20°S, 150°E) and (20°S, 54°W) f (30°N, 28°E) and (30°N, 39°W)
20 X and Y are two points on the same small circle with coordinates (35°N, 45°E) and (35°N, 10°E).
a Use the formula r = Rcosθ to find the radius of the small circle upon which these two points lie,
given that θ = 35°.
b Find the angle subtended between these two points at the centre of the small circle.
c Find the distance along the small circle between these two points.
21 Point A on the Earth’s surface has coordinates (45°S, 75°E). Point B is 5000 km due north of A. Find
the coordinates of this point to the nearest degree.
8E Time zones

As the Earth rotates, different parts of the globe are experiencing day and night. This means that each
meridian of longitude on the Earth’s surface should have a different time of day. To simplify this, the interactivity
Earth is divided into time zones. int-0006
Day, night and
Time zones are all calculated in relation to Greenwich. The time on the Greenwich Meridian is
time zones
known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Time zones are then stated in terms of the number of

hours they are ahead or behind GMT. All places with longitudes east of Greenwich are ahead of
GMT, while all place with longitudes west of Greenwich are behind GMT. For example, Eastern
Standard Time is GMT +10, meaning that Sydney is 10 hours ahead of GMT. When GMT is noon,
EST is 10.00 pm.
The International Date Line is 12 hours ahead of Greenwich when travelling east and 12 hours behind
when travelling west, so this totals 24 hours, or one day. Therefore, the day changes on either side of the
International Date Line.
The time difference between two places is calculated by subtracting the comparative time with GMT.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sydney is GMT +10 while New York is GMT −5. Calculate the time difference between Sydney
and New York.
THINK WRITE
1 Subtract the comparative times. Time difference = 10 − (−5)

= 15
2 State the difference and which city is ahead in time. Sydney is 15 hours ahead of New York.
Once we have calculated the time difference, we are able to calculate the time in one place given the
time in another. To calculate the time in a city further ahead of GMT we add time, or to calculate the
time in a city further behind GMT we subtract time.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Perth is GMT +8 while Cape Town is GMT +1. When it is 11.00 am in Cape Town, what is the
time in Perth?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the time difference and state which city is Time difference = 8 − 1
ahead. = 7 hours
Perth is 7 hours ahead of Cape Town.
2 Add the time difference to the time in Cape Town to Time in Perth = 11.00 am + 7 hours
calculate the time in Perth. = 6.00 pm
The time as calculated by the longitude is called the standard time. Time zones are calculated to
approximate all the standard times within a region.
Australian time zones

At times when daylight saving time does not apply, Australia is divided into three time zones, Eastern
Standard Time (EST), Central Standard Time (CST) and Western Standard Time (WST).
1. Which states are in each of the three time zones?
2. What is the time difference between each of these zones?
3. In which states does daylight saving time apply in summer?
4. When daylight saving is in force in each of the states that have daylight saving, how many time zones
is Australia divided into?
As there are 24 hours in a day and 360° of longitude (180°E and 180°W), we can calculate that:
1 hour = 15° of longitude
1° = 4 minutes
We are now able to compare the time in various cities given the longitude of each.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Calculate the time in Los Angeles (34°N, 120°W) when it is 8.00 am on Wednesday in Sydney
(33°S, 150°E).
THINK WRITE Tutorial
int-2446
1 Calculate the difference in longitudes. Longitude difference = 150° + 120° Worked
example 14
= 270°
2 Convert this angular distance into hours Time difference = 270 × 4
using 1° = 4 minutes. = 1080 minutes
= 18 hours
3 Subtract the time difference from the Time in Los Angeles = 8.00 am Wednesday − 18 hours
time in Sydney. = 2.00 pm Tuesday
It is important to note that, for convenience, places that have almost the same longitude have the same
time. An example of this is Australia’s time zones where all of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria
and Tasmania are in the same standard time zone although there is a difference of 12° in longitude from
the easternmost and westernmost points in this zone.
These calculations can then be used to calculate the arrival and departure times for international travel.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
A plane leaves London (50°N, 0°) at 9.00 am Sunday, London time, and flies to Sydney (33°S, 150°E).
The flight takes 20 hours. Calculate the time in Sydney when the plane arrives.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the longitude difference Longitude difference = 150° − 0°

between Sydney and London. = 150°
2 Use 1° = 4 minutes to calculate the Time difference = 150 × 4
time difference. = 600 minutes
= 10 hours
3 Calculate the time in Sydney when the When the plane leaves London at 9.00 am
plane is departing London by adding (London time)
the time difference. Time in Sydney = 9.00 am Sunday + 10 hours
= 7.00 pm Sunday
4 Add the flying time to calculate the Plane arrives at 7.00 pm Sunday + 20 hours
time when the plane lands. = 3.00 pm Monday.
More challenging examples will require you to allow for daylight saving time. When daylight saving
time applies, we add one hour to the standard time at that location.
Exercise 8E Time zones

1 WE12 The time zone in New Zealand is GMT +12 while in Turkey it is GMT +2. Calculate the
time difference between New Zealand and Turkey.
2 Calculate the time difference between each of the following locations. Digital doc
a Tokyo GMT +9 and New York GMT −5 SkillSHEET 8.3
doc-11076
b Los Angeles GMT −8 and Dakar GMT −1 Converting units
c Rio De Janeiro GMT −3 and Perth GMT +8 of time
d Hawaii GMT −11 and Fiji GMT +11
3 WE13 Sydney is GMT +10, while San Francisco is GMT −8. When it is 5.00 pm on Tuesday in
Sydney, what is the time in San Francisco?

4 For each of the following calculate:
a the time in Perth (GMT +8) when it is 10.00 pm in Sydney (GMT +10)
b the time in Washington (GMT −5) when it is 4.00 am Saturday in Sydney (GMT +10)
c the time in Auckland (GMT +12) when it is 7.00 am Wednesday in Johannesburg (GMT +2)
d the time in Sydney (GMT +10) when it is 6.00 am Tuesday in Salt Lake City (GMT −7)
e the time in Adelaide (GMT +9.5) when it is 8.15 pm Sunday in the Cook Islands (GMT −10).
5 Jane is in Sydney (GMT +10) and wants to telephone her friend in Paris (GMT) at 7.00 pm Friday,
Paris time. At what time must she call from Sydney?
6 Carl is holidaying in Hawaii (GMT −11). If he wants to call his parents in Sydney (GMT +10) at
8.00 pm on Wednesday, what time must he call from Hawaii?
7 Neville is in Sydney (GMT +10). He wants to set his video recorder to tape the Superbowl which
is being played in Atlanta (GMT −5) and televised live in Sydney. The Superbowl is due to begin
at 7.00 pm on Sunday in Atlanta. At what day and time will Neville need to set his video to begin taping?
8 Sydney is GMT +10.
a What is the time in Sydney when it is noon GMT?
b When daylight saving time is applied, describe the time zone in Sydney as compared to GMT.
c During daylight saving time, what will the time be in Sydney when it is:
i 4.00 am Monday GMT ii 9.00 pm Thursday GMT?
9 Sydney is GMT +10 and Los Angeles is GMT −8. Calculate the time difference between Sydney
and Los Angeles when:
a both cities are on standard time
b Sydney has daylight saving time and Los Angeles is on standard time
c Los Angeles has daylight saving time and Sydney is on standard time.
10 WE14 Beijing is at approximately (40°N, 120°E). Rome is at approximately (40°N, 15°E).
Calculate the difference in standard time between Beijing and Rome.
11 Calculate the time difference in standard time between each of the following cities.
a Mumbai (19°N, 73°E) and Casablanca (23°N, 82°W)
b Tokyo (36°N, 140°E) and Adelaide (23°S, 134°E)
c Miami (26°N, 80°W) and Seattle (47°N, 122°W)
12 MC At a point on the Earth’s surface, the coordinates are (45°N, 135°W). The standard time at this
point would be:
A GMT −3 B GMT +3 C GMT −9 D GMT +9
13 MC It is 11.00 am Tuesday at a point X with coordinates (32°S, 90°W). At a point, Y, with
coordinates (51°N, 120°E), what is the time if daylight saving time applies at Y?
A 9.00 pm Monday B 10.00 pm Monday
C 1.00 am Wednesday D 2.00 am Wednesday

14 WE15 A plane leaves Sydney (32°S, 150°E) at 2.00 pm on Tuesday. If it is an 18-hour flight to Los
Angeles (33°N, 120°W), at what time will the plane touch down in Los Angeles?
15 A plane leaves Perth (32°S, 120°E) on an 8-hour flight to Cape Town (33°S, 15°E) at 3.00 pm
Wednesday.
a At what time will the plane arrive in Cape Town?
b The return flight leaves Cape Town at 5.00 pm Saturday. At what time will it arrive in Perth?
16 A flight leaves Melbourne (40°S, 150°E) at 5.00 pm Tuesday on an 18-hour flight to Frankfurt
(50°N, 15°E). Calculate the time of arrival in Frankfurt if it is:
a daylight saving time in Melbourne
b daylight saving time in Frankfurt.
Further development
17 Robert lives in eastern Australia (longitude 150°E) and
likes to watch cricket. In June he watches cricket from
England (longitude 0°). The game starts at 11.00 am
daylight saving time in England and Robert watches the
game from 8:00 pm eastern standard time.
In January when England is on standard time and
eastern Australia is on daylight saving time, Kyle, who
is in England, wants to watch a game of cricket from
Australia that also starts at 11.00 am. What is the time in
England when Kyle is watching the match?
18 A plane that flies from Sydney (30°S, 150°E) and flies to Buenos Aires (30°S, 60°W) leaves Sydney
at 1.00 pm Wednesday. The flying time is 13 hours.
a What day and time does the plane arrive in Buenos Aires?
b What is the difference in time between arrival in Buenos Aires and departure in Sydney?
c What will be the difference between departure and arrival for the return journey?
19 Zdenka lives in Sydney (30°S, 150°E) and needs to telephone Kim, who lives in Los Angeles
(30°N, 120°W).
a Kim tells Zdenka to work out when to call her by adding five hours and going back one day. When
Zdenka calculates the time difference she thinks Kim is out by 1 hour. Show that Zdenka is correct.
b Kim says to Zdenka that the one hour difference is because of daylight saving time. Assuming
Kim’s advice to Zdenka is correct, determine if Sydney or Los Angeles is on daylight saving time.
c Devise a rule similar to Kim’s for when the opposite city has daylight saving time.
20 Kin Yong likes to play the stock exchanges from around the world from his home computer in
Sydney (30°S, 150°E). In each city the stock exchange operates from 9.00 am until 5.00 pm local
time.
a Calculate the hours in Sydney that each of the following stock exchanges are open.
i Hong Kong (120°E) ii London (0°)
iii New York (75°W) iv Auckland (180°)
b Explain what Kin Yong means when he says, ‘The stock market never closes.’
21 Explain why:
a Melbourne (33°S, 148°E) and Brisbane (29°S, 151°E) have the same time even though they have
different coordinates
b the time difference is greater between Sydney and Honolulu than Sydney and London even Digital doc
WorkSHEET 8.2
though Honolulu is closer to Sydney than London doc-11077
c it is possible to fly west and arrive at your destination at an earlier time than it was when you left.
The keepers of time

Information about the world time zones can be found by clicking on the Royal Observatory Greenwich
weblink in your eBookPLUS. The Royal Observatory Greenwich is recognised worldwide as the
keeper of time. Information can be found here about all time zones throughout the world and other
facts about time.

Summary
Arc lengths • The circumference of a circle is found using either C = πd or C = 2πr.
• The length of an arc can be found using the formula:
θ°
l= 2πr
360°
• where θ is the number of degrees in the central angle.
Great circles and • An axis of the sphere is any diameter. A diameter must pass through the centre of the sphere.
small circles The endpoints of the axis are called the poles.
• A great circle is any circle of maximum diameter that can be drawn on the surface of a sphere.
The circumference of a great circle can be found using the formula C = 2πr.
• A small circle is any circle on the surface of the sphere that is smaller than a great circle.
Latitude and • A point on the Earth’s surface is located using a pair of coordinates.
longitude • A point is located as being either north or south of the equator using latitude. Latitude is the angle
subtended at the centre of the sphere by the small circle on which the point lies.
• A point is located as being either east or west of the Greenwich Meridian by the meridian of
longitude. Each meridian of longitude is measured by the angle between the meridian of longitude
and the Greenwich Meridian.
Distances on the • If two points lie on the same great circle, the angular distance between them can be found by finding
Earth’s surface the difference between their latitudes.
• The distance between two points can then be found in nautical miles using 1° = 60 M.
• 1 M ≃ 1.852 km.
• The distance between two points can also be found in kilometres using the arc length formula.
• Speed can be measured in knots, where 1 knot = 1 M/h.
Time zones • The longitude of a city determines its time zone.

• The standard time at any location can be calculated using 15° = 1 hour or 1° = 4 minutes.
• Points to the east of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time ahead of GMT. Points to the west
of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time behind GMT.

Chapter review
1 A circle has a diameter of 12 cm. An arc is drawn on the circumference of the circle such
M U LT IP L E
that the arc subtends an angle of 45° at the centre of the circle. The length of the arc is C H O IC E
closest to:
A 4.7 cm B 9.4 cm
C 14.1 cm D 37.7 cm
2 A great circle on the surface of a planet has a circumference of approximately 10 700 km. The
diameter of the planet would be closest to:
A 850 km B 1700 km
C 3400 km D 6800 km
3 Point X on the Earth’s surface has coordinates (69°S, 12°E), while point Y is at (8°S, 12°E).
The distance between X and Y is:
A 61 M B 77 M
C 3660 M D 4620 M
4 The coordinates of two points, M and N, on the surface of the Earth are (45°N, 45°W) and
(30°S, 60°E). Which of the following statements is correct about the time difference between
M and N?
A M is 5 hours behind N. B M is 5 hours ahead of N.
C M is 7 hours behind N. D M is 7 hours ahead of N.
1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to 1 decimal place. S ho rt
a nsw er
a b c
19.2 cm 8.6 cm 92 mm
2 Calculate the length of each of the following arcs, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
9m 260°
6.2 cm
40° 135°
9.3 m
3 A sphere has a radius of 7.5 cm.
a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the distance between two points on the surface of the sphere that subtend an angle of
60° at the centre. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
4 Calculate the circumference of each of the following spheres, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
33 cm 7 cm 9.2 m
5 Calculate the circumference of a great circle that lies on the surface of a sphere with a radius of
9 km. (Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
6 A sphere has a diameter of 45 cm. Calculate the distance between the poles on this sphere. Give your
answer correct to the nearest centimetre.

7 Calculate the circumference of each of the small circles drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b 2.8 m c
1500 km
48°
8.1 m
7 cm 3000 km
20°
6.6 cm
8 Use the world map on page 238 to identify the cities at each of the following locations.
a (14°N, 121°E) b (12°S, 76°W) c (33°S, 71°W)
9 Use the world map on page 238 to give the approximate coordinates of each of the following cities.
a Madrid b Singapore c Hobart
10 The points X and Y on the Earth’s surface have coordinates (32°N, 120°E) and (26°S, 120°E).
Calculate the angular distance between X and Y.
11 A ship gives its coordinates as (56°N, 14°W) and is sailing to a port at (40°N, 14°W).
a Calculate the angular distance through which the ship must sail to reach port.
b Calculate the distance the ship must sail, in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
12 The angular distance between two points on the same great circle is 120°. Calculate the time that it
would take to sail between these points at a speed of 48 knots.
13 Santiago has approximate coordinates
(33°S, 70°W), while Santo Domingo has
approximate coordinates (18°N, 70°W).
a Calculate the distance between Santiago
and Santo Domingo:
i in nautical miles
ii correct to the nearest kilometre.
b Calculate the time taken to fly from
Santiago to Santo Domingo at a speed of
480 knots.
14 The coordinates of Perth are approximately (32°S, 115°E), while Hong Kong is approximately at
(22°N, 115°E). Taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km, use the arc length formula to calculate
the distance between Perth and Hong Kong, correct to the nearest 100 km.
15 Calculate the time difference between each of the following cities.
a Sydney (GMT +10) and Istanbul (GMT +2)
b Perth (GMT +8) and New York (GMT −3)
c Ottawa (GMT −5) and Fiji (GMT +12)

16 In Dhahran (GMT +4) the time is 10.00 pm on Wednesday. Calculate the time in Tokyo (GMT +9).
17 Ann is on a skiing holiday in Winnipeg, Canada (GMT −6). She needs to call her parents at 7.30 pm
on Tuesday night, Sydney time. At what time should she make the call from Winnipeg?

18 Kingston, Jamaica is at approximately (18°N, 75°W) while Oslo, Norway is at approximately
(60°N, 15°E). Calculate the time:
a in Oslo when it is 5.00 am in Kingston b in Kingston when it is 5.00 pm in Oslo.
19 A plane is flying from Munich (48°N, 15°E) to New York (41°N, 75°W). The flight departs Munich
at 6.00 pm and takes 7 hours. Calculate the time of arrival in New York.
Ext end ed 1 The city of St Petersburg is at approximately (60°N, 30°E), while the city of Johannesburg has
R esp ons e
approximate coordinates of (25°S, 30°E).
a Calculate the angular distance between St Petersburg and Johannesburg.

b Taking the radius of the Earth to be equal to 6400 km, calculate the distance between
St Petersburg and Johannesburg, correct to the nearest 100 km.
c In Sydney (30°S, 150°E) daylight saving time applies. Calculate the time difference between
St Petersburg and Sydney.
2 The approximate coordinates of Tokyo are
(36°N, 140°E), while San Francisco is at
approximately (36°N, 120°W).
a Do San Francisco and Tokyo lie on the same
great circle or the same small circle? Explain
your answer.
b An aeroplane takes 8 hours to fly between
Tokyo and San Francisco. If a plane leaves
Tokyo at 10.00 pm on Saturday, Tokyo time,
what day and time will it arrive in San
Digital doc
Test Yourself Francisco?
doc-11078 c If the return flight leaves San Francisco at 8.00 am Tuesday, what day and time will it arrive
Chapter 8
in Tokyo?

Activities
8A Arc lengths 8E Time zones
Tutorial Interactivity
• WE2 int-2443: Perform a calculation of an arc length. • int-0006: Day, night and time zones. (page 243)
(page 229) Tutorial
Digital docs • WE14 int-2446: Perform a calculation using time zones.
• SkillSHEET 8.1 (doc-11073): Circumference of a circle. (page 230) (page 245)
• SkillSHEET 8.2 (doc-11074): Calculating arc length. (page 231) Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 8.3 (doc-11076): Converting units of time. (page 245)
8B Great circles and small circles • WorkSHEET 8.2 (doc-11077): Apply your knowledge of time zones.
Tutorial (page 247)
• WE5 int-2444: Perform a calculation of a circle. (page 234)
Digital docs Chapter review
• WorkSHEET 8.1 (doc-11075): Apply your knowledge of spherical • Test Yourself (doc-11078): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
geometry to problems. (page 236) progress. (page 252)
8D Distances on the Earth’s surface To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
Elesson
• eles-0138: Understanding map scales and distances. (page 237)
Tutorial
• WE9 int-2445: Perform a calculation of a distance on the Earth’s
surface. (page 241)

Answers chapter 8
Spherical geometry g Tokyo h Beijing 3 11:00 pm Monday
i Rio de Janeiro j Oslo 4 a 8:00 pm
Exercise 8A Arc lengths
2 These answers are approximate. b 1:00 pm Friday
1 a 25.1 cm b 56.5 m a (38°S, 145°E) c 5:00 pm Wednesday
c 389.6 mm d 25.8 km b (40°N, 75°W) d 11:00 pm Tuesday
e 87.3 km f 52.2 m c (18°N, 76°W) e 3:45 pm Monday
2 630 km d (26°S, 28°E) 5 5:00 am Saturday
3 a 44.0 cm b 123 m e (42°N, 12°E) 6 11:00 pm Tuesday
c 188 km d 368 mm f (35°S, 57°W) 7 10:00 am Monday
e 11.6 km f 688 km g (33°N, 44°E) 8 a 10:00 pm b GMT + 11
4 9400 km h (55°N, 40°E) c i 3:00 pm Monday
5 31.83 cm i (2°N, 104°E) ii 8:00 am Friday
6 a 25.5 m b 6.73 cm c 796 km j (18°S, 178°E) 9 a 18 h b 19 h c 17 h
7 8.73 cm 3 a Small circle b Great circle 10 7 h
8 a 33.8 mm b 20.4 m c Great circle d Great circle 11 a 10 h 20 min b 24 min
c 150.8 cm d 27.6 cm e Small circle f Great circle c 2 h 48 min
e 5.0 km f 20.7 km 4 a 71° b 71° 12 C
9 a 40 200 km b 4470 km c 110° d 30° 13 D
10 a 52 km b 136 km 5 a 162° b 132° 14 2:00 pm Tuesday
c Circumference of circle = 2πr = c 159° d 140° 15 a 4:00 pm Wednesday
188 km = sum of two arcs b 8:00 am Sunday
Exercise 8D Distances on the Earth’s
11 a 251 cm b 62.8 cm
surface 16 a 1:00 am Wednesday
12 a 5.2 cm b 4.3 m
1 50° b 3:00 am Wednesday
c 5696.8 km
2 a 40° b 40° c 71° 17 Midnight
13 112 km
d 21° e 80° 18 a Noon Wednesday
14 a 15.9 cm b 4.25 m
3 60° b 1 hour earlier
c 1910 km
4 a 1800 M b 3334 k m c 27 hours
15 30.6 cm
5 a 2100 M b 8100 M 19 a Check with your teacher.
16 80°
c 2340 M d 5760 M b Sydney
17 a 54.5 cm b 102.5 cm
6 a 3600 M b 6667 km c Add 7 hours and go back 1 day
18 a 44°46′ b 35°49′
7 a 2700 M b 5000 k m 20 a i 11.00 am to 7.00 pm
19 4940 km
8 6600 km ii 7.00 pm to 3.00 am
Exercise 8B Great circles and small iii 12.00 am to 8.00 am
9 a 4356 km b 4021 km
circles c 3798 km iv 7.00 am to 3.00 pm
1 43.98 cm 10 D b The stock market is always open in
2 a 56.5 m b 465 mm c 188 m 11 B some part of the world.
3 40 210 km 12 7 hours 30 minutes 21 a The difference in their latitudes is so
4 314 cm 13 a 110° similar they are placed in the same
5 a 15 320 km b 38 010 km b 6600 M time zone.
c 21 350 km d 449 200 km c 12 200 km b Sydney is 150°E and Honolulu is
e 378 690 km f 160 590 km d 13 hours 45 minutes 155°W, meaning that there is a 20-hour
g 154 250 km 14 10 800 M time difference. Honolulu is closer than
6 12.6 m 15 a 28° b 1680 M London to Sydney but is on the opposite
7 a 55.3 m b 40.2 m c 3111 km d 3128 km side of the International Date Line.
c 6911.5 km e 1 M ≃ 1.852 km and radius Earth ≃ c When flying west across the
8 B 6400 km. We are therefore working with International Date Line, you go back
9 79 cm approximations. one day.
10 20 100 km 16 a (60°N, 20°E) (10°S, 20°E)
11 a 377 cm b 94.25 cm b 3889.20 km Chapter Review
12 a 1750 km b 52.4 m 17 17 779.20 km
Multiple choice
13 a Great circle b Small circle 18 a 6889.44 km to South Pole
c Great circle d Great circle b 4555.92 km to North Pole
1 A
14 a 50° b 38 cm c 239 cm c 4889.28 km to North Pole 2 C
15 a Check with your teacher. 3 C
d 8889.6 km to South Pole
b r = 4.7 cm, C = 29.6 19 a 2482 km b 3247 km 4 C
16 a 6014 km b 4200 km c 2872 km d 427 km Short answer
17 a 4525 km b 5924 km e 16 374 km f
6481 km 1 a 120.6 cm b
54.0 cm
18 Jude is correct. The distance XY is 20 a 5243 km b
35° c 289.0 mm
7260 km, and the distance YZ = 3630 km, c 3203 km 2 a 6.3 m b 28.1 cm
so XY is twice YZ. 21 (0°, 75°E) c 21.9 m
Exercise 8C
Latitude and longitude Exercise 8E Time zones 3 a 47.1 cm b 7.85 cm
1 a Cairo b Shanghai 1 10 h 4 a 207.3 cm b
44.0 cm
c Darwin d Montreal 2 a 14 h b 7h c 57.8 m
e London f Auckland c 11 h d 22 h 5 56.5 km

6 71 cm 12 6 days 6 hours Extended response
7 a 41.5 cm b 17.6 m 13 a i 3060 M 1 a 85° b 9500 km c 8h
c 9424.8 km ii 5667 km 2 a Small circle. They lie on the same small
8 a Manila b Lima b 6.375 h or 6 hrs 22.5 mins circle because they lie on the same
c Santiago 14 6000 km parallel of latitude.
9 a (41°N, 3°W) 15 a 8 h b 11 h c 17 h b 12:20 pm Saturday
b (1°N, 104°E) 16 3:00 am Thursday c 9:40 am Wednesday.
c (43°S, 147°E) 17 3:30 am Tuesday
10 58° 18 a 11:00 am the same day
11 a 16° b 960 M b 11:00 am the same day
c 1778 km 19 7:00 pm the same day

Chapter 9
Multi-stage events and
applications of probability
CHAPTER CONTENTS
9A Counting techniques
9B Tree diagrams
9C Probability and counting techniques
9D Expected outcomes
9A Counting techniques

Fundamental counting principle Interactivity
int-0089
Tom is a football fan. Tom likes all codes of football and enters a competition to select the winner of Random number
generator
the NRL (16 teams), AFL (18 teams) and Super Rugby (15 teams) competitions. In how many different
ways can Tom select his entry in the competition?
During the Preliminary course we studied at the Fundamental Counting Principle, which states that
“The total number of ways that a succession of choices can be made is found by multiplying the
number of ways each choice can be made.”
In the case of Tom selecting the winners of the three football codes, the number of possible
selections is:
Number of possible selections = 16 × 18 × 15
= 4320
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Maya has 5 albums on her MP3 player. The albums have 18, 12, 15, 10 and 7 songs on them
respectively. If Maya is to select one song to play from each album calculate the number of ways
in which Maya can select the five songs.
Think Write
Number of combinations = 18 × 12 × 15 × 10 × 7
Calculate the number of combinations by
= 226 800
multiplying the number of possibilities at
each stage.
The fundamental counting principle depends upon each event being independent. In the case where
Tom is selecting football teams, the result of the NRL has no effect on the result of either the AFL or Super
Rugby competitions. The sets from which each selection is made have no common elements.
If several selections are being from the same group the events are no longer independent and a
different method of counting needs to be used.
Ordered arrangements
1. Select three people and stand them in a line.
2. Now get the three people to stand in a different order.
3. In how many different orders can the three people be placed?
Chapter 9 • Multi-stage events and applications of probability 257

4. Repeat the above process with four people in the line.
5. Is there a pattern? Can you calculate the number of different ways in which five people can be arranged?
There are 10 people standing in a line. In how many ways can they be arranged? To calculate this we
need to consider the number of ways that each place in the line can be filled. To do this we need to
calculate the number of people remaining after we fill each place in the line.
• There are 10 people who could fill the first position.
• Once the first position has been filled, there are nine people remaining to fill the second position.
• Once the second position has been filled, there are eight people remaining to fill the third position.
• This pattern continues until there is only one person left who can fill the last position.
Calculating this: 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3 628 800.
A shorter way of writing 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 is to write 10!, that is, 10 factorial.
Your calculator will have a factorial function, usually labelled x!. Make sure that you know where this
function is on your calculator.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the value of 8!.

THINK WRITE
Enter 8 and press ™" on the calculator. 8! = 40 320
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Six people are standing in a line. In how many ways can the six people be arranged?
THINK WRITE
1 The answer is 6! 6! = 720
2 Give a written answer. The people can be arranged in 720 ways.
Tree diagrams and ordered arrangements

Four people, Anji, Belinda, Kristen and Summer, are to be
placed in order.
1. Calculate the number of different ways these four girls can
be placed in a line.
2. Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the ways that the four
girls can be placed in order.
3. Check that the number of elements in the sample space
found from your tree diagram corresponds to the answer
obtained in part 1.
In Worked examples 2 and 3, we have been ordering an
entire group. In some cases we may wish to order only part of
the group. Consider the case of an Olympic swimming final.
There are eight swimmers and we wish to know the number of
ways that the gold, silver and bronze medals can be awarded.
• There are eight possible winners of the gold medal.
• With the first place filled, there are seven possible winners of the silver medal.
• With both first and second places filled, there are six possible winners of the bronze medal.
Calculating this: number of arrangements = 8 × 7 × 6
= 336
This type of arrangement is known as an ordered selection. It occurs when the order in which the
choices are made is important.
In the worked example below, a captain and a vice-captain are to be chosen. If Benito is captain and
Imran is vice-captain, this is a different selection to Imran as captain and Benito as vice-captain.

To calculate the number of ordered selections that can be made, we multiply, starting from the number
of possible first selections, then reducing by one with each multiplication until each position is filled.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
In a cricket team of eleven players, a captain and vice-captain are to be chosen. In how many
ways can this be done?
THINK WRITE
1 There are 11 possible choices of captain.

Number of arrangements = 11 × 10
2 Once the captain is chosen, there are 10 choices
= 110
remaining for vice-captain.
Committee selections
On a committee of five people, a president and a vice-president are to be chosen. The five committee
members are Andreas, Brett, Cathy, Dharma and Emiko.
1. Use the method shown in Worked example 4 to calculate the number of ways in which the president
and the vice-president can be chosen.
2. Now use a tree diagram to list the sample space of all possible selections of president and vice-president.
3. Check that the number of elements in the sample space corresponds to the answer obtained in part 1
of this investigation.
Consider a case where two representatives to a committee are chosen from a class of 20 students. This
is an example of an unordered selection. If Sue is chosen, followed by Graham, this is the same choice
as if Graham is chosen and then Sue.
To calculate the number of unordered selections that can be made, we calculate the number of ordered
selections that can be made and then divide by the number of arrangements of these selections. This is
calculated using factorial notation as in Worked example 3. In the case of choosing the committee:
Number of ordered selections is 20 × 19 = 380.
Two people can be arranged in two (2!) ways.
Number of unordered selections = 380 ÷ 2
= 190
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
From a group of eight athletes, three are to be chosen to represent the club at a carnival. In how
many ways can the three representatives be chosen?
int-2424
Ordered selections = 8 × 7 × 6 Worked example 5
1 Calculate the number of ordered selections that
= 336
can be made.
Arrangements = 3 × 2 × 1
2 Calculate the number of arrangements of the
=6
representatives.
Unordered selections = 336 ÷ 6
3 Divide the ordered selections by the
= 56
arrangements of the representatives.
Unordered selection
A rowing team has six members: Mark, Norman, Olaf, Pieter, Quentin and Raymond. Two are to be
chosen to be the crew in a pairs race.
1. Use the method described in Worked example 5 to calculate the number of pairs that could be chosen.
2. Use a tree diagram to list the ordered selections and then write the sample space of unordered
selections by ignoring any repeated pair.
3. Check that the number of elements of the sample space corresponds to the answer obtained in part 1
of this investigation.

Exercise 9A Counting techniques
1 WE1 April is going out to dinner. The banquet menu has a selection of 5 entrees, 6 main courses,
4 desserts and a selection of 3 drinks. How many meal combinations is it possible to choose?
Digital doc 2 At a high school there are 5 classes in each year from 7 to 12. If one class from each year is to be
SkillSHEET 9.1 chosen to participate in a survey, how many combinations of classes is it possible to choose.
doc-11079
Fundamental 3 Merridee and Bryce are heading out on their first date. Each is nervous and fussy about what to wear.
counting principle
a Merridee has to coordinate one skirt from a selection of 6, one blouse from a selection of 8 and
a pair of shoes from a choice of 30. How many possible combinations of outfit could Merridee
choose?
b Bryce’s task is to select a shirt from a choice of 8, a pair of pants from a choice of 5, one of three
ties. Bryce only has one pair of shoes. How many combinations could Bryce possibly select?
c When they go out together how many possible combinations of outfits are possible?
4 WE2 Use your calculator to calculate the value of the following.
a 3! b 5! c 9!
5 WE3 Four people are involved in a race. In how many different orders can they complete
the race?
6 The letters A, B, C, D and E are written on cards. In how many different orders can the cards be
placed?
7 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 3, 6 and 8. If no number can be repeated, how many
numbers is it possible to form?
8 In a race of 10 people, in how many different ways can the first three places be filled?
9 WE4 In a school, a captain and vice-captain are to be elected. The four nominations are Geri, Reika,
Melanie and Victoria. In how many different ways can the captain and vice-captain be chosen?
10 In the Melbourne Cup there are
24 horses. In how many different
ways can the three placings be filled?
11 WE5 Seven people try out for three
places on a debating team. In how
many ways can the team of three be
chosen from the group of seven?
12 How many different groups of four
can be selected from ten people?
13 In his pocket Trevor has six coins:
a $2 coin, $1 coin, 50c coin,
20c coin, 10c coin and 5c coin. If
Trevor randomly chooses two coins,
how many different sums of money
are possible?
14 On a restaurant menu there is a choice of three entrees, six main courses and four desserts. In how
many ways can a person choose an entree, main course and dessert from the menu?
15 MC Which of the following is an example of an unordered selection?
A Five students are placed in order of their exam results.
B From a group of five students, a contestant and a reserve are chosen for a Mathematics
competition.
C From a group of five students, two are chosen to represent the class on the SRC.
D From a group of five students, two are awarded 1st and 2nd prizes in Mathematics.
16 MC The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are used to form a three-digit number such that no digit can be used
more than once. The number of three-digit numbers that can be formed is:
A 4 B 6 C 12 D 24
17 MC Gavin, Dion, Michael, Owen and Shane try out for two places on a tennis doubles team. The
number of teams that can be chosen is:
A 5 B 10 C 20 D 25

18 A small play has three characters. Six people, Wendy, Rebecca, Thai, Yasmin, Andrea and Ophelia,
audition for the three parts.
a How many different groups of three can be chosen for the play?
b In how many different ways can the three parts be allocated to the three girls?
19 At the Olympic qualifying trials,
nine cyclists compete for a place on the
team.
a In how many different orders can the
competition finish?
b How many different ways can 1st, 2nd
and 3rd place be filled?
c Two cyclists are chosen to represent
Australia on the team. How many
different teams of two can be chosen?
Further development
20 A rowing crew consists of four rowers who sit in a definite order. How many different crews are
possible if 5 people try out for selection?
21 The school musical needs a producer, director, musical director and script coach. Nine people have
volunteered for any of these positions. In how many different ways can the positions be filled?
Note: One person cannot take on more than 1 position.
22 There are four people in a race. Explain why the number of ways that the first three places can be
filled is the same as the number of ways that all four places can be filled.
23 A rugby union squad has 12 forwards and 10 backs in training. A team consists of 8 forwards and
7 backs. How many different teams can be chosen from the squad?
24 Lotto is a gambling game played by choosing 6 numbers from 45. Gamblers try to match their
choice with those numbers chosen at the official draw. No number can be drawn more than once and
the order in which the numbers are selected does not matter.
a How many different selections of 6 numbers can be made from 45?
b Suppose the first numbers drawn at the official draw are 42, 3 and 18. How many selections of
6 numbers will contain these 3 numbers?
c Suppose the first numbers drawn at the official draw are 42, 3, 18 and 41. How many selections of
6 numbers will contain these 4 numbers?
Note: This question ignores supplementary numbers.
25 Explain why the number of ways that three people can be selected from 10 is the same as the number
of ways that seven people can be selected from 10.
9B Tree diagrams

If an event has more than one stage to it, then a tree diagram can be drawn to list the sample space
accurately. In a tree diagram, the tree branches out once for each stage of the experiment. At each stage
the number of branches is the same as the number of possible outcomes.
To list the sample space we then follow the tree to the end of each branch and record the outcome at
each stage.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A coin is tossed three times. Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the sample space for this
experiment.
THINK WRITE
1 There are three stages to the experiment.

2 At each stage the outcome can be heads or tails.

3 Draw the tree diagram branching out three 1st 2nd 3rd
times with two branches at each stage. coin coin coin
toss toss toss
Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
4 List the sample space by following the path to S = { HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
each end branch. TTH, TTT}
In the above example, each stage of the

experiment (each toss of the coin) is
independent of the other stages. That is to say,
the outcome of one toss does not affect the
outcome of another toss. In many examples, the
outcome of one stage will affect the outcome of
another. Consider Worked example 7. Here we
are forming a two-digit number such that no
digit may be repeated. Once a number has been
chosen as the first digit, it cannot be chosen as
the second digit. Therefore, the first stage of the
experiment does affect the second stage.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 5, 7 and 9 without repetition. Draw a tree
diagram and use it to list all possible numbers that can be formed.
THINK WRITE
1 There are two stages to the experiment. 1st digit 2nd digit Sample space
5 45
2 For the first stage there will be four branches 4 7 47
and since one number is chosen there will be 9 49
three branches for the second stage. 4 54
5 7 57
9 59
3 Draw the tree diagram.
4 74
7 5 75
4 List the sample space by following the branches to 9 79
each end point on the tree diagram. 4 94
9 5 95
7 97
Once the tree diagram is completed, the probability of an event can be calculated using the formula:
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) =
total number of outcomes

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Calculate the probability of tossing a tail and rolling a
number greater than 4.
THINK WRITE
1 There are two stages to the event. Coin toss Die roll Sample space
1 Heads 1
2 At the first stage there are two outcomes and at 2 Heads 2
the second stage there are six outcomes. Heads 3 Heads 3
4 Heads 4
5 Heads 5
3 Draw the tree diagram. 6 Heads 6
1 Tails 1
2 Tails 2
Tails 3 Tails 3
4 Tails 4
5 Tails 5
6 Tails 6
4 List the sample space by following the branches

to each end point on the tree diagram.
5 Calculate the probability using the probability 2
P(tail and no. > 4) = 12
formula. There are two favourable outcomes —
T5 and T6.
6 Simplify. = 16
Exercise 9B Tree diagrams

1 WE6 A family consists of four children. Draw a tree diagram to show all possible combinations of
boys and girls.
2 Two dice are cast. Draw a tree diagram that will allow you to list
the sample space of all possible outcomes.
3 There are two bags each containing a red, blue, yellow and green Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.2
marble. One marble is to be chosen from each bag. Draw a tree doc-11080
diagram that will allow you to calculate the sample space. Listing the sample
space
4 A school is to send one male and one female representative to a
conference. The boys nominate George, Frank, Stanisa and Ian; the
girls have nominated Thuy, Petria, Joan, Wendy and Amelia. Draw a tree diagram and list the sample
space for all possible choices of representatives. Digital doc
5 WE7 A two-digit number is to be formed using the digits 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 such that no digit may be SkillSHEET 9.3
doc-11081
repeated. Draw a tree diagram to list all possible numbers that can be formed. Informal
6 A committee needs to elect a president, secretary and treasurer. The four nominations for these description of
chance
positions are Belinda, Dean, Kate and Adrian. Given that no person is allowed to hold more than one
position, use a tree diagram to list all ways in which these three positions can be filled.
7 The digits 3, 5, 7 and 8 are used to form a three-digit number. If no digit can be used more than once
list the sample space. Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.4
8 MC From a group of five nominations a school captain and vice-captain are to be elected. The doc-11082
number of ways that the captain and vice-captain can be chosen is: Equally likely
A 5 B 10 C 20 D 25 events
9 WE8 The four aces from a deck of cards are placed face down on a table. One card is chosen
followed by a second card without the first card being replaced. Calculate the probability that the ace
of hearts is one of the two cards chosen.
Digital doc
10 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 3, 4 and 7 without repetition. EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1364
a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
Tree diagrams
b Calculate the probability that the number formed is greater than 35.

11 A tennis team consists of three men, Andre, Yevgeny and Jonas and two women, Martina and
Lindsay. From the team the captain and the vice-captain are to be chosen. Calculate the probability
that the captain and vice-captain are:
a Andre and Lindsay b both men
c the same sex d different sex.
12 Find the probability that all three children in a family will be the same sex.
13 MC A three-digit number is formed using the digits 5, 6, 8 and 0. No digit can be repeated and the
0 can’t be first. The probability of the number formed being greater than 800 is:
1 1 3 1
A B C D
4 3 16 2
14 An airline offers holidays to three destinations: Brisbane, Gold Coast or Cairns. The holiday can
be taken during two seasons: Peak season or Off-peak season. The customer has the choice of three
classes: Economy, Business or First class. There is no First class to Cairns, however.
a Use a tree diagram to list all combinations of holiday that could be taken by choosing a
destination, season and class.
b Terry takes a mystery flight, which means he is allocated a ticket at random from the above
combinations. Calculate the probability that Terry’s ticket:
i goes to Brisbane
ii is First class
iii is in Peak season, flying First class.
Further development
15 A three-digit number is to be formed using the digits 5, 7 and 8.
a If the same digit cannot be used twice, how many three-digit numbers can be formed?
b If repetition is allowed, how many numbers can be formed?
c Kevin claims that the probability of an even number will be the same regardless of whether
repetition of digits is allowed or not. Is Kevin correct? Explain why or why not.
16 In a family of four children there can be:
• more boys
• more girls
• an equal number of boys and girls.
a Is each of these outcomes equally likely to occur?
b Dan claims that if there is an even number of children the probability of there being an equal
number of boys and girls is the same. Is Dan correct? Explain your answer.
17 Give a brief explanation of why, when two dice are rolled, that each total is not equally likely
to occur.
18 Tanya is allergic to peanuts. On a menu there are 4 entrees, 6 main courses and 4 desserts. Of these,
2 entrees, 3 main courses and 2 desserts contain traces of peanuts. Tanya says that that the number of
Digital doc combinations of meals that she may choose is halved. Is Tanya correct? Explain your answer.
WorkSHEET 9.1
19 Ingrid tosses a coin 10 times and claims that there is exactly a 90% chance that she will throw at
doc-11083
least one Head. Is Ingrid correct? Explain your answer.

9C Probability and counting techniques
Once the counting techniques done in the previous section have been completed, we can calculate the Interactivity
probability of certain events occurring. To do this we go back to using the probability formula: int-2787
A pack of cards
number of favourable outcomes int-0085
P(event) = Random numbers
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The letters A, H, M, S and T are written on cards. The cards are shuffled and then laid out face
up. Calculate the probability that the cards form the word MATHS.
THINK WRITE
1 The five cards can be arranged in 5! ways. No. of arrangements = 5!

=5×4×3×2×1
= 120
2 MATHS is one way of arranging the letters 1
P(MATHS) = 120
and so we use the probability formula.
We also need to be able to calculate the probability of a particular ordered or unordered arrangement
occurring.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
From Francis, Gary, Harley, Ike and Jacinta, a school captain and vice-captain need to be
elected. Calculate the probability that Ike and Jacinta occupy the two positions.
THINK WRITE
No. of ordered selections = 5 × 4
1 Calculate the number of ordered selections that are
= 20
possible.
2 Ike and Jacinta in the two positions can be arranged No. of arrangements = 2 × 1
in two ways.
No. of unordered selections = 20 ÷ 2
3 Divide the ordered selections by the number of
= 10
arrangements.
4 Substitute into the probability formula. 1
P(Ike and Jacinta) = 10
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A bag contains a red, green, yellow, blue, orange and purple marble. Three marbles are selected
from the bag. Calculate the probability that the red, yellow and orange marbles are chosen.
int-2425
No. of ordered selections = 6 × 5 × 4 Worked
1 Calculate the number of ordered selections.
= 120 example 11
No. of arrangements = 3 × 2 × 1
2 Calculate the number of arrangements.
=6
No. of unordered selections = 120 ÷ 6
3 Calculate the number of unordered selections.
= 20
4 The red, yellow and orange marble is one possible
selection.
5 Substitute into the probability formula. P(red, yellow and orange) = 1
20

Popular gaming
There are many different forms of lottery that depend upon ordered or unordered arrangements.
1. Lotto — This requires the player to select six numbers out of 45. In how many ways can the
six numbers be chosen? Remember order does not matter.
2. Similar games to Lotto are:
a. Oz Lotto — seven numbers are chosen from 45.
b. The Pools — six numbers are chosen from 38.
In how many ways can the six numbers for each of these games be chosen?
3. Powerball — This requires the player to choose six numbers from 40 in an unordered selection.
A seventh ball (the powerball) is chosen from a second barrel containing 20 balls. In how many ways
can this be selected?
4. Lotto Strike — The player must select the first four balls drawn from 45 in the correct order. In how
many ways can this ordered selection be made?
Exercise 9C Probability and counting techniques

1 WE9 Four people, Craig, Barry, Anne and Dimitri, are arranged in a line. Calculate the probability
that the four people are arranged in alphabetical order.
Digital doc 2 The numbers 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are arranged to form a five-digit number such that no digit can be
SkillSHEET 9.5
doc-11084
repeated. Calculate:
Single event a how many five-digit numbers can be formed
probability b the probability that the number formed is 54 867
c the probability that the number formed is 86 574.
3 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 6, 8 and 9 and no digit may be repeated. Calculate
the probability that the number formed is:
a 896 b even c greater than 800.
4 WE10 There are five candidates in an election for SRC president. The second placed candidate
will be made vice-president of the SRC. If Lauren and Meta are two of the candidates, calculate the
probability that they will occupy the two positions.
5 Seven surfers enter a competition. If two of the surfers are Kurt and Paul, calculate the
probability that:
a Kurt comes first and Paul comes second
b Paul comes first and Kurt comes second
c Kurt and Paul fill the first two places.

6 From the digits 1 to 9 a two-digit number is formed such that no digit can be repeated. Calculate the
probability that the number formed is:
a 67 b greater than 80 c less than 30.
7 WE11 From a deck of cards, the four aces are laid face down on a table. Two of the aces are then
turned face up. Calculate the probability that the two aces turned face up are the ace of clubs and the
ace of spades.
8 An ice-cream parlour offers a choice of 25 flavours. A triple
scoop ice-cream places three different flavours on top of each other.
If the flavours are chosen randomly, find the probability that the
ice-cream is:
a vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in that order
b vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in any order.
9 Six boys try out for three places on a debating team.
The boys are Gavin, David, Andrew, Rhyse, Julius
and Elliot.
a How many teams of three is it possible to choose?
b Calculate the probability that Gavin, Andrew and
Elliot are on the team.
10 The letters M, A, I, D and G are written on cards and two of these are to be chosen. Calculate the
probability that the two cards chosen are:
a both vowels b both consonants c one vowel and one consonant.
Further development
11 To win Lotto you must correctly select the six correct winning numbers from a possible 45 numbers.
a Find the probability of winning Lotto when selecting a single set of six numbers.
b To increase their chances of winning some players take a systems entry. This means selecting more
than six numbers. For example, a system 7 is where 7 numbers are chosen and is equivalent to all
combinations of six numbers that can be chosen within 7. Find the probability of winning Lotto if:
i a system 7 entry is played
ii a system 8 entry is played
iii a system 15 entry is played.
12 A second game that is played within Lotto is called Lotto Strike. This involves selecting the first four
Lotto balls drawn in the correct order. Determine whether Lotto or Lotto Strike is harder to win.
13 Oz Lotto is another similar game where the player has to select seven numbers from 45.
• John thinks that, because you need to select one extra ball, Oz Lotto will be 17 or 14.3% harder
to win.
• Peter thinks that, because you need to select one extra ball, Oz Lotto will be 16 or 16.7% harder
to win.
• Bruce thinks that both Peter and John are incorrect and that Oz Lotto will be about 450% harder
to win.
Who is correct? Explain your answer.
14 Powerball is a game where the player must select six numbers out of 40 from one barrel and then a
single ball out of 20 from a second barrel.
a Find the number of ways that the first set of five numbers can be selected.
b Find the number of ways that the single number can be selected.
c Find the probability of winning Powerball with a single entry.
15 Keno is a popular game where 20 numbers are selected from 80. The major jackpot is won by a
player selecting 10 numbers and those 10 numbers being among the 20 drawn.
a In approximately how many ways can the player select 10 numbers from 80? Give your answer in
scientific notation correct to 3 significant figures.
b How many winning combinations of 10 numbers from 20 are there?
c Find the probability of selecting a winning combination in scientific notation correct to
16 In the game of Keno find the approximate probability, as a decimal, of winning the:
a 2 number game b 3 number game c 5 number game.

Suppose that we toss a coin 100 times. How many times would you expect the coin to land Heads? As
each outcome is equally likely, we would expect there to be 50 Heads and 50 Tails. How can this be
shown to be true?
The number of times that we expect a certain outcome to occur is found by multiplying the
probability of each outcome by the number of trials. In the above case, the probability of the coin
landing heads is 12, and this is multiplied by the number of trials (100). The result is an expectation of
50 Heads in 100 tosses of the coin.
The expected outcome is the number of times that we expect a particular outcome to occur in a
certain number of trials.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
A die is rolled 120 times. How many 6s would you expect to occur in 120 rolls of the die?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the probability of rolling a 6. P(six) = 16
2 Multiply the probability of a 6 by the number Expected number of 6s = 16 × 120

of trials. = 20
If the expected number of 6s is 20 in 120 rolls of a die, this does not mean that this is what will occur.
It may be that on one occasion we may get 25 sixes in 120 rolls, another occasion we may get only
10 sixes. However, we expect that if we repeat the experiment often enough, we would get an average of
20 sixes in 120 rolls.
Rolling a die
1. Each person is to take a die and roll it 120 times and record the
number of 6s rolled.
2. What is the most number of 6s rolled by anyone in 120 rolls of
the die?
3. What is the least number of 6s rolled by anyone in 120 rolls of
the die?
4. What is the average number of 6s rolled by the class in 120 rolls of the
die? How does this compare with the expected outcome of 20?
The expected outcome does not need to be a whole number. In many
cases this will not be so. Consider the example below.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Roger draws a card from a standard deck, notes the suit and replaces the card in the deck. If
Roger repeats this process 50 times, how many spades can Roger expect to have drawn?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the probability of drawing a spade. P(spade) = 14
2 Calculate the expected number of spades by Expected number of spades = 14 × 50

multiplying the probability by the number of trials.
= 12.5
Obviously, after drawing 50 cards, Roger could not have drawn 12.5 spades. The number of spades
drawn must of course be a whole number. However, if this experiment were repeated a number of times,
we would expect to have drawn an average of 12.5 spades in every 50 cards.
The expected outcome method can be applied to any probability experiment. This includes multistage
events in which it may be necessary to draw a tree diagram or probability tree to calculate the probability
of a particular outcome.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14
A psychologist is conducting a study on the upbringing of boys. For the study, the psychologist
selects 100 couples with exactly three children. How many of these couples would the
psychologist expect to have three boys? Tutorial
int-2426
THINK WRITE
Worked
example 14
1 Draw a tree diagram showing the sample space Boy
Boy
for three children. Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl Girl
Boy
Girl
Girl
2 Calculate the probability of three boys. P(three boys) = 18
3 Calculate the expected number by multiplying Expected number of couples with three boys
the probability of three boys by the number of = 18 × 100
couples in the study.
= 12.5
Exercise 9D Expected outcomes

1 WE12 Calculate the number of times that a coin can be expected to land Tails in 40 tosses.
2 A die is rolled 300 times. Calculate the expected number of 6s to be rolled.
3 A card is drawn from a standard deck, its suit is noted and the card is replaced in the deck. Calculate Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.6
the expected number of hearts in 100 selections. doc-11085
4 A barrel contains five red marbles, four blue marbles and a green marble. A marble is drawn from Single event
probability
the barrel. Its colour is noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. In 70 selections from the barrel,
how many times would we expect to select:
a a red marble b a blue marble c a green marble?
5 WE13 Lorna spends a night at the greyhounds. There are 10 races, and in each race there are eight
greyhounds. Lorna bets on number 5 in every race. Calculate the number of winning greyhounds that
Lorna can expect to back. Digital doc
6 A card is drawn from a standard deck; the card is then SkillSHEET 9.7
doc-11086
noted and replaced in the deck. This is repeated Tree diagrams
100 times. Calculate the number of times (where
necessary, correct to 2 decimal places) that we could
expect to select:
a a club
b a red card
c an ace Digital doc
d a court card (ace, king, queen or jack) SkillSHEET 9.8
e the king of diamonds. doc-11087
Probability trees
7 Kevin buys a ticket in a meat raffle every week. There are 100 tickets and four prizes.
a Calculate the probability of Kevin winning a prize in the raffle.
b How many prizes can Kevin expect to win in one year?
8 Janice buys a ticket in every lottery. In each lottery there are 180 000 tickets, a first prize and
3384 cash prizes. One lottery is drawn every weekday for 52 weeks a year. Calculate the number of
times in 10 years that Janice can expect to win:
a first prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures)
b a cash prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures).

9 MC A meeting is attended by 350 men and 150 women. At the meeting 100 people will be chosen
to make a speech. What is the expected number of women to make speeches?
A 15 B 30 C 50 D 150
10 MC A tennis club runs a raffle each week with 100 tickets. Fumiko buys one ticket each week. The
expected number of raffle wins over a period of 50 weeks is:
A 0.01 B 0.5 C 1 D 20
11 WE14 Four coins are tossed simultaneously in the air. If this were repeated 80 times, on how many
occasions would you expect the coins to land with four Heads?
12 The digits 2, 5, 6, 7 and 9 are written on cards and placed face down. Three are then chosen and
arranged to form a three-digit number. If this is repeated 150 times, what is the expected number of:
a odd numbers b numbers greater than 600 c multiples of five?
13 Two dice are rolled 100 times. Copy and complete the table below to calculate the expected number
of occurrences of each total in 100 rolls of the dice. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Digital doc
EXCEL Spreadsheet Outcome 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
doc-2749 Probability
Die rolling
Expected no.
14 A barrel contains 15 blue marbles and 5 red marbles. Two marbles are selected from the barrel, the
first not being replaced in the barrel before the second is chosen. This experiment is repeated 100
times. On how many occasions (correct to 2 decimal places) would you expect the two marbles
chosen to be:
a both blue
b both the same colour
c different colours
d selected with at least one being blue?
Further development
15 A die is biased as shown in the table below. What average outcome would you expect for a large
number of rolls of this die?
Number Probability
1 0.2
2 0.2
3 0.2
4 0.2
5 0.1
6 0.1
16 Anthony is a basketball player and has a probability of 0.7 of shooting a basket from the free-throw
line. During a match Anthony goes to the free-throw line 10 times. On each occasion he receives two
free throws.
a What is the expected number of successful free throws that Anthony will make?
b What is the expected number of times that Anthony will be successful with both free throws?
17 Eldrick is a golfer and is playing the par three 17th hole. Eldrick has a 80% chance of hitting his first
shot onto the green and a 45% of sinking a putt from any point on the green.
a Find the probability that Eldrick is able to get the ball in the hole in two shots. (This score of one
under par is called a ‘birdie’.)
b If Eldrick plays the 17th hole four times during a tournament, what is the expected number of
birdies?
18 Every Friday night a local club runs a meat raffle. In the raffle there are 1000 tickets, and
Rhonda buys 5 tickets. There are 70 prizes in the raffle. Find the number of prizes that Rhonda can
expect to win:
a in one night
b over a year if she buys the same number of tickets each week.

19 A criminal gang has the technology to copy peoples ATM cards. They do not have the technology to
identify people’s PINs. If they try to use the card they can have three attempts at the PIN before the
bank will deactivate the card.
a What is the probability that the gang is able to guess the 4-digit PIN?
b How many cards does the gang need to copy before they can expect to be able to guess one PIN?
20 A telephone insurance salesperson has a 0.16 probability of being able to sell an insurance policy. Digital doc
Worksheet 9.2
How many telephone calls does the salesperson need to make so they can expect to sell 60 insurance
doc-11088
policies?
Computer Application 1: Simulations

A simulation is where a computer gives results to an experiment that are similar to those that would
occur if the experiment were actually performed. For example, if a coin is tossed 100 times, a computer
can randomly choose Heads or Tails in a fraction of a second. In each case, the probability of each Digital doc
outcome is 12 and we are saved the process of actually tossing the coin. EXCEL Spreadsheet
1. Access the spreadsheet Simulations from your Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course doc-2750
Simulations
eBookPLUS.
2. The first worksheet has a coin toss simulation. In cell B3 enter the number of times you wish to toss
the coin, in cell F4 enter the expected number of heads and in cell F5 enter the expected number
of tails.
3. How do the simulation results compare with the expected outcome? Complete 10 simulations
and average the results. Is this answer closer to the expected number of outcomes that you have
calculated?
4. Repeat this process for each one of the other simulations on rolling a die and rolling two dice.

Summary
Counting techniques • The fundamental counting principle states that the number of ways a multiple selection can be
made is found by multiplying the numbers of ways each individual selection can be made.
• The number of ways that n objects can be arranged in order is:
n! or n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 2 × 1.
• In an ordered selection, a number of objects are chosen and are arranged in order. The number of
ordered selections can be calculated by multiplying the number of first choices that can be made by
the number of second choices possible and so on until all choices have been included.
• In an unordered selection, the order in which the objects have been chosen is not important. The
number of unordered selections that are possible is calculated by dividing the number of ordered
selections by the number of ways the ordered selection can be arranged.
• Once the number of selections has been determined, the probability of particular selections can be
determined.
Tree diagrams • A tree diagram is used in any probability experiment where there is more than one stage to the
experiment.
• The sample space can be determined from a tree diagram by following the paths to the end of each
branch.
• The probability of an event can then be calculated by the probability formula:
number of favourable outcomes
P 1 event 2 =
Probability and • When we have calculated the number of arrangements and the number of ordered or unordered
counting techniques selections that are possible, we can then calculate the probability of a certain selection using the
probability formula.
Expected outcomes • The expected number of times that an event will occur in a number of trials is calculated by
multiplying the number of trials by the probability of that event occurring.
• The expected number of outcomes is the average number of times that the event is expected to
occur. It does not mean this is the number of times the event will occur.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following is an example of an ordered selection?
multip l e
A A team of four people is chosen from a group of 12. c ho ic e
B Two representatives from a class of 30 students are elected to the SRC.
C A class of 30 students elect a class captain and vice-captain.
D From a barrel of 44 balls, six are chosen.
2 Six people are arranged in a line. The number of ways in which this can be done is:
A 6 B 12 C 120 D 720
3 In a race there are six runners. In how many ways can the first three places be filled?
A 6 B 12 C 120 D 620
4 A group of six people consists of Darren, Shintaro, Jim, Damien, John and Allan. From these six
people a group of three is chosen. The probability of choosing Darren, Jim and John is:
3 1 1 1
A B C D
6 20 12 120
5 A bag contains 3 red marbles, 13 blue marbles and 4 yellow marbles. A marble is chosen from the
bag and then replaced in the bag. In 90 selections, the expected number of blue marbles selected is:
A 13 B 20 C 58.5 D 59
1 Two coins are tossed in the air. S ho rt

a nsw er
a Draw a tree diagram.
b Use the tree to list the sample space for this experiment.
2 The digits 5, 7, 8 and 9 are used to form a two-digit number. Use a tree diagram to list the sample
space if:
a no digit can be used more than once b digits can be repeated.
3 There are three births in the maternity ward of a hospital. Calculate the probability that the
babies are:
a all boys b two boys and a girl c more girls than boys.
4 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9. No digit is allowed to be repeated.
a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Find the probability that the number formed is:
i 86
ii odd
iii greater than 65.
5 In a barrel there are three black marbles and three white marbles. A marble is drawn and its colour
noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. A second marble is then drawn. Find the probability of
selecting:
a two marbles of the same colour
b at least one black marble.

6 A rowing crew has eight rowers. In how many different ways can the crew be seated in the boat?
7 From the rowing crew of eight, a captain and vice-captain are to be selected. Calculate the number of
different ways the captain and vice-captain can be selected.
8 From the rowing crew of eight, four are to be chosen to crew a four-person boat. How many crews of
four can be chosen from the group of eight?
9 From the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5:

a how many five-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed
b how many three-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed?
10 The letters D, S, T, U and Y are shuffled and placed in a line on a table. Calculate the probability that
the word STUDY is formed.
11 Thirty-six coins are tossed in the air. Calculate the expected number of coins landing Heads.
12 A die is rolled 60 times. Calculate the expected number of:
a 6s
b even numbers
c numbers less than 3.
13 A card is chosen from a standard deck, noted and replaced in the deck. In 100 trials, calculate (where
necessary, correct to 2 decimal places) the expected number of:
a red cards
b spades
c aces
d court cards
e black jacks.

14 Two dice are rolled. The score in each roll is the total of the two dice. In 90 rolls of the dice,
calculate the expected number of:
a two
b sevens
c tens
d doubles
e totals greater than 8.
15 In game, three coins are tossed in the air. In 100 tosses of the coins, on how many occasions would
you expect the coins to land:
a three Heads
b two Tails and one Head
c more Heads than Tails?
16 Two students from Richard, Sandra, Talia and Ingo have to make a speech. They draw straws to see
who will go first and second.
a How many different ways can the first and second speaker be arranged?
b What is the probability that Ingo speaks first and Talia speaks second?
17 Six teams A, B, C, D, E and F contest a basketball competition. The top four sides play in the semi-
finals, and later two will contest the grand final.
a In how many different ways can the top four sides be arranged?
b What is the probability that the top four teams finish D, C, F and A?
c How many pairs of teams is it possible to meet in the grand final?
d What is the probability of A playing B in the grand final?
e What is the probability that C plays in the grand final?
18 Zita is doing an exam when she realises that she has almost run out of time. She has not answered
the last 10 questions.
a If each question requires True or False as an answer and Zita guesses each answer, what is the
probability that she guesses all 10 correctly?
b If each question is multiple choice and requires the choice of (A), (B), (C) or (D), what is the
probability that Zita will guess all 10 correctly?
19 Mr And Mrs Morrisey have a son and are planning his education. In the local area there are
6 pre-schools, 3 primary schools and 2 high schools. How many different combinations of schools
do the Morriseys have to choose from?
1 Three coins are tossed in the air. Ex tended

a Draw a tree diagram to list the sample space. R es p ons e
b Use your tree diagram to calculate the probability of tossing two heads and one tail.
c Calculate the probability of tossing at least one head.
2 A golf team is to be made by selecting two males from a group of 5 and two females from a
group of 4.
a How many teams is it possible to select? Digital doc
b What is the probability that Issac is one of the male players and Tegan is one of the female Test Yourself
players? What is the probability that Issac and Tegan are both selected? doc-11089
Chapter 9
c If a new team is selected to play each weekend over a year on how many occasions can:
i Issac expect to play
ii Tegan expect to play?

ICT activities
9A Counting techniques Tutorial
• WE11 int-2425: Learn to calculate probabilities. (page 265)
INTERACTIVITY
Digital doc
• int-0089: Random number generator. (page 257)
• SkillSHEET 9.5 (doc-11084): Single event probability. (page 266)
Tutorial
• WE5 int-2424: Learn about ordered selections. (page 259)
Digital doc
Tutorial
• SkillSHEET 9.1 (doc-11079): Fundamental counting principle.
• WE14 int-2426: Learn to calculate expected outcomes. (page 269)
(page 260)
Digital docs
9B Tree diagrams • SkillSHEET 9.6 (doc-11085): Single event probability. (page 269)
• SkillSHEET 9.7 (doc-11086): Tree diagrams. (page 269)
Digital docs • SkillSHEET 9.8 (doc-11087): Probability trees. (page 269)
• SkillSHEET 9.2 (doc-11080): Listing the sample space. (page 263) • EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-2749): Die rolling. (page 270)
• SkillSHEET 9.3 (doc-11081): Informal description of chance. • WorkSHEET 9.2 (doc-11088): Apply your knowledge of multi-stage
(page 263) events to problems. (page 271)
• SkillSHEET 9.4 (doc-11082): Equally likely events. (page 263) • EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-2750): Simulations. (page 271)
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1364): Tree diagrams. (page 263)
• WorkSHEET 9.1 (doc-11083): Apply your knowledge of multi-stage
events to problems. (page 264)
Chapter review
Digital doc
9C Probability and counting techniques • Test Yourself (doc-11089): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
INTERACTIVITIES
• int-2787: A pack of cards. (page 265)
• int-0085: Random numbers. (page 265)

Answers chapter 9
Multi-stage events 3 1st bag 2nd bag
10 a 1st digit 2nd digit b
7
12
R 3
and applications of Red B
Y
2 4
7
probability G
R 3
2
4
B 7
Exercise 9A Counting techniques Blue Y 2
G 4 3
1 360 R 7
2
2 15 625 Yellow B
Y 7 3
4
3 a 1440 b 120 c 172 800 G
R
4 a 6 b 120 c 362 880 Green B 11 a
1
b
3
Y 20 10
5 24 6 120 7 6 G 2 3
8 720 9 12 c d
5 5
4 Male Female 1
10 12 144 12
4
Thuy
11 35 12 210 13 15 George
Petria 13 B
Joan
14 72 Wendy 14 a S = {Bris – Peak – EC, Bris – Peak –
Amelia
15 C Thuy BC, Bris – Peak – FC, Bris – Off-
Petria
16 D Frank Joan peak – EC, Bris – Off-peak – BC,
Wendy
17 B Amelia Bris – O
ff-peak – FC, GC –
Thuy
18 a 20 b 6 Petria Peak – EC, GC – Peak – BC, GC –
Stanisa Joan
19 a 362 880 b 504 c 36 Wendy Peak – FC, GC – Off-peak – EC,
Amelia
20 120 Thuy GC – Off-peak – BC, GC –
21 3024 Ian
Petria
Joan Off-peak – FC, Cairns – Peak – EC,
22 After the first three places have been filled Wendy
Amelia Cairns – Peak – BC, Cairns – Off-
there is only one place left and only one peak – EC, Cairns – Off-peak – BC}
way of filling it; hence, the number of S = {George – Thuy, George – Petria, 3 1 1
George – Joan, George – Wendy, b i ii iii
arrangements is the same. 8 4 8
George – Amelia, Frank – Thuy, 15 a 6
23 59 400
Frank – Petria, Frank – Joan, Frank – b 27
24 a 8 145 060 b 11 480 c 820
Wendy, Frank – Amelia, Stanisa – c Kevin is correct. In each case the
25 When selecting three people from
Thuy, Stanisa – Petria, Stanisa – Joan, probability is 13 as there is one chance
ten people, seven people remain. For
Stanisa – Wendy, Stanisa – Amelia, in three that the 8 is in the final
every group of three selected there is a
Ian – Thuy, Ian – Petria, Ian – Joan, position.
corresponding group of seven not selected. 5
Hence the number of groups of three is the Ian – Wendy, Ian – Amelia} 16 a P(more boys) = , P(equal numbers)
16
same as the number of groups of seven. 5 1st digit 2nd digit 6 5
2
= 16 , P(more girls) = 16 . Each outcome
Exercise 9B Tree diagrams 1 4
5
7
is not equally likely.
1 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
1 b Dan is incorrect. If there are two
child child child child 4
Boy 2 5 children, the probability of an equal
Boy 7
number of boys and girls is 12.
Girl
Boy Girl Boy 1
Boy Girl 2
Boy 4 5 17 Each number is not equally likely
Boy Girl 7
Girl Girl Boy
Girl 1 to occur.
Boy 5 2
4 18 Tanya is incorrect as the number of
Boy Girl
Boy Girl Boy
Girl
7
1
choices that she can make is reduced
Girl Boy 2 from 96 to 12.
Boy Girl 7 4
Girl 5 1023
19 P(at least one head) = ≈ 99.9%
Girl Boy
Girl
1024
2
1st die 2nd die No. Ingrid is wrong.
1
6 President Secretary Treasurer
2 Kate Exercise 9C Probability and counting
1 3 Dean Adrian
4
5 Belinda Kate Dean techniques
Adrian Adrian 1
6 Dean 1
1 Kate 24
2 1 1
3
Kate
Adrian 2 a 120 b c
2 4 Belinda 120 120
Dean Kate Belinda
5 Adrian 1 2 2
6 Adrian
Belinda 3 a b c
6 3 3
1 Kate 1
2 Dean 4
3 Adrian 10
3 4 Belinda 1 1 1
5 Kate Dean Belinda 5 a b c
6 Adrian Adrian 42 42 21
Belinda 1 2 2
1 Dean 6 a b c
2 Dean 72 9 9
3 1
4 4 Belinda Kate 7
5 Adrian Dean Belinda 6
Kate Kate 1 1
6
Belinda 8 a b
1 Dean 13 800 2300
2 1
9 a 20 b
5 3
4 7 S = {357, 358, 375, 378, 385, 387, 537, 20
1 3 3
5
6 538, 573, 578, 583, 587, 735, 738, 10 a b c
10 10 5
1
2
753, 758, 783, 785, 835, 837, 853, 11 a
1
8 145 060
6 3
4
857, 873, 875} 7 28 5005
5 8 C b i ii 8 145 iii
6 8 145 060 060 8 145 060
1
9
2

12 Lotto is harder to win as Lotto Strike 14 a 55.26 b 60.53 b i
1
2
ii iii
3
player has a probability of 3 5751 880 of c 39.47 d 94.74
1
20 5
3
4
wining. 15 3.1 5 a b
2 4
13 Bruce is correct as 45C7 = 45 379 620, 16 a 14 b 4.9 6 40 320
which is approximately 5.57 times greater 17 a 0.36 b 1.44 7 56
than lotto. That is, Oz Lotto is 457% 18 a 0.35 b 18.2 8 70
harder to win. 19 a
1
b 10 000 9 a 120 b 60
10 000 1
14 a 3 838 380 10
20 375 120
b 20 11 18
1
c 12 a 10 b 30 c 20
76 767 600 Chapter Review
15 a 1.65 × 1012 13 a 50 b 25 c 7.69
b 184 756 Multiple choice d 30.8 e 3.85
c 1.12 × 10−7 1 C 14 a 2.5 b 15 c 7.5
16 a 0.06 2 D d 15 e 25
b 0.014 3 C 15 a 12.5 b 37.5 c 50
c 6.45 × 10−4 4 B 16 a 12 b
1
5 C 12
Exercise 9D Expected outcomes 1
17 a 360 b c 15
1 20 Short answer 360
1 1
2 50 1 a 1st coin 2nd coin d e
15 3
3 25 Heads 1 1
4 a 35 b 28 c 7 Heads 18 a b
Tails 1024 1048576
5 1.25 19 36
Heads
6 a 25 b 50 c 7.69 Tails
Tails Extended response
d 30.77 e 1.92
1 b S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 1 a 1st coin 2nd coin 3rd coin b
3
c
7
7 a
25 2 a S = {57, 58, 59, 75, 78, 79, 85, 87, 89, Heads Heads 8 8
b 2.08 95, 97, 98} Heads Tails
Tails Heads
8 a 0.0144 b 48.9 b S = {
55, 57, 58, 59, 75, 77, 78, 79, 85, Tails
9 B Heads
87, 88, 89, 95, 97, 98, 99} Tails
Heads
Tails
10 B 1 3 1 Tails Heads
3 a b c Tails
11 5 8 8 2
12 a 90 b 90 c 30 4 a S = {46, 47, 48, 49, 64, 67, 68, 69, 74, 76, 2 a 16
1 1 4
78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 89, 94, 96, 97, 98} b , ,
10 6 15
13
Outcome 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 c i 5.2 times
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1 ii 0.6666 times
Probability
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36
Expected no. 2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7 13.9 11.1 8.3 5.6 2.8

Chapter 10
Further algebraic skills
and techniques
CHAPTER CONTENTS
10A Addition and subtraction of algebraic expressions
10B The index laws
10C Expanding and simplifying
10D Solving equations
10E Equations and formulas
10A Addition and subtraction

of algebraic expressions
An algebraic expression is a mathematical statement made up of terms, operation symbols and
sometimes brackets. For example, 2c + 4p is an algebraic expression made up of two terms.
Like terms are terms that contain the same pronumerals, and can be collected (added or subtracted) in
order to simplify the expression.
For example 6a and a are like terms, but 6a and 6 are not like terms because one is an algebraic term
and the other is a constant (or number).
Similarly, 4x and 8x are like terms but 4x and 4x2 are not like terms.
Only like terms can be added or subtracted.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the following.

a 4j − 5c + c + 3j b d2 + 9d − 12d − 15
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 4j − 5c + c + 3j
2 Identify the like terms and group them together. = 4j + 3j − 5c + c

3 Simplify by collecting like terms. = 7j − 4c
b 1 Write the expression. b d2 + 9d − 12d − 15
2 Simplify by collecting like terms. = d2 − 3d − 15
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions

The methods for working with algebraic fractions are the same as those used for numerical fractions.
To add or subtract algebraic fractions we perform the following steps.
1. Find the lowest common denominator (LCD) by finding the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the
denominators.
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with this common denominator.
3. Express as a single fraction.
4. Simplify the numerator.
Chapter 10 • Further algebraic skills and techniques 279

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Simplify the following expressions.

2x x x+1 x+4
a − b +
3 2 5 3
THINK WRITE
2x x
a 1 Write the expression. a −
3 2
Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction using 2 1 2x 2 3 1 x 2

2 = −
the LCD. The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6. 6 6
4x − 3x
3 Express as a single fraction. =
6
x
4 Simplify the numerator. =
6
x+1 x+4
b 1 Write the expression. b +
5 3
Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction using 31x + 12 51x + 42

2 = +
the LCD. The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15. 15 15
Express as a single fraction. 31x + 12 + 51x + 42

3 =
15
3x + 3 + 5x + 20
4 Simplify the numerator by expanding grouping =
symbols and collecting like terms. 15
8x + 23
=
15
Adding and subtracting algebraic

Exercise 10A
expressions
1 Simplify the following.
a 2k + 3k + 2c + 9c b 6m + 9m + 10f + 6f
c 4d + 3c + 5d + 2c d 2f + 3h + 2f + 5h
e 7g + 2j + 5g + 11j f 12d + 8 + 3d + 5
g 9n + 4 + 3n + 7 h 5y + 6h2 + h2 + 9y
i 4nv + 8u + 7nv + 2u
2 WE1 Simplify the following.
a 10m − 7m + 5c − 3c b 14a − 6a + 11f − 8f c 5k + 11 − 3k − 9
d 7t − 11t + 7 − 5 e 10r + 15 − 11r − 10 f 6v − 8v + 12 − 17
g 6p − 9 − 2p − 5 h 10w − 6w + 14 − 10 i 4c − 8 + 3c − 9
j 2j + 4c − 3j − c k −2k + 14m −5k − 10m l −d + 5c − 2c − 3d
m 5y2 + 3y + 2y2 − 7y n 4x3 − 2x3 + 3x4 − 9x4 o c2 − 2c2 + 5 + 7
3 MC
a 2q + 6p − 5q − p simplifies to:
A 7q + 5p B 7q − 5p C −3q + 5p D −3q − 5p
b −4r − 6y − 3y + 5r simplifies to:
A −9r − 9y B r − 9y C r + 9y D −9r + 9y
c j2 − 6j − 3j2 + 4j simplifies to:
A −2j2 − 2j B −2j4 − 2j C −3j2 − 2j D −2j6
4 Simplify the following.
a x2 + 5x + 2x + 6 b d2 − 3d + 7d − 10
c v2 − 2v − 8v − 6 d a2 − 4ab + 2ab + b2
e u2 + 4u − 3u − 12 f 5n4 − 12n2 + 6n2 − 25

5 WE2 Simplify the following expressions.
2y y y y 4x x 8x 2x
a − b − c − d +
3 4 8 5 3 4 9 3
2w w y y 12y y 10x 2x
e − f − g + h +
14 28 20 4 5 7 5 15
x+1 x+3 x+2 x+6 2x − 1 2x + 1 3x + 1 5x + 3
i + j + k − l +
5 2 4 3 5 6 2 3
Further development
6 Given that x = 8a − 7b and y = 7b − 8a what is the value of
a x + y b x − y c y − x d 3x − 4y?
7 Find the sum and difference of (5x − y + 2z) and (y − 4z − x).
8 Find the:
a sum of x and its reciprocal
b the difference between x and its reciprocal.
3x 5y
9 Simplify + .
5y 3x
10B The index laws

When a number or pronumeral is repeatedly multiplied by itself, it can be written in a shorter form
called the index form with a base and power or index. For example, 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 34.
Patterns in powers when multiplying and dividing pronumerals can be summarised using index laws. Interactivity
When multiplying algebraic terms with the same bases the indices should be added. int-2360
Indices
First Index law: am × an = am + n
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Simplify 5e10 × 2e3.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. 5e10 × 2e3

2 The order is not important when multiplying, so place the numbers first. = 5 × 2 × e10 × e3
3 Multiply the coefficients and add the indices. = 10e13
When there is more than one pronumeral involved in the question, we apply the First index law to each
pronumeral separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Simplify 7m3 × 3n5 × 2m8 × n4.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the problem. 7m3 × 3n5 × 2m8 × n4

2 The order is not important when multiplying, so place = 7 × 3 × 2 × m3× m8 × n5 × n4
numbers first and group the same pronumerals together.
3 Simplify by multiplying the coefficients and using the First = 42m11n9
Index Law for bases that are the same (add indices).
Since division is the inverse of multiplication, we subtract indices when dividing bases that are the same.
Second Index Law: am ÷ an = am − n

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Simplify 712 ÷ 74.

THINK WRITE
712
1 Write the problem and express it as a fraction.
74
2 Simplify by applying the Second Index Law. = 78
As with multiplication of algebraic expressions, when dividing we divide the coefficients normally
before applying the Second Index Law to each pronumeral separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Simplify 36d7 ÷ 12d4 giving your answer index form.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the problem. 36d7 ÷ 12d4
2 Divide the numbers and apply the Second Index Law = 3d3
to the pronumerals.
Raising a power to another power

If we are given (72)3, this can be written in factor form as 72 × 72 × 72.
We can then simplify using the First Index Law as 72 + 2 + 2 = 76.
Similarly, if we are given (45)3, this means 45 × 45 × 45 = 415.
You will notice that (72)3 = 72 × 3
= 76
And (4 )3 = 45 × 3
5
= 415.
When raising a power to another power, multiply the indices.
Third Index Law: (am)n = am × n
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Simplify the following.

a (74)8 b (3a2b5)3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the problem. a (74)8
2 Simplify by applying the Third Index Law. = 732

b 1 Write the problem. b (3a2b5)3
2 Simplify by applying the Third Index Law. For = 33a6b15

each term inside the grouping symbols Simplify = 27a6b15
the coefficient.
Zero index
Any base that has a power of zero has a value of one. It does not matter whether the base is a number
or a pronumeral. If the power is zero; its value is one. We can show this by looking at the following
example which can be simplified using two different methods.

Method 1 Method 2
2×2×2 23
23 ÷ 23 = 23 ÷ 23 =
2×2×2 23
8
= = 20 (using the Second Index Law)
8
=1 =1
Since the two results should be the same, 20 must equal 1.

Any base that has an index (power) of zero is equal to 1.
Fourth Index Law: a0 = 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the value of 260.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the problem. 260

2 Any base with an index of zero is equal to one. =1
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the value of (12a9b7c2)0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the problem. (12a9b7c2)0

2 Any base with an index of zero is equal to one. =1
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the value of 12b2c0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the problem. 12b2c0

2 Only c has a power of zero, so replace it with a 1 and simplify. = 12b2
Exercise 10B The index laws

1 WE3 Simplify each of the following.
a 5p7 × 5p4 b 5x2 × 3x6 c 9y6 × 7y4
d 3p × 6p
7 e 10t3 × t2 × 7t f 4q2 × q5 × 5q8
a 2a2 × 3a4 × e3 × e6 b 4p3 × 2h7 × h5 × p4 c 2m3 × 5m2 × 8m3
d 2gh × 3g h
2 2 5 e 5p4q2 × 6p2q6
3 WE5 Simplify each of the following using the Second Index Law.
a 53 ÷ 52 b 79 ÷ 72 c s8 ÷ s4
d z ÷ z
6 e i ÷ i
45 42 f 675 ÷ 674
c13 t456
g 1023 ÷ 1019 h i
c9 t423
h78 b77 f 1000
j k l
h b7 f 100

4 WE6 Simplify each of the following, giving your answer in index form.
a 4x5 ÷ x3 b 6y7 ÷ y5 c 9w12 ÷ w5 d 12q34 ÷ 4q30
45p14
e 20f 12 ÷ 2f 3 f 100h100 ÷ 10h10 g 40j15 ÷ 20j5 h
9p4
48g8 12b7 81m6 100n95
i j k l
6g5 8b2 18m2 70n5
5 Simplify each of the following.
15p12 18r6 45a5
a b c
3p8 3r2 9a2
60b7 100r10 9q2
d e f
20b 10r6 q
a (x2)3 b ( f 8)10 c (s25)4
12 12
d (r ) e (a2b3)5 f (pq3)5
g (g3h2)5 h (3w9q2)4 i (5e5r2q4)2
a (p5)2 × (q3)2 b (r5)3 × (w3)3 c (x5)2 × (n3)6
d (j6)3 × (k4)3 e (q2)2 × (r4)5 f (h3)8 × (j2)8
g (f ) × (g )
4 4 7 3 h (t5)2 × (u4)2 i (i3)5 × (j2)6
8 WE8 Find the value for each of the following.
a 30 b 50 c p0 d d0
9 WE9 Find the value of each of the following.
a (3p)0 b 50t0 c (2w2)0 d (5x8)0
10 Find the value of each of the following.
a 3p0 b 5x0 + 7 c (a0)6 + 3 d (2y0)3 + 9
11 WE10 Find the value of each of the following.
a 4r3g0 b 2p0 + 3g0 c 6t0 + 7f 0
Further development
a 2a2 × 3a4 × e3 × e4 b 4p3 × 2h7 × h5 × p3 c 2m3 × 5m2 × 8m4
d 2gh × 3g2h5 e 5p4q2 × 6p2q7 f 8u3w × 3uw2 × 2u5w4
g 9y8d × y5d3 × 3y4d7 h 7b3c2 × 2b6c4 × 3b5c3 i 4r2s2 × 3r6s12 × 2r8s4
j 10h10v2 × 2h8v6 × 3h20v12
8p6 × 3p4 12b5 × 4b2 25m2 × 4n7
a b c
16p5 18b2 15m2 × 8n
27x9y3 16h7k4 12j8 × 6f 5
d e f
12xy2 12h6k 8j3 × 3f 2
8p3 × 7r2 × 2s 27a9 × 18b5 × 4c2 81f 15 × 25g12 × 16h24
g h i
6p × 14r 18a4 × 12b2 × 2c 27f 9 × 15g10 × 12h30
3b4 2 5h10 2 2k5 3
a a b b a b c a b
d3 2j2 3t8
7p9 2 5y7 3 4a3 4
d a b e a b f a b
22 13
8q 3z 7c5
15 Simplify each of the following giving your answer in fractional form.
a x5 ÷ x8 b b6 ÷ b10 c z ÷ z7 d q2 ÷ q9
20pq 5m2
e m0 ÷ m4 f 12m3 ÷ 4m5 g h
2
4p 30m3

16 Use the index laws to simplify each of the following. Give each of your answers in fractional form.
a a3 × a−4 b 12p−2 × 3p−3 c 7g5h−2 × 3gh−1 d 4p × 5p−2
e s−2 ÷ s−3 f 42p2q−3 ÷ 6p−2q g 6r2 ÷ 2r−4 h 45a2b−3 c ÷ 3abc
10C Expanding and simplifying

Brackets are used to group terms and are sometimes referred to as grouping symbols. When there are
multiples of a group of terms, for example two groups of (x + 4y), this is written as 2(x + 4y).
Expanding the algebraic expression is achieved by multiplying the term outside the brackets by each Interactivity
of the terms inside. int-0075
Expanding
For example, 2(x + 4y) = 2 × x + 2 × 4y brackets
= 2x + 8y
Alternatively, we could have written:
2(x + 4y) = 2(x) + 2(4y)
= 2x + 8y
When more than one set of brackets appears in an expression, we can often simplify by collecting any
like terms that result from expanding the brackets.
For example: 2(x + 5y) + 3(2x − y)
= 2(x) + 2(5y) + 3(2x) + 3(−y)
= 2x + 10y + 6x − 3y
= 8x + 7y
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Expand:
a 7(m − 4) b −6(a − 3).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 7(m − 4)
2 Multiply each term inside the brackets by the term outside. = 7(m) + 7(−4)
= 7m − 28
b 1 Write the expression. b −6(a − 3)
2 Multiply each term inside the brackets by the term outside. = −6(a) − 6(−3)
= −6a + 18
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Expand and simplify 6(m − 4r) − 2(2m + 7r).

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. 6(m − 4r) − 2(2m + 7r)

2 Multiply each term inside the brackets by the term outside. = 6m − 24r − 4m − 14r
3 Simplify by collecting like terms. = 2m − 38r
Exercise 10C Expanding and simplifying

1 WE11 Expand the following.
a 5(k + 1) b 7(m + 4) c 4(y + 7)
d 8(d − 9) e 12(h − 5) f 2(k − 6)
g 4(5m − 2) h 5(6t + 5) i 8(2k − 11)
j 5(m + n) k 8(4y − 3f ) l 6(3v + 7w)
m b(c − d) n k(i + ef ) o 6p(2j − 3m)

2 Expand the following.
a −3(c + 1) b −5(d + 2) c −6(m + 11)
d −8(c + d) e −4(3k − 2m) f −7(2 − 3x)
g −10(5 − y) h −k(k + 2) i −x(x − 3)
3 WE12 Expand and simplify.
a 2(c + 4) + 3(c + 5) b 12(k + 1) + 5(k + 6) c 8(m + 2) + 5(m + 5)
d 2(j − 5) − 3(j + 2) e 7(t + 2) − 5(t + 5) f 9(m + 7) + 4(m − 6)
g 10(c + 4) + 6(c − 9) h 6(d − 3) − 5(d − 2) i 12(w − 4) − 8(w + 8)
j −4(2h + 7) − 10(h − 5) k 2(3y − 8) + (4y − 3) l 5(2x + 3) − (x − 12)
m 10(h − 1) − (3h − 5) n c + 3 + 5(c + 7) o −2(m − 9) − (3m − 4)
4 Expand and simplify.
a y(y − 6) + 2(y − 6) b w(w + 2) − 6(w + 2) c x(2x − 5) − 4(2x − 5)
d 3h(h + 1) + 5(h + 1) e f (3f + 2) − 8(3f + 2) f 2a(4a − 3) + 3(4a − 3)
5 MC
a y(3 − 2y) simplifies to:
A 3 − 2y2 B 6 − y2 C 3y − 6y2 D 3y − 2y2
b −5(k − 3) simplifies to:
A −5k − 15 B −5k + 15 C −5k + 3 D −5k − 8
c 4(b − 3) − 2(b − 2) simplifies to:
A 2b − 16 B 2b + 8 C 2b − 1 D 2b − 8
Further development
6 Expand and simplify the following expressions.
a 2(x + 2y) + 3(2x − y) b 4(2p + 3q) + 2(p − 2q)
c 7(2a + 3b) + 4(a + 2b) d 5(3c + 4d) + 2(2c + d)
e 6(a − 2b) − 5(2a − 3b) f 5(2x − y) − 2(3x − 2y)
g 4(2p − 4q) − 3(p − 2q) h 2(c − 3d) − 5(2c − 3d)
i 7(2x − 3y) − (x − 2y) j 4(3c + d) − (4c + 3d)
a −4(m + 2n) + 3(2m − n) b −3(2x + y) + 4(3x − 2y)
c −2(3x + 2y) + 3(5x + 3y) d −5(4p + 2q) + 2(3p + q)
e −5(p − 2q) − (2p − q) f −3(a − 2b) − (2a + 3b)
a a(b + 2) + b(a − 3) b x(y + 4) + y(x − 2)
c c(d − 2) + c(d + 5) d p(q − 5) + p(q + 3)
e 3c(d − 2) + c(2d − 5) f 7a(b − 3) − b(2a + 3)
g 2m(n + 3) − m(2n + 1) h 4c(d − 5) + 2c(d − 8)
i 3m(2m + 4) − 2(3m + 5) j 5c(2d − 1) − (3c + cd)
k 6m(2m − 3) − (2m + 4) l 2p(p − 4) + 3(5p − 2)
m 7x(5 − x) + 6(x − 1)
Digital doc 9 a −3a(5a + b) + 2b(b − 3a)
Worksheet 10.1
b −4c(2c − 6d) + d(3d − 2c)
doc-11090
c −2y(5y − 1) − 4(2y + 3)
10D Solving equations

Equations are mathematical statements that show two equal expressions. This means that the left-hand
side and the right-hand side of the equation are equal.
Interactivities Linear equations contain pronumerals whose highest power is 1. For example, 2x + 1 = 5.
int-2778 Linear equations can be solved using inverse operations.
Solving equations
int-2373 + and − are inverse operations
Solving equations
int-2764
× and ÷ are inverse operations
Solving equations
When solving equations, the last operation performed on the pronumeral when building the equation
is the first operation undone by applying the inverse operation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Solve the following.

4x
a 5y − 6 = 79 b =5
9
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5y − 6 = 79
2 Apply the inverse operation by adding 6 to both sides. 5y = 85

3 Apply the inverse operation by dividing both sides by 5 to obtain y. y = 17
4x
b 1 Write the equation. b =5
9
2 Multiply both sides by 9. 4x = 45
3 Divide both sides by 4 to obtain x. x = 1114
Many equations have the pronumeral on both sides. In such cases they are solved by transposing all
pronumerals to the left-hand side of the equation, as shown in the examples below.
Interactivity
int-0077
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Keeping equations
balanced
Solve the following equations.
a 5h + 13 = 2h − 2 b 14 − 4d = 27 − d
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5h + 13 = 2h − 2
2 Subtract 2h from both sides. 3h + 13 = −2

3 Subtract 13 from both sides. 3h = −15
4 Divide both sides by 3. h = −5
b 1 Write the equation. b 14 − 4d = 27 − d
2 Add d to both sides. 14 − 3d = 27

3 Subtract 14 from both sides. −3d = 13
4 Divide both sides by −3. d = −413
Exercise 10D Solving equations

1 WE13 Solve the following equations.
a a + 61 = 85 b k − 75 = 46 c g + 9.3 = 12.2
d r − 2.3 = 0.7 e h + 0.84 = 1.1 f i + 5 = 3
1 1
g t − 12 = −7 h q + = i x − 2 = −2
3 2
2 Solve the following equations.
f i
a = 3 b = −6 c 6z = −42
4 10
k 5
d 9v = 63 e 6w = −32 f =
12 6
m 7 y 3
g 4a = 1.7 h = i =5
19 8 4 8

a !t = 10 b y2 = 289 c !q = 2.5
4 9
d f 2 = 1.44 e !h = f p2 =
7 64
15 196 7
g !g = − h j2 = i a2 = 2 9
22 961
4 Solve the following.
a 5a + 6 = 26 b 6b + 8 = 44 c 8i − 9 = 15
d 7f − 18 = 45 e 8q + 17 = 26 f 10r − 21 = 33
g 6s + 46 = 75 h 5t − 28 = 21 i 8a + 88 = 28
a
2 + 6 = 16 b
g
+ 4 = 9 c
r
+6=5
4 6 10
m n p
d − 12 = −10 e + 5 = 8.5 f − 1.8 = 3.4
9 8 12
a 6(x + 8) = 56 b 7(y − 4) = 35 c 5(m − 3) = 7
d 3(2k + 5) = 24 e 5(3n − 1) = 80 f 6(2c + 7) = 58
3k 9m 7p
a = 15 b = 18 c = −8
5 8 10
8u 11x 4v
d = −3 e = 2 f = 0.8
11 4 15
8 MC
p
a The solution to the equation + 2 = 7 is:
5
A p = 5 B p = 25 C p = 45 D p = 1
b If 5h + 8 = 53, then h is equal to:
1
A B 12.2 C 225 D 9
5
c The exact solution to the equation 14x = 75 is:
A x = 5.357 142 857 B x = 5.357 (to 3 decimal places)
5
C x = 5 D x = 5.4
14
a −x = 5 b 2 − d = 3 c 5 − p = −2
d −7 − x = 4 e −5h = 10 f −6t = −30
v r 1
g − = 4 h − = i −4g = 3.2
5 12 4
a 6 − 2x = 8 b 10 − 3v = 7 c 9 − 6l = −3
3e
d −3 − 2g = 1 e −5 − 4t = −17 f − = 14
5
8j k 4f
g − = 9 h − − 3 = 6 i − + 1 = 8
3 4 7
11 WE14 Solve the following equations.
a 6x + 5 = 5x + 7 b 7b + 9 = 6b + 14 c 11w + 17 = 6w + 27
d 8f − 2 = 7f + 5 e 10t − 11 = 5t + 4 f 12r − 16 = 3r + 5
g 12g − 19 = 3g − 31 h 7h + 5 = 2h − 6 i 5a − 2 = 3a − 2
a 5 − 2x = 6 − x b 10 − 3c = 8 − 2c c 3r + 13 = 9r − 3
d k − 5 = 2k − 6 e 5y + 8 = 13y + 17 f 17 − 3g = 3 − g
g 14 − 5w = w + 8 h 4m + 7 = 8 − m i 14 − 5p = 9 − 2p

a 3(x + 5) = 2x b 8(y + 3) = 3y c 6(t − 5) = 4(t + 3)
d 10(u + 1) = 3(u − 3) e 12( f − 10) = 4( f − 5) f 2(4r + 3) = 3(2r + 7)
g 5(2d + 9) = 3(3d + 13) h 5(h − 3) = 3(2h − 1) i 2(4x + 1) = 5(3 − x)
14 MC
a The solution to 8 − 4k = −2 is:
1 1 1 1
A k = 2 B −k = 2 C k = 1 D −k = 1
2 2 2 2
6n
b The solution to + 3 = −7 is:
5
1 1 1 1
A n = 3 B n = −3 C n = −8 D n = 8
3 3 3 3
c The solution to p − 6 = 8 − 4p is:
2 4 2 2
A p = B p = 2 C p = 4 D p =
5 5 3 3
Further development
15 Solve each of the following linear equations.
a 6(4x − 3) + 7(x + 1) = 9 b 9(3 − 2x) + 2(5x + 1) = 0
c 8(5 − 3x) − 4(2 + 3x) = 3 d 9(1 + x) − 8(x + 2) = 2x
e 6(4 + 3x) = 7(x − 1) + 1 f 10(4x + 2) = 3(8 − x) + 6
g 8(x + 4) + 2(x − 3) = 6(x + 1) h 6(2x − 3) − 2(6 − 3x) = 7(2x − 1)
i 7.2(3x − 1) + 2.3(5 − x) = −34.3 j 5(2x − 1) − 3(6x + 1) = 8
k 9(2x − 5) + 5(6x + 1) = 100 l 7(2x + 7) − 5(2x + 1) = 2(4 − x)
x 4x 1 x x 3 x 4x
a + = b − = c − =2
3 5 3 4 5 4 4 7
−3x x 1 2x x −3 5x 2x
d + = e − = f −8=
5 8 4 3 6 4 8 3
2 x 3x 4 1 2 15 2
g − = h − = i −4=
7 8 8 x 6 x x x
1 4 5 2x − 4 x 4x − 1 2x + 5
j + = k +6= l − =0
3 x x 5 2 2 3
3(x + 1) 5(x + 1) 2(x + 1) 3(2x − 5) 2(4x + 3) 6(x − 2) 1
a + = 4 b + = 0 c − =
2 3 7 8 5 2 2
8(x + 3) 3(x + 2) 5(7 − x) 2(2x − 1) 2(6 − x) 9(x + 5) 1
d = e = + 1 f = +
5 4 2 7 3 6 3
−5(x − 2) 6(2x − 1) 1 9(2x − 1) 4(x − 5) 1 3 8
g − = h = i + =
3 5 3 7 3 x−1 x+1 x+1
3 5 5 1 3 −1 4 5 −1
j + = k − = l − =
x+1 x−4 x+1 x−1 x x−1 2x − 1 x x
x+2 x−5 x + 11 2(x + 14) x − 1 3x − 17
a = b = c =
6 3 3 9 12 8
2x − 4 11 − x 4x + 66 13 − 3x x + 10 2(7 − 3x)
d = e = f =
5 2 3 4 9 5
6x + 7 5x + 1 2x + 29 x + 44 7x − 9 5x + 3
a = + 1 b = + 2 c = +6
5 4 3 8 2 4
9x + 28 7x − 6 7x − 9 21 − x 17 − x 49 + 2x
d = − 5 e = − 18 f = +5
5 2 9 3 2 5

10E Equations and formulas
The purpose of solving an equation is to find the value of an unknown value that makes that statement
true. In solving an equation every process that has been performed on the pronumeral is reversed until
it becomes the subject of the equation. In many cases, an equation arises as the result of substitution
into a formula.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
In the formula C = 2πr, find the value of r when C = 100, correct to 2 significant figures.
THINK WRITE
2 Substitute the value of C. 100 = 2πr
100
3 Divide each side by 2π and round the answer off to r=
2π
= 16
2 Press 3 3 (Solver).
3 Delete any existing equation, and enter the equation that

arises after the substitution is made. To enter 100 = 2πr
press 1 a a ! [=] 2 ! [π] a [R].
Note: At this stage you may have a different value of R,
but this is to be ignored.
4 Press 6 to solve the equation.
Some equations involve powers and roots. In the solution to an equation, remember that the opposite
function to taking a square is to take the square root and vice versa. When solving such an equation, both
the positive and negative square roots are possible solutions.
For example, the equation x2 = 9 has the solution x = ±3. This differs from !9, which equals 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
In the equation d = 5t2, find the value of t when d = 320.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. d = 5t2

2 Substitute the value of d. 320 = 5t2
3 Divide each side by 5. t2 = 64
4 Take the square roots of each side, considering both the positive t = ±8
and negative answers.
Note: If the solver function on your graphics calculator is used, only the positive solution is given. It is
important to remain aware that equations of this type have a positive and negative solution.
With such examples, consider both the positive and negative cases only where appropriate. In practical
cases where measurements are being considered, only the positive answer is given.
Using the same process as this, the subject of a formula can be changed. The subject of the formula is
the single pronumeral usually written on the left-hand side of the formula. For example, in the formula
A = πr2, A is the subject. It is possible to make another pronumeral the subject of the equation by moving
all other numbers and pronumerals to the other side of the formula, as if we were solving an equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Make x the subject of the formula y = 5x − 2.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. y = 5x − 2

2 Add 2 to each side. y + 2 = 5x
3 Divide each side by 5 (and write the new subject of the formula y+2
x=
on the left-hand side). 5
This method is also used for quadratic formulas but, as with equation solving, it is important to
remember to use both the positive and negative square root where appropriate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
The formula A = 4πr2 is used to find the surface area of a sphere. Make r the subject of the formula.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. A = 4πr2

A
2 Divide both sides by 4π. = r2
4π
A
3 Take the square root of each side. As r is the radius, a length, r=
Å 4π
we consider only the positive square root.
Exercise 10E Equations and formulas

1 WE15 The formula C = πd is used to calculate the circumference of a circle. Find the diameter of a
circle that has a circumference of 40 cm. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures. Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.1
2 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to calculate the perimeter of a rectangle. Calculate the length of a doc-11091
rectangle that has a perimeter of 152 m and a width of 38 m. Raising a power to
a power
3 In each of the following, find the value of the unknown after substitution into the formula. Where
appropriate, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
h
a A = (a + b); find h when A = 145, a = 15 and b = 25.
2 Digital doc
b A = l × w; find w when A = 186 and l = 15. SkillSHEET 10.2
c V = πr2h; find h when V = 165.2 and r = 3.6. doc-11092
Solving linear
d T = a + (n − 1)d; find n when T = 260, a = −15 and d = 11.
equations
e v2 = u2 + as; find s when v = 5.5, u = 2.4 and a = 1.2.

4 In the formula A = 6s2, find the value(s) of s when A = 150.
5 WE16 The formula A = πr2 is used to calculate the area of a circle. Find the radius of a circle,
correct to 2 decimal places, given that the area of the circle is 328 cm2.
6 Substitute into each of the formulas and solve the equation to find the value of the unknown. Where
necessary, give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a V = r2h; find r when V = 1.406 25 and h = 2.5.
b A = π(R2 − r2); find R when A = 12 and r = 1.
4
c V = πr3, find r when V = 136.
3
1
d E = mv2; find v when E = 254 and m = 23.
2
e P = I 2R; find I when P = 0.54 and R = 1.5.
7 WE17 Make x the subject of the formula y = 2x + 1.
8 Make l the subject of the formula A = l × b.
h
9 In the formula A = (a + b):
2
a make a the subject of the formula
b make h the subject of the formula.
10 WE18 Make r the subject of the formula A = πr2.
11 In the formula E = mc2:
a make m the subject of the formula
b make c the subject of the formula.
Questions 12 to 14 refer to the following information.
The volume of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base, s, and the height, h, is given by
1
the formula V = s2h.
3
12 MC The side length of the base of a square-based pyramid with the height, h, and volume, V, is
given by:
V h V 3V
A s = 3 B s = C s = D s =
Åh Å 3V 3h Å h
13 MC The height of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base 5 cm and the volume 75 cm3 is:
A 8 cm B 9 cm C 10 cm D 12 cm
14 MC If both the side of the base and the height are doubled the volume is:
A doubled B increased by 4 times C increased by 6 times D increased by 8 times
15 In each of the following, make the subject of the formula the pronumeral indicated in brackets.
4
a V = πr2 [r] b v2 = u2 + as [u] c V = πr3 [r]
3
L
d T = 2π [L] e c2 = a2 + b2 [a]
Åg
Further development
16 In each of the following make the pronumeral in brackets the subject and then substitute the given
value to find the value of the given pronumeral.
a A = l2 [l] A = 60
4
b V = πr3 [r] V = 1000
3
c F = mg − kv2 [v] F = 250, m = 60, g = 10, k = 0.1
d v = u + at [a] v = 25, u = 0, t = 6
e S = πr(r + h) [h] S = 120, r = 2, π = 3.14
L
f T = 2π [l ] T = 4, g = 9.8, π = 3.14
Åg
l2 − d2
g f = [d ] f = 2, l = 15
4l

h H = U + PV [V ] H = 26, U = 4.5, P = 2
cα2
i K = [c] K = 6.9, α = 0.05
1−α
Hi v
j = [u] Hi = 34, Ho = 4, v = 40
Ho u
17 The perimeter P of a rectangle of length l and width w may be found using the equation P = 2(l + w).
a Find the perimeter of a rectangle of length 16 cm and width 5 cm.
b Rearrange the equation to make w the subject.
c Find the width of a rectangle that has perimeter 560 mm and length 240 mm.
18 The net force F measured in newtons (N) acting on a mass m measured in kilograms (kg) is found
using the equation F = ma, where a is the acceleration of the mass measured in metres per second.
a Find the net force required to accelerate a 2.5 kg rock at the rate of 4 m/s2.
b Make a the subject of the equation.
c Find the acceleration produced by a 700 N force acting on a 65 kg person.
1 1 1
19 The object and image positions for a lens of focal length f are related by the formula + + ,
u v f
where u is the distance of the object from the lens and v is the distance of the image from the lens.
a Make f the subject of the equation.
b Make u the subject of the equation. Digital doc
Worksheet 10.2
c How far from the lens is the image when an object is 30 cm in front of a lens of focal length
doc-11093
25 cm?

Summary
Addition and subtraction • Only like terms can be added or subtracted.
of algebraic expressions • In all addition and subtraction questions the sign belongs with the term that follows.
• When adding or subtracting algebraic fractions each fraction must first be written over a
common denominator.
The index laws. • First Index law am × an = am + n

• Second Index Law: am ÷ an = am − n
• Third Index Law: (am)n = am × n
• Fourth Index Law: a0 = 1
Expanding and • When expanding brackets multiply each term inside the brackets by the term immediately
simplifying outside the brackets.
• When there is a negative term outside the brackets change the sign of each term inside the
brackets.
• After expanding collect all like terms.
Solving equations • An equation is an incomplete mathematical sentence. To solve an equation the object is to find
the value of the pronumeral.
• When solving an equation we perform the same operation to both sides of the equation to
isolate the pronumeral.
• Equations that have pronumerals on both sides are solved by moving all pronumerals to the left
hand side.
Equations and formulas • After substituting into a formula an equation may be created when you are finding the value of
a pronumeral that is not the subject.
• Using the same method as solving equations a formula can be rearranged to make another
pronumeral the subject.

Chapter review
1 The number of like terms in the expression −8xy2 + 2x + 8y2 − 5 is:
m u lti p l e
A 0 B 1 C 2 D 4 c hoic e
2 The expression −6d + 3r − 4d − r simplifies to:
A 2d + 2r B −10d + 2r C −10d − 4r D 2d + 4r
3 The solution to the equation 3x − 6 = 7 − x is:
1 1 1 1
A B C 3 D 6
4 2 4 2
4 The total surface area of a cone is given by the formula A = πr (r + s), where r is the radius and s is
the slant height of the cone. The formula with s as the subject is:
A A − πr A−r A
A s = − r B s = C s = D s = +r
πr r πr πr
5 The total surface area of the square-based pyramid with side of the base b and the height of the
triangular face h is given by A = b2 + 2bh. If the total surface area of the pyramid is 64 cm and the
length of the side of the base is 4 cm, the height of the triangular face is:
A 6 cm B 10 cm C 20 cm D 24 cm
1 Simplify each of the following expressions. S ho rt

a nsw er
a 8p + 9p b 7m2 + +
2m2 m2
c 5y2 + 2y − 4y d 8ab + 3b2 + 2ab
e 9s2t − 12s2t f 5x + 6xy − x + 3xy
g 11c2d − 2cd + 5dc2 h 7x2y − 8 − 2x2y + 2
i n2 − p2q − 3p2q + 6 j 8ab + 2a2b2 − 5a2b2 + 7ab
5y y x+4 x+2 5 1
a − b + c −
3 2 5 2 3x 5x
3 Simplify each of the following
a b7 × b3 b m2 × m9 c k3 × k5 d f 2 × f 8 × f 4
e h × h × h
4 5 f 2q5 × 3q2 × q10 g 5w3 × 7w2 × w14 h 2e2p3 × 6e3p5
a a5 ÷ a2 b t5 ÷ t c r19 ÷ r12 d 27q7 ÷ 3q3
10a 5m4 24xy 20x2y
e f g h
2 m 6y 15xy2
5 Simplify.
a (b4)2 b (a8)3 c (k7)10 d (j100)2
e (a5b2)3 f (m7n12)2 g (2st6)3 h (qp30)10
6 Simplify.
a 50 b t0 c 2x0 d (5y)0
7 Expand the expressions.
a 5(2x + 3) b −(y − 6) c −x(3 − 2x) d −4m(2m + 1)
8 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a 3(x − 2) + 9 b −2(5m − 1) − 3
c 4m(m − 3) + 3m − 5 d −2x(3 − 2x) − (4x − 3)
9 Solve the equations.
a 42 − 7b = 14 b 12t − 11 = 4t + 5
c 2(x + 5) = −3 d 2(4p − 3) = 2(3p − 5)
10 Solve the equations.
a 5(x − 2) + 3(x + 2) = 0 b 8(3x − 2) + 4(4x − 5) = 7x
c 7(2x − 5) − 4(x + 20) = x − 5
11 In the formula P = 2l + 2b find l, when P = 78 and b = 24.

12 The formula C = 2πr is used to find the circumference of a circle given the radius. Find the radius of
a circle with a circumference of 136 m. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
13 In the formula A = 6s2, find s when A = 216.
1
14 The volume of a square-based pyramid can be found using the formula V = s2h, where s is the side
3
length of the square base and h is the height of the pyramid. Find the side length of a square-based
pyramid with a volume of 108.864 cm3 and a height of 6.3 cm.
Extend ed 1 Simplify
R e spons e
3 2
a +
2x 3x
b Verify your answer to Part a by substituting x = 5 into both expressions.
c Jack claims that if you double the value of x you will double the value of the final expression.
Explain whether or not Jack is correct.
2 The time taken for an investment to double in value when invested at 7.5% p.a. can be found by
solving the equation (1.075)n = 2.
a Use the method of substitution to find the solution to this equation, correct to the nearest
Digital doc whole number.
Test Yourself b Write an equation that can be used to find the amount of time that it will take for the value of an
doc-11094
Chapter 10
item to halve in value if it depreciates at 15% p.a.
c Solve this equation, correct to 1 decimal place.

ICT activities
10B The index laws 10e Equations and forumulas
INTERACTIVITY Digital docs
• int-2360: Indices. (page 281) • SkillSHEET 10.1 (doc-11091): Raising a power to a power. (page 291)
• SkillSHEET 10.2 (doc-11092): Solving linear equations. (page 291)
10C Expanding and simplifying • WorkSHEET 10.2 (doc-11093): Apply your knowledge of algebra to
problems. (page 293)
Digital doc
• WorkSHEET 10.1 (doc-11090): Apply your understanding of algebra
to problems. (page 286) Chapter review
INTERACTIVITY
• int-0075: Expanding brackets. (page 285)

10d Solving problems
INTERACTIVITies
• int-2778: Solving equations. (page 286)
• int-0077: Keeping equations balanced. (page 287)

Answers chapter 10
Further algebraic skills c 1 d 1 c 18a + 29b d 19c + 22d
9 a 1 b 1 e −4a + 3b f 4x − y
and techniques c 1 d 1 g 5p − 10q h −8c + 9d
Exercise 10A Addition and subtraction 10 a 3 b 12 i 13x − 19y j 8c + d
of algebraic expressions c 4 d 17 7 a 2m − 11n b 6x − 11y
1 a 5k + 11c b 15m + 16f 11 a 4r3 b 5 c 13 c 9x + 5y d −14p − 8q
c 9d + 5c d 4f + 8h 12 a 6a6e7 b 8p6h12 e −7p + 11q f −5a + 3b
e 12g + 13j f 15d + 13 c 80m9 d 6g3h6 8 a 2ab + 2a − 3b b 2xy + 4x − 2y
g 12n + 11 h 7h2 + 14y e 30p6q9 f 48u9w7 c 2cd + 3c d 2qp − 2p
i 11nv + 10u e 5cd − 11c f 5ab − 21a − 3b
g 27d11y17 h 42b14c9
2 a 3m + 2c b 8a + 3f g 5m h 6cd − 36c
i 24r16s18 j 60h38v20
c 2k + 2 d −4t + 2 5 i 6m2
+ 6m − 10 j 9cd − 8c
e −r + 5 f −2v − 5 3p 8b5 5m0n6
c k 12m − 20m − 4 l 2p2 + 7p − 6
2
13 a b
g 4p − 14 h 4w + 4 2 3 6 m −7x2 + 41x − 6
i 7c − 17 j −j + 3c 9x8y 4hk3 9 a −15a2 + 2b2 − 9ab
d e f 3j5f 3
k −7k + 4m l −4d + 3c 4 3 b −8c2 + 3d2 + 22cd
m 7y2 − 4y n 2x3 − 6x4 2
4p rs 5 3
9a b c 6
20f g 2 c −10y2 − 6y − 12
o −c + 12
2 g h i
3 2 3h6 Exercise 10D Solving equations
3 a C b B c A 8 20 15
4 a x + 7x + 6 b
2 d + 4d − 10
2 9b 25h 8k 1 a a = 24 b k = 121
14 a b c
c v2 − 10v − 6 d a2 − 2ab + b2 d6 4j4 27t24 c g = 2.9 d r=3
e u2 + u − 12 f 5n4 − 6n2 − 25 49p18 125y21 e h = 0.26 f i = −2
256a12
5y 3y 13x d e f 1
5 a b − c 64q44 27z39 2401c20 g t = 5 h q=
12 40 12 6
1 1 1
14x 3w y 15 a b c i x = 0
d e f − x3 b4 z6 2 a f = 12 b i = −60
9 28 5 1 1 3 c z = −7 d v=7
89y 32x 7x + 17 d e f
1
g h i q7 m4 m2
35 15 10 e w = −5 f k = 10
5q 1 3
7x + 30 2x − 11 19x + 7 g h 5
j k l p 6m g a = 0.425 h m = 16
12 30 6 8
6 a 0 b 16a − 14b 1 36 21g6
16 a b c i y = 211
c 14b − 16a d 56a − 49b a p5 h3 2
7 a 4x − 2z b 6x − 2y + 6z 20 7p 4 3 a t = 100 b b = ±17
x2 + 1 x2 − 1 d e s f c q = 6.25 d f = ±1.2
8 a b p q 4
x x 16 3
15a e h = f p=±
9x2 + 25y2 g 3r6 h 49 8
9 b4 225 14
15xy g g = h j=±
Exercise 10C Expanding and simplifying 484 31
Exercise 10B The index laws
1 a 5k + 5 b 7m + 28 2
i a = ±1
1 a 25p11 b 15x8 c 63y10 c 4y + 28 d 8d − 72 3
d 18p8 e 70t6 f 20q15 e 12h − 60 f 2k − 12 4 a a = 4 b b=6
6 9
2 a 6a e b 7 12
8p h c 80m 8
g 20m − 8 h 30t + 25 c i = 3 d f=9
d 6g3h7 e 30p6q8 i 16k − 88 j 5m + 5n 1 2
e q = 1 f r=5
3 a 5 b 77 c s4 k 32y − 24f l 18v + 42w 8 5
d z5 e i3 f 6 m bc − bd n ki + kef 5 4
g s = 4 h t=9
g 104 h c4 i t33 o 12pj − 18mp 6 5
j h77 k b70 l f 900 2 a −3c − 3 b −5d − 10 1
2 2 7 i a = −7
4 a 4x b 6y c 9w c −6m − 66 d −8c − 8d 2
d 3q4 e 10f 9 f 10h90 e −12k + 8m f −14 + 21x 5 a f = 40 b g = 30
10 10 3
g 2j h 5p i 8g g −50 + 10y h −k2 − 2k c r = −10 d m = 18
3b5 9m4 10n90 i −x2 + 3x e n = 28 f p = 62.4
j k l
2 2 7 3 a 5c + 23 b 17k + 42 1
6 a x = 1 b y=9
5 a 5p4 b 6r4 c 13m + 41 d −j − 16 3
c 5a3 d 3b6 e 2t − 11 f 13m + 39 2 1
c m = 4 d k=1
e 10r4 f 9q g 16c − 14 h d−8 5 2
6 a x6 b f 80 i 4w − 112 j −18h + 22 2 1
e n = 5 f c = 1
c s100 d r144 k 10y − 19 l 9x + 27 3 3
e a10b15 f p5q15 m 7h − 5 n 6c + 38 7 a k = 25 b m = 16
g g15h10 h 81w36q8 o −5m + 22 3 1
c p = −11 d u = −4
i 25e10r4q8 4 a y2 − 4y − 12 b w2 − 4w − 12 7 8
7 a p10q6 b r15w9 c x10n18 c 2x2 − 13x + 20 d 3h2 + 8h + 5 8
e x = f v = 3
d j18k12 e q4r20 f h24j16 e 3f 2 − 22f − 16 f 8a2 + 6a − 9 11
g f 16g21 h t10u8 i i15j12 5 a D b B c D 8 a B b D c C
8 a 1 b 1 6 a 8x + y b 10p + 8q

9 a x = −5 b d = −1 1 H ov
i x = 1.5 j
x = −4 j u = , 4.706
c p = 7 d x = −11 3 Hi
e h = −2 f t=5 k x = 3 l x=1 17 a 42 cm
g v = −20 h r = −3 18 a x = 12 b
x = −5 P P − 21
i g = −0.8 b w = − l or w =
c x = 7 d x=7 2 2
10 a x = −1 b
v=1 e x = −9 f x = 117 c 40 mm
59
c l = 2 d g = −2 F
19 a x = 3 b
x = −4 a=
18 a 10 N b
1 m
e t = 3 f
e = −23 c x = 5 d x=8
3 e x = −9 f x = −7 c 10.769 m/s2
3 uv fv
g j = −3 h k = −36 Exercise 10E 19 a f = u=
b
8 Equations and formulas u+v v−f
1 1 12.7 cm
i f = −12 c 150 cm
4 2 38 m
11 a x = 2 b b = 5 c w=2 3 a 7.2 b 12.4 c
4.1
d 26 e 20.4
Chapter Review
1
d f = 7 e t = 3 f r=2 1 A
3 4 5
2 B
1 1 5 10.22 cm
g g = −1 h h = −2 i a=0 3 C
3 5 6 a 0.75 b
2.20 c
3.19
4 A
2 d ±4.70 e 0.6
12 a x = −1 b c = 2 c r=2 y−1 5 A
3 7 x =
1 2 Short answer
d k = 1 e y = −1 f g=7 A
8 8 l = 1 a 17p b 10m2
1 2 b c 5y − 2y d
2
10ab + 3b2
g w = 1 h m = i p=1 2A 2A
5 3 9 a a = h=
− b b e −3 s2t f 4x + 9xy
4 h a+b g 16c2d − 2cd h 5x2y − 6
13 a x = −15 b y = −4 c t = 21
5 A i n2 − 4p2q + 6 j
15ab − 3a2b2
5 1 1 10 r = ,r > 0 7y 7x + 18 22
d u = −2 e f = 12 f r=7 Åπ 2 a b c
7 2 2 6 10 15x
E E
g d = −6 h
h = −12 i
x=1 11 a m = c=±
b 3 a b10 b m11 c k8
c2 Åm
d f14 e h10 f 6q17
14 a A b C c B 12 D g 35w19 h 12e5p8
20 5 29 13 B 4 a a3 b t4 c r7
15 a x = x = 3 c
b x=
31 8 36 14 D d 9q4 e 5a f 5m3
8 10 4x
d x = −7 e
x = −2 x=
f V # g 4x h
11 43 15 a r = , r > 0 b
u = ±"v2 − as
3 Åπ 3y
g x = −5 h
x = 5 i
x = −2 5 a b8 b a24 c k70
4 3 3V gT2 d j200 e a15b6 f m14n24
11 c r = L=
d
j x = −2 k x = 2 l x = −6 Å 4π 4π2 g 8s3t18 h q10p300
12 6 a 1 b 1
5 e a = ±"c2 − b2
16 a x = b x = 15 c 2 d 1
17 16 a l = ± !A, 7.746 7 a 10x + 15 b −y + 6
2 10 c −3x + 2x2 d −8m2 − 4m
c x = −6 d x=−
9 19 3v 8 a 3x + 3 b −10m − 1
b r = 3 , 6.204
1 Å 4π c 4m2 − 9m − 5 d 4x2 − 10x + 3
e x = −1 f x = −192
2 mg − F 9 a b = 4 b t=2
4 c v = ± , ±59.161 c x = −6.5 d p = −2
g x = h x = 12 Å k
7 1 2
1 v−u 10 a x = 0.5 b
x = 1 c x = 12
i x = 3 j x=3 d a = , 4.167
t 11 9
4 11 15
5 S S − πr2
k x = 52 l x=1 e h = − r or h = , 17.108 12 21.6 m
8 πr πr
13 s = ±6
5 31 T 2
17 a x = b x=1 f l = ga b , 3.976 14 7.2 cm
19 58 2π
1 15 Extended response
c x = 21 d x = −3 g d = ±"e2 − 4ft, 10.247
2 17 1 a 13/6x
20 10 H−U
e x = 5 f x = −1 h v = , 10.75 b Both answers equal 13/30.
43 13 P c Incorrect. The result is halved.
2 9 (1 − α)K 2 a n = 10 b (0.85)n = 0.5
g x = 1 h x−4 i c = , 2622
61 26 α2 c n = 4.3

Chapter 11
Modelling linear relationships
CHAPTER CONTENTS
11A Linear functions
11B Direct variation
11C Linear modelling
11D Problem solving
11E Simultaneous equations
11A Linear functions

A linear function is a function in which the highest power of both independent and dependent variables
is 1. When graphed, these values form a straight line.
An example of a linear function is y = 2x − 1. One method of graphing the function is to create a table Interactivities
of values, plotting the pair of coordinates that are formed on a number plane, and joining them with a int-2378
straight line. The independent variable is x, and as such, values of x are substituted into the equation to Graphs of linear
functions
find the corresponding values of y. int-1020
If we recognise the function as linear, we need to plot only three points. Two points are sufficient to Drawing a graph
fix a line and the third is a check. If all three points are not in a straight line, we know that an error has int-2399
Slope and
been made. equation of a line
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Graph the relationship y = 2 x − 1.

THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values for x. (Choose three
x 0 1 2
values of x.)
y
2 Substitute each value of x into the equation to x 0 1 2

find the corresponding values of y.
y −1 1 3
3 Plot each of the points formed on a number y

plane. 5
4
3
2
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
Chapter 11 • Modelling linear relationships 301

4 Join the points formed with a straight line and y
label the line with the equation. 5
4
3
2 y = 2x – 1
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
1 From the MENU select GRAPH.
2 Delete any existing equation and enter

Y1 = 2X − 1.
3 Press !3 [V-Window]. This allows

you to set the lower and upper limits to draw
on both the x- and y-axes. Enter the setting
shown on the screen at right.

and then press 6 (DRAW) to draw the
graph.
The straight line in Worked example 1 has the equation y = 2x − 1, which is written in
gradient–intercept form. Any equation in the form y = mx + b is said to be in gradient–intercept
form, because the gradient of the straight line is represented by m and the y-intercept is
represented by b.
This can be used to sketch any straight line. Considering Worked example 1, we can begin by
plotting the point (0, −1) as the y-intercept. Other points can then be plotted using the gradient,
by plotting points 1 across and 2 up. That is, starting with (0, −1), we plot (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5)
and so on.
At this point it is worth remembering the gradient formula:
vertical change in position
m=
horizontal change in position
Interactivity We use this formula when we know two points on the graph, and this is useful on many occasions to
Int-0804 help us find the equation of a straight line.
Application of
linear modelling
Many real-life situations can be modelled by a linear function and/or graph. Once the equation
or rule has been established, it can be used to make predictions or calculate specific values as
required.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The Avanti car rental company charges $80 for the hire of a car plus 22 cents per kilometre
travelled.
a How much will it cost to travel 300 kilometres?
b Determine the cost ($C) equation for a distance of x kilometres.
c Graph the function for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1000.
d If the final cost was $245, what distance was covered during the hiring period?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Express money in the same units. a 22 cents = $0.22
2 Find the cost of travelling Cost of travelling 300 km at $0.22 per km:
300 kilometres. 0.22 × 300
= $66
3 Add the charge for the hire of a car to Total cost:
find the total cost. C = 80 + 66
= $146
b 1 Write the cost of travelling any b Cost of travelling x km at $0.22 per km:
distance x. 0.22 × x
2 Add the charge for the hire to find the Total cost:
total cost. C = 0.22x + 80
c To graph the function: c For 0 ≤ x ≤ 1000:
1 Find the coordinates of any two points. when x = 0, C = 0.22 × 0 + 80

End points are usually convenient to use. = 80
when x = 1000, C = 0.22 × 1000 + 80
= 300
So the points are (0, 80) and (1000, 300).
2 Draw the set of axes with distance on the C($)
horizontal axis and cost on the vertical 350
axis, plot the two points and join them 300
250
with the straight line. Note that since
200
neither distance nor cost can be negative, 150
we only need the first quadrant. 100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 x (km)
d Substitute $245 for C in the general equation d C = 0.22x + 80

of the cost and solve for x. When C = 245:
245 = 0.22x + 80
165 = 0.22x
165
x=
0.22
= 750
Hence, 750 kilometres were covered.
In Worked example 2 both the gradient and y-intercept were known, so it was a simple matter of
substituting given values into the general rule y = mx + b to establish the equation of the cost.
Sometimes, however, we know the gradient only, or the y intercept only, and sometimes neither of them
is given. In such cases there will always be some extra information describing the relation between the
variables which will enable you to find the equation.

When two linear functions are graphed on the same pair of axes, the intersection of the two graphs
shows the point where both equations hold true. This can have applications in a practical context.
Graphing linear functions can be used to determine profit, loss or break-even points. If cost
and receipts are graphed, the difference between the y-values at any point will determine the
profit or loss. The point where the graphs intersect will be the break-even point, where no profit or
loss is made.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The cost of producing shoes in Asia is given by the equation C = 2000 + 15n, where n is the
number of pairs of shoes produced per day. The cost of producing shoes in Australia is given by
Interactivity the equation C = 1000 + 20n.
int-2780 a On the same pair of axes, graph the cost equations for producing shoes in Asia and
Simultaneous Australia.
linear equations
b When is it more cost efficient to produce the shoes in Asia?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw a table of values for each cost a C = 2000 + 15n
equation.
n 0 100 200
C 2000 3500 5000
C = 1000 + 20n
n 0 100 200
C 1000 3000 5000
2 Plot a pair of points generated by each cost C

equation. C = 1000 + 20n
10 000
3 Join each with a straight line labelling each 8000
C = 2000 + 15n
with its equation. 6000
4000
2000
0 n
0
0
0
0
0
00
20
40
60
80
10
b It will be more efficient to produce the shoes b If more than 200 pairs of shoes are produced
in Asia after the point of intersection. per day, it will be cheaper to produce the shoes
in Asia. This is because if n > 200 the value of
C is less, if the shoes are produced in Asia.
2 Delete any existing equations and enter

Y1 = 2000 + 15X and Y2 = 1000 + 20X.
Note that we replace C with Y1 and Y2
and n with X.

3 Press !3 [V-Window]. This allows
you to set the lower and upper limits to
draw on both the x- and y-axes. Enter the
setting shown on the screen at right.

and then press 6 (DRAW) to draw the
graphs.
5 Press !5 [G-Solv], followed by

5 [ISCT] (intersection). This will find
the point of intersection and display the
coordinates of this point. Be patient: this
may take a moment.
From this we can see that the intersection occurs at x = 200 and y = 5000. Interpreting this result in
terms of the question shows us that when 200 pairs of shoes are produced the cost will be $5000 in either
Australia or Asia. From that point on it will be cheaper to produce the shoes in Asia.
Exercise 11A Linear functions

1 WE1 Graph the function y = x + 3.
2 Graph each of the following linear functions on separate axes.
a y = 2x b y = 3x − 2 c y = −x Digital doc
1 1
d y = 5 − 2x e y = 2 x + 3 f y = 1 − 4x SkillSHEET 11.1
doc-11095
3 Consider the linear function 3x + 2y − 6 = 0. Substitution into a
x 0 2 4 formula
a Copy and complete the table at right.
b Graph the function 3x + 2y − 6 = 0.
y
4 WE2 The cost, C, of a taxi hire is given by the linear equation
d 0 5 10 30
C = 3 + 1.5d, where d is the distance travelled in kilometres.
a Copy and complete the following table. C Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.2
b Graph the cost function for the taxi hire. doc-11096
c Use the graph to determine the cost of a 20 km taxi journey. Recognising linear
functions
d Katie has $24. How far can Katie afford to travel in a taxi?
5 A concert promoter finds that the profit made on a performance is given by the equation
P = 3n − 24 000, where n is the number of people who attend
the concert. n 0 10 000
a Complete this table of values, and use it to graph the profit Digital docs
equation. p 0 SkillSHEET 11.3

doc-11097
b What profit will the promoter make if 20 000 people attend the concert? Gradient of a
c What will be the financial outcome for the promoter if 5000 people attend the concert? straight line
SkillSHEET 11.4
d How many people will need to attend the concert for the promoter to break even? doc-11098
6 It is found that the number of ice-creams that will be sold during a day at the beach decreases as the Graphing linear
equations
price of the ice-creams increases. The number of ice-creams that will be sold can be determined by
the equation N = 1000 − 5P, where P is the price of the ice-creams in cents.
a Graph the function.
b How many ice-creams will be sold at $1 each?
Digital doc
c If the ice-cream salesman has only 100 ice-creams to sell, at what price should he sell them?
EXCEL Spreadsheet
7 Two linear functions are represented by y = 4 − x and y = 3x. doc-1391
Plotting linear
a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
graphs
b What is the point of intersection of the two graphs?

8 By graphing both functions on the same pair of axes, find the point of intersection of the graphs
y = 2x − 6 and y = x − 1.
9 Find the point of intersection of the graphs x + 2y − 4 = 0 and y = 2x + 2.
10 WE3 A factory produces two types of computer games: game A and game B.
a The factory can produce a maximum of 120 games per week. This can be represented by the
linear equation A + B = 120. Graph this function.
b Sales research shows that twice as many copies of game A will sell as game B. This can be
represented by the equation 2A = B. On the same pair of axes, graph this function.
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs and make a conclusion about the number of each
game that should be produced by the factory each week.
11 The cost of running an old refrigerator is $1.20 per day. This can be represented by the equation
C = 1.2d. A new refrigerator will cost $900 but the cost to run will be only 30c per day. This can be
represented by the equation C = 900 + 0.3d.
d 0 1000 2000
C (old)
C (new)
b Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs; hence, state after how many days it will become
more economical to purchase a new refrigerator.
12 The cost, in dollars, of producing calculators can be given by the equation C = 15n + 1500, where n
is the number of calculators produced. When selling the calculators the receipts can be given by the
equation C = 20n.
a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
b Determine the number of calculators that need to be sold in order for the manufacturer to
break even.
Further development
13 Amex Car Rentals charges $75 per day plus $15 per hundred kilometres.
a How much would it cost to rent a car for one day if the car travelled 265 km?
b The bill for one day’s rental came to $142.50. How many kilometres did the car travel?
c Sketch a graph of the cost of renting the car for one day (C) versus the number of kilometres
travelled (d).
14 An employee of a telecommunications company sells mobile-phone plans. She is offered two
different salary packages by her employer:
Plan A: $400 per week plus $25 for each plan sold
Plan B: $150 per week plus $45 for each plan sold.
a Copy and complete the following table.
Number of plans sold Salary package A Salary package B
5
10
15
20
b On the same set of axes sketch the graph of salary (S) versus number of plans (n) for both
Package A and Package B.
c How many plans need to be sold before salary package B is the better package?
Conversion of temperature
To convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, you can use the formula
9C
F= + 32. A simpler but less accurate way is to double degrees Celsius and add 30. This
5
approximation written as a formula becomes F = 2C + 30.
1. Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph each function on the same set of axes.
2. Describe the accuracy of the simpler formula and state the value(s) for which it is accurate.

11B Direct variation
A variation occurs when one quantity is proportional to another. Consider the following variation
problem.
The number of cars produced on an assembly line varies directly with the number of workers
employed on the line. Twenty workers can produce 30 cars per week.
From this information, we can determine that the number of cars produced each week will be 1.5 times
the number of workers employed on the assembly line. Using this, we can draw the table below.
No. of workers (N) No. of cars produced (C)

10 15
20 30
30 45
40 60
50 75
These figures are plotted on the axes at right. C
In any example where one quantity varies directly with another, the 160
graph that is drawn will be a linear function through the origin (0, 0). To 140
120 Interactivity
draw the function, we need to know only one other point on the graph. 100 Int-2399
This is known as a direct linear variation. 80 Slope and
60 equation of a line
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 N
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The distance travelled by a car is directly proportional to the speed at which it is travelling. If
the car travels 225 km in 3 hours, draw a graph of distance travelled against time.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a set of axes showing time on the horizontal axis

and distance on the vertical axis.
2 Plot the points (0, 0) and (3, 225).
3 Join them with a straight line. 800
700
600
Distance
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
If we examine the gradient of a variation function, we see that the gradient is equal to the constant of
variation. For example in Worked example 11, the gradient is 75. This is the speed at which the car is
travelling.
Any variation can be graphed using the form y = ax where a, the gradient, is also the constant of
variation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
It is known that y is directly proportional to x. When x = 30, y = 12.

a Draw the graph of y against x.
b What is the gradient of the graph? Tutorial
Int-2317
c Write an equation linking y and x. Worked example 5

THINK WRITE
a Draw a straight line graph through (0, 0) and (30, 12). a y

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
0 20 40 60 80 100
vertical change in position 12
b 1 Gradient = b Gradient = 30
2 Simplify. = 0.4
c The equation is in the form y = ax, where a is the c y = 0.4x
gradient.
Exercise 11B Direct variation

1 WE4 The distance travelled by a car varies directly with the time that the car has been travelling.
If the car travels 400 km in 5 hours, draw the graph of distance against time.
Digital doc 2 A team of 6 people can unload 9 containers from a wharf per day.
SkillSHEET 11.5 a Draw a graph showing the number of containers, n, that can be unloaded by a team of people, p.
doc-11099
Substitution
b What is the gradient of the graph drawn?
c Write an equation linking n and p.
3 WE5 It is known that y varies directly with x. When x = 5, y = 40.
a Draw the graph of y against x. b What is the gradient of the graph?
c Write an equation linking y and x.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 11.6 4 The distance, D, travelled by a car in a certain period of time will be directly proportional to the car’s
doc-11346 speed, s. A car moving at 40 km/h travels 120 km.
Graphing linear a Draw the graph of D against s.
equations
b Write an equation linking D and s.
5 The wage, W, earned by a worker is directly proportional to the hours, h, worked. A person who
works 35 hours earns $306.25. Draw the graph of W against h.
6 The quantity of petrol, l, used by a car varies directly with the distance, d, travelled by the car. A car
that travels 100 km uses 12.5 L of fuel.
a Draw the graph of l against d.
b Use the graph to find the quantity of petrol needed to travel 240 km.
7 The height of a tree, h, is directly proportional to the girth, g. A tree with a girth of 2.5 m has a height
of 14 m.
a Draw the graph of h against g.
b Use the graph to find the height of a tree with a girth of 3 m.
c Use the graph to find the girth of a tree that is 9 m tall, correct to 1 decimal place.
8 It is known that A$100 will buy US$67.50. Draw a conversion graph between Australian and
US dollars.
Further development
9 For each of the following, state if the graph could be a direct variation. For those which are not give
a reason.
a y b y c y
0 x 0 x 0 x

d y e y f y
0 x 0 x 0 x
10 The directions on a bottle of kitchen mould remover recommend that you dilute half a cup of the
concentrate in 5 litres of warm water.
a Complete the following table.
Volume of water (L) 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30

Amount of cleaner (cups)
b When graphed what will be the gradient of the variation?
c How does this relate to the mixture of concentrate and water?
11 The perimeter of a certain shape is directly proportional to the side length. When P = 15, s = 3.
a Find the perimeter of the shape if the side length is 6.2 cm.
b Find the length of the side when the perimeter is 67 cm.
c Name the shape.
(Hint: You may or may not need to draw the graph to answer this question.)
12 Mika is going to polish all the floors in her unit, except for the kitchen, laundry and bathroom, where
she has tiles. The plan of Mika’s unit is shown below.
Backyard
3m 2m 3m
Bathroom
Laundry
Bedroom
2 4m
Kitchen
r
do
2m
rri
Co
Bedroom
1 Living Dining 3m
Entrance
10 m
a Find the area that is to be polished.
b A particular type of varnish is sold in 3 L cans. If one can covers 17.25 m2 of flooring, how many
cans of varnish will Mika need to purchase in order to do the floors twice?
c How much varnish will be wasted?
13 The following graph shows the relationship between acceleration (a) of a
certain body and force (F) acting on that body. F (N)
a Find the gradient of the graph. 1600 (2,1600)
b Write the equation of the relationship.
c Find the force necessary to produce an acceleration of 4 m/s2
d Find the acceleration required to produce a force of 1000 N.
14 If (2, a) and (a, 8) are points on a direct variation find:
a the value of a 2 a (m/s2)
b the constant of variation (the gradient of the graph).
INVESTIGATE: Currency conversions
Find out the current rate of conversion for each of the following foreign currencies and draw a linear
function that will convert between Australian dollars and each currency.
1. US dollars
2. Euro
3. Pound Sterling
4. Japanese yen
5. New Zealand dollars

11C Linear modelling 800
700
600
Distance
In the previous section we studied direct variation. Direct variations are 500
a simple example of a linear model. They are simple because all direct 400
300
variations pass through the point (0, 0). Consider the variation in Worked 200
example 4. 100
0
In this case the car travelled 225 km in three hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
In the preliminary course we saw that the gradient (m) is defined as the Time
rate of change in the dependent variable for every one unit increase in the
independent variable.
m=
Applying this formula to the example above
225
m=
3
= 75
The gradient for this graph of 75 corresponds to the average speed of the car, 75 km/hr.
In any linear representation of a direct variation the gradient will be equal to the constant of variation,
that is; the rate of change in the quantity.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The graph below represents the exchange rate between the Australian
dollar and the Euro.
Australian dollar versus the Euro
70
60
50
40
Euro
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Australian dollar
Find the gradient of the function. What does the gradient represent?
THINK WRITE
1 Find the gradient by selecting two points on vertical change in position

m=
the line and using the gradient formula. horizontal change in position
30
=
50
= 0.6
2 Explain the interpretation of the gradient in A gradient of 0.6 means that $1 Australian
the context of the graph. = 60 Euro cents.
Many real life applications such as fees charged for services, cost of manufacturing or running a
business, patterns in nature, sporting records and so on follow linear relationships. These relationships
may take the form of a linear equation; for example, F = 50 + 30t may be used by a tradesperson to
calculate her fee for t hours of work.

Here, F is the fee in dollars, and t the time in hours. The 50 represents an initial fee of $50 for simply
turning up, while the 30t is the amount charged for the time spent on the job.
For example, if t = 2 hours, 30t = 60, so the total charged for the work would be $(50 + 60) = $110.
Equations like F = 50 + 30t are sometimes referred to as ‘linear models’, a common form which is
Total cost = Fixed cost + Cost per unit × Number of units.
This is, of course, similar to y = mx + b, where m is the gradient and b is the vertical intercept.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Gemhaven hire-company charges a $200 delivery fee, and a rental fee of $1500 per week for a
power generator.
a What would it cost to rent the power generator for 4 weeks?
b Write an expression relating total charge (C) to the number of weeks (w) for which the generator
is hired.
c Sketch a graph of the relationship.
THINK WRITE
a The cost will be $200 plus a Cost = $200 + 4 × $1500
4 lots of $1500. = $6200
b 1 Write the rule for a b y = mx + b
linear model. C = 1500w + 200
2 The cost (C) of the
generator is $1500 per
week (m) while the
fixed cost is $200 (b).
c Draw the graph with a c 9000
vertical intercept at 200 8000
and with a gradient
of 1500. 7000
6000
5000
Cost ($)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of weeks
Exercise 11C Linear modelling

Hire Ch
1 WE7 The cost of hiring a tennis court consists of a
Book
in
arges
booking fee and an hourly rate. Hour g fee $5
ly rate
a What would be the charge for 3 hours? $10
b Use the photo to write an equation for the total
hire in terms of the hourly rate.
c Sketch a graph of the relationship.

2 A singing telegram service charges a $60 appearance fee, and $8 per minute sung.
a Write an equation for the total cost of a singing telegram in terms of the number of minutes sung.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for a 5-minute singing telegram?
3 Colleen delivers junk mail. She is paid $32 to traverse a particular route and a further 10 cents per
leaflet delivered.
a Write an equation for the total payment she receives.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship expressed in (a).
c What would be Colleen’s pay if she delivers 1650 leaflets along the route?
4 Josh works weekends delivering pizza. Josh is paid $40 for each shift plus $5 per delivery.
a Write an equation for Josh’s pay (P) each shift where he delivers ‘p’ pizzas.
b Draw a graph to represent this equation.
c Use your graph to find
i Josh’s pay for delivering 12 pizza’s
ii The number of pizza’s delivered when Josh earns $55.
d What is the meaning of the gradient and vertical intercept in this graph.
5 The Scarford High School Social committee is organising the Year 12 farewell. Venue hire will cost
$800, a band will cost $600, DJ will cost $400 and a cake will cost $250. The meal for the evening
will cost $35 per head.
a Complete the table of values for the number attending (n) and total cost (C).
n 50 100 150 200 250

C
b Write an equation for C in terms of n.
c What is the gradient and vertical intercept for this function?
d Explain the meaning of the vertical intercept and gradient in this context.
6 A new car costs $45 000 and depreciates by $7500 per year.
a Write an equation to link the salvage value of the car (S) and the age of the car in years (a).
b What is the vertical intercept and gradient of this function?
c Explain the meaning of the gradient and vertical intercept in this context.
7 A pay-TV salesperson receives $300 per week plus $20 for every household he signs up to have
pay-TV connected.
Write an equation and graph the salesman’s potential earnings.
8 The weekly cost of running a car (C) is given by C = 0.8k + 80 where k is the number of kilometres
driven.
a Draw a graph of this function.
b What is the gradient and vertical intercept of this function?
c Explain the meaning of the gradient and vertical intercept in this context.
Further development
9 The cost (C) of a taxi fare is given by the equation C = 2.5 + 0.4d where d is the distance of the
journey.
a What is the gradient and vertical intercept of this linear model?
b Explain why negative values of d have no meaning in this case.
10 The salvage value of a computer (V) after n years can be found using the formula
S = 3000 − 500n.
a Find the value of S when n = 0.
b Explain the meaning of this value in this context.
c Find the value of S when n = 5.
d Explain why values of n > 6 have no meaning.
11 The cost of a taxi fare is C = 3 + 0.4d where d is the distance in kilometres. Explain why a 20 km
fare is cheaper than two 9 km fares.
Digital doc 12 The equation T = 10 − 0.5n is used to calculate the time (in days) taken to erect a garage where n
Worksheet 11.1
is the number of workers on the job. For what values of n would this linear model have no
doc-11100
meaning?

11D Problem solving
In many cases a linear model can be used to solve practical problems.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A builder finds that the time taken to build a house decreases in a linear pattern as the number of
assistants increases.
A builder can build a house in 80 days without any assistants.
With five assistants the building time is reduced to 20 days. How many assistants would be required
to complete the building in 12 days?
THINK WRITE
1 Write the important information. 0 assistants take 80 days
5 assistants take 20 days
2 Define the pronumerals to be used. Let a represent the number of assistants.
Let d represent the number of days.
3 Label a pair of coordinate axes and plot the
coordinate pairs (0, 80) and (5, 20). Rule a straight 90
line through both points. 80
Number of days (d)
Note: From the graph it seems that the builder 70

could complete the job in 0 days if he had 6 23 (or 7) 60
assistants. Naturally, this is impossible so the graph 50
is discontinued. 40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No of assistants (a)
4 Use the two points to form a right angled triangle
and find the gradient. The vertical intercept will be 90
the point (0, 80). 80
Number of days (d)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No of assistants (a)
5 Use the linear rule y = mx + b to find the equation.
First determine the gradient, m.

Then substitute the y-intercept, b. m=
−60
Write the equation using the defined m=
pronumerals. 5
= −12,
b = 80
6 Substitute d = 12 and solve to find the number y = mx + b
of assistants required. d = −12a + 80
12 = −12a + 80
12a = 68.
a = 5.6
7 Write the answer. The builder will require 6 assistants if he is to
complete the project in 12 days.
Exercise 11D Problem solving

1 Springfield High School needs to purchase textbooks for its very large Year 10 class. The supplier
quotes a price of $4400 for 110 books, and $2200 for 55 books.
a Find a linear equation relating cost to number of books.
b If it turns out that the school needs 89 books, what is the cost?
2 WE8 A builder can complete a building in 40 days without any assistants, but if he hires four
assistants he can build it in 30 days. How many assistants would be required to complete the building
in 25 days?
3 A printer quotes a price of $400 to print 700 brochures and a price of $500 to print 1000 brochures.
a Find a linear equation relating cost to number of brochures.
b Find the cost of printing 150 brochures.
4 A chef can cater for 100 people is she is given 1 hour in preparation time, while if she caters for 200
people she requires 1 hour and 30 minutes.
a Find a linear equation relating preparation time to the number of people.

b Predict the preparation time required to cater for 450 people.
5 The selling price of a mathematics textbook is related to the number of pages in the text. A 300 page
book sells for $35 and each additional 10 pages increases the price by $1.
a Find a linear equation relating the selling price to number of pages.
b Predict the cost of a 264 page book.

6 Angela Shyster, a barrister, charges $160 per hour for her legal services.
a Find the linear equation relating charge to time.
b Predict the cost for a 14-hour legal case.
7 A computer program can be written in 50 days if there are
two programmers working on the project, while if there are
five programmers it takes only 35 days. Predict the time
it would take six programmers to complete the project.
8 Nile.com, an internet seller of compact disks quotes a
shipping cost of $10 for 3 CDs and a cost of $15 for 5 CDs.
a Find a linear equation relating shipping cost to number
of CDs.
b What would be the shipping cost for 200 CDs?
Further development
9 Five students can clean the cafeteria in 15 minutes, while
three students would take 27 minutes.
How long should it take one student to complete the task?
10 A taxi charges a flagfall of $3.25 plus a distance rate of
$0.80 per kilometre.
a Find a linear equation relating cost to distance travelled.
b What would be the cost of a 15.3 kilometre journey?
c How far could you go for $17.40?
11E Simultaneous equations

When a point belongs to more than one line, the coordinates of that point satisfy both equations.
The equations of the lines are called simultaneous equations.
Simultaneous equations can be solved using a number of different methods:
• Graphically — by drawing a graph
• Algebraically — by substitution
• Algebraically — by elimination
Solving simultaneous equations

graphically
This method involves drawing a graph of each equation on a set of axes and then finding the point
of intersection.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Solve the simultaneous equations 2x − 3y = 6 and x + y = 3 graphically.

THINK WRITE
1 Determine the intercepts for each 2x − 3y = 6 x+y=3

equation. y-intercept: let x = 0 y-intercept: let x = 0
• The y-intercept occurs when 2(0) − 3y = 6 (0) + y = 3
x = 0. −3y = 6 y=3
• The x-intercept occurs when y = −2
y = 0. x-intercept: let y = 0 x-intercept: let y = 0
• State the coordinates of the 2x − 3(0) = 6 x + (0) = 3
x- and y-intercepts. 2x = 6 x=3
x = 3
(0, −2), (3, 0) (0, 3), (3, 0)

2 On grid paper, plot the x- and y-intercepts y
for each line and join them to graph 4
x+y=3
each line. 3
2
1 (3, 0)
3 Carefully read the coordinates of the
point of intersection. The point of –1–10 1 2 3 4 5 x
intersection appears to be (3, 0), as shown
–2 2x – 3y = 6
in green.
–3
4 Write the solution. The solution is x = 3 and y = 0, the

point (3, 0).
5 Check that the solution satisfies both 2x − 3y = 6 x+y=3

equations by substituting the values x = 3 LHS = 2(3) − 3(0) LHS = 3 + 0
and y = 0 into each equation. =6 =3
LHS = RHS LHS = RHS
The solution is correct.
Solving simultaneous equations algebraically

by substitution
This method is useful when one equation is in a form where one of the variables is the subject. For
example, y is the subject in the equation y = 5x + 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Solve the system of equations y = x + 3 and y = 2x + 5.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the two equations, labelling y = x + 3 [1]

one as equation 1 and the other as y = 2x + 5 [2]
equation 2.
2 At the point of intersection the two At point of intersection:

y-values are equal, so [1] = [2]. [1] = [2]
x + 3 = 2x + 5
3 Solve the equation for x: x + 3 − x = 2x + 5 − x

• x appears on each side of the equation, 3=x+5
so subtract x from both sides. 3−5=x+5−5
• Subtract 5 from both sides. −2 = x
4 The x-coordinate of the point of y1 = x + 3

intersection is −2. To find the value of the = (−2) + 3
y-coordinate, substitute the value of x into =1
one of the equations (it does not matter
which).
5 Write the solution as the pair of The solution is x = −2 and y = 1, or (−2, 1).
coordinates representing the intersection
point.

Solving simultaneous equations algebraically
by elimination
This method involves adding two equations to create a third in which one of the original variables has been
eliminated, thus allowing substitution to take place in order to find the value of the remaining variable.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations.

x − 5y = −17 2x + 3y = 5
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and x − 5y = −17 [1]
number them. 2x + 3y = 5 [2]
2 Look for a single multiplication that will [1] × −2: −2x + 10y = 34 [3]
create the same coefficient and opposite sign
of either x or y. Multiply equation [1] by −2
and call the new equation [3].
3 Add equations [2] and [3] in order to [2] + [3]: 13y = 39
eliminate x.
4 Solve for y by dividing both sides of the y=3
equation by 13.
5 Substitute the value of y into equation [2]. Substituting y = 3 into [2]:
2x + 3(3) = 5
2x + 9 = 5
6 Solve for x. 2x = −4
(a) Subtract 9 from both sides of the equation. x = −2
(b) Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
7 Answer the question. Solution: x = −2, y = 3 or (−2, 3)
8 Check the answer by substituting into Check: Substitute into x − 5y = −17.
equation [1]. LHS = (−2) − 5(3)
= −2 − 15
= −17
LHS = RHS and therefore the solution is correct.
In many cases linear models and simultaneous equations can be used to solve problems.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
‘Rent-a-Chef’ provides food cooked and served by a qualified chef at

parties. The company charges $120 as a booking fee, and an additional
$30 per hour.
Another company, ‘Greased lightning’, provides fast food served by two
students at a cost of $65 per hour, with no booking fee. Under what
conditions would it be cheaper to hire ‘Greased lightning’?

THINK WRITE
1 Define convenient pronumerals. Let C = Cost (total) in dollars and t = time in hours.
2 Write an equation for the cost of Rent-a-Chef C = 120 + 30t [1]
hiring both organisations. Greased lightning C = 65t [2]
3 Draw the graph for the cost of both c
companies. 500
400
C = 65t
300
C = 120 + 30t
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t
4 From the graph read off the point of It is cheaper to hire Greased lightning for period of up to
intersection which will show when 3.4 hours.
both costs are the same.
Exercise 11E Simultaneous equations

1 WE9 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by graphing the equations and identifying
the point of intersection.
a y = 2x + 3 b y + 2x = −8 c 2y = 12x + 16 d 2x − y = −1
−6x
y = 8 − 3x y = 2x + 4 3y = − 24 3x + y = 11
e 31 = y − 2x f x + 2y = 4
2x + 2y = 14 y = 2x − 3
2 WE10 Solve the following pairs of equations simultaneously using the substitution method.
a 2x + y = 17 b y + 4x = 6 c 3x − 2y = 5 d y = 1 − 2x
x = 2y + 1 y = 2x − 3 y = 3 − 4x y = 3 − 4x
e y = 2x − 5 f y = −x + 4
5x − y = 1 5x = 3y
3 WE11 Use the elimination method to solve the following simultaneous equations.
a 3x + 2y = 13 b 4x − 2y = 7 c y − x = 5 d x + y = 20
−x + 3y = −8 3x + 2y = 14 3x − 5y = −21 3x + 11y = 100
e 3x + 2y = 10 f 2x + 5y = 4
12x − 5y = 14 7x + 15y = 9
4 WE12 A computer firm, SuperComputers Inc., offers a back-up plan covering the ongoing service
and troubleshooting of its systems after sale. The cost of signing up for the service plan is $125, and
there is an hourly rate of $65 for the serviceperson’s time. Purchasers not signing up for the plan are
charged a flat rate of $150 per hour for service. Would it be advisable to sign up for the service plan
if you expected to need 3 hours of service assistance during the life of a computer purchased from
SuperComputers Inc?
5 A telephone company, Opus, offers calls to Great Britain for a connection fee of $14, and thereafter
$1 per minute. Its rival, Belecom, offers calls for $2 per minute (no connection fee) to the same
country.
a Compare the cost of a 10 minute call to Great Britain using each company.
b At what point would it be cheaper to use Opus?

6 It costs you $6 to get into a taxi (the ‘flagfall’), and $1.50 per kilometre if you use ‘Pink Cabs’, while
NoTop taxis charge $8 flagfall, and $1.20 per kilometre.
a How much would it cost with each company to travel 15 km in one of its cabs?
b When would it cost the same to use both companies?
7 Two amusement parks show the following information for school age tourists in a promotional
brochure.
$8.00 entry
$2.50 per ride
$12 entry
$1.50 per ride
After how many rides does an excursion to Fun World

become the cheaper option for the same number of rides?
8 Medirank, a health insurance company, charges
$860 per year (for a single person), and requires
customers to pay the first $100 of any hospital visit.
HAB, on the other hand, charges an annual fee of $560
and requires its members to pay the first $150 of any
hospital visit. Determine the number of hospital visits
in a year for which the cost of health services is the
same whichever company insures you.
9 Nifty is a car hire firm that charges insurance of $135,
and $50 per day car hire.
A competitor, Savus, simply charges $65 per day and
offers ‘free’ insurance. You are planning a holiday and
would prefer to use Savus. Under what conditions
(days hired) could you justify this choice.
Further development
10 At the candy store Katrina buys 10 chocolates and a
8 sherbets for $4.30 while Vanessa buys 6 chocolates
and 9 sherbets for $4.05. By drawing appropriate
graphs find the cost of each sweet.
11 On a farm there are chickens and cattle.
In total there are 57 animals and 196 feet. How many chickens are there?

12 From a sports store a school orders 16 cricket balls and 24 basketballs for $826.80.
Digital doc
Worksheet 11.2
doc-11101
A second school paid $633 for 12 basketballs and 32 cricket balls. Find the cost of each item.

Summary
Linear functions • Linear functions have powers of 1 for both the independent and dependent variables and are graphed
as straight lines.
• To graph a linear function, a table of at least three values is drawn; the points generated are plotted
on a number plane and then joined in a straight line.
• The intersection of two linear functions will give the point where both conditions hold true.
Direct variation • When two quantities vary directly with one another, the variation can be graphed as a linear function.
• The variation will be in the form y = ax.
• The graph is drawn from the point (0, 0) to one other point that is given.
• The gradient of the function will be the constant of variation.
Linear modelling and • Many situations can be represented using a linear model.
problem solving • Use the rule y = mx + b where m is the gradient and b is the vertical intercept to model a linear
function.
• Use the graph drawn to answer questions relating to the model
Simultaneous • When there is two variables graph both linear models

equations • The point of intersection of the two graphs will represent the point where both equations are true
simultaneously.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following is not an example of a linear function?
mult ip le
ch oice A y = 2x + 1 B y = 2x2 C 2y = x + 1 D x + 2y + 1 = 0
2 Beth lives 5 km from the nearest post office. At noon one day she rides from home at a speed of
20 km/hr in a direct line away from the post office. Her distance at any time from the post office can
be found using the linear model
A D = 20t B D = 5t + 20 C D = 20t + 5 D D = 20t − 5
3 Which of the following points represents the solution to the pair 2x + 3y = 18 and 5x − y = 11?
A (6, 2) B (3, −4) C (3, 9) D (3, 4)
Sh ort 1 Graph each of the following linear functions.

a nswer
a y = 3x b y = x + 3 c y = 2 − x d y = 5 − 3x
e 2y = 4x − 3 f 3x − 2y + 6 = 0
2 The cost, C, of a taxi fare is given by the formula C = 3 + 0.4d, where d is the distance travelled by
the car, in kilometres.
d 0 5 10 15 20
C
b Graph the cost function.

3 At a fete, 400 cans of soft drink are purchased for $320. The cans are then sold for $1.25 each.
a Write, as a linear function, an expression for the profit on the sale of the cans, where n is the
number of cans sold.
b Graph the profit function.
c What will be the financial outcome if:
i 300 cans are sold
ii 142 cans are sold?
d How many cans will need to be sold for the drink stall to break even?
4 The cost of a tank of petrol varies directly with the amount of petrol purchased. If 25 L of petrol
costs $21.25, graph the variation.
5 It is known that p varies directly with q. When p = 5, q = 15.
a Draw the graph of q against p.
b What is the gradient of the graph?
c Write an equation linking p and q.
6 The washing machine company ‘Washed Out’ charges $75 to come to your house, as well as an
hourly charge of $65, calculated to the nearest half hour.
a Write an equation that can be used to calculate the cost of a service call.
b Sketch the graph of the relationship between repair cost and time taken.
c What would be the cost of a repair job that takes 3½ hours?
7 The cost of a parachuting course is $250 for hire of
equipment and tuition plus $55 per jump.
a Express the cost (C) as a function of the number
of jumps (j).
b How many jumps could a person afford to do
with a budget of $1000?
8 A rectangular house has a total perimeter of
34 metres and the length is 5 metres greater
than the width. What are the dimensions of
the house?
9 Calculate the cost of a carton of milk and a loaf of bread given that 3 cartons of milk and
2 loaves of bread costs $9.95 while 2 cartons of milk and a loaf of bread costs $5.85.

1 As a fundraising activity, a school hires a cinema to show the premiere of a
Ex tended
movie. The cost of hiring the cinema is $500. People are then charged $10 to R es p ons e
attend the movie.
a Write a function for the profit or loss made on the movie in terms of the
number of people attending.
b Graph the function.
c Use the graph to calculate the number of people who must attend the
movie for the school to break even.
d A rival cinema offers to waive the hire fee but the school will receive
only $5 per person attending. On the same axes graph the function P = 5n.
e The school chose to pay the $500 and receive $10 per person. How many
people must attend the premiere to make this the better of the two options?
2 A physics student conducts an experiment to find out how much a spring
stretches when various weights are hung from it. Her results are shown in the
table below.
Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)
4 0
7 10
12 20
16.5 30
20.5 40
25 50
a What is the natural or ‘unstretched’ length of the spring?
b Plot a graph of the student’s results.
c Draw a straight line through the points that best describes the data.
d Select two points on the line and use them to fit a linear equation to the line.
A second student conducts the same experiment on a similar spring. His results
are shown below.
Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)
5 0
10 10
16 20
21 30
24 40
28 50
e On the same set of axes you used in part b, plot the results of the second experiment and join the
points with a line of best fit.
f Write an equation that describes the relationship between the force applied and the length of the
second spring.
The gradients of graphs such as the ones you have drawn give an indication of the stiffness of a
spring. The greater the gradient, the harder it is to stretch the spring. The lower the gradient, the
easier it is to stretch the spring. Digital doc
g Comment on the stiffness of the two springs investigated by the students. Test Yourself
doc-11102
h Is it likely that these two springs will ever be the same length at a given force, that is, is it likely
Chapter 11
the intersection of the two graphs could ever really happen? Explain your answer.

ICT activities
11A Linear functions 11C Linear modelling
INTERACTIVITies Digital doc
• int-2378: Graphs of linear functions. (page 301) • WorkSHEET 11.1 (doc-11100): Apply your knowledge of linear
• int-1020: Drawing a graph. (page 301) relationships to problems. (page 312)
• int-2399: Slope and equation of a line. (page 301)
• int-0804: Application of linear modelling. (page 302) 11e Simultaneous equations
• int-2780: Simultaneous linear equations. (page 304)
Digital doc
Digital docs
• WorkSHEET 11.2 (doc-11101): Apply your knowledge of linear
• SkillSHEET 11.1 (doc-11095): Substitution into a formula. (page 305)
relationships to problems. (page 320)
• SkillSHEET 11.2 (doc-11096): Recognising linear functions. (page 305)
• SkillSHEET 11.3 (doc-11097): Gradient of a straight line. (page 305)
• SkillSHEET 11.4 (doc-11098): Graphing linear equations. (page 305) Chapter review
• EXCEL Spreadsheet (doc-1391): Plotting linear graphs. (page 305) Digital doc
11B Direct variation progress. (page 323)
INTERACTIVITY
• int-2399: Slope and equation of a line. (page 307) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
TUTORIAL
• WE5 int-2317: Learn about direct proportionality. (page 307)
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 11.5 (doc-11099): Substitution. (page 308)
• SkillSHEET 11.6 (doc-11346): Graphing linear equations. (page 308)

Answers chapter 11
Modelling linear c $9000 loss c
150
d 8000 people
relationships
C($)
120
6 a N
Exercise 11A Linear functions 90
1000
1 y N = 1000 – 5P 60
5 800 0 200 400
600 d(km)
3 y=x+3
400 14 a
10 Number of Salary Salary
–5 –3 –1 3 x 200
–1 1 plans sold package A package B
0
–3 0 P
5 $525 $375
40
0
12
20
2 a y b y y = 3x – 2
4 4 b 500 10 $650 $600
3 3
2 y = 2x
2 c $1.80
10 15 $775 $825
1
–4 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
7 a y
–4 –2 0 1 2 3 x 5 y = 3x
–2
–2
4 20 $900 $1050
–3
–3 –4 3
2
1 b ($)
c y d y −3 −1 01 2 3 4 5 x 1200
y=4−x Plan B
4 5 y = 5 – 2x −3 1000
3 y = −x 4
2 3 800
1 0 2 b (1, 3) Plan A
−3 −1 1 2 3 x 1 0 600
–3 –1 x 8 y
−2
−3 –1 1 2 3 4 5 y=x–1
400
−4 –3 4 200
3
2
e y f y 1 0 5 10 15 20
5 5 –3 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x Number of plans
4 4
3 1 –3 y = 2x – 6 sold (n)
3 y = 1– x + 3 2 y = 1 – _x
2 2 1 4
10 0 Intersection (5, 4) c 13
–3 –1–1 1 2 3 4 x
–3 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 9 (0, 2) Exercise 11B Direct variation
–3 –3
10 a, b B 1 D
3 a 120 900
x 0 2 4 2A = B 800
100 700
y 3 0 −3 80 600
500
60 A + B = 120 400
y 300
b 40 200
5 100
4 3x + 2y − 6 = 0 20 0
3
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 t
10 0
0 40 80 120 A
−3 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5
x 2 a n
−2 c Game A: 40; Game B: 80. 16
−3 14
11 a 12
4 a d 0 1000 2000 10
d 0 5 10 30 8
C (old) 0 1200 2400 6
C 3 10.5 18 48 4
2
C (new) 900 1200 1500 0
b C = 3 + 1.5d 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 p
C b C C = 1.2d b 1.5
40 2000 c n = 15p
1500
C = 900 + 0.3d 3 a y
20 1000 90
500 80
70
0 0 60
0 20 40 d 0 d 50
40
00
00
30
10
20
c $33 20
d 14 km c After 1000 days 10
0
5 a 12 a C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 x
P P = 3n – 24 000
50 000 10 000 C = 20n
40 000 b 8
8000
30 000
20 000 C = 15n + 1500 c y = 8x
10 000 0
6000
n 4000 4 a D
–10 000
000
000
–20 000 350

–30 000 2000 300
10
20
250
0 n 200
0 150
n 0 8000 10 000
0
0
10
30
50
100
50
P −24 000 0 6000 b 300 0
13 a $114.75 0 20 40 60 80 100 s
b $36 000 b 450 km b D = 3s

5 W 3 a P = 0.1n + 32
500
400 b Payment ($)
300
200 34
100
0 33
0 10 20 30 40 50 h 32
6 a L (L)
70
60
50
40
30
20 10 20 Number
10
0 of leaflets
0 00 00 00 00 00 d (km)
1 2 3 4 5
c $197
b 30L
4 a P = 5p + 40
7 a h (m)
120 b 100
100
80 90
60
40 80
20
0 70
0 4 8 12 16 20 g (m) 60
b 16.8m c 1.6m P 50
8 $US
300 40
250
200 30
150
100 20
50
0 10
0 00 00 00 00 00 A$ 0
1 2 3 4 5
9 a Not a direct variation, does not pass through (0, 0) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
p
b Not a direct variation, the graph is not linear.
c This is a direct variation. c i $100
d Not a direct variation, the graph is not linear. ii 3
e Not a direct variation, does not pass through (0,0) d The vertical intercept indicates that Josh will receive $40 even if
f Not a direct variation, does not pass through (0,0) there are no deliveries. The gradient indicates that the gets
10 a $5 per delivery.
Volume of water (L) 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30
5 a
Amount of cleaner (cups) 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 n 50 100 150 200 250
10 5 10 5 2 2
1 C 3800 5550 7300 9050 10 800
b
10
c This is the ratio of concentrate to water. b C = 35n + 2050
11 a 31 cm b 13.4 cm c Regular pentagon c m = 35, b = 2050
12 a 46 m2 b 6 cans c 2 L
d The gradient is the additional cost per person who attends and the
13 a 800 b F = 800a
c 3200 N d 1.25 m/s2
y-intercept is the fixed costs
14 a 4 b 2 6 a S = 45000 − 7500a
Exercise 11C Linear modelling b m = −7500, b = 45000
1 a $35 b C = 10t + 5 c The gradient is the annual decrease in value
c Cost ($) of the car and the vertical intercept is the cost
25 of the car new.
20 7 C = 20n + 300
15 600
10
5
500
1 2 Time (h)
2 a C = 8t + 60 400
b Cost ($)
76 C 300
68
60 200
100
0
1 2 Time (min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
n
c $100

8 a 600 b y
y = 2x + 4
y + 2x = –8 4
500
2
400 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–20 1 2x
(–3, –2)
Cost ($)
–4
300
Intersection point (−3, −2)
200 c y
10 2y = 12x + 16
100 5
0 –4 –2–50 2 4x
(–2, –4)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 –10 3y = –6x – 24
Distance (km)
b m = 0.8, b = 80 Intersection point (−2, −4)
c The gradient is the cost per kilometre to run the car while the d y
vertical intercept represents the fixed costs. 10
2x – y = –1
8
9 a m = 0.4, b = 2.5
6
b d is distance travelled and therefore negative values have no 4
(2, 5)
meaning 2 3x + y = 11
10 a 3000
–4 –2–20 2 4x
b The value of the computer when new.
–4
c 500
d When n = 6 the computer has no value therefore if n > 6 the Intersection point (2, 5)
computer cannot be worth less than 0. e y
11 The single journey is cheaper because with two separate journeys 40 31 = y – 2x
you play the fixed cost of $3 twice. 30
20
12 n < 1 has no meaning as there must be at least one worker on the (–8, 15)
10
job. Values of n ≥ 20 have no meaning as this would mean that the 0
building took no time or a negative time to build. –20 –10 10 20 x
2x + 2y = 14
Exercise 11D Problem solving
Intersection point (−8, 15)
1 a P = 40n
b $3560 f y
4 y = 2x – 3
2 6 x + 2y = 4 2
1 (2, 1)
3 a C = n + 166.67
3 –2–20 2 4 6x
b $216.67 –4
4 a T = 0.005n + 0.5
Intersection point (2, 1)
b 2 hours 45 minutes
3
5 a P = 0.1p − 5 2 a (7, 3) b Q , 0R c (1, −1)
2
b $21.40 −4 − 23 3 5
6 a C = 160t d (1, −1) e Q , R f Q , R
3 3 2 2
b $2240 5
3 a (5, −1) b Q3, R c (−2, 3)
7 30 days 2
8 a C = 2.5n + $2.50 d (15, 5) e (2, 2) f (−3, 2)
b $502.50 4 Yes – cost under the plan $320 without the plan $450
9 39 minutes 5 a Opus — $24, Belecom — $20
10 a C = 0.8d + 3.25 b After 14 min
b $15.49 6 a Pink cabs — $28.50, No Top — $26.00
c 17.69 km b 6.7 km
Exercise 11E Simultaneous equations 7 After 4 rides
1 a y 8 6
8 y = 2x + 3 9 Savus would be cheaper for less than 9 days.
10 Chocolate 15c and Sherbert 35 c
6
(1, 5)
11 16 chickens and 41 cattle
4 12 Basketballs — $28.46, Cricket balls — $9.11
y = 8 – 3x
2 Chapter Review
Multiple choice
–4 –2 0 2 4x
1 B
–2
2 C
Intersection point (1, 5) 3 D

Short answer 6 a C = 75 + 65t
1 a y
b y b c
4 4
3 3 y=x+3
2 y = 3x 600
1 10
–3 –1 01 2 3 4 x –5 –3 –1 x
–1 1 2 3
–2
–3 –3
–4
c y
d y 400
4 5
3 y=2−x 4 y = 5 – 3x
2 3
10 2
x 10
−3 −1
−1 1 2 3 4
−2 –3 ––11 1 3 4 x 200
−3 –2
−4 –3
e y
f y
3 5
2 4 0
1 0 2y = 4x – 3 3 3x – 2y + 6 = 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 j
–3 –1 x
–1 1 2 3 4 10
–3 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
x c $302.50
–3
–4 –2 7 a C = 250 + 55j
–5 –3
b 13
2 a 8 11 m × 6 m
d 0 5 10 15 20
9 Milk — $1.75, Bread — $2.35
C 3 5 7 9 11
Extended response
b C 1 a P = 10n − 500
24 b, d
C = 3 + 0.4d P
18 2000 P = 10n – 500
12 1500
6 1000
0 500 P = 5n
0 10 20 30 40 50 d
0 n
3 a P = 1.25n − 320
50
0
0
0
–500
10
15
20
b P
P = 1.25n – 320 –1000
200
100 c 50
e More than 100 people
0 n
2 a 4 cm
80
0
0
0
–100
16
32
40
0
24
b, c, e
–200 60
Force applied to spring (N)
–300 50
–400
40
c i $55 profit
ii $142.50 loss 30
d 256 20 Student 1
4 10 Student 2
45
40
35
30 0
Cost ($)
5 10 15 20 25 30
25
20 Length of spring (cm)
15 30
10 d Answers will vary. One possible answer is y = − 95
13
. 13
x
5
0 f Answers will vary. One possible answer is y = 2x − 10.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Amount of petrol (L) g The first spring is stiffer than the second, as the gradient of its
5 a q graph is greater than that of the second spring.
60 h The graphs intersect at the point (−8.75, −27.5). It is not possible
50 for the springs to have a negative length, so this point is not
40
30 achievable.
20
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 p
b 3
c q = 3p

Chapter 12
Modelling non-linear relationships
CHAPTER CONTENTS
12A Quadratic functions
12B Cubics, hyperbolas and exponential functions
12C Direct variation
12D Inverse variation
12E Graphing physical phenomena
12A Quadratic functions

A quadratic function is a function in which the highest power of the independent variable (x) is 2.
The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved line that comes to either a minimum or
maximum point. Interactivity
The graph of a quadratic function can be drawn by creating a table of values and plotting the pairs of int-2785
coordinates generated. Because the graph is not a straight line, it is necessary to plot more than just three Sketching
parabolas
points to show the shape of the curve.
The most basic quadratic function is y = x2. The table of values is drawn showing at least nine values
of x, to ensure there one enough points to accurately demonstrate the shape.
y
x −3 −2 −1 −12 0 1
2
1 2 3 9
1 1 8 y = x2
y 9 4 1 4
0 4
1 4 9 7
6
5
Plotting these points gives the graph shown on the right. The points are joined 4
3
with a smooth curve. 2
This graph has a minimum at (0, 0) and forms the basic shape for all parabolas. 1
In general, the form of a quadratic function is y = ax2 + bx + c, and for now –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
we need consider only positive values of x.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Consider the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x + 7.

a Complete the table of values below.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
b Graph the function for x ≥ 0.
c State the minimum value of y = x2 − 4x + 7.
THINK WRITE
a Substitute each value of x into the function. a x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 7 4 3 4 7 12
Chapter 12 • Modelling non-linear relationships 329

b 1 Plot the points generated by the table of values. b y
12
2 Join the points plotted with a smooth curve. 11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
c The minimum value is the y-value at the point where the c For y = x2 − 4x + 7,
graph turns. minimum value = 3.
2 Delete any existing equation and enter

Y1 = X2 − 4X + 7.
3 Press !3 [V-Window]. In this course you will

not need to consider negative values for x. Enter the
setting shown on the screen at right.
4 Press w to return to the previous screen, and then

press 6 (DRAW) to draw the graph.
5 Press !5 [G-Solv], followed by 3 (MIN).

This will find the minimum point and display the
coordinates of that point. Be patient: this may take a
moment.
Notes:
1. When setting the view window you do not have to get the limit right the first time. It may take a bit of
trial and error, especially with the y-values to make sure that you have the minimum (or maximum)
point in your display.
2. Any question that has a negative value of x2 (such as Worked example 2) will be concave downwards
and as such will have a maximum point and not a minimum point. In step 5 after pressing !5
[G-Solv] you will need to press 2 (MAX).

Shape of a parabola
For quadratic functions that have a positive x2 term, the parabola is concave up. This means that the
graph has a minimum point. When the x2 term is negative, the graph is concave down and the graph has
a maximum point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Graph the function y = 1 + 4x − x2.

THINK WRITE
Tutorial
1 Draw a table of values. int-2432
Worked example 2
2 Substitute each value of x into the function.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 4 5 4 1 −4
3 Plot the points formed by each pair of coordinates. y

5
4 Join the points with a smooth curve. 4
3
Note: For this function, the maximum value is 5. 2
1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
Quadratic models can be applied to solve several practical situations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A ball is thrown in the air. Its height, h, after t seconds can be given by the formula h = 20t − 5t2.
Graph the function to calculate the maximum height the ball will reach.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values.

2 Substitute the values of t to calculate the
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
corresponding values of h.
h 0 15 20 15 0 −25
3 Plot the points formed by each pair of coordinates. h

Negative values of h can be ignored because height 20
must be positive.
16
4 Join the points formed with a smooth curve. 12
4
–1 0
–1
1 2 3 4 5 t
5 The maximum height reached by the ball will be the h The maximum height reached by the
value at the turning point on the curve. ball is 20 m.

Exercise 12A Quadratic functions
1 WE1 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 2x + 3:
a copy and complete the table of values below
Digital doc x 0 1 2 3 4 5
EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1392 y
Graphing
quadratics b draw the graph of the function
c state the minimum value of x2 − 2x + 3.
2 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x − 2, draw up a table of values and use the table to draw the
graph of the function for x ≥ 0.
3 Graph each of the following functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = x2 − 6x + 5 b y = x2 + x + 5 c y = (x − 2)2
4 On the one set of axes, graph the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.
1
a y = x2 b y = 2x2 c y = 2 x2
5 On the one set of axes, graph each of the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = x2 b y = x2 + 2 c y = x2 − 3
6 Use your answers to questions 5 and 6 to answer the following.
a Describe the effect a coefficient of x2 has on the graph of a quadratic function.
b Describe the effect adding a constant term has on the graph of a quadratic function.
7 Graph the function y = (x − 1)2 + 4. Compare this with the graph of y = x2 − 2x + 5. Explain why
this occurs.
8 Graph the function y = 2 + 2x − x2 for x ≥ 0.
9 WE2 Graph each of the following functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = 4 + 6x − x2 b y = 8 − x2 c y = (2 − x)2
10 MC Which of the following functions is not a quadratic function?
A y = x2 + 5x − 4 B y = (x − 4)2
x−2
C y = (x − 2)(x + 2) D y =
x+2
11 MC The graph drawn on the right could have the equation:
A y = (x − 2)2 + 3 B y = (x − 2)2 − 3
C y = 4 − (2 − x)
2 D y = (2 − x)2 − 3
12 MC Which of the following functions will produce the
same graph as y = (x − 4)2 + 3?
A y = x2 − 4x − 1
B y = x2 − 4x + 19
C y = x2 − 8x − 1
D y = x2 − 8x + 19
13 Graph the quadratic function y = 2x2 − 4x + 8 for x ≥ 0.
14 WE3 An object dropped from a height falls to Earth
according to the equation d = 5t 2, where d is the distance
fallen in metres and t is the time in seconds since the
object was dropped.
a Draw the graph of d against t.
b How far will the object fall in 4 seconds?
c How long will it take for an object to fall a distance
of 500 m?
15 The height of a ball in metres that is thrown vertically
upwards is given by the equation h = 30t − 5t2, where
t is time in seconds.
a Draw the graph of h against t.
b Find the maximum height reached by the ball.
c Find the length of time taken for the ball to
return to Earth.

16 A rectangular field is to be made out of 100 m of fencing. If the length of the field is x metres:
a show that the width of the field is (50 − x) metres
b show that the area is given by the quadratic function A = 50x − x2
c draw the graph of the function
d find the maximum area of the field and what dimension the field must be to give the maximum area.
17 Another rectangular field is to be built with 100 m of fencing using a
river as one side of the field as shown on the right. River
a Show that the area of the field can be given by the equation
A = 100x − 2x2. x
c Calculate the dimensions of the field so that the area of the field 100 – 2x
is a maximum.
Further development
18 State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2, and state
the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
1
a y = 5x2 b y = 3 x2 c y = 7x2 d y = 10x2
2
e x2 f y = 0.25x2 g y = 1.3x2 h y = !3x2
5
19 In each of the following state whether the graph is wider or narrower than y = x2 and whether it has a
maximum or a minimum turning point. −
1 1 2
a y = 3x2 b y = −3x2 c y = 2 x2 d y = x
5
e y = −4x2 f y = 0.25x2 g y = !3x2 h y = −0.16x2
4 2 −200x2 −
i y = x j y = k y = "5x2 l y = !11x2
3
20 The distance, d, of a rocket from a satellite is given by the equation d = 5t2 − 100t, where t is the
number of hours since the rocket was launched. At what value of t will the rocket reach the satellite?
21 Julie breeds sea monkeys. The number of sea monkeys, N, in Julie’s tank is found to follow the
equation N = −0.0751h2 + 0.69h + 200, where h is the number of hours since the tank was supplied
with food and stocked with sea monkeys.
a How many sea monkeys were there initially (i.e. at h = 0)?
b Copy and complete the table below.
h 0 5 10 15 20 30 50
N
c By drawing a graph estimate to the nearest hour,
how long after being fed could the colony survive
without further food before none were left?
22 Matilda is being pushed on a swing in her backyard.
The swing follows the path given by the formula
h = 14 (x2 − 3x + 4), where h metres is the
height of the swing above the ground, x metres
from the point where Matilda was pushed.
a Find the height above the ground at the point
where Matilda was first pushed.
b Find the lowest distance that Matilda comes to
the ground.
Maximising areas
1. Sketch ten rectangles that each have a perimeter of 40 m.
2. Show the length, width and area of each rectangle in a table.
3. If the length of the rectangle is x:
(a) explain why the width of the rectangle will be 20 − x
(b) write a quadratic equation for the area of the rectangle.
4. Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph your function.
5. What is the maximum area of the rectangle?

Cubics, hyperbolas and
12B
interactivity
int-1149 exponential functions
Exponential graphs
When considering modelling situations it is useful to be familiar with other non-linear graphs.
Cubic functions
A cubic function has the independent variable (x) raised to a power of 3. Its equation is of the form y = ax3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Graph the function y = 2x3.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values. x 0 1 2 3

y 0 2 16 54
2 Substitute values of x to find the y
corresponding values of y. y = 2x 3
100
3 Plot the points generated by the table. 80
60
20
0 1 2 3 4 x
Hyperbolas
a
The equation of a hyperbolic function is of the form y = , where a is a constant. For hyperbolas, x ≠ 0,
x
and so for now we graph only values of x > 0. As the value of x increases, the value of y will decrease and
vice-versa, and therefore we need to look at values close to x = 0 and y = 0 when creating our table of values.
As x becomes very large, the graph approaches the x-axis but never touches it. As x becomes very
small (approaches 0), the graph approaches the y-axis, but never touches it. The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is
a vertical asymptote, and the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote.
(An asymptote is a line or a curve which a curve approaches but never touches.)
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
2
Graph the function y = .
x
Tutorial THINK WRITE
int-2433 1 1
Worked example 5 1 Draw a table of values. x 4 2
1 2 3 4
2 Substitute the x-values into the equation to 2 1
y 8 4 2 1 3 2
find the corresponding y-values.
3 Plot each pair of coordinates y
generated by the table. 9
4 Join each point with a smooth curve. 8
7
5 As y is never actually equal to zero 6
the x-axis is an asymptote. As x ≠ 0 the 5
y-axis is an asymptote. 4 y= 2
–x
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 x

Exponential graphs
An exponential function is of the form y = ax or y = b(ax), where a and b are both constants. It is called
an exponential function because the independent variable (x) is in the exponent. An exponential graph
can increase rapidly.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Graph the function y = 2x.

THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values. x 0 1 2 3 4

y 1 2 4 8 16
2 Substitute values of x to find the y

corresponding values of y.
20
3 Plot the points generated by the table. 16
12 y = 2x
4
5 The x axis is an asymptote since y is 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
never actually equal to zero.
An exponential function of the form y = b(ax) represents an example of exponential growth. These
functions may, for example, show the growth of an investment over a period of time. In examples where
the value of a is between 0 and 1, the function could model exponential decay. An example of this is the
depreciation of an asset over time.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Glenn invests $10 000 at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually. The growth of this investment
can be given by the exponential function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is the number of years of the
investment and A is the amount to which the investment grows. Graph the growth of this investment.
THINK WRITE
1 Draw a table of values. n 1 2 3 4 5

2 Substitute values of n to find the A 10 800 11 664 12 597 13 605 14 693
corresponding values of A. n 6 7 8 9 10
A 15 869 17 138 18 509 19 990 21 589
3 Plot the points generated by the table.

35 000 A = 10 000 (1.08)n
4 Join the points with a smooth curve.
30 000
Investment ($)
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20
Number of years

Exercise 12B Cubics, hyperbolas and exponential
functions
1 WE4 Graph the cubic function y = x3 for x ≥ 0.
2 Graph the following functions for x ≥ 0.
1
Digital doc a y = 3x3 b y = 2x3 c y = −x3
EXCEL Spreadsheet
doc-1394 4
3 Graph the hyperbolic function y = for x > 0.
Function grapher x
4 WE5 Graph each of the following functions for x > 0.
1 10 1
a y = b y = c y = −
x x x
5 Graph the function y = 3 .
x
6 WE6 Graph each of the following functions.

1 x
a y = 4x b y = 10x c y = Q 2 R
7 Graph the function y = 5(2x). y
8 MC The equation of the graph shown on the right could be:
A y = x3 B y = 3x
3
C y = 3x D y =
x
2 x
9 MC Which of the graphs shown below could be the graph of y = ?
x
A y B y
x x
C x D y
y x
10 WE7 Ming Lai invests $1000 at 10% p.a. interest with interest compounded annually. This
investment can be represented by the function A = 1000(1.1)n, where A is the amount to which the
investment grows and n is the number of years of the investment. Draw the graph of the function.
11 Kevin invests $50 000 at 12% p.a. interest, compounded annually.
a Write an equation for the amount, A, to which the investment will grow in terms of the number of
years of the investment, n.
c Use the graph to estimate the amount of time that it will take for the investment to reach $70 000.
12 A new car is purchased for $40 000. The car depreciates at the rate of 15% p.a. The value, V, of the
car after a number of years, n, can be given by the equation V = 40 000(0.85)n. Graph this function.
Further development
13 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ≥ 0.
a y = x3 + 4 b y = x3 − 1 c y = 1 − 8x3
14 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ≥ 0. Show the horizontal asymptote on your sketch
by drawing a broken line in red. Label this line with its equation.
1 1
a y = + 1 b y =
x x+1
15 Find the equation of the asymptote and the y-intercept for each of the following. Hence, sketch the
graph of each and state its domain and range.
a y = 2x − 1 b y = 3x + 2 c y = 2x + 3

Compound interest
The amount to which an investment will grow under compound interest can be found using the following
formula:
A = P(1 + r)n
Consider an investment of $10 000 at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
1. If interest is compounded annually, the amount to which the investment will grow can be given by
the function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is the number of years. Graph this function using graphing
software or a graphics calculator.
2. If interest is compounded six-monthly, the function becomes A = 10 000(1.04)2n. On the same set of
axes graph this function.
3. Write a function that will show the amount to which the investment will grow if interest is
compounded quarterly, and graph this function on the same set of axes.
4. Use the graphs drawn to describe the overall effect of shortening the compounding period.
12C Direct variation

In the previous chapter we studied direct linear variations. In this section we will study direct
non-linear variations.
From our work on measurement we know that the area of a circle is given by the formula A = πr2,
where A is the area and r is the radius of the circle.
This is an example of a quantity (area) that varies in proportion with the power of another quantity
(radius). This can be written as A ∝ r2. The symbol ∝ means in proportion to. In this example π is the
constant of variation, that is, the amount by which r2 must be multiplied to calculate the area.
An equation of the form y = ax2 or y = ax3 can be used to model several variations. In such cases we
may need to calculate the constant of variation from some known or given information.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
It is known that y varies directly with the cube of x. It is known that y = 24 when x = 2. Write an
equation connecting the variables x and y.
THINK WRITE
1 Write a proportion statement. y ∝ x3

2 Insert a constant of variation (k) to form an equation. y = kx3
3 Substitute the known values of x and y to find the When x = 2, y = 24.
value of k. 24 = k × 23
= 8k
k=3
4 Replace the known value of k in the equation. y = 3x3
Once we have calculated the constant of variation, we are able to calculate one quantity given the other.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of the length of the cube’s edge.
a A cube of edge length 5.5 cm has a surface area of 181.5 cm2. Find the constant of variation.
b Find the surface area of a cube with an edge length of 7.2 cm.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write a proportion statement choosing a s ∝ e2

pronumerals s and e.
2 Insert the constant of variation, k, to form an equation. s = ke2
3 Substitute known information. When e = 5.5, s = 181.5
181.5 = k × 5.52

4 Calculate 5.52. 181.5 = k × 30.25
5 Solve the equation (divide by 30.25). k=6
b 1 Rewrite the proportion statement with k = 6. b s = 6e2
2 Substitute e = 7.2. When e = 7.2,
s = 6 × 7.22
3 Calculate s. s = 311.04
4 Give a written answer. The surface area of a cube with an edge
of 7.2 cm is 311.04 cm2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Research conducted by a physiotherapist has determined that the height-to-mass rate (in cm/kg)
of adult males is 2.26. Use this information to predict:
a the height of a 70-kg adult male
b the mass of a 180-cm adult male. (Round answers to 1 decimal place.)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Define the variables. a Let h cm be the height of an adult male.

Let w kg be the mass of an adult male.
h
2 Use the given rate to find the height. = 2.26
w
h = 2.26w
3 Use the rule to predict the height. If w = 70,
h = 2.26 × 70
= 158.2
4 Answer the question in a sentence. The height of an adult male with a
mass of 70 kg is about 158.2 cm.
b 1 Use the rule to predict the mass. b If h = 180,
180 = 2.26w
w = 79.6
2 Answer the question in a sentence. The mass of an adult male who is
180 cm tall is about 79.6 kg.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A new car has a fuel consumption of 7.2 L/100 km (this means it requires 7.2 L of petrol to
travel 100 km).
a How much fuel is required for a journey of 1134 km?
b The previous model of the same car had a fuel consumption of 7.8 L/100 km. Which model
is more economical to run? (Round answers to 2 decimal places.)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Define the variables. a Let L be the number of litres of fuel.

Let d km be the distance travelled.
L 7.2
2 Find the rate relating the variables. =
d 100
L
= 0.072
d

3 Use the rate to find the rule relating the number of L = 0.072d
litres and the distance travelled.
4 Use the rules to find the number of litres required If d = 1134,
for a journey of 1134 km. L = 0.072 × 1134
= 81.648
5 Answer the question in a sentence. It takes about 81.65 L of fuel to travel
1134 km.
b Select the car which uses less fuel per 100 km. b 7.2 L < 7.8 L
The newer model is more economical
to run.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
If the distance, d km, travelled by a person varies directly as the time, t hours, and it is known
that the person travelled 12 km while walking for 2.5 hours, find:
a how far he will travel in 3 hours Tutorial
b how long he must walk in order to travel 6.72 km. int-1057
Worked
THINK WRITE example 12
d
a 1 Write the rule for k. Since d ∝ t, then d = kt and a k=
d t
hence k = .
t
12
2 Substitute the given values for d and t into the k=
equation and solve for k. 2.5
= 4.8
The constant of variation is 4.8. Therefore,
d
= 4.8
t
d d
3 Substitute t = 3 into the equation = 4.8. When t = 3, = 4.8
t 3
4 Transpose the equation to make d the subject. d = 4.8 × 3
= 14.4
5 Answer the question and include the appropriate unit. He will travel 14.4 km in three hours.
d
b 1 Substitute d = 6.72 into the equation obtained in b From part a: = 4.8
d t
part a; that is, = 4.8. 6.72
t When d = 6.72, = 4.8
t
2 Transpose the equation to make t the subject. 6.72 = 4.8 × t

4.8t = 6.72
6.72
t=
4.8
= 1.4
3 Convert the answer to hours and minutes by 1.4 hours = 1 h + (0.4 × 60) min
multiplying the decimal part of the answer by 60. = 1 h 24 min
4 Answer the question. In order to travel 6.72 km, he must
walk for 1 h 24 min.

Exercise 12C Direct variation
1 WE8 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. If y = 88 when x = 4, write an equation
connecting y with x.
2 It is known that b varies directly with the cube of a. When a = 6, b = 108. Write an equation
connecting b with a.
3 It is known that the distance, d, an object will fall varies directly with the square of the time, t, it has
been falling. An object that has been falling for 2 seconds falls a distance of 19.6 metres.
a Write an equation connecting d with t.
b Graph the relationship between d and t.
4 WE9 The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of its side length.
a A cube of side length 15 cm has a surface area of 1350 cm2. Find the constant of variation.
b What is the surface area of a cube that has a side length of 6.2 cm?
5 The area of a circle varies directly with the square of its radius.
a If the area of a circle with radius 6 cm is 113.1 cm2, find the constant of variation. (Give your
b What is the area of a circle with a radius of 12 cm?
6 The mass of an egg varies directly as the cube of
the egg’s length.
a An egg of length 5 cm has a mass of 31.25 g.
Find the constant of variation.
b What will be the mass of an egg with a length
of 6 cm?
c If an egg has a mass of 70 g, what would be
the egg’s length? (Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
7 a
WE10 In a study of a group of adult women, it was
found that the height-to-mass rate (in cm/kg) is 2.48.
Use this information to predict:
i the height of a 60 kg woman in this group. (Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
ii the mass of a 170 cm woman in this group. (Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
b Find the height-to-mass rate if the height is measured in metres.
8 WE11 A new sports car has a fuel consumption of 10.5 L/100 km (it requires 10.5 L of petrol to
travel 100 km).
a How much fuel is required for a journey of 5430 km?
b A Nissan Pulsar has a fuel consumption of 9 L/100. Which of the cars is more economical
to run?
9 In Pear Fisher Bay, land can be purchased for a price of $5.50 per square metre.
a How much land can be purchased for $10 000?
b What would be the cost of a block of land of 6500 square metres?
Further development
10 A large computer company can hire graduate computer programmers for a salary of $40 000 per
year, or experienced professional programmers at $55 000 per year.
a If there is a budget of $480 000, how many:
i graduates could be hired
ii professionals could be hired?
b How many professional programmers are equivalent (in salary) to 23 graduate programmers?
11 An architect determines that all the windows in a new building will have a height-to-width ratio
of 10 : 7 or 10
7
.
a Determine a rule relating height and width.
b If a window is 60 cm wide, how high is it?
c If a window is 100 cm high, how wide is it?
12 The top gear ratio on a bicycle is 7 to 2. If the larger sprocket contains 140 teeth, how many teeth
does the smaller sprocket contain?

13 WE12 An experienced cyclist can travel at an average speed of 26 km/hour.
a How far can she travel in 24 hours?
b How long will it take her to travel 1000 km? (Give your answer correct to the nearest 10 minutes.)
c If she rests 1 hour after every 4 hours of travel, how long will it take her now to travel 1000 km?
14 A large four-wheel drive has a fuel consumption of 12.15 L/100 km, while for a small car it is
5.7 L/100 km.
a How many litres of fuel will be used by each vehicle for a 674 km journey? Give your answers to
1 decimal place.
b How far could the small car go on the same fuel that the four-wheel drive used to travel 1000 km?
Give your answer correct to the nearest kilometre.
15 An aeroplane uses 600 L of fuel (its full tank) for a journey of 1250 km.
a Find the fuel consumption ratio. Digital doc
doc-11103
b If an additional 800 L can be stored in an extra tank, what is the farthest distance that the
WorkSHEET 12.1
aeroplane can travel? Give your answer correct to the nearest 10 km.
12D Inverse variation

Consider the following example. Stan used to collect basketball cards. Eventually he became bored
with this hobby and decided to give all of his 120 cards to his classmates. If Stan distributed the whole
collection between his 2 best friends, Mark and Eugene, they would each receive 60 cards. If he included
another friend, Ashley, they would each receive 40 cards and so on. The more people who shared Stan’s
collection, the fewer cards each person received. There are 25 people in Stan’s class, including himself.
So if he were to distribute 120 cards between all of his classmates, each student would receive 5 cards.
This information can be represented graphically or as shown in the table.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 24
C 120 60 40 30 24 20 15 12 10 8 6 5
(Note that only factors of 120 are included in order to avoid fractional C
answers). 120
It is obvious that as the number of students, n, who are to share the
collection increases, the number of cards, C, that each student
receives, decreases.
The product of the two variables is constant for each pair and equal 60
to 120 — the size of the collection. That is: 1 × 120 = 2 × 60 =
40
3 × 40 = 4 × 30 = 5 × 24 = 6 × 20 = 8 × 15 = 10 × 12 = 120 and 30
so on. 20
10
Hence, the relationship between two variables can be written as:
C × n = 120, or 123456 8 10 12 15 20 24 n
120
C= .
n
The graph of the relation is a hyperbola which has the C and n axes as its asymptotes.
Summarising our observations, we can say that the following is true for the given information:
1. An increase in one variable causes a decrease in the other.
2. The product of the two corresponding variables is constant.
3. Neither variable is equal to 0.
4. The graph which represents the data is a hyperbola.
1
If we calculate the values of for each of the values in our table, we will then be able to draw a graph
1 n
of C against .
n
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 24
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 24
C 120 60 40 30 24 20 15 12 10 8 6 5

1 C
As you can see, the graph of C versus is a straight line directed
n
from, but not passing through, the origin. (Note that we exclude 120
the origin itself, hence the open circle at (0, 0), since the number
of cards per person when shared between 0 students is
undefined.) 60
1
Hence, we can deduce that C varies directly as , that is, as the
n
reciprocal of n. 30
In cases like this, we say that one variable varies inversely as
(or is inversely proportional to) the other. The product of any two 5
1 1– 1– 1
corresponding variables is constant and is called a constant of 0—24 4 2 1 n–
proportionality, k.
Hence, C is inversely proportional to n (or C varies inversely as n, or directly as the reciprocal
1
of n). It is written as C ∝ .
n
Here, the product of any two corresponding values of C and n is constant and equal to 120, that is
Cn = 120. Therefore the constant of proportionality k = 120.
120
Therefore, the relationship between the two variables can be written as C = .
n
1
Generally, for any two variables x and y, where y varies inversely as x, that is, y ∝ , there exists
x
k
a relationship between them such that y = or yx = k, where k is a constant, called the constant of
x
proportionality (or the constant of variation). The graph of the relationship is a hyperbola whereas
1
the graph of y against is a straight line directed from, but not passing through, the origin, and
x
having the gradient k (where x ≠ 0). As with direct variation, the existence of inverse variation can be
established either numerically, or graphically.
Summarising this:
1
If y ∝
x
k
then y =
x
where k is the constant of proportionality and x ∈ R\{0}.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
y varies inversely with x, and y = 10 when x = 2.

a Find the constant of proportionality, k, and hence the rule relating x and y.
b Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y, for values of x which are positive factors of
k less than 11.
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write the relationship between the variables a y∝
x
using the symbol ∝.
k
2 Rewrite as an equation using k, the constant of y=
x
variation.
k
3 Substitute the given values of the variables and 10 =
find the value of k. 2
k = 20
20
4 Write the rule relating the variables. y=
x
b 1 Set up a table of values for x and y, taking b
x 1 2 4 5 10
values for x that are positive factors of k so that
only whole number values of y are obtained. y 20 10 5 4 2

2 Plot the points on a clearly labelled set of axes y
and join the points with a smooth curve. 25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
When a force is applied to a certain object, its acceleration varies inversely as its mass. When the
acceleration of an object 12 m/s2, the corresponding mass is 3 kg.
a Find the constant of proportionality. Tutorial
b Find the rule relating acceleration and mass. int-2434
Worked
c Find the acceleration of a 1.5 kg object.
example 14
d Find the acceleration of a 6 kg object.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Define the variables. a Let the mass of the object be m kg.

Let the acceleration be a m/s2.
1
2 Write the relationship between the variables a∝
m
using ∝.
k
3 Rewrite as an equation using k, the constant of a=
m
proportionality.
k
4 Substitute the given values of the variables and 12 =
find the value of k. 3
k = 36
The constant of proportionality is 36.
36
b Write the rule by substituting the value of k into b a=
m
the equation.
c 1 Substitute the value of the mass into the c If m = 1.5,
equation to find the acceleration. 36
a=
1.5
= 24
2 Write the answer in a sentence. The acceleration is 24 m/s2.
d 1 Substitute the value of the mass into the d If m = 6,

equation to find the acceleration. 36
a=
6
=6
2 Write the answer in a sentence. The acceleration is 6 m/s2.
Exercise 12D Inverse variation

1 WE13 y is inversely proportional to x, and y = 100 when x = 10.
b Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y for values of x that are positive factors of k less
than 21.

2 p varies inversely as q, and p = 12 when q = 4.
a Find the constant of proportionality, k, and hence the rule relating p and q.
b Plot a graph of the relationship between q and p for values of q which are positive factors of
k less than 11.
3 y varies inversely as x and y = 42 when x = 1.
b Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y for values of x from 1 to 10.
4 It is known that y varies inversely with x. When y = 10, x = 5; write an equation connecting y
with x.
5 It is known that m varies inversely with n. When m = 0.5, n = 2; write an equation connecting
m and n.
6 The time taken, t, to travel between two points varies inversely with the average speed, s, for the
trip. If the journey takes 2.5 hours at 60 km/h:
a write an equation that connects t with s
b graph the relationship between t and s.
7 The time, t, taken to dig a trench varies inversely with the number of workers, n, digging. It takes
four workers 5 hours to dig the trench.
a Find the constant of variation.
b How long would it take 10 workers to dig the same trench?
8 The fuel economy, f, of a car varies inversely
with the speed, s, at which it is driven. A car
that averages 40 km/h has a fuel economy of
15 km/L. What will be the fuel economy of
a car that averages 50 km/h?
9 In an electricity circuit, the current (measured
in amps, a) is inversely proportional to the
resistance (measured in ohms, r). When the
resistance is 40 ohms, the current is measured
at 3 amps. What will be the current when the
resistance is 15 ohms?
10 WE14 When a force is applied to a certain object, its acceleration varies inversely as its mass.
When the acceleration of an object is 40 m/s2, the corresponding mass is 100 kg.
b Find the rule relating mass and acceleration.
c Find the acceleration of a 200-kg object.
d Find the acceleration of a 1000-kg object.
Further development
11 The number of colouring pencils sold varies inversely
with the price of each pencil. Two thousand pencils are
sold at the price of $0.25 each.
a Find the constant of proportionality.
b Find the number of pencils that could be sold for
$0.20 each.
c Find the number of pencils that could be sold for
$0.50 each.
12 The time taken to complete a journey is inversely
proportional to the speed travelled. A trip is completed in
4.5 hours when travelling at 75 km per hour.
b Find how long (to the nearest minute) the trip would
take if the speed was 85 km per hour.
c Find the speed required to complete the journey in 3.5 hours.
d Find the distance travelled in each case.

13 The cost per person travelling in a charter plane varies
inversely with the number of people in the charter group.
It costs $350 per person when 50 people are travelling.
b Find the cost per person if there are 75 people travelling.
c Find how many people are required to reduce the cost to
$250 per person.
d Find the total cost of hiring the charter plane.
14 The electrical current in a wire varies inversely with the
resistance of the wire to that current. There is a current of
10 amps when the resistance of the wire is 20 ohms.
b Find the current when the resistance is 200 ohms.
c Find the resistance of the wire when the current is 15 amps.
15 The time taken to complete a long computer program is
inversely proportional to the speed of the computer’s processor.
If the program can be completed in 1 minute when the
processor speed is 200 mHz, find:
a the constant of variation
b the time taken when the processor speed is halved
c the processor speed required to complete the program in
20 seconds.
16 The time taken to complete a large building project varies
inversely with the number of workers. If the building can be
completed in 140 days with 75 workers, find:
a the constant of variation
b the time taken to complete the building with 50 workers
c the number of workers required to complete the building
within 100 days.
12E Graphing physical phenomena

In many cases, an algebraic function can be used to describe a physical
4000
situation. Consider the case of a sphere of radius r. The volume of a sphere
can be given by the formula V = 43πr3. We can create a table of values that 3500
allows us to graph the function for volume. 3000
2500
Volume
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 2000
V 0 4.19 33.51 113.10 268.08 523.60 4189 1500
1000 4 πr3
V =—
We can then plot each pair of points from the table and join the points 500
3
with a smooth curve. The graph shown at right shows the relationship
between volume for a sphere and the length of its radius. 0
5 10 15
Length of the radius
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula A = 4π r2.

a Complete the table below.
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b Graph the surface area function.

THINK WRITE
a Substitute each value a

r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of r into the formula.
A 0 12.57 50.27 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 615.75 804.25 1017.88 1256.64
b 1 Plot each pair of b

points generated 3000 A = 4πr 2
by the table. 2500
2 Join the points 2000
Area
with a smooth
1500
curve and
extrapolate the 1000
graph. 500
0
0 5 10 15
Radius
Many graphs have physical restrictions placed on them. Consider the case h
of a ball that is thrown vertically upwards. The height, h, of the ball at any 12 h = 15t – 5t 2
time, t, can be given by the equation h = 15t − 5t2. The height of the ball 9
must always be positive, and when the ball returns to Earth we can consider
6
the height to be zero and so the graph stops as shown on the right.
When we graph several points, we try to estimate other values by 3
interpolating (estimating values between given points by drawing the
graph joining the points) or extrapolating (estimating values by extending 0 1 2 3 4 t
the graph beyond the points given).
Other graphs need to have restrictions placed upon them when we try to interpolate or extrapolate.
There may be a limit placed upon one or both of the variables, and this will indicate a change in the graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
A cinema owner believes that more people will attend the movies on cold days and so believes the
number of people attending each session of a movie varies inversely with the temperature of the day.
When the temperature is 15 °C, 80 people attend a movie. The cinema has a maximum of 120 seats,
Tutorial
int-2435
and the cinema owner believes that a minimum of 40 people will attend, regardless of temperature.
Worked a Write an equation connecting the number of people attending the movie, N, with the
example 16 temperature, T.
b Graph the relationship between attendance and temperature.
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write an inverse proportion statement. a N∝
T
k
2 Insert a constant of variation, k, to form an N=
T
equation.
3 Substitute the known values of N and T to When T = 15, N = 80
find the value of k. k
80 =
15
k = 1200
1200
4 Replace the known value of k in the N=
T
equation.

b 1 Create a table of values. b T 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
2 Substitute each value of T into the N 120 120 80 60 48 40 40
equation.
3 If the value of N > 120, then we enter 120 N
for N (maximum attendance); if N < 40, 120
enter 40 for N (minimum attendance).
100
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 T
4 Plot the points and join with a smooth

curve. The minimum and maximum
attendance is drawn with a straight line.
Exercise 12E Graphing physical phenomena

1 WE15 The surface area of a cube is given by the formula A = 6s2.
s 0 1 2 3 4 5
A
b Draw the graph to represent the surface area of a cube of a given side length.
2 The distance that an object will fall when dropped from a height can be given by the formula d = 5t2,
where d is in metres and t is in seconds. Draw a graph of the function.
3 A car is travelling at v km/h and the driver needs to brake. It takes 2.5 seconds to react and in that
time the car will travel a distance of 0.7v m. The total stopping distance, d, can be given by the
function d = 0.01v2 + 0.7v.
v 0 10 20 30 40
d
b Draw the graph of the stopping distance of a vehicle.

4 WE16 Lorraine organises a lottery syndicate at her work. If they win a prize of $100 000, the
amount is shared equally between the members of the syndicate. There must be at least one member
of the syndicate and a maximum of 10.
a Write an equation putting the amount, A, each person receives in terms of the number of
members, n.
5 A car is purchased new for $40 000. After one year the depreciated value of the car is $30 000. After
the first year the car depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a.
Age (years) 1 2 3 4 5
Value
b The car will always be worth a minimum of $2000 in scrap metal and accessories. Graph the
value of the car against the age of the car.

6 The mass of a newborn baby increases by
20% per month for the first four months of life.
If the average mass of a newborn baby is 3.3 kg,
graph the mass function up to n = 4.
7 A square piece of sheet metal has a side length
of 12 m. A square of side length x m is to be cut
from each corner of the sheet metal and the
sides bent up to form an open rectangular prism.
12 m
xm
a What is the maximum possible value of x?

b Show that the volume of the prism formed can
be given by the function V = x(12 − 2x)2.
c Graph the volume function.
8 The population of a city is growing at a rate of
5% p.a. If the population in 2007 is 1.5 million,
the population function can be given by the
function P = 1.5(1.05)n, where P is the population,
in millions. The city cannot sustain a population
greater than 4 000 000.
a Complete the table below.
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2020 2027

Population (million)
b Plot the points given and extrapolate to graph the population function.
c Use your graph to state when the population will reach its maximum sustainable level.
d What will happen to the graph when it reaches this level?
Further development
9 The following points represent a variation of the form y = kx2.
x 0 2 3 4 5
y 0 12 27 48 75
Find the value of k.

10 The Safety Council conducted research on the breaking distance of vehicles and its relationship to
the speed of the vehicle. The following data were obtained.
Speed (s) (km/h) 30 45 60 80 100

Breaking distance (d) (metres) 7.5 16.9 30 53.3 83.3
Find the equation relating d and s?

11 In an electrical circuit the current (I) flowing through a resistor for different resistance is shown in
the table below.
Resistance (R) (ohms) 100 200 1000 1500
Current (I) (milliamps) 300 150 30 20
Deduce a relationship between I and R.

a
12 The data in each of the tables below exactly fit one of these rules: y = ax2, y = ax3, y = or
x
y = a!x. For each set of data, plot the values of y against x, and hence select the most appropriate
rule and state the value of a.
a
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −8.1 −2.4 −0.3 0 0.3 2.4 8.1
b x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −24 −6 0 −6 −24 −54
c
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
y 0 1.13 1.6 1.96 2.26
d x 1 2 4 5 10
y 5 2.5 1.25 1 0.5
e
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
y 40.5 12 1.5 0 −1.5 −12
13 For her Science assignment, Rachel had to find the relationship between the intensity of the light, I,
and the distance between the observer and the source of light, d. From the experiments she obtained
the following results.
d 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
I 270 120 67.5 43.2 30 22.04 16.88
a Plot the values of I against d. What form of relationship does the graph suggest?
b Nathan (Rachel’s older brother) is a Physics student. He tells Rachel that from his studies he
a
is certain that the relationship is of the type I = . Use this formula to help Rachel to find the
2
model for the required relationship. d
14 Joseph is a financial adviser. He is studying the prices of shares of a particular company over the last
10 months.
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Price ($) 6.00 6.80 7.45 8.00 8.50 8.90 9.30 9.65 10.00 10.30
a Represent the information graphically.
b Establish a suitable mathematical model, which relates the share price, P, and the number of Digital doc
WorkSHEET 12.2
the month, m.
doc-11104
c Use your model to help Joseph predict the share price for the next 2 months.
Force of gravity
When an object is dropped, the distance that it will fall in
t seconds can be approximated by the formula d = 5t2.
The coefficient of t2 is half the force of gravity (10 m/s2)
and so will change if an object were to be dropped on another
planet. For example, on the moon this equation would
become d = 0.8t2.
1. Use a graphics calculator or graphing software to graph
the equations for both the Earth and the moon.
2. Find out the force of gravity on other planets and compare
the graphs formed with that for the Earth.

Summary
Quadratic functions • A quadratic function is a function where the independent variable is raised to the power of 2.
• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved graph with either a minimum
(positive x2 term) or a maximum (negative x2 term).
• A quadratic function is graphed by plotting the points formed from a table of at least seven values.
Cubes, hyperbolas • A cubic function uses a power of 3 for the independent variable. It is of the form y = ax3.
and exponential a
• A hyperbola is a function of the form y = . In a hyperbolic function, as one variable increases the
functions x
other decreases.
• An exponential function is of the form y = ax. When a > 1, an exponential function models
exponential growth, while if 0 < a < 1, the function models exponential decay.
• Each of these functions is graphed by plotting points from a table of values.
Direct variation • A variation occurs when one quantity changes in proportion with another.
• If one quantity varies directly with another, as one increases so does the other.
• If the quantity varies directly with the square of the other, it can be expressed as a function in the
form y = ax2. If it varies with the cube of another, it can be expressed in the form y = ax3.
Inverse variation • An inverse variation occurs when one quantity decreases, while the other increases. An inverse
a
variation can be expressed in the form y = .
x
• The constant of variation, a, is calculated by using a known quantity of each variable. Once this
has been calculated, if we know one quantity we can calculate the other.
Graphing physical • Algebraic models can be used to represent many physical situations.
phenomena • When graphing physical phenomena, we need to consider any restrictions that may exist on one or
both of the variables.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following equations is an example of a quadratic function?
m u lti p l e
2
A y = 2x2 + 1 B y = C 2y = x3 + 1 D x + 2y + 1 = 0 c hoic e
x
2 Which of the following quadratic equations is equivalent to y = (x − 3) + 7?
2
A y = x2 − 3x − 2 B y = x2 − 3x + 16 C y = x2 − 6x − 2 D y = x2 − 6x + 16
3 The graph shown below could have the equation: y
A y = x2
2
B y =
x
C y = 2x
1 x
D y = Q R x
2
4 It is known that y varies inversely with x. The variation can be modelled by the equation:
a
A y = ax B y = ax2 C y = ax3 D y =
x
1 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 4x + 5: S ho rt

a nsw er
a copy and complete the table of values below
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
b draw the graph of the function for x ≥ 0
c state the minimum value of the function y = x2 − 4x + 5.
2 For the quadratic function y = x2 − 2x − 2, draw a table of values and use the table to sketch the
graph for x ≥ 0.
3 Sketch each of the following quadratic functions for x ≥ 0.
a y = (x − 4)2 b y = 5 − x2 c y = 4 + 2x − x2
4 An object is dropped from a height of 500 m. Its height above the ground at any time, t, is given by
the function h = 500 − 5t2.
a Draw the graph of the function.
b How many seconds does it take for the object to fall to Earth?
5 A team of workers are digging a mine shaft. The number of kilograms of earth moved each hour
by the team is given by the function E = 24n − n2, where n is the number of workers digging
the shaft.
b What is the maximum amount of earth that can be moved by the team of workers in one hour?
How many workers are needed to move this amount of earth?
c Explain possible reasons why the amount of earth moved each hour then begins to decrease as
more workers are used.
6 Graph each of the following cubic functions for x ≥ 0.
1
a y = x3 b y = 2 x3
7 Graph each of the following hyperbolic functions for x > 0.

1 2
a y = b y =
x x
8 Graph each of the following exponential functions.
1 x
a y = 2x b y = Q 2 R
9 The average inflation rate is 4% p.a. In 2006 it cost the average family $500 per week in living
expenses. The future cost of living, C, can be estimated using the function C = 500(1.04)n where n is
the number of years since 2006.
a Graph the cost of living function.
b Use the graph to estimate the cost of living in 2016.
c When will the cost of living first reach $1000 per week?

10 If the value of a computer purchased for $5000 depreciates by 20% p.a., the future value of the
computer, V, can be given by the equation V = 5000(0.8)n, where n is the age of the computer, in years.
b Find when the value of the computer is approximately $1000.
11 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. When x = 4, y = 80. Write an equation
connecting x with y.
12 The mass, m, of an egg varies directly with the cube of its length, l. An egg of length 5.5 cm, has a
mass of 75 g.
a Write an equation connecting m with l.
b Find the mass of an egg with a length of 5 cm.
c Find the length of a 50 g egg.
13 It is known that y varies inversely with x. When x = 8, y = 8; write an equation connecting y with x.
14 The amount of food in a camp varies inversely with the number of people to feed. There is enough
food to feed 100 campers for 10 days.
a Write an equation connecting the amount of food, A, with the number of campers, n.
b Calculate how long the food would last 125 campers.
c If the food lasts for four days, calculate the number of campers.
15 The area of a circle is given by the formula A = πr2.
r 0 1 2 3 4 5
A
b Draw the graph of A against r.
16 A ball is thrown directly up in the air. The height, h, of the ball at any time, t, can be found using the
equation h = 20t − 5t2.
a Draw a graph of the height equation.
b Use the graph to find:
i the maximum height of the ball
ii the time taken for the ball to fall back to earth.
17 An investment of $10 000 at 6% p.a. can be modelled using the equation A = 10 000(1.06)n, where n
is the number of years of the investment.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the investment after 8 years.
c Use your graph to find the amount of time that it will take for the investment to grow to $15 000.
Ext end ed 1 As a fundraising activity, a school hires a cinema to show the premiere of a movie. The cost of hiring
R espons e
the cinema is $500. People are then charged $10 to attend the movie.
a Write a function for the profit or loss made on the movie in terms of the number of people attending.
c Use the graph to calculate the number of people who must attend the movie for the school to
break even.
d A rival cinema offers to waive the hire fee but the school will receive only $5 per person
attending. On the same axes graph the function P = 5n.
e The school chose to pay the $500 and receive $10 per person. How many people must attend the
premiere to make this the better of the two options?
2 A rock is thrown from a cliff 20 m above ground level. The height of the rock at any time is given by
the quadratic function h = 20 + 15t − 5t2.
t 0 1 2 3 4
h
b Graph the function and use your graph to find the maximum height reached by the ball.

2
3 a On the one set of coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of y = 2x3 and y = .
x
2
b Use your graphs to find the point of intersection of the graphs y = 2x3 and y = .
x
4 The growth of an investment made at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 1.08x.
b Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the investment to double
in value. Digital doc
c The depreciation of an item at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 0.92x. Graph this Test Yourself
doc-11105
function.
Chapter 12
d Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the item to halve in value.

Activities
12A Quadratic functions 12D Inverse variation
Interactivity Tutorial
• int-2785: Sketching parabolas. (page 329) • WE14 int-2434: Calculating using inverse variation. (page 343)
Tutorial
• WE2 int-2432: Graphing a quadratic function. (page 331) 12E Graphing physical phenomena
Digital doc Tutorial
• Spreadsheet (doc-1392): Graphing quadratics. (page 332) • WE16 int-2435: Graphing a physical situation. (page 346)
Digital doc
12B Cubics, hyperbolas and exponential functions • WorkSHEET 12.2 (doc-11104): Apply your knowledge of graphing
Interactivity physical situations. (page 349)
• int-1149: Exponential graphs. (page 334)
Tutorial Chapter review
• WE5 int-2433: Graphing hyperbolic functions. (page 334) Digital doc
Digital doc • Test Yourself (doc-11105): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
• Spreadsheet (doc-1394): Function grapher. (page 336) progress. (page 353)
12C Direct variation To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

Tutorial
• WE12 int-1057: Calculating using variation. (page 339)
Digital doc
• WorkSHEET 12.1 (doc-11103): Apply your knowledge of non-linear
relationships to problems. (page 341)

Answers chapter 12
Modelling non-linear 6 a The coefficient will make the graph 14 a d
steeper if it is greater than 1 and 125
relationships flatten the graph if it lies between 100 d = 5t2
Exercise 12A Quadratic functions 0 and 1. 75
1 a b Adding a constant will lift the graph 50
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
while subtracting a constant will lower 25
y 3 2 3 6 11 18 the graph.
7 y
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
b y y = x2 – 2x + 3 y = x2 – 2x + 5
20
18 b 80 m c 10 s
15 16
12 15 a h h = 30t – 5t2
9 12
6 40
3 8
–10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 4
–1 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
c Min. value = 2
0 t
2 y y = x2 – 4x – 2 0 2 4 6
They are the same function.

6
8 y b 45 m c
6s
3
16 a x
4
–3 0 1 3 5 x
–3 2
50 – x
–6 0 12 45 x
–2
y Sum of adjacent sides = 50 m
3 a –4
2
6 y = x – 6x + 5 b A = l × b
–6
4 = x(50 − x)
y = 2 + 2x – x2
2 = 50x − x2
c A
9 a 16y A = 50x – x2
–2 0 1 2 3 4 5 x y = 4 + 6x – x2 600
–2 12
–4
8 400
b y 2 4
y=x +x+5
25 0 1 2 3 4 5x 200
20 –4
15 –8
0 x
10 0 20 40
b 9y
5 d 625 m2 when the field is 25 m × 25 m
0 1 2 3 4 x
6 17 a A = l × b
3 = x(100 − 2x)
c y 0 1 2 4 5x = 100x − 2x2
10 y = (x – 2)2 –3 b A = 100x – 2x2
1200
8 –6
6 –9
y = 8 – x2 800
4
2
c y = (2 – x)2 400
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 4
2 0
4 y y = x2 x
y = 2x2 0 20 40
25 (b) (a) 0 2 4x c 25 m × 50 m
–2
20
–4 18 a Narrower, TP (0, 0)
15 y = 1_ x2 b Wider, (0, 0)
2 –6
(c)
10 c Narrower, TP (0, 0)
5
10 D d Narrower, TP (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 11 C e Wider, TP (0, 0)
12 D f Wider, TP (0, 0)
5 y y = x2+ 3 y = x2 13 y y = 2x2 – 4x + 8 g Narrower, TP (0, 0)
9 y = x2– 3 25 h Narrower, TP (0, 0)
20 19 a Narrower, minimum
6 (b) 15 b Narrower, maximum
10 c Wider, minimum
3 5 d Wider, maximum
(a) (c) e Narrower, maximum
C 1 2 3 4 5 x
f Wider, minimum
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 g Narrower, minimum
–3 h Wider, maximum
i Narrower, minimum

j Narrower, maximum c y 12 V
k Narrower, minimum 1 2 3 4 5 40 000 V = 40 000(0.85)n
l Narrower, maximum 0 x 30 000
–1 y = – 1–x
20 20 h 20 000
–2
21 a 200 10 000
–3
b 0 n
h 0 5 10 15 20 30 50 –4 0 1 2 3 4 5
N 200 201 199 193 183 153 46 –5 13 a y
(2, 12)
c 56.4 h 5 y
22 a 1 m b
0.4375 m 40
30 y = 3x
Exercise 12B
Cubics, hyperbolas and
20 (1, 5)
exponential functions 4
10
1 y
8 0
7 0 1 2 3 4 x 0 x
6
5 y=x 3
6 a y
4 b y
3 40
2
1 y = 4x (2, 7)
0 30
0 1 2 3 4 x 20
2 a y 10
50 0
40 0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1
x
y = 3x3 –1
30 b y
20 100
10 80
60 y = 10 x c y
0
0 1 2 3 4 x
40
1
b y 20
10 0 x
0 1
8 y = –1 x3 0 1 2 3 4 x –1 2
2
6 c y
4 3
2 2 x
y = (1–2 )
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 14 a y
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
c y
7 y (1, 2)
0 2 3 4 x 40 y=1
–2 1
–4 30 x
y = –x3 y = 5(2 ) x
–6 20 0
10
0
3 y 0 1 2 3 4
x
4 b y
8 C
4
y = –x 9 B
2 10 A
1 (1, 12)
1600 y=0
0 x 0 x
0 1 2 3 4 1400
1200 A = 1000(1.1)n
4 a y
4 1000
3 0 15 a y y = 2x – 1
2 y = –x
1 0 2 4 6 8 n
1 11 a A = 50 000(1.12)n
0 b A
0 1 2 3 4 x
65 000 (0, 0.5)
b y y=0
0 x
8 A = 50 000(1.12)n
55 000
6 10
y=—
x
4
0
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 n Asymptote: y = 0; y-intercept: (0, 0.5);
0 c 3 years
domain: (−∞, ∞); range: (0, ∞)
0 2 4 6 8 x

b y y = 3x + 2
Exercise 12D Inverse variation 13 a 17 500
(0, 9) 1000 1000 b $233.33
1 a k = 1000, x = or y = c 70
y x
d $17 500
b y
1000 14 a 200
800 b 1 amp
y=0 c 13.3 ohms
0 x 600
400 15 a 200
200 b 2 min
Asymptote: y = 0; y-intercept: (0, 9); 0 c 600 mHz
domain: (−∞, ∞); range: (0, ∞) 0 5 10 15 20 25 x 16 a 10 500
c y y = 2x + 3 48 b 210 days
2 a k = 48, p =
q c 105 workers
b p Exercise 12E
50 Graphing physical
40 phenomena
(0, 4) 30 1 a
s 0 1 2 3 4 5
y=0 20
0 x 10
A 0 6 24 54 96 150
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 q
Asymptote: y = 0; y-intercept: (0, 4); 42
b A
domain: (−∞, ∞); range: (0, ∞) 3 a k = 42, y = 400
x 320
Exercise 12C Direct variation b y
50 240
1 y = 5.5x2 160 A = 6s2
40
2 b = 0.5a3
30 80
3 a d = 4.9t2
20 0
b d 0 2 4 6 8 10 s
50 10
0 2 d
40 0 2 4 6 8 10 x 500
30
50 400
20 4 y =
d = 4.9t
2 x 300
10 1 200
0 5 m = d = 5t2
0 1 2 3 4 t n 100
150 0
4 a 6 b 230.64 cm2 6 a t = 0 2 4 6 8 10 t
5 a 3.14 b 452.16 cm2 s
b t 3 a
6 a 0.25 b 54 kg c 6.5 cm v 0 10 20 30 40
50
7 a i 148.8 cm
40
ii 68.5 kg d 0 8 18 30 44
30
b 0.0248 150
20 t=— b d d = 0.01v 2 + 0.7v
8 a 570.15 L s
10 40
b The Nissan Pulsar as it uses less petrol
0 30
to cover 100 km. 0 10 20 30 40 50 s
20
9 a 1818 m2 7 a 20
b $35 750 10
b 2 hours 0
10 a i 12 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 v
8 12 km/L or 8 L/100 km
ii 8 3
b 16.73 9 8 amps 100 000
4 a A =
10w 10 a 4000 n
11 a h =
7 4000 b A
5 b a = 100 000
b 85 cm m
7 80 000
c 20 m/s2
c 70 cm 60 000
d 4 m/s2 A = 100—
n
000
12 40 40 000
500
13 a 624 km 11 a n = 20 000
c
b 38 h 30 min 0
b 2500 0 2 4 6 8 10 n
c 47 h 30 min c 2000
14 a 4WD = 81.9 L, Small car = 38.4 L 12 a 337.5
b 2132 km b 3 h 58 min
15 a 48 L/100 km or 0.48 L/km c 96.42 km/h
b 2920 km d 337.5 km

5 a 14 a P
Age (years) 1 2 3 4 5
Value $30 000 $24 000 $19 200 $15 360 $12 288 (4, 8)
b V
40 000 (0, 4)
30 000 V = 30 000(0.8)n–1
20 000 m
10 000 b p = 2!m + 4
0 n c m = 11,
0 2 4 6 8 10 p = 2!11 + 4
6 W = 10.63
8 W = 3.3(1.2)n m = 12,
6 p = 2!12 + 4
4 = $10.93
2
0 n Chapter Review
0 1 2 3 4
Multiple choice
7 a Just less than 6
1 B
b V = l × b × h = (12 − 2x)(12 − 2x)x = x(12 − 2x)2
c 2 D
V V = x(12 – 2x)2 3 B
125 4 D
100
Short answer
75
50 1 a
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
25
0 y 5 2 1 2 5 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
b y 1
c
8 a
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2020 2027 10
y = x2 – 4x + 5
8
Population
1.5 1.58 1.65 1.74 1.82 2.83 3.98 6
(million)
4
b P 2
4 P = 1.5(1.05)n 0
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
2 2 y = x2 – 2x – 2
y
1
6
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 n 4
c 2027 2
d The graph will become a straight, horizontal line. 0 1 2 3 4 x
9 k = 3 –2
10 d = 0.008 33s2 –4
30000
11 I = 3 a y y
b
R 20 4 y = 5 – x2
y = (x – 4)2
12 a y = ax3, a = 0.3 16
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x
b y = ax2, a = −6 12 –4
c y = a!x, a = 1.6 8 –8
a
d y = , a = 5 4 –12
x 0
e y = ax3, a = −1.5 0 2 4 6 8x
13 a I c y y = 4 + 2x – x2
(1, 270) 4
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–4
–8
–12
(15, 1.2)
d
270
b I =
d2

4 a h 9 a C Extended response
500 1000 1 a P = 10n − 500
h = 500 – 5t2
400 750 b, d P
300 500 C = 500(1.04)n 2000 P = 10n – 500
200 250 1500
100 0 1000
0 4 8 12 16 20 n P = 5n
0 500
0 2 4 6 8 10 t b $740
0 n
b 10 s c 2024
50
0
0
0
–500
10
15
20
5 a E 10 a V –1000
150 E = 24n – n2 5000
120 4000 c 50
e More than 100 people
90 3000 V = 5000(0.8)n
2 a
60 2000 t 0 1 2 3 4
30 1000
h 20 30 30 20 0
0 n 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 2 4 6 8 10 n b h h = 20 + 15t – 5t2
30
b 144 kg, 12 workers b 7 years
c Too many people getting in each other’s 11 y = 5x2
way etc. 20
12 a m = 0.45l3
6 a y b 56.25 g
8 c 4.8 cm 10
6 y = x3 64
13 y = 0
4 x t
0 1 2 3 4 5
2 1000
14 a A = Max. height = 31.25 m when t = 1.5
0 x n
0 1 2 3 4 3 a y
b 8 days 10
b y
10 c 250 campers 8
6 y = 2x3
8 1 15 a
y = –2 x3 r 0 1 2 3 4 5 4
6
4 2 y = 2–x
A 0 3.14 12.57 28.27 50.27 78.54
2 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
0 b A
0 1 2 3 4 x b (1, 2)
80
7 a y A = πr2
4 a y
60
4 4
1 40 y = 1.08x
3 y = –x 3
20
2 2
0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 r 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 x 16 a h
h = 20t – 5t2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
b y 20
b 10 years
4 16 c y
2
3 y = –x 12 1
y = 0.92x
2 8 0.75
1 4 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 t 0.25
0
8 a y b i 20 m 0 2 4 6 8 x
ii 4s d 8 years
16 y = 2x 17 a A
12 18 000 A = 10 000(1.06)n
8 16 000
4 14 000
0 12 000
0 1 2 3 4 x
b y 10 000
2 0
1 x 0 2 4 6 8 10 n
1 y = ( –2)
0 b $16 000
0 1 2 3 4 x c 7 years

Chapter 13
Mathematics and health
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Body measurement
13A Drawing scatterplots
13B Correlation
13C Fitting a regression line
Medication
13D Units of measurement
13E Dosage rate
Life expectancy
13F Life expectancy
Body measurements
13A Drawing scatterplots
Do you know your height and weight? It is reasonable to assume that a taller person of average build
is heavier than a shorter person of similar build. In this section we are going to compare various
measurements and try and develop a few ‘rules’ that will allow us to make an estimate of one Interactivity
measurement when given another. int-2789
The table below shows the height and weight (mass) of a group of football players in the 2013 Scatterplots
St George–Illawarra Dragons squad.
Player Height Mass Player Height Mass

Matt Cooper 187 cm 95 kg Michael Weyman 185 cm 113 kg
Nathan Fien 182 cm 84 kg Jack de Belin 188 cm 107 kg
Brett Morris 183 cm 93 kg Ben Creagh 191 cm 103 kg
Jason Nightingale 183 cm 91 kg Dan Hunt 188 cm 106 kg
The figure below shows this information in the form of a scatterplot.

115
110
105
Mass (kg)
100
95
90
85
80
180 182 184 186 188 190 192
Height (cm)
Chapter 13 • Mathematics and health 361

When drawing a scatterplot, it is important to choose the correct variable to assign to each of the
axes. The convention is to place the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on
the y-axis. The independent variable in an experiment or investigation is the variable that is deliberately
controlled or adjusted by the investigator. The dependent variable is the variable that responds to changes
in the independent variable.
Neither of the variables involved in the football example is controlled in any way, but we might normally
expect that a person’s weight may change according to their height more than the other way around. As
‘Weight’ is the dependent variable, we graph it on the vertical axis and the ‘Height’ on the horizontal axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The table below shows the height and mass of ten Year 12 students.
Height (cm) 120 124 130 135 142 148 160 164 170 175
Mass (kg) 45 50 54 59 60 65 70 78 75 80
Display the data on a scatterplot.
THINK WRITE
1 Show the height on the horizontal axis and the 80
mass on the vertical axis. 70
Mass (kg)
60
2 Plot the point given by each pair. 50
40
30
0
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Height (cm)
2 Delete any existing data, and store the data for

height in List 1 and mass in List 2.
3 Press 1 (GRPH) (you may have to press 6

for more options first); then press 6 (SET). Set
the graph type to Scatter by arrowing down to
graph type and pressing 1 (Scat) (again you
may have to press 6 for more options first).
Ensure that XList is List 1, YList is List 2 and
Frequency is 1 as shown at right.
4 Press J to return to the previous screen, and
then press 1 (GPH1). The scatterplot will then
be drawn.
Note that the graphics calculator sets the values on the x- and y-axes automatically. You can press
! 3 (V-Window) to set the scale as you see fit.

InvestigatE: Height versus mass
Obtain the heights and weights (or masses) of a group of 20 people and display the data on a scatterplot.
Compare the differences between this group and the football players.
Once we have obtained a set of data and put the data onto a scatterplot it is useful to draw a ‘line of
best fit’, if possible. A line of best fit is a line that we draw on the scatterplot as close as possible to as
many points on the scatterplot.
When fitting a line of best fit there should be an equal number of points above and below the line.
For example, if there are 12 points in the data set there should be 6 above the line and 6 below the
line. This may appear logical or even obvious but fitting a line by eye involves a considerable margin
of error.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Fit a straight line to the data in the figure using the y

equal-number-of-points method.
THINK DRAW
1 Note that the number of points (n) is 8.
2 Fit a line where 4 points are above the line. Using a clear plastic y
ruler, try to fit the best line.
3 The first attempt has only 3 points below the line where there y
should be 4. Make refinements.
4 The second attempt is an improvement, but the line is too close y

to the points above it. Improve the position of the line until a
better balance between upper and lower points is achieved.
Once the scatterplot has been drawn, we can determine if any pattern is evident. Worked example 2
shows how, as a general rule, as height increases so does mass.
We can also look to see if the pattern is linear. In Worked example 2, although the points are not in a
perfect straight line, the data approximate a straight line. The figures below show examples of linear and
non-linear relationships.

Linear relationships
y y
0 x 0 x
Non-linear relationships
y y
0 x x
0
y y
0 x 0 x

In other cases it may be that there is no relationship at all between the two variables. Such a scatterplot
would look like the one below.
y
0 x
The following worked example shows an example of a non-linear relationship.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The table below shows the length and mass of a dozen eggs.
Length (cm) 6.2 3.9 4.5 5.8 7.2 7.6 6.1 6.7 7.3 5.1 6.0 7.3
Mass (g) 60 15 25 50 95 110 55 75 95 35 54 96
a Display this information in a scatterplot.
b Determine if there is any relationship between the length and mass of the eggs and state if the
relationship is linear.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Display length on the a 120

x-axis and mass on the
y-axis. 100
Mass (kg)
80
2 Plot the point given by
each pair. 60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length (cm)
b 1 Study the scatterplot to b As length increases, so does the mass of the egg.
see if mass increases as
length increases.
2 Study the scatterplot to The points do not approximate a straight line, and so the
see if the points seem to relationship is not linear.
approximate a straight line.
Once a line of best fit has been drawn we are able to use our knowledge of linear functions to find the
equation of that line.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The table below shows the waist measurements of nine

people and their weights.
Waist (cm) 102 90 85 92 99 76 84 82 90
Weight (kg) 80 77 75 77 81 65 68 71 79
Represent the data in a scatterplot, and draw a line

a
of best fit by eye.
Use your line to find an equation to relate the weight
b
to waist measurement.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw the axis with the a 90

number of sections on 80
the horizontal axis and
70
the fare on the vertical
60
axis.
Weight (kg)
50
2 Plot the data and
40
draw your line on the
scatterplot. 30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Waist (cm)

b 1 Find the y-intercept. b b = 20
2 Choose two points on Take (0, 20) and (102, 80)

the line and use the vertical change in position
gradient formula. It m=
is easiest to make the
80 − 20
y-intercept one of your =
points. 102 − 0
= 0.59
3 Use the gradient W = 0.59x + 20
intercept form of a
straight line to write
your equation.
Exercise 13A Drawing scatterplots

1 WE1 The list below is a group of famous boxers.
The table shows their heights and their reach
with outstretched arms.
Name Height (cm) Reach (cm)
George Foreman 193 208
Tyson Fury 206 216
Muhammad Ali 191 203
Michael Tyson 178 180
Floyd Mayweather 173 183
Jeff Fenech 172 171
Kostya Tszyu 170 170
Manny Pacquia 167 170
Vick Darchinian 166 164
Billy Dib 172 171
Danny Green 185 185
Daniel Geale 178 180
Anthony Mundine 180 178
Display this data on a scatterplot.
2 The data below shows some famous models, their height and waist
measurements.
Name Height Waist
Miranda Kerr 175 cm 61 cm
Gisele Bundchen 180 cm 63 cm
Elle McPherson 183 cm 62 cm
Megan Gale 180 cm 64 cm
Jennifer Hawkins 180 cm 67 cm
Kate Moss 173 cm 61 cm
Heidi Klum 185 cm 60 cm
Naomi Campbell 175 cm 65 cm
Brooke Burke 170 cm 58 cm
Brooklyn Decker 172 cm 60 cm
Cindy Crawford 177 cm 66 cm
Lara Bingle 168 cm 60 cm
Display this data on a scatterplot.

3 WE2,3 The table below shows the foot lengths F, of 20 people
and the width of their hand spans, H. Display this information in
a scatterplot.
F 22 21 24 23 22 19 21 24 20 21
H 17 17 18 18 19 16 20 21 17 18
F 25 26 26 27 22 22 19 23 21 25
H 21 22 23 22 19 18 17 18 20 19
a Display the results in a scatterplot.

b Determine if there is any relationship between foot length and hand span. If so, state whether the
relationship is linear.
4 The table below shows the heights of a group of people (in metres) and the surface area of skin on
their bodies (in square metres).
Height (m) 1.6 1.66 1.69 1.7 1.74 1.77 1.77 1.8 1.82
Skin area (m2) 1.6 1.64 1.7 1.71 1.82 1.9 1.95 1.95 2.2
a Display the information on a scatterplot.

b Is there any relationship between height and skin area? If there does appear to be a relationship,
is the relationship linear?
5 The table below shows forearm length and hair length (both in cm)
of 10 girls.
Forearm length (cm) 40 35 30 33 35 32 33 39 37 36
Hair length (cm) 12 5 32 15 18 9 17 16 27 30

b Determine if there appears to be any relationship between the
two variables and if the relationship appears to be linear.
6 MC Which of the following scatterplots does not display a linear relationship?
A y B y
x
x
C y D y
x x

7 MC In which of the following is no relationship evident between the variables?
A y B y
x
x
C y D y
x x
8 Give an example of a situation where the scatterplot may look like the ones below.
a y b y
0 x 0 x
Further development
9 If a relationship appears to exist and if one quantity increases and the other also increases, then the
relationship is said to be a positive one. If as one quantity increases the other decreases, then the
relationship is said to be negative.
For each of the following state whether you would expect a relationship to exist and if so whether
it would be positive or negative.
a Time spent studying and the marks achieved
b The number of hours spent training for a cricket team and the number of runs scored
c Age of a person and income level
d Amount spent each week on groceries and the number of hours television watched
e The amount spent on petrol each week and the distance driven
10 For each of the scatterplots drawn below state:
i if a linear relationship exists
ii if a relationship exists, whether that relationship is positive or negative.
a y b y c y
x x x
d y e y f y
x x x
The questions below represent data collected by groups of students conducting different
environmental projects. The students have to fit a straight line to their data sets.
Note: For many of these questions your answers may differ somewhat from those provided at the end
of the chapter. The answers are provided as a guide but there are likely to be individual differences
when fitting straight lines by eye.

11 Fit a straight line to the data in the scatterplots using the equal-number-of-points
method.
a y b y c y
x x x
d y e y f y
x
x x
g y h y i y
x x x
12 For each of the following draw a line of best fit and for each find:
i the gradient
ii the vertical intercept.
a y b y
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 x 0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
c y
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 x
0 5 10 15 20 25
13 WE4 The table below shows the length of an elastic when stretched by a force expressed in
newtons.
Force 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Length 440 450 462 470 484 492 500 508 518 528
a Represent the data in a scatterplot, and draw a line of best fit by eye.
b Use your line to find an equation to relate the length (L) to the force (f ).
c Explain the meaning of the vertical intercept and gradient of the line in this context.

13B Correlation
Correlation is a description of the relationship that exists between two variables. When one variable
increases with another, it is said that there is a positive correlation between the variables. In such a case,
the median regression line will have a positive gradient. Similarly, if one variable decreases while the
other increases, the median regression line will have a negative gradient and the correlation is negative.
Consider the following examples in which ten Year 11 students were surveyed to find the amount of
time in hours that they spend doing exercise each week. This was compared with their blood cholesterol
level.
Period of exercise (h) 6 8 12 16 2 0 5 8 7 12

Blood cholesterol level 4 3 3 3 9 8 9 6 5 4
Blood cholesterol level

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Period of exercise (h)
In this example there seems to be a general downward trend, and the line of best fit therefore has a
negative gradient. As the amount of exercise increases, the level of blood cholesterol decreases.
Notice that in this case the points are not as closely aligned as in the previous examples. We can say
that the relationship (or correlation) between the variables is only weak. In general terms, the closer that
the points are to forming a straight line, the stronger the relationship is between the variables.
Sometimes we find that there is no relationship between the variables. In the scatterplot below,
a researcher was looking for a link between people’s heights and their IQs. The points appear to be
randomly dispersed across the scatterplot. In cases like this, it can be concluded that there is no clear
relationship between the variables.
140
120
IQ
100
80
60
120 140 160 180 200
Height (m)
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
In the figure on the right, describe the correlation as being positive or negative.
100
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)

THINK WRITE
1 Add a line of best fit to the

scatterplot. 100
90
Weight (kg)
2 The gradient of the regression 80
70
line is positive. 60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
3 Describe the correlation. There is a positive correlation.
The strength of a correlation is measured using the Pearson’s Moment Correlation Coefficient. The
correlation coefficient is a measure the relationship between two variables.
The correlation coefficient is a number that lies between −1 and +1. It measures how close the points Interactivity
on a scatterplot are to being in a straight line. Your calculator will give you this value and it is assigned int-0183
the pronumeral r. Pearson’s
product moment
A correlation coefficient of: correlation
• −1 means that there is a perfect negative correlation. On the scatterplot the points will be in a perfect coefficient
straight line with a negative gradient.
• +1 means that there is a perfect positive correlation. On the scatterplot the points will be in a perfect
straight line with a positive gradient.
• 0 means there is no relationship at all between the two variables.
Any other correlation coefficient will indicate whether there is a positive or negative relationship
between the variables and how strong that relationship is. The closer the correlation coefficient is to −1
the stronger the negative relationship is, the closer to +1 it is the stronger the positive relationship. The
diagram below demonstrates this a bit further.
Correlation coefficient Description Scatterplot

1 Perfect positive correlation
Between 0.75 and 1 Strong positive correlation
Between 0.5 and 0.75 Moderate positive correlation
Between 0.25 and 0.5 Weak positive correlation
(continued)

(continued)
Correlation coefficient Description Scatterplot

Between −0.25 and 0.25 No correlation
Between −0.5 and −0.25 Weak negative correlation
Between −0.75 and −0.5 Moderate negative correlation
Between −1 and −0.75 Strong negative correlation
−1 Perfect negative correlation
The correlation coefficient is found using a calculator once the data has been entered. Check with your
teacher on how your calculator calculates the value of r.
Once we have calculated the correlation coefficient we are then able to comment on the strength of
that correlation.
Again consider the data used earlier in the chapter about the football team.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The data below shows the heights (cm) and mass (kg) of the players in a football squad.
Player Height Mass Player Height Mass

Matt Cooper 187 cm 95 kg Michael Weyman 185 cm 113 kg
Nathan Fien 182 cm 84 kg Jack de Belin 188 cm 107 kg
Brett Morris 183 cm 93 kg Ben Creagh 191 cm 103 kg
Jason Nightingale 183 cm 91 kg Dan Hunt 188 cm 106 kg
Use a calculator to find the correlation coefficient and interpret the strength of the correlation.

THINK WRITE
1 Enter the data into your calculator as two

separate data sets — one for height and
one for weight.
2 Find the correlation coefficient. r = 0.62
3 Refer to the table on pages 371–2 to This represents moderate, positive correlation, which
interpret the strength of the correlation. means that taller football players tend to be heavier.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Researchers looking at a cure for ‘whooping cough’ test a

new drug.
The researchers calculate a correlation coefficient for the
quantity of the drug taken and the number of bouts of
coughing as being −0.65. Describe the correlation
between the dosage of the drug and the number of bouts
of coughing.
THINK WRITE
The correlation coefficient is between −0.5 There is a moderate negative correlation between
and −0.75 and so it is a moderate negative the dosage given and the number of coughing bouts
correlation. patients have.
This means that the higher the dosage of the drug the
fewer coughing bouts experienced by patients.
Causality
Causality refers to one variable causing another. For example,
there is a high correlation between a person’s shoe size and shirt
size. However, one does not cause the other. Similarly, there is a
high correlation between number of cigarettes smoked and lung
cancer but, in this case, there is plenty of scientific evidence
to show smoking does cause lung cancer.
Explain whether a positive or negative relationship exists and
discuss causality in each of the following.
1. Hours of study and exam marks
2. Hours of exercise and resting pulse rate
3. Weight and shirt size
4. The number of hotels and churches in country towns
5. The number of motels in a town and the number of flights
landing at the nearest airport
It is possible to make a qualitative judgement as to the type
of correlation that is involved in a relationship by the general
appearance of the graph. Care must be taken before making a
statement about one variable causing the other.
Just because there is a strong relationship between two variables, it does not mean that one variable
causes the other. For example, there is a very strong positive correlation in people between their shoe
size and their shirt size, but one does not cause the other.
Similarly, there is a very strong correlation between the amount of study done for an exam and the
result achieved on the exam. In this case it can be argued that the study causes the high exam mark.
Each case needs to be considered on its merit.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A manufacturer who is interested in minimising the cost of training gives 15 of his plant
operators different amounts of training and then measures the number of errors made by each
of these operators. The results of the experiment are placed on a scatterplot and the correlation
between the number of hours of training and the number of errors made is measured to have a
correlation coefficient of −0.69.
a What can be said of the correlation between training and errors?
b What conclusion could the manufacturer make about causality in this case?
THINK WRITE
a 1 The correlation coefficient is between −0.75 a

and −0.5.
2 A correlation coefficient in this range There is a moderate negative correlation
indicates a moderate negative correlation. between the amount of training and the
number of errors made.
b In this case it would seem logical that those b The manufacturer could reasonably presume that
that have undertaken more training would make the more training a person is given, the less likely
fewer errors. they are to make errors with the machinery.
Exercise 13B Correlation

1 WE5 For each of the following, state whether a positive or negative correlation exists.
a b c
2 A sample of 10 drivers was taken. Each driver was asked

their age and the number of speeding offences they had
committed in the past five years.
The results are in the table below.
Age 22 36 48 40 58 64 23 25 30 45
Speeding 4 2 1 1 2 0 3 7 1 0
offences
b State if there is a positive or a negative correlation between the age and speeding offences.
3 Match each of the following scatterplots with the correlation that it shows.
a b c d
A B C D
e f g
E F G
Strong positive correlation Moderate positive correlation
Weak positive correlation No correlation
Weak negative correlation Moderate negative correlation
Strong negative correlation

4 WE6 A pie seller at a football notices that there seems to be a relationship between the
number of pies that he sells and the temperature of the day.
He collects the following data.
Daily temperature (°C) 12 22 26 11 8 18 14 16 15 16

Number of pies sold 620 315 295 632 660 487 512 530 546 492
a Draw a scatterplot of the data.

b State the type of correlation that the scatterplot shows and draw a conclusion from
the graph.
5 A researcher is investigating the effect of living in air-conditioned buildings upon general health.
She records the following data.
Hours spent each week in air Number of days sick due to

conditioned buildings flu and colds
2 3
13 6
6 2
48 15
40 13
0 8
10 14
0 1
2 16
5 9
18 9
10 6
a Plot the data on a scatterplot.

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.
c The researcher finishes her experimental report by concluding that air-conditioning is the cause of
poor health. Is she correct to say this? What other factors could have influenced the relationship
shown by the scatterplot?
6 The data below shows the population and area of the Australian states and territories.
State Area (× 1000 km2) Population (× 1000)

Vic. 228 5092
NSW 802 6828
ACT 2 329
Qld 1727 4053
NT 1346 207
WA 2526 2051
SA 984 1555
Tas. 68 489

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.

7 In an experiment, 12 people were administered different doses of a drug. When the drug had taken
effect, the time taken for each person to react to a set stimulus was measured. The results are
detailed below.
Amount of drug (mg) Reaction time (s)

0.1 0.030
0.2 0.025
0.3 0.028
0.4 0.036
0.5 0.040
0.6 0.052
0.7 0.046
0.8 0.068
0.9 0.085
1.0 0.092
1.1 0.084
1.2 0.096

b State the type of correlation the graph shows, and draw a conclusion from it.
8 WE7 What type of correlation would be represented by scatterplots that had the following
correlation coefficients?
a 1.0 b 0.4 c 0.8 d −0.7
e 0.35 f 0.21 g −0.75 h −0.50
i −0.25 j −1.0
9 A researcher investigating the proposition that ‘tall mothers have tall sons’ measures the heights
of 12 mothers and the heights of their adult sons. The correlation coefficient is found to be 0.67.
Describe the correlation between tall mothers and tall sons.
10 A teacher who is interested in the amount of time students spend doing homework asks
15 students to record the amount of time that they spend on homework and on watching
television.
The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.45. Interpret the correlation between homework and
television watching.
11 A psychologist asked 20 people to rate their ‘level of
contentment’ on a scale of 0 to 10 (10 representing
‘perfectly content’).
This rating is compared to annual income.
a The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.18.
Describe the correlation between income and level
of contentment.
b The researcher then intends to write an essay entitled
‘Money can’t buy happiness’. Do the results confirm
this statement?
12 WE8 An experimenter who is investigating the relationship between exercise and obesity measures
the weights of 30 boys (of equal height) and also documents the amount of physical exercise that the
boys completed each week. The correlation coefficient is found to be −0.47.
a What can be said of the correlation between obesity and exercise?
b What conclusion could be made about causality in this case?

13 MC A researcher is interested in the association between the work rate of production workers and
the level of incentive that they are offered under a certain scheme. After drawing a scatterplot, she
calculates the correlation between the two variables at 0.82. The researcher can conclude that:
A There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incentive, the lower
the work rate.
B There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incentive, the greater
the work force.
C There is a strong negative correlation between the variables; the greater the incentive, the lower
the work rate.
D There is a strong negative correlation; incentives cause an increase in the work rate.

Fitting lines by eye is useful, but it is not the most accurate of methods. Greater accuracy is achieved
through closer analysis of the data. Upon closer analysis it is possible to find the equation of a line
of best fit of the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept. Several mathematical
methods provide a line with a more accurate fit.
One of these methods is called the least squares regression line of best fit. It is used when data show
a linear relationship. It can even by used when the data contain outliers.
The least squares regression equation minimises the average deviation of the points in the data
set from the line of best fit. The following summary data are required to determine the least squares
regression equation.
Summary data required
• x — the mean of the independent variable (x-variable)
• y — the mean of the dependent variable (y-variable)
• σx — the standard deviation of the independent variable
• σy — the standard deviation of the dependent variable
• r — the correlation coefficient.
The equation of the least squares line of best fit is then found using the rule:
y = mx + c
where
δy
the slope of the regression line is m = r
δx
the y-intercept of the regression line is c = y − mx
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the equation of the least squares regression line for the data in the table below.
x 1 2 3 4 5 7
y 1 3 2 6 5 6
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the For the x scores
x scores. x = 3.67, σx = 1.97
2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the For the y scores
y scores. y = 3.83, σy = 1.95
3 Calculate the correlation coefficient. r = 0.85
δy
4 Calculate the gradient. m=r
δx
1.95
= 0.85 ×
1.97
= 0.84

5 Calculate the y-intercept. c = y − mx
= 3.83 − (0.84 × 3.67)
= 0.67
6 Write the equation. Equation : y = 0.86x + 0.67
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The scatterplot below shows a comparison between the heights and weights of 12 boys.
100
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the boys’ heights.

b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the boys’ weights.
c Find the gradient and y-intercept of the least squares line of best fit, and hence its equation.
THINK WRITE
a Enter the heights into your calculator to find the a x = 170.4, σx = 13.9
mean and standard deviation. Let x represent the
heights
b Enter the weights into your calculator to find the b y = 75.4, σy = 9.4
mean and standard deviation. Let y represent the
weights
c 1 Find the correlation coefficient. c r = 0.94

9.4
2 Use the formula to find the gradient. = 0.94 ×
13.9
= 0.64
3 Use the formula to find the y-intercept. c = y − mx
4 Write the equation. = 75.4 − (0.64 × 170.4)

= −33.7
y = 0.64x − 33.7
Once the regression line has been found, we are able to use the equation to make predictions about
other pieces of data. If the point for which we are making a prediction is within the boundaries
of known data this is called interpolation, while if it is outside known boundaries it is called
extrapolation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
In the previous worked example it was found that the height and weight of boys can be estimated
using the least squares line of best fit which had equation y = 0.64x − 33.7
a Use the equation to estimate the weight (to the nearest kg) of a boy of height 172 cm.
b Use the equation to estimate the height (to the nearest cm) of a boy who weighed 72 kg.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation of the line of best fit. a y = 0.64x − 33.7
2 Substitute 172 for x. y = 0.64 × 172 − 33.7

3 Calculate y. = 76.38
4 Give a written answer. The estimated weight is 76 kg.
b 1 Write the equation of the regression line. b y = 0.64x − 33.7

2 Substitute 72 for y. 72 = 0.64x − 33.7
3 Solve the equation. 105.7 = 0.64x
x = 165.2
4 Give a written answer. The estimated height is 165 cm.
Exercise 13C Fitting a regression line

1 WE9 Find the equation of the least squares line of best fit for the data in the table below.
x 1 2 4 4 6 7
y 1 3 3 6 5 6
2 Find the equation of the least squares line of best fit for the data shown in the table below.
x 10 20 40 45 55 60
y 20 18 12 10 8 6
3 WE10 The table below shows the heights and weights of a group of boys.
Height (cm) 164 170 181 163 152 156 147 159 173 164
Weight (kg) 76 62 89 56 54 62 57 72 80 55
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the boys’ heights.

b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the boys’ weights.
c Find the gradient and y-intercept of the least squares line of best fit, and hence it’s equation.
4 In an experiment, a student measures the length of a spring when different masses are attached to it.
Her results are shown below.
Mass (g) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Length of spring (mm) 220 225 231 235 242 246 250 254 259 264

b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the regression line, and hence find the equation of the least
squares line of best fit.
c On your scatterplot draw the line of best fit.

5 A sports scientist is interested in the importance of muscle bulk
to strength.
He measures the biceps circumference of ten people and tests their
strength by asking them to complete a lift test. His results are
given in the following table.
Circumference of biceps (cm) Lift test (kg)

25 50
25 52
27 58
28 51
30 60
30 62
31 53
33 62
34 61
36 66

b Find a rule for determining the ability of a person to complete a lift test, S, from the
circumference of their biceps, B.
6 WE11 Detectives can use the equation H = 6.1f − 5 to estimate the
height of a burglar who leaves footprints behind. (H is the height
of the burglar, in cm, and f is the length of the footprint.)
a Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 27 cm in length.
b Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 30 cm in length.
c Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 185 cm. (Give your
d Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 152 cm. (Give your
7 A pie seller at a football match finds that the number of pies sold is related to the temperature of the
day. The situation could be modelled by the equation N = 870 − 23t, where N is the number of pies
sold and t is the temperature of the day.
a Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 5 degrees.
b Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 25 degrees.
c Find the likely temperature if 400 pies were sold.
d How hot would the day have to be before the pie seller sold no pies at all?
8 A market researcher finds that the number of people who would purchase ‘Wise-up’ (the thinking
man’s deodorant) is related to its price. He provides the table of values below.
Price ($) Weekly sales (× 1000)
1.40 105
1.60 101
1.80 97
2.00 93
2.20 89
2.40 85
2.60 81
2.80 77
3.00 73
3.20 69
3.40 65

b Draw in the line of best fit.
c Find an equation that represents the relationship between the number of cans of ‘Wise-up” sold,
N (in thousands), and its price, p.
d Use the equation to predict the number of cans sold each week if:
i the price was $3.10
ii the price was $4.60.
e At what price should ‘Wise-up’ be sold if the manufacturers wished to sell 80 000 cans?
f Given that the manufacturers of ‘Wise-up’ can produce only 100 000 cans each week, at what
price should it be sold to maximise production?
Further development
9 Rock lobsters (crayfish) are sized according to the length of
their carapace (main body shell).
The table below gives the age and carapace length of 16 male
rock lobsters.
Age (years) Length of carapace (mm)

3 65
2.5 59
4.5 80
4.5 80
3.25 68
7.75 130
8 150
6.5 112
12 200
14 210
4.5 82
3.5 74
2.25 51
1.76 48
10 171
9.5 160
a Display this information on a scatterplot.

b Find the equation of the least squares line of best fit.
c Use the equation to find the likely size of a 5-year-old male rock lobster.
d Use the equation to find the likely size of a 16-year-old male rock lobster.
e Rock lobsters reach sexual maturity when their carapace length is approximately 65 mm. Use the
equation to find the age of the rock lobster at this stage.
f The fisheries department wants to set minimum size restrictions so that the rock lobsters have
three full years from the time of sexual maturity in which to breed before they can be legally
caught. What size should govern the taking of a male rock lobster?
Note: Answers for this exercise are approximate and may vary due to the precise location of the
line of best fit.
10 MC When finding a least squares line of best fit, which of the following measurements is not
needed? DIGITAL DOC
WorkSHEET 13.1
A The mean of both data sets. B The median of both data sets.
doc-11106
C The standard deviation of both data sets. D The correlation coefficient.

Medication
13D Units of measurement
From your earlier work with measurement you will have learned about ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
common units of mass such as tonne, kilogram and gram. In this section
where we are studying measurements that relate to medication which are
often small quantities which need a unit of measurement that is smaller
mg g kg
than a gram.
The unit that is most frequently used in medication is the milligram (mg).
As we have seen with other units of metric measurement the prefix milli
× 1000 × 1000
means 1000 times smaller.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Complete each of the following conversions

a 2.4 g = ___ mg b 75 mg = ___ g c 0.9 kg = ___ mg
THINK WRITE
a A gram is larger than a milligram so multiply the number a 2.4 g = 2.4 × 1000
of grams by 1000. = 2400 mg
b A milligram is smaller than a gram so divide the number b 75 mg = 75 ÷ 1000
of milligrams by 1000. = 0.075 g
c 1 Convert kilograms to grams by multiplying by 1000. c 0.9 kg = 0.9 × 1000
= 900 g
2 Convert grams to milligrams by multiplying by 1000. = 900 × 1000
= 900 000 mg
In many cases some drugs are given as part of a mixture. For example a cough mixture will contain
other ingredients other than what is specifically needed. This may be to make it easier to swallow or
make it tastier. In such cases the key ingredient (called the active ingredient) will be expressed in the
form of a rate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
A natural cough mixture comes in a 200 mL bottle.

The active ingredient is Olea europaea and the label states
the presence of the active ingredient is 22mg / 5 mL dose.
a How many doses of the cough mixture are in each bottle?
b Calculate the number of grams of the active ingredient in
each bottle.
THINK WRITE
a Each dose is 5 mL. Divide the bottle capacity by the a Number of doses = 200 ÷ 5
dose size. = 40
b 1 Multiply the amount of active ingredient per dose b Total = 22 mg × 40
by the number of doses in the bottle. = 880 mg
2 Convert this quantity to grams. = 0.88 g

Exercise 13D Units of measurement
1 WE12 Complete each of the following conversions.
a 3000 g = ..... kg b 0.2 kg = .... g c 8000g = .... mg
d 0.25 g = .... mg e 20 g = .... mg f 0.4 kg = .... mg
2 Convert the following amounts to grams.
a 4000 mg b 600 mg c 12.5 mg d 5 mg
3 Convert the following amounts to milligrams.
a 5 g b 0.4 g c 1.2 kg d 0.025 g
4 WE13 Jeremy has a prescription for a course or antibiotics.
There are 28 tablets in each box and each tablet has a mass of 4 mg.
a Calculate the total mass of the tablets in milligrams.
b What is the total mass in grams?
5 Panadol tablets have 500 mg of paracetamol in each tablet.
a The recommended dosage advice on the box says to take 1 to
2 tablets every 4 to 6 hours as necessary. Henry takes two tablets for
a headache. How much paracetamol does he consume?
b The maximum recommended dosage of paracetamol is 4000 mg per
day. How many tablets is this equivalent to?
c If a person takes the maximum amount suggested on the labelling by
how much will they exceed the recommended maximum daily intake
of paracetamol?
d Children aged between 7 and 12 can take a maximum 4 tablets in any
24-hour period. Francis is 7 years old takes one tablet and then another half tablet every 4 hours
over a 24-hour period. Is this in excess of the maximum allowed, and if so by how much?
6 The actual volume of cough medicine in a cough bottle is 250 mL.
a Jim is prescribed the medicine with instructions to take 15 mL four times a day. How many days
will it take Jim to take the entire bottle?
b The cough medicine contains 20% Noscapine. How many milligrams of Noscapine are in each
dose of the medicine?
7 Streptomycin is a drug used to treat tuberculosis.
How many 50 mg injections can a doctor make from a 1-gram container of the drug?
Further development
8 Voltaren and Fenac are two tablets used for the relief of muscle and back pain, each containing
diclofenac potassium. Voltaren contains 12.5 mg of diclofenac potassium while Fenac contains 50 mg.
a How many times stronger are the Fenac tablets than the Voltaren tablets?
b The Voltaren tablets indicate that a maximum six tablets should be taken in any 24-hour period.
How many mg of diclofenac potassium is this?
c The instructions on the Voltaren packet say to take 1 to 2 tablets every four to six hours as
necessary. Jackie has back pain and wakes up at 7.00 am and goes to bed at 10.00 pm. Suggest
when and how many Voltaren tablets Jackie should take throughout the day.
d The Fenac tables are available only on prescription from a doctor. The instructions on the
prescription say to take one table three times a day immediately after food. Why would the
instruction ‘after food’ be important?
e Compare the dosage of diclofenac potassium by following the Fenac prescription to the maximum
dosage suggested on the Voltaren packet. Can you offer an explanation for your findings?

9 Zyrtec is an antihistamine with an active ingredient
of cetirizine hydrochloride.
There is 10 mg of the active ingredient in each
tablet. How many grams of cetirizine hydrochloride
are in a packet of 200 Zyrtec tablets?
10 Eno is a powder dissolved in water for the relief
of upset stomachs. Each dose of 5 g contains 2.16 g
of Citric Acid Anhydrous.
a Calculate the number of 5 g doses in a 300 g jar of Eno.
b Calculate the amount of Citric Acid Anhydrous
in one bottle of Eno.
13E Dosage rate

All medications have a prescribed dosage rate. Some
medicines are known as ‘over-the-counter’ medications,
which means that they can be bought without a
prescription, usually from a pharmacy but in some
cases from a supermarket.
Other medications need a prescription from a doctor
and can only be purchased from a pharmacy. Regardless
of whether the medication is a prescription drug or an
over-the-counter medicine, there will be a recommended
dosage rate.
For over-the-counter medicines the recommended dosage is usually printed on the label but for
prescription drugs the doctor sets the dosage rate. Many medicines have side effects, that is; they may
affect something other than what is being treated. For example, antihistamines are used to treat allergies
but have the potential to cause drowsiness.
Most medications have a maximum daily dosage, which should not be exceeded. This maximum dosage
is usually less for children and many medications should not be given to children below a certain age.
For example, the Panadol label says that the adult dosage is 1–2 tablets every 4–6 hours but children
between 7 and 12 should take 12 – 1 tablet in the same time period.
In many cases a formula may be used to calculate the appropriate dosage for a child. The three most
common formulas are as follows:
• Fried’s formula, which is used for children 1–2 years of age and uses the age of the child in months to
calculate the correct dosage.
age(of child in months) × adult dosage
Dosage for children 1−2 years =
150
• As children get older Young’s rule is more appropriate and uses the age of the child in years. Young’s
formula is for children aged 1–12 years
age (of child in years) × adult dosage
Dosage for children 1−12 years =
age (of child in years) + 12
• Clark’s formula is a more general formula and ignores age basing its calculation on the weight of the
child in kilograms. This formula can be used for a child of any age.
weight in kg × adult dosage
Dosage =
70
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Bella is 15 months old and weighs 10 kg.

She needs to take a medicine for which the adult dose
is 30 mL. Calculate the dosage that Bella should take.

THINK WRITE
1 Bella is aged between 1 and 2 years old so age(of child in months) × adult dosage
Dosage =
Fried’s formula should be used. Write the 150
formula. 15 × 30
=
150
2 Substitute the known values into the formula. = 3 mL

3 Calculate the dosage for Bella. Bella should be given 3 mL of the medicine.
Your understanding of measurement is also important when considering the rate at which intravenous
drips work.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Nancy is in hospital patient and is placed on an IV drip.

She is required to take 1000 mg of the medication, which comes in a
solution form. The medication is present in the solution at a rate of
50 mg / 5 mL. There are 5 drips per mL and drips are delivered at
30 per minute. Calculate
The amount (in L) of the IV drip that Nancy must be given.
a
The time it will take for Nancy to receive the required amount of
b
medication.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the amount of solution needed to a Solution

deliver 1000 mg of the medication. = 20 × 5 mL
= 100 mL
b 1 Calculate the number of drips needed. b No. of drips = 100 × 5
= 500
2 Calculate the time taken. Time = 500 ÷ 30
= 16.7 min
Exercise 13E Dosage rate

1 WE14 Frank is 18 months old.
He needs to take medication for which the adult dose is 40 mg.
Calculate the dose that should be given to Frank using Fried’s
formula.
2 Use Fried’s formula to calculate the dose of medicine that should
be given to each of the following children.
a Andrea is 12 months old and the adult dose of the medicine
is 30 mL.
b Phillip is 14 months old and the adult dose of the medicine
is 50 mL.
c Glen is 16 months old and the adult dose of the medicine
is 20 mL.
d Michonne is 2 years old and the adult dose of the medicine
is 35 mL.

3 Daryl is 4 years old. Calculate the dosage for Daryl of a medicine for which the adult dose is
50 mL using Young’s Formula.
4 Amoxil is an antibiotic for which the daily dosage for an adult is 750 mg. Calculate the daily dosage for
each of the following children using Young’s Formula. Give each answer correct to the nearest 5 mg.
a Rick is 2 years old and weighs 12 kg.
b Maggie is 5 years old and weighs 15 kg.
c Milton is 9 years old and weighs 42 kg.
d Merle is 3½ years old and weighs 15.5 kg.
5 The recommended dose of Brondecon cough mixture
for an adult is 20 mg.
Ron is 4 years old and weighs 25 kg. Calculate Ron’s
dosage of Brondecon using Clark’s formula.
6 Using Clark’s formula, calculate the dosage of a
medicine for which the adult dosage is 75 mg for each
of the children listed in question 4.
7 WE15 A patient is placed on a IV drip. The medication contains 50 mg in every 5 mL of the
solution. The patient is prescribed 1500 mg of the medication. Given that the drip is administered at
a rate of 20 drips per minute and there are 5 drips per mL, calculate:
a The amount of solution the patient will require
b The length of time it will take for this to be administered.
8 Francis is to be administered 3000 mg of medication through an IV drip. The solution through
which it can be administered comes in two forms, 50 mg per 5 mL or 8 mg per 5 mL. In either
case the drip with be delivered at a rate of 20 drips per minute and there are 5 drips per mL.
Calculate how much quicker the stronger solution will take to deliver the 3000 mg of
medication.
Further development
9 Diane is prescribed 750 mg of a medication, twice a day. Tablets come in 500 mg form and in a
packet of 20.
a How many tablets should Diane take at each dose?
b How many milligrams of the medication are in each pack?
c How many days will it take for Diane to take the whole packet?
10 A patient is brought into hospital suffering from
dehydration.
He is placed on a saline drip that is administered
intravenously. The patient must receive 2 litres of fluid
over an 8-hour period. Calculate the flow rate
a in mL per hour
b in drips per minute given that 5 drips make 1 mL of
fluid.
L ife
expectancy
13F Life expectancy
Life expectancy refers to the mean age up to which people
can expect to live.
Life expectancy is generally considered to be
a measure of the affluence of a country and is an
important statistic that is measured on a regular basis by
organisations such as the United Nations and the World
Health Organization.
Earlier in this chapter we studied scatterplots, correlation
and lines of best fit. In this section we are going to compare
important pieces of data about a number of countries.

Exercise 13F Life expectancy
1 The graph below shows the average life expectancy of Australian men and women since 1900.
Average life expectancy of Australian

men and women since 1900
90
80
70
60
Age in years
50
Males
40
Females
30
20
10
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
a What was the average life expectancy of an Australian man in 1900?

b What was the average life expectancy of an Australian woman in 2010?
c Life expectancy has clearly increased over this period of time for both men and women. Has it
increased equally for both sexes?
d The growth in life expectancy for men appeared to flatten out for men in the middle of the 1900s.
What possible explanation could there be for this?
e Does the growth in life expectancy approximate a linear pattern? Would you expect this pattern to
continue in the years to come?
2 The graph below shows the life expectancy of Australians in each state.
86
National
84
average
(Female)
82
80 National
average
78 (Male)
76
74
72 Male
Female
70
NSW Vic. Qld WA SA Tas. ACT NT
a Which states are above the national average life expectancy for both men and women?
b Which state (or territory) has the highest life expectancy?
c Which state (or territory) has the lowest life expectancy?
d Offer some possible reasons for the answers to parts b and c.

3 The table below shows the life expectancy, in terms of additional year of life, for people over a
period of time in Australia.
Life expectancy (additional years of life) for people at selected years of age
Males Females
at 0 at 25 at 45 at 65 at 0 at 25 at 45 at 65
1881–1890 47.2 37.1 23.0 11.1 50.8 39.7 25.6 12.3
1891–1900 51.1 38.9 24.0 11.3 54.8 41.7 26.7 12.8
1901–1910 55.2 40.6 24.8 11.3 58.8 43.4 27.6 12.9
1920–1922 59.2 42.7 26.0 12.0 63.3 45.7 29.0 13.6
1932–1934 63.5 44.4 26.9 12.4 67.1 47.2 29.7 14.2
1946–1948 66.1 45.0 26.8 12.3 70.6 48.7 30.5 14.4
1953–1955 67.1 45.5 27.2 12.3 72.8 50.2 31.4 15.0
1965–1967 67.6 45.4 27.0 12.2 74.2 51.2 32.3 15.7
1975–1977 69.6 46.9 28.3 13.1 76.6 53.1 34.0 17.1
1985–1987 72.7 49.5 30.8 14.6 79.2 55.4 36.1 18.6
1995–1997 75.6 51.8 33.1 16.1 81.3 57.1 37.7 19.8
2004–2006 78.7 54.7 35.7 18.3 83.5 59.2 39.7 21.5
2007–2009 79.3 55.2 36.3 18.7 83.9 59.5 40.1 21.8
a Jenny was born in 1953. What was her life expectancy?

b What was Jenny’s additional life expectancy:
i in 1977 when she turned 25
ii in 1997 when she turned 45?
c Explain why each of the answers above does not give the same final age for life expectancy.
d Use an Excel spreadsheet to graph the above life expectancy data for men.
4 GDP (Gross domestic product) is the total value of all production in a country and is a measure of
the economic strength of a country. The importance of health care in a country can be measured by
total spending on health care as a percentage of GDP. The table below shows a selection of countries
and compares their health care spending as a percentage of GDP with life expectancy.
Spending on health care
Country Life expectancy (as a percentage of GDP)
Australia 81.44 9.1
USA 77.97 17.6
Japan 82.73 9.5
China 72.71 5.1
Singapore 80.60 4.1
United Kingdom 79.91 9.6
Germany 79.85 11.6
Italy 81.37 9.3
Switzerland 81.81 11.4
France 80.95 11.6
New Zealand 80.13 10.1
Finland 79.34 8.9
Brazil 72.24 8.8
Argentina 75.30 9.5
Papua New Guinea 61.50 3.7
Central African Republic 45.91 4.0
India 64.19 4.2

Spending on health care
Country Life expectancy (as a percentage of GDP)
Zimbabwe 46.59 8.1
Israel 80.69 7.6
Iraq 67.32 4.1
Iran 72.06 5.7
Afghanistan 47.32 7.6
Ethiopia 57.21 4.4
a Complete a scatterplot of life expectancy against health care spending.
b Calculate the correlation coefficient and comment on any relationship that may exist between
health care spending and life expectancy.
c Find the equation of the least squares line of best fit.
d The government in Papua New Guinea plans to double its spending on health care as a percentage
of GDP. What impact could you expect this to have on life expectancy in this country? Would you
expect this impact to be immediate?
5 Another important measure of health care is infant mortality. Infant mortality is measured in the
number of deaths per 1000 births or children before they reach their first birthday.
The table below compares life expectancy with infant mortality.
Country Life expectancy Infant mortality rate

Australia 81.44 4.55
America 77.97 5.98
Japan 82.73 2.21
China 72.71 15.62
Singapore 80.60 2.65
United Kingdom 79.91 4.56
Germany 79.85 3.51
Italy 81.37 3.36
Switzerland 81.81 4.03
France 80.95 3.37
New Zealand 80.13 4.72
Finland 79.34 3.4
Brazil 72.24 20.05
Argentina 75.30 10.52
Papua New Guinea 61.50 42.05
Central African Republic 45.91 97.17
India 64.19 46.07
Zimbabwe 46.59 28.23
Israel 80.69 4.07
Iraq 67.32 40.25
Iran 72.06 41.11
Afghanistan 47.32 121.63
Ethiopia 57.21 75.29

b Calculate the correlation coefficient for the data and comment on the strength of the relationship.
d Identify any pieces of data that are irregular, considering the overall trend.
e A country is known to have an average life expectancy of 70 years. Based on these results what
can we expect the infant mortality rate to be?

6 The graph below shows the results of a New Zealand study that examined the percentage of males
who smoke in each area and the life expectancy in that area.
Male life expectancy by smoking propensity

Male life expectancy at birth (years), 2005–2007
80
Territorial authority areas (R2 = 0.77)
Regional council areas (R2 = 0.90)
79
New Zealand
78
77
76
75
74
73
0 18 20 22 24 26 28
Percentage of 15+ male population smoking regularly, 2006 Census
a Add a line of best fit to the data. This can be done by eye and not by using the least squares
method.
b Describe the correlation between life expectancy and smoking.
c What would be the vertical intercept of your linear function? What is its meaning in this context?
Digital doc d Is your answer to c realistic in this context? What limits should be placed on this linear function.
WorkSHEET 13.2
e What would be the gradient of your linear function? What is the meaning of the gradient in this
doc-11107
context?

Summary
Body measurements
Drawing • A scatterplot is used to compare two variables.
scatterplots • The one variable is drawn on the horizontal axis and the other variable on the vertical axis.
• After a scatterplot has been drawn look to see if a pattern is evident. A pattern may be linear which
may be linear, if the pattern approximates a straight line, or non-linear.
• A line of best fit can be drawn on a scatterplot to demonstrate any evident trend.
Correlation • Correlation is a description of the relationship between two variables.

• A positive correlation means that as one quantity increases so does the other.
• A negative correlation means that as one quantity increases the other decreases.
• Causality is when the change in one variable causes the change in the other. A high correlation does
not necessarily imply causality.
Fitting a • A regression line is a line of best fit on a scatterplot to indicate any trends.
regression line • A regression line can be drawn “by eye” ensuring that there are equal numbers of points on each side
of the regression line but this is not a very accurate method.
• The equation of the least squares line of best fit is then found using the rule:
y = mx + c
where δy
the slope of the regression line is m = r
δx
the y-intercept of the regression line is c = y − mx
x the mean of the independent variable (x-variable)
y the mean of the dependent variable (y-variable)
σx the standard deviation of the independent variable
σy the standard deviation of the dependent variable
r the correlation coefficient.
Medication
Units of • Medication uses very small quantities and is often measured in milligrams (mg).
measurement • There are 1000 mg in 1 g.
• The active ingredient in a medication is that which performs the task intended. In liquid form the
quantity of the active ingredient will be measured as a rate.
Dosage rate • Most medicines have a standard adult dose. Children will take a smaller dose of the medicine.
To calculate the amount of a child’s dose one of the following formulas should be used:
Fried’s formula, which is used for children 1–2 years of age and uses the age of the child in months
to calculate the correct dosage.
age (of child in months) × adult dosage
Dosage for children 1–2 years =
150
As children get older Young’s rule is more appropriate and uses the age of the child in years. Young’s
formula is for children aged 1–12 years.
age (of child in years) × adult dosage
Dosage for children 1–12 years =
age (of child in years) + 12
Clark’s formula is a more general formula and ignores age basing its calculation on the weight of the
child in kilograms. This formula can be used for a child of any age.
weight in kg × adult dosage
Dosage =
70
• An intravenous (IV) drip is a method used to provide medication slowly and constantly over a period of
time. Measurements and flow rates are used to make calculations associated with IV drips.

Life expectancy
Life expectancy • Life expectancy is a measure of how old the average person in society can expect to live.
• There are many factors that affect life expectancy. These include social, economic and political factors.
• Life expectancy is a measure of how successful a society is.
• We can measure the impact of factors on life expectancy by using scatterplots and looking at
correlation coefficients.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following graphs best depicts a strong negative correlation between variables?
multi p l e
A y B y C y D y c hoic e
x x x x
2 What type of correlation is shown by the graph on the right? y
A Strong positive correlation
B Moderate positive correlation
C Moderate negative correlation
D Strong negative correlation x
3 A researcher finds that there is a correlation coefficient of −0.62 between the number of pedestrian
crossings in a town and the number of pedestrian accidents. The researcher can conclude that:
A Pedestrian crossings cause pedestrian accidents.
B Pedestrian crossings save lives.
C There is evidence to show that pedestrian crossings cause accidents.
D There is evidence to show that the greater the number of pedestrian crossings, the smaller the
number of pedestrian accidents.
1 The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperature on 10 days chosen at random S ho rt
a nsw er
throughout the year. Display this information on a scatterplot.
Maximum temperature (°C) Minimum temperature (°C)

25 12
36 21
21 11
40 23
24 12
26 15
30 19
18 10
20 8
25 13
2 The table below shows the number of sick days taken by ten employees and relates this to the
number of children that they have.
No. of children No. of sick days
1 5
0 3
3 10
2 8
2 4
4 12
6 12
0 0
1 1
2 2
a Show this information on a scatterplot.
b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of sick days taken and the number of
children they have? If so, is the relationship linear?

3 The table below shows the number of cars and number of televisions in each household.
No. of cars No. of televisions

1 2
1 1
2 1
2 2
2 0
3 1
1 4
0 3
1 1
2 1
a Show this information on a scatterplot.

b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of televisions in each household and the
number of cars they have? If so, is the relationship linear?
4 The table below shows the relationship between two variables, x and y.
x 2 4 18 7 9 12 2 7 11 10 16
y 103 75 20 66 70 50 95 40 27 42 30
a Prepare a scatterplot of the data.

b On the scatterplot, fit a regression line by eye.
c By measuring the gradient and the y-intercept of the median regression line, find its approximate
equation.
5 For each of the following scatterplots, state whether the correlation is positive or negative.
a b c
6 For each of the following, state the type of correlation if the correlation coefficient is:
a 0 b 1 c −0.5
d −0.84 e 0.3.
7 A survey in which people were asked to state their age and the age of their car revealed a correlation
coefficient of −0.65.
a What type of correlation exists in this case?
b What can be said about causality in this case?
8 Consider the data in the table below.
x 1 2 4 8 9 10 11 15
y 23 21 20 14 16 9 12 5
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the x and y values.

b Find the correlation coefficient.
c Calculate the equation of the least squares line of best fit.

9 A drug company wishes to test the effectiveness of a
drug to increase red blood cell counts in people.
The following data were collected:
Day of experiment 4 5 6 7 8 9
Red blood cell count 210 240 230 260 260 290
a Find the correlation coefficient of this data.

b Comment of the strength of any relationship present.
d Explain the meaning of the gradient and vertical intercept
in this context.
10 Complete each of the following conversions.
a 3.7 g = ___ mg b 850 mg = ___ g c 1.1 kg = ___ mg
11 A cough medicine comes in a 250 mL bottle. The active ingredient DXM is present at the rate of
30 mg / 5 mL. The recommended adult dose is 40 mL.
a How much DXM is in each dose?
b How many doses of cough medicine are in each bottle?
c How much DXM is in each bottle?
12 Brad is a 2-year-old boy who weighs 16 kg.
He needs to take a medicine for which the adult dose is
40 mL. Calculate the dose that Brad should take using.
(Give your answers correct to the nearest mL.)
a Fried’s formula
b Young’s formula
c Clark’s formula
1 A medication is to be delivered by way of an IV drip. The active ingredient in the solution is present Ex tended
R es p ons e
in 5 mg per 100 mL. The patient is prescribed 500 mg of the active ingredient.
a Calculate the amount of solution required.
b Calculate the length of time that it will take to administer the solution at 40 drips per minute given
that 5 drips is equal to 1 mL.
2 The life expectancy of a child born in a certain country has been recorded every 20 years since 1800.
The results are shown in the table below.
Years since 1800 Life expectancy

0 52
20 52
40 53
60 53
80 55
100 60
120 63
140 63
160 67
180 72
200 82
Digital doc
a Plot the data on a scatterplot and fit a least squares line of best fit to the data. doc-11108
Test Yourself
b Find the equation of the least squares line of best fit and draw this on your scatterplot.
Chapter 13
c Is the data linear? Explain your answer.

ICT activities
13A Drawing scatterplots 13F Life expectancy
INTERACTIVITY DIGITAL DOC
• int-2789: Scatterplots. (page 361) • WorkSHEET 13.2 (doc-11107): Apply your knowledge of health
statistics to problems. (page 390)
13B Correlation
INTERACTIVITY Chapter review
• int-0183: Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient. DIGITAL DOC
(page 371) • Test Yourself (doc-11108): Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
DIGITAL DOC To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
• WorkSHEET 13.1 (doc-11106): Apply your knowledge of health
statistics to problems. (page 381)

Answers chapter 13
Mathematics and health 5 a 35
Exercise 13A Drawing scatterplots 30
1 250
Hair length (cm)

25
200 20
15
Reach (cm)
150
10
100 5
0
50 0 10
20 30 40 50
Forearm length (cm)
0 b There is no relationship between the length of a person’s forearm
0 50 100 150 200 250
and the length of their hair.
Height (cm) 6 D
7 A
2 68 8 a Examination results against hours studied.
67
b Weight loss (%) against time dieting.
66
9 a Positive relationship b Positive relationship
65
c Positive relationship d No relationship
Waist (cm)
64
63 e Positive relationship
62 10 a Positive linear relationship b Positive linear relationship
61 c Negative linear relationship d Negative linear relationship
60 e No relationship f Negative non-linear
59 relationship
58 11 a y b y
57
165 170 175 180 185 190
Height (cm)
3 a 25
x x
20 c y
d
y
Hand span (cm)
15
10
5 x
x
0 e y
f
y
10 0 15 5 20 25 30
Foot length (cm)
b There appears to be a positive linear relationship. People with
longer feet tend to have wider hand spans.
4 a 2.5 x
x
2 g y y
h
Skin area (m2)
1.5
1
x x
0.5 i y
0
1.4
1 1.6 1.2 1.8 2
Height (m)
b There appears to be a positive linear relationship. That means that x
taller people tend to have a larger skin surface area. 12 a m = 5, b = 12 b m = −0.4, b = 70 c m = 100, b = 750

13 a L 6 a 8000
550 7000
Population (× 1000)
500
6000
Length
450
5000
400
350
4000
3000
0 123456789 f
2000
Force
1000
b L = 10f + 440
c The vertical intercept is the length of the elastic with no force, 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
and the gradient is the amount by which the elastic is stretched by
Area (× 1000 km2)
each unit of force.
Exercise 13B Correlation b There is no correlation between area and population hence no
1 a Negative b Positive c Positive conclusion can be made.
2 a 8 7 a 0.12
No. of speeding offences
7
6 0.1
5
Reaction time (s)

4 0.08
3
2 0.06
1
0.04
0
30 0 40 10 50 20 60 70
0.02
Age (years)
b There is a negative correlation which means that as people get 0
older the number of speeding offences they commit reduces. 0 0.5 1 1.5
3 a Weak positive correlation b Moderate positive correlation Amount of drug (mg)
c Strong negative correlation d Weak negative correlation
e No correlation f Moderate negative correlation b The graph shows a strong positive correlation. We can
g Strong positive correlation conclude the higher the dose of the drug the longer the reaction
4 a 700 time will be.
Number of pies sold
600 8 a Perfect positive b Weak positive

c Strong positive d Moderate negative
500 e Weak positive f No correlation
400 g Strong negative h Moderate negative
i Weak negative j Perfect negative
300
9 There is a moderate positive correlation.
200 10 There is a weak negative correlation.
100 11 a No correlation
b There is no evidence to connect money and happiness which
0
10 15 0 20 5 25 30 confirms the statement.
12 a There is a weak negative correlation between obesity and
Temperature (°C) exercise.
b There is a negative correlation. The warmer the temperature the b There is little evidence that connects the amount of exercise and
fewer pies will be sold. obesity.
5 a 18 13 B
Number of sick days
16
14 Exercise 13C Fitting a regression line
12 1 y = 0.73x + 1.08
10
8 2 y = −0.28x + 23.06
6 3 a Mean = 162.9, SD = 9.58
4 b Mean = 66.3, SD = 11.57
2 c Weight = 0.88 × height − 76.96
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Hours spent each week in air-conditioned buildings
b There is a weak positive correlation. Conclusion that the more
time spent in air-conditioned buildings the more likely a person is
to have time off work.
c There can be no conclusion here about causality. Check your
reasoning with your teacher.

4 a 270 8 a 140
Weekly sales (× 1000)

265 120
260 100
Length of spring (mm)
255 80
250 60
245 40
240 20
235 0
230 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
225 Price ($)
b 140
220
Weekly sales (× 1000)

120
215
400 0 600
200 800 1000 100
Mass (g) 80
b m = 0.05, b = 220.1 L = 0.05m + 220.1
c
60
270
40
265
20
260
0
Length of spring (mm)
255 1.5 0 2 0.5 1 2.5 3 3.5

250 Price ($)
245 c N = −20.08p + 133.19 d i 71 000
240 ii 41 000
e $2.65 f $1.65
235 9 a 250
230
length of carapace (mm)
225 200
220 150
215
0 200 400 600 800 1000 100
Mass (g)
5 a 50
70
60 0
50 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Lift test (kg)
Age (years)
40
b L = 14.38A + 21.18 93 cm
c
30 d 251.16 cm 3 years
e
20 f 107 cm
10 B
10
Exercise 13D Units of measurement
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 1 a 3kg b 200 g
Circumference of biceps (cm) c 8 000 000 mg d 250 mg
e 20 000 mg f 400 000 mg
b S = 1.2B + 21.62
2 a 4 g b 0.6 g
6 a 159.7 cm
c 0.0125 g d 0.005 g
b 178 cm
3 a 5000 mg b 400 mg
c 31.15 cm
c 1 200 000 mg d 25 mg
d 25.74 cm
4 a 112 mg b 0.112g
7 a 755
5 a 1000 mg b 8 tablets
b 295
c 2000 mg d No, this equals the daily allowance.
c 20.43 °C
6 a 5 days b 3 mL
d 37.82 °C
7 20

8 a 4 times stronger b 75 mg 4 a 90
c 2 tablets at 7.00 am, 2.00 pm and 10.00 pm but answers will vary
Life expectancy (years)

80
slightly. 70
d On an empty stomach the side effects of the drugs will be 60
stronger. 50
e 2 tablets will exceed the amount suggested on Voltaren. Hence 40
only a doctor can prescribe the higher dosage 30
9 2 grams 20
10 a 60 b
129.6 g 10
Exercise 13E Dosage rate 0
1 4.8 mg 5 010 15 20
2 a 2.4 mL b 4.7 mL Spending on health (% of GDP)
c 2.1 mL d 5.6 mL b r = 0.49 There is a weak (almost moderate) positive correlation
3 12.5 mL c L = 1.79S + 57.25
4 a 105 mg b 220 mg d It will hopefully increase life expectancy by about 10 years but
c 320 mg d 170 mg the impact of this we would not expect to be immediate.
5 7 mL 5 a 90
6 a 13 mg b 16 mg
c 45 mg d 17 mg 80
Life expectancy (years)

7 a 150 mL b 37.5 min 70
8 6 hours and 34 min 60
1
9 a 1 b 10 000 mg
2 50
c 6.7 days
40
10 a 250 mL / h b
21 drips/min
30
Exercise 13F Life expectancy
1 a 51 years 20
b 83 years 10
c Yes (approximately) 0
d This period coincided with the Great Depression and World War II 0 50 100 150
e It is approximately linear; however, this cannot continue Infant mortality rate
indefinitely as there must be a limit on lifespan. b r = −0.88. There is a strong negative correlation
2 a Vic., WA, ACT
c L = −0.32M + 79.83
b ACT
d The Zimbabwe data is irregular as it has a low life expectancy but
c NT
low infant mortality.
d In the ACT there are a lot of public servant with
e 30.9
comfortable lifestyles and of a high standard of living. The 6 a Check with your teacher
NT has a high indigenous population and a lower standard of b There is a moderate negative correlation
living. This is an issue that Australian governments need to c Check with your teacher
address. d Your answer is likely to be unrealistic as it would be too high if
3 a 72.8 b i 53.1 ii 37.7
no one smoked.
c Life expectancy is an average and includes those who die at a
e The gradient is the decrease in life expectancy for every 1%
young age. Therefore as you get older the average will become increase in smoking
higher.
d 90 Chapter Review
80 Multiple Choice
Male life expectancy
70 1 D 2 C 3 D
60 at 0
Short answer
50 at 25
1
temperature (°C)
40 at 45
Minimum
30 at 65 20
20 10
10 0
0 20 40
0 Maximum
temperature (°C)
19 1−1 90
19 1−1 00
19 0−1 10
19 2−1 22
19 6−1 34
19 3−1 48
19 5−1 55
19 5−1 67
19 5−1 77
20 5−1 87
20 4−2 97
−2 6
9
07 00
00
9 8
0 9
2 9
3 9
4 9
5 9
6 9
7 9
8 9
9 9
0 9
2 a
18 1−1
Number of sick days

8
12
18
8
4
0
0 2 4 6
Number of children
b There appears to be a positive relationship which is linear.

3 a 10 a 3700 mg
b 0.85 g
Number of
4
televisions
c 1 100 000 mg
2
11 a 240 mg
0 b 6
0 2 c 1500 mg
Number of cars 12 a 6 mL
b There is no apparent relationship. b 6 mL
4 a, b y c 9 mL
80 Extended response
1 a 10 L
40
b 20 hours 50 min
0 2 a 90
0 8 16 x
80
c y = 99 − 5x
5 a Negative 70
Life expectancy
b Positive 60
c Negative 50
6 a None
40
b Perfect positive
c Weak negative 30
d Strong negative 20
e Weak positive 10
7 a Moderate negative
0
b Older people have newer cars. 0 50 100 150 200 250
8 a x values — Mean = 7.5, SD = 4.5 : y values — Mean = 15,
Number of years since 1800
SD = 5.8
b r = −0.93 b L = 0.14Y + 47
c y = −1.2x + 24 c The data does not appear linear as there is a curved upward trend.
9 a r = 0.93
b Strong positive correlation
c R = 14D + 157
d Gradient is the daily increase in red blood cell count, vertical
intercept is the initial red blood cell count.

ICT activities
2. Research life expectancy among the following
subgroups.
(a) Men versus women
Life expectancy (b) Smokers versus non-smokers
(c) Indigenous peoples versus non-indigenous
SEARCHLIGHT ID: PRO-0152
peoples
(d) Immigrants versus those born in Australia
Scenario
(e) State-by-state differences
You are asked to delve into the issue of life expectancy 3. Find out where Australia currently ranks in life
and examine the factors that have an impact upon expectancy and list the top ten and bottom ten
it. The focus of your research is Australia and the nations for life expectancy.
subgroups within our country. You will need to focus on 4. There are many factors that have an impact on life
where Australia fits on a global scale. expectancy. Research the following factors to find
You will need to analyse factors that impact upon life correlations between life expectancy and each factor.
expectancy. Many of these are economic factors, but (a) health spending and facilities
you will also look at health and social factors, and the (b) education
prevalence of political issues such as war. (c) GDP
Also evident are some key differences in life (d) birth rate.
expectancy data. Explore these further by considering 5. Find out the birth rate in a group of 20 countries and
the following questions. compare this to infant mortality in the selected
1. What is the current life expectancy of a child born in countries. (Infant mortality is defined to be the number
Australia today? of children per 1000 who die before their first birthday.)

Task
1. Watch the introductory video.
2. Identify the key sources of data on life expectancy.
This will include sources from within Australia but
also from outside. It will be important to compare the
results found to verify accuracy.
3. Identify the key factors in society that will have
an impact on life expectancy. This will include
geographical location, the prevalence of smoking, the
level of education and government spending on health.
4. Identify the key subgroups in Australian society and
look for differences in their life expectancies. Try to
identify what the cause of any differences is.
5. Compile your findings on an Excel spreadsheet.
Use the spreadsheet functions to draw graphs
and perform statistical analysis such as finding the
correlation coefficient between data sets.
6. Present a report in the form of your choice that shows
trends and differences both within Australia and with
the rest of the world.
Process
• Open the ProjectsPLUS application for this chapter in
your eBookPLUS. Watch the introductory video, click
the ‘Start Project’ button and then set up your project
team. You will invite another member of your class
to form a partnership. Save your settings and the
project will be launched.
• Your teacher will have access to a number of
websites that will get your research started. Use
these to analyse the available data and find the
answers to the key questions.
• You will need to access the details of your home
internet connection. This may be available in the
contract or on your internet provider’s website.
• Import the data into an Excel spreadsheet.
• Use the spreadsheet to create suitable graphs to
display the information.
• Create a summary of your findings to present to an
audience in an appropriate format (e.g. a PowerPoint
presentation or a movie).
• Write a report that includes the results of all your
findings. Submit this to your teacher
for assessment.
Suggested software
• ProjectsPLUS
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
ICT activities — projectsplus 403

Chapter 14
Mathematics and resources
CHAPTER CONTENTS
14A Interpreting information about water usage
14B Collecting and using water
14C Dams, land and catchment areas
14D Energy and sustainability
14A Interpreting information about

water usage
Water availability and usage
Have you ever thought about your water use?
Elesson
eles-1615
Water: A vital
source
eles-1616
A world of water
You may have seen advertisements on television asking for us all to conserve water. Unless you pay
the water bill it is unlikely that you actually know how much water that you, or members of your
household, use.
Chapter 14 • Mathematics and resources 405

Consider the water bill shown below.
Water account
ACCOUNT DETAILS
Date of issue: 22/11/2013
Amount due: $268.00
Please pay by: 21/12/2013

YOUR ACCOUNT SUMMARY
Property details
(Res) Single Dwelling/Vac:Land YOUR HOUSEHOLD WATER USE COMPARED
No. of people Garden Typical Efficient
in household size water use water use
none 120 100
Supply period small
medium
220
200
147
100
large 344 176
From: 14/08/2013 none 322 206
small 390 250
To: 14/11/2013 medium 457 263
large 509 279
none 417 309
small 550 353
medium 828 366
large 674 382
Balance brought forward: $0.00 none 520 412
small 723 456
Current charge: $268.80 medium 706 469
large 854 485
none 858 515
Amount due: $268.80 small
medium
949
1004
559
572
large 1107 588
none 784 616
small 1254 662
medium 1437 675
Your average daily water consumption comparison large 1582 691
700
Your daily average 554 L Your personal target* 0L
600
Litres per day
500
400
Description This account Previous acct. Change
300
200
Total usage 51 L 36 KL 15 KL
100 Days in period 92 90 2
0 Average daily usage 554 L 400 L 154 KL
Current Same Previous Your Your local Your
period period account water area personal 1000 litres (L) = 1 kilolitre (kL)
last year consumption average target
Amount due: $268.80
This bill contains a lot of information about:

• the amount of water used in this billing period
• the amount of water used in the corresponding billing period last year
• the amount of water used in the previous account
• the amount of water that is used by typical and efficient households of different sizes.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Look at the water bill shown above.

a What is the amount of this bill?
b How many litres of water are being used per day?
c How does this compare with the same period last year?
THINK WRITE
a Identify the amount due. You will find this a Amount due = $268.80
information at the top right-hand corner of the
bill under ‘Account details’.

b This information can be seen from the graph or b Daily usage = 554 L
from the table.
c The graph shows this information. The c There has been an increase of about
amount used this year is 554 L compared to 164 L per day.
approximately 390 L at the same time last year.
To manage water usage it is important to have an understanding of the amount of water that is used for
various tasks.
The table below shows the amount of water typically used in undertaking various household activities.
Water usage
Shower 18 L per minute
Toilet 12 L per flush
Garden hose 20 L per minute
Dishwasher 40 litres per load
Bath 100 L per bath
Tap 10 L per minute
Washing machine
–– Top loader 170 litres per load
–– Front loader 80 litres per load
Sprinkler 20 L per minute
Fill a swimming pool 55 000 L
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The Warren household has four members and have eight showers a day, in total.
Given that each shower takes an average seven minutes calculate:

the number of litres of water used each day for showers.
a
The amount of water that can be saved each year by cutting back to 5-minute showers.
b
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the total number of minutes the a Minutes of shower = 8 × 7

shower is running each day. = 56
2 Multiply the number of minutes by 18 L Amount of water = 56 × 18
per minute to find the total water usage. = 1008 L
b 1 Calculate the number of minutes of b Time saved = 2 × 8
showering saved per day. = 16 minutes

2 Calculate the water saved each day by Water saved daily = 16 × 18
multiplying the number of minutes by the = 288 L
number of showers taken daily.
3 Calculate the water saving each year by Water saved yearly = 288 × 365
multiplying the number of litres used daily by = 105 120 L
the number of days in a year.
Rainfall is the source of fresh water that we all use. Hence, in

periods of drought, the government will impose restrictions to
conserve water.
Rainfall is measured in millimetres. This is the depth to which
a container would be filled if it were left out in the rain. Accurate
measurements of this are made using a device called a rain gauge.
In this exercise you will also have to interpret information about
rainfall from a rainfall graph such as that shown in the following
example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The graph below shows the average rainfall in Sydney, each month of the year.
160
140
Precipitation (mm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Use the graph to find:

a the wettest month of the year
b the amount of rain in June.
THINK WRITE
a The month with the highest rainfall is the a March has the highest rainfall.
month with the tallest bar on the graph.
b Select the bar on the graph that represents b Average June rainfall = 125 mm
the month of June and then read the height
of that bar.

Interpreting information about
Exercise 14A
water usage
1 WE1 Use the water bill on page 406 to answer the following.
a How much more water is used for this account than the previous account?
b How does water consumption for this household compare to the local average?
c What is the cost per kilolitre of water?
2 WE2 The Tran household has five members and have altogether, six showers a day. Given that each
shower is an average six minutes and uses 18 L of water per minute, calculate:
a the number of litres of water used each day for showers
b the amount of water that can be saved each year by cutting back to 4-minute showers.
3 A family has 4 members who have an average four showers each day, each using 18 L of water per
minute. Each shower lasts an average of 10 minutes.
a Calculate the amount of water used in showers each day.
b If a water-saving showerhead is installed the shower will only use 12 L per minute.
Calculate the amount of water saved if a water-saving showerhead is installed and the length of
showers are cut back to 6 minutes.
4 The Chang family have a dishwasher. After dinner each night the dishwasher is only half full but is
used anyway.
a If a tap is run for 3 minutes to rinse all the plates before loading and the dishwasher is then run,
calculate the amount of water used.
b Calculate the water saving per year if the plates are left in the dishwasher after rinsing and the
machine is only used when full.

5 Kevin waters his garden for half an hour every day.
Calculate the amount of water that he uses every year.

6 MC The water used in a bath is closest to that used in a shower of length:
A 4 minutes B 5 minutes C 6 minutes D 8 minutes

7 Tracey does the washing in her house twice a week. Calculate the annual water saving in her
household if she replaces her top-loading washing machine with a front-loading machine.
8 Brett and Samantha install a swimming pool in their backyard.
a Calculate the cost of filling the swimming pool at a cost of $1.55/kL.

b Every week the pool loses water that is splashed out. The pool is topped up by running the garden
hose for 15 minutes. Calculate the annual cost of keeping the water in the pool topped up.

9 WE3 The graph below shows the rainfall in Sydney for a particular year and compares it to average
rainfall.
2004–05 monthly rainfall

180
Long-term monthly average rainfall
160
140
Rainfall/evaporation (mm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
Month
a What was the wettest month of the year?

b What is normally the wettest month of the year?
c In what two months was the city’s longest dry spell?
d What was the rainfall in January?
e How much higher or lower was rainfall in January than average?
f In which month would you say the amount of rain differed most from normal? Explain your
answer.
g List the months in which rainfall was above average.
Further development
10 The table below shows state-by state and industry-by-industry water usage. (Note: 1 GL = 1 000 000 L)
State or Territory
ACT NSW NT Qld SA Tas. Vic. WA Australia
Water consumption in 2004–05 (GL)
Agriculture 1 4,133 47 2,916 1,020 258 3,281 535 12,191
Forestry and fishing <1 11 <1 3 <1 4 8 25 52
Mining <1 63 17 83 19 16 32 183 413
Manufacturing <1 126 6 158 55 49 114 81 589
Electricity and gas supply — 76 1 81 3 <1 99 13 271
Water supply 5 631 8 426 71 20 793 128 2,083
Other 17 310 30 201 52 18 262 168 1,059
House hold 31 573 31 493 144 69 405 362 2,108
Total 56 5,922 141 4,361 1365 434 4,993 1495 18,767
a Which state uses the most water?

b What industry uses the most water?
c What percentage of all water used is used in NSW?
d What percentage of all water used is used by households?
e In which state is the most water used in the supply of electricity and gas? Give a possible reason
for this.
f What percentage of all water used by the mining industry is used in Western Australia?

11 The table below shows information about the number of households connected to the water supply
and the amount of water used in most major Australian cities.
Population Water
Total urban receiving Total supplied per
Extraction/ water water supply connected total connected
Inflows diversions supplied services properties properties (kL/
City (GL) (GL) (GL) (000’s) (000’s) property)
Canberra, incl. 236 68 52 363 136 355
Queanbeyan
Brisbane 1,614 325 255 975 420 419
Hobart 4,632 40 41 188 83 499
Melbourne 1,752 543 431* 3,583 1,533 281
Darwin 795 62 35 101 43 799
Adelaide 214 250 166 1,095 492 336
Sydney 1,446 861 526 4,228 1,685 312
Perth 1,496 411 237 1,484 649 347
Total 12,185 2,560 1,743 12,017 5,041 419
a Which city has the greatest inflow of water?

b In which city is the greatest amount of water per household used? What might be an explanation
for this?
c Which is the most water-wise city in Australia?
14B Collecting and using water

One way in which we can all conserve water is by
collecting rainwater. All new homes in NSW must
INTERACTIVITY
now have the facilities to allow rainwater to be
int-3077 collected. Rain is collected from the roofs of houses.
Waterworks: Learn We need to be able to calculate the amount of
how the water
cycle works
water that can be collected from various roofs in
int-3078 order to determine what size tank would be suitable.
Water benefits us The ability to analyse water collection and usage
int-3079
Thurtila Pula: Learn
is important for all of us, as this precious resource
how Indigenous must be conserved. It is especially important for
Australians use people who live in country areas, not close to towns,
water
who rely on rainwater for all their household water.
Consider a household that is collecting water from their rectangular roof that measures 20 metres by
10 metres.
Now suppose that 10 mm of rain falls, how much water is collected?
We consider that if all this water remained on the roof it would fill like a rectangular prism.

Using the formula for the volume of a 10 mm
rectangular prism
V = lbh
= 20 × 10 × 0.01 (10 mm = 0.01 m) 10 m
= 0.2 m3
= 200 L (using 1 m3 = 1000 L)
The importance of water collection is 20 m
demonstrated here when you consider the water bill for the household looked at in the previous section.
This is not even half of their daily average use.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A house collects rainwater from the roof of the house.

The roof is 18 metres long by 12 metres wide. Calculate the
amount of water collected from 24 mm of rain.
THINK WRITE
1 Convert 24 mm to metres. 24 mm = 0.024 m

2 Find the volume of the rectangular prism. V = lbh
= 18 × 12 × 0.024
= 5.184 m3
3 Convert to litres (using 1 m3 = 1000 L). = 5184 L
This water that is collected needs to be stored in a tank.

Most large tanks are cylindrical but many are now being designed to
‘look good’ especially as water collection is compulsory with all new
homes built.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
A cylindrical tank has a diameter of 2.6 metres and a height of 2.1 metres. Calculate the capacity
of the tank in litres.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the volume of a cylinder. V = πr2h

= π × 1.32 × 2.1
2 Substitute the values for r and h. = 11.15 m3
3 Calculate the volume.
4 Convert to litres (using 1 m3 = 1000 L). Capacity = 11 150 L

Exercise 14B Collecting and using water
1 WE 4 A homeowner collects water from the roof of her house. The roof is 16 metres long by
14 metres wide. Calculate the amount of water collected from 25 mm of rain.
2 Rainwater is collected from a flat rectangular carport roof.
The dimensions of the carport are 8 metres by 5 metres. Calculate the amount of water collected
from 32 mm of rain.
3 The figure below shows the dimensions of a roof.
12 m
10 m
10 m
20 m
a Calculate the area of the roof in square metres.
b Calculate the amount of water that would be collected if 60 mm of rain falls.
4 WE 5 A cylindrical tank has a diameter of 2.6 metres and a height of 2.1 metres. Calculate the
capacity of the tank in litres.
5 Find the capacity in litres of the water tank below.
m
2540 m
2200 mm

6 Find the capacity in litres of the water tank below. Answer correct to the nearest 10 L.
2510 mm × 780 mm × 1910 mm
7 The Justice family live on a property and rely

on tank water completely.
They use on average about 400 kL of water
per year.
a Calculate their average daily water usage
in litres.
b To store water they have three cylindrical tanks
3 metres in diameter and 2 metres in height each.
Calculate the capacity of each tank.
c Calculate the number of days that the tank
water will last the family when the tanks
are all full, and if there is no rain.
8 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 1400 mm and a height of 1500 mm. Calculate the amount
of water in the tank when it is half full.
9 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 2 metres and a capacity of 10 000 litres. Calculate the
height of the tank.
Further development
10 A house has a rectangular roof of length 20 metres and width 12 metres.
a Calculate the amount of water collected after 75 mm of rain.
b The water collected is funnelled into a cylindrical water tank 2 metres in diameter. Calculate the DIGITAL DOC
amount by which the depth of water in the tank will rise. doc-11109
WorkSHEET 14.1
11 A rectangular roof that is 15 metres wide and 18 metres long collects rainwater which is funnelled
into a cylindrical tank that is 1.8 metres in diameter and has a height of 2 metres.
a Calculate the capacity of the tank in litres.
b When the tank is installed it is empty. Calculate the number of millimetres of rain that must fall in
order to fill the tank.
14C Dams, land and catchment areas

Dams or reservoirs are the main source of water for
cities and most large communities.
Rainwater and rivers supply water to the dams,
which in turn have water piped from them into
homes.
The exact size of most dams is difficult to
measure so we need to use a variety of methods
such as scale drawings, and Simpson’s rule to
estimate the size of dams, which are almost always
irregular in shape.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The figure below shows an image of an Olympic sized

swimming pool.
It is known that the length of the pool in reality is
50 metres. Calculate the scale used.
THINK WRITE 2 cm
1 Measure the length of the pool. Pool length = 2 cm
2 Write the map length and actual Scale = 2 cm : 50 m
length as a ratio.
3 Simplify the ratio. = 2 : 5000
= 1 : 2500
The ProjectsPLUS activity on pages 432–3 will help you to explore issues in relation to water
catchments.
Earlier we considered rainfall and how it is collected for rainwater tanks. On a larger scale we can
consider dams and the amount of water they collect. While roofs generally have a regular shape, dams
do not and so their area needs to be approximated using Simpson’s rule.
Simpson’s rule
Simpson’s rule is a method used to approximate the area of an irregular
figure. Simpson’s rule approximates an area by taking a straight boundary
and dividing the area into two strips. The height of each strip (h) is measured. dm dl
Three measurements are then taken perpendicular to the straight boundary,
df
as shown in the figure on the right. The formula for Simpson’s rule is:
h h h
A = (df + 4dm + dl)
3
where h = distance between successive measurements
df = first measurement
dm = middle measurement
dl = last measurement
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
The figure below shows a small dam that is used to irrigate a golf course.
36 m
5m 1m
40 m 40 m 8m
28 m 36 m
a By considering the top half and the bottom half of the diagram separately use Simpson’s rule
to estimate the surface area of the dam.
b Then, estimate the amount of water that is collected in a week where 250 mm of rain falls.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use Simpson’s rule to find the area as shown in the top half h
a A≈ [df + 4dm + dl]
of the diagram. 3
40
= [5 + 4 × 36 + 1]
3
= 2000 m2

2 Use Simpson’s rule to find the area as shown in the bottom h
A ≈ [df + 4dm + dl]
half of the diagram. 3
40
= [28 + 4 × 36 + 8]
3
= 2400 m2
3 Add the two areas together. Area = 2000 + 2400
= 4400 m2
b 1 Convert 250 mm to metres. b 250 mm = 0.25 m
2 Use the volume formula V = A × h to calculate the volume. V=A×h

= 4400 × 0.25
= 1100 m3
3 Use 1m3 = 1000 L to calculate the amount of water. = 1100 × 1000 L
= 1 100 000 L
Exercise 14C Dams, land and catchment areas

1 WE6 The photo below is an aerial shot of the Sydney Football stadium.
100 m
The distance between the try lines is 100 metres. Find the scale on the photo.
2 The photo below is an aerial shot of the Sydney Cricket Ground.
20.2 m

The cricket pitch is 20.2 metres long.
a Calculate the scale on the photo.
b Use the scale to calculate the length and width of the entire ground.
c By averaging the length and width of the ground consider the ground to be a circle and estimate
the circumference of a ground.
d Use the area of an ellipse formula to find the area of the ground.
3 The photo below is of Warragamba Dam, which is the major water storage dam in Sydney.
The shape of the dam is almost a trapezium.

a Use the area of a trapezium together with the scale to estimate the surface area of the dam.
b Calculate the amount of water that would be collected by 25 mm of rainfall.

4 The satellite image below shows Porters Creek Dam, located in the Morton National Park.
The scale is 1 cm : 200 m. Rule up a page of transparent paper into squares of side
length 1 cm.
a What is the area of 1 cm2 on your paper equivalent to on the photo?
b Use your transparent paper to estimate the surface area of Porters Creek Dam.
c If the average depth of Porters Creek Dam is 20 metres, estimate the capacity of the dam in
megalitres.

5 WE7 The figure below is of a dam.
38 m
6m 10 m
60 m 60 m
35 m 28 m
26 m
a By considering the top half and the bottom half of the diagram separately use Simpson’s rule to
estimate the surface area of the dam.
b Then, estimate the amount of water that is collected in a week in which 150 mm of rain falls.
Further development
6 The photo below is of Mollymook Beach in NSW.
70 m
1000 m
110 m
1000 m
40 m
a Use Simpson’s rule to estimate the area of water enclosed by the two headlands as shown.
b To improve the estimate of the area two more offsets are taken. The length of these offsets is
80 metres (taken halfway between the 40 m and 110 m offset) and 120 metres (taken halfway
between the 100 m and 70 m offset).
Calculate a new estimate for the area by applying Simpson’s rule twice.

14D Energy and sustainability
Earlier in the chapter we looked at water saving and information that is on a water bill that can help us
to conserve water. In this section we will be looking at power bills and completing a similar task about
conserving electricity.
Consider the electricity bill below.
Energy account
Account summary: 10 Aug. 13 to 09 Nov. 13
Account no.: 385 098 456 328
Opening balance $610.09
Payments received — thank you $610.09CR Total amount due: $374.29
Balance carried forward $0.00 Debited on: 30 Nov. 13
New charges
Total electricity charges incl. discounts $374.29
Total amount due — incl. overdue amount $374.29
New charges incl. GST charges of $34.03
Payments received after the due date may incur a fee of $12.00
Average cost per day: $4.07
Average daily usage: 12.66 kWh
Same time last year: 12.36 kWh
Indicative greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes)
Generated this account: 0.9 t
Same time last year: 0.9 t
Saved with a Green Product: 0.3 t
The bill shows not only the amount owing but also the amount of electricity used, the average daily
usage and makes comparisons with the same period last year.
Investigate: Electricity bills
Answer the following questions relating to the sample electricity bill above
1. What is the amount of the bill?
2. What was the average cost per day?
3. What was the total number of kWh used?
4. Research what ‘off peak’ energy is. Explain why it is cheaper?
5. Research what ‘Green Power’ or ‘Green Energy’ is.
6. Collect a sample of electricity bills among the members of your class. Complete a set of summary
statistics for power usage and as a group discuss your findings. How do households in the sample
compare?
As can be seen on the bill, power is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh).

As we know from previous work on measurement the prefix
kilo means 1000 times larger and so 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts.
1 kilowatt hour is a measure of the amount of power used
in running an appliance of 1 kilowatt for one hour.
Each electrical appliance has a wattage which is the power
taken to run the device. Consider for example
1. A 50-watt light bulb
2. A 2400-watt kettle

The kettle is a heating device and hence uses a lot more power then the light bulb.
Time taken to use 1 kWh of power.
50 watt light bulb = 1000 ÷ 50 2400 watt kettle = 1000 ÷ 2400
= 20 hours = 0.4167 hours
= 25 minutes
So as can be seen here boiling water in the kettle for 25 minutes uses the same amount of power as
having a 50-watt light bulb burn for 20 hours.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A television runs on 220 watts of power.

On average the television is watched for 5 hours per day.
a Calculate the number of kWh used.
b Calculate the cost of running the television at 15c/kWh.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the total number of watts a Watts = 220 × 5

used. = 1100
= 1.1 kWh
2 Divide by 1000 to find the number of
kWh used.
b Calculate the cost by multiplying a Cost = 1.1 × 0.15
by 0.15. = $0.165
Note: We can leave this as a decimal with three decimal
places. All electricity costs are metered and only
rounded to the nearest cent in the final calculation.
The table below shows the approximate wattage of a number of household devices.
Device Wattage
Incandescent light blub 80 watts (but varies greatly)
Compact fluorescent light blub 25 watt
Microwave 850 watts
Television 200 watts
Fan 50 watts
Refrigerator 250 watts
Heater 2000 watts
Washing machine 800 watts
Computer 120 watts
Iron 500 watts
Music system 30 watts
When a major appliance is purchased in store it will generally have an energy-rating sticker on it. The
more stars the appliance has the more energy efficient the appliance is. The key figure on this sticker is
the number in the middle. This represents the number of kilowatt hours.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The following energy sticker shows a

refrigerator’ energy consumption. Energy
consumption
Calculate the cost of running the refrigerator 505

kWh
per year at an average 18c/kWh. per year
THINK WRITE
Multiply the annual kWh by the cost per kWh. Cost = 505 × 0.18

= $90.90
Exercise 14D Energy and sustainability

1 Complete each of the following conversions.
a 1000 W = ___ kW b 2400 W = ___ kW c 0.8 kW = ___ W
d 1.2 kW = ___ W e 60 W = ___ kW f 2100 W = ___ kW
2 One megawatt (MW) is equal to 1 million watts or 1000 kilowatts. Complete each of the following
conversions giving your answers in scientific notation.
a 2.5 MW = ___ W b 12 MW = ___ W c 3600 MW = ___ kW
3 One gigawatt (GW) = 109 watts. In the movie Back to the future Marty McFly is trapped in 1955. He
needs to get back to 1985 and needs 1.21 GW of energy to power the time machine. The only source
of this amount of energy in 1955 is a lightning bolt. Write this amount of energy in:
a MW b kW c W.
4 Complete each of the following giving your answer in scientific notation.
a 2 GW = ___ W b 3.2 GW = ___ kW c 0.4 GW = ___ W
5 Below is a list of wattages. Calculate the length of time that each will take to use 1 kWh of power.
a 40 watts b 200 watts c 450 watts
d 800 watts e 1600 watts f 2500 watts
6 Below is the time taken for two appliances to use 1 kWh of energy. Calculate the wattage of the
appliance. (Give your answer to the nearest 10 W.)
a 40 minutes b 24 hours
7 WE8 A microwave oven of 850 watts is used for 40 minutes to cook a meal.
a Calculate the number of kWh used.
b Calculate the cost of operating the microwave at 15c/kWh.

8 A household has 100-watt light globes in each room.
The lights are on for a total of 15 hours per day.
a Calculate the number of kWh used by the lights in a 3-month
billing period (3 months = 91 days).
b Calculate the cost of the lighting at 15c per kWh.
c Calculate the saving on the power bill if they are all replaced
with energy efficient 40-watt globes.
9 WE9 The figure below shows the energy rating for a television.
Energy
consumption
216
kWh
per year
Calculate the cost of running the television for one year at a cost of 21c/kWh.
10 The figure below is the energy rating label for a dishwasher.
Energy
consumption
317
kWh
per year
a Calculate the cost of running the dishwasher for one year at 18c/kWh.
b The above figure is based on two loads in the dishwasher each day. Calculate the cost of each load
in the dishwasher.
c In a household of two people who only eat breakfast and dinner at home it takes three meals
before the dishwasher is full. Calculate the saving in power if the dishwasher is only used
when full.

11 The energy sticker below shows a clothes dryer’s energy rating.
Energy
consumption
206
kWh
per year
a Calculate the cost of running the clothes dryer per year at 18c/kWh.
b The above figure is based on doing one load of drying per week. Calculate the cost of each load in
the dryer.
DIGITAL DOC
Further development doc-11110
WorkSHEET 14.2
12 The energy sticker on a refrigerator says that it will use 505 kWh of
energy per year.
Given that a refrigerator will operate 24 hours a day 7 days a week.
a Calculate the length of time (in hours as a decimal) for the
refrigerator to use 1 kWh.
b Calculate the wattage of the refrigerator.
c Joan is thinking of purchasing this refrigerator for $1500. She
has the alternative or a refrigerator that has an energy rating of
420 kWh per year. However, this refrigerator costs $2000. Given
that electricity is charged at 21c / kWh calculate the annual
saving in electricity costs of the more energy efficient
refrigerator.
d Calculate the length of time that it will take for the more energy
efficient refrigerator to become the more economical purchase.
InvestigatE: BASIX certificate
It is important that we all try to conserve energy. For this reason when new homes are built they need to
be sustainable. We have already seen that all new homes must collect rainwater but there are other things
that can be done to save energy such as the installation of solar panels.
1. Visit the website of your local council and determine what energy efficient requirements are set down
for new dwellings.
2. What is a Building Sustainability Index (BASIX) certificate?
3. What are the sustainability requirements of obtaining a BASIX certificate?
4. What are the key measures and issues that are looked at by the BASIX?
5. How is the BASIX calculated.

Summary
Interpreting • Personal water usage is shown by your water bill that is usually sent quarterly.
information about • The amount of water used is measured in and charged by the kilolitre (kL).
water usage • 1 kL = 1000 L
• Being water-wise will allow you to save water and hence save money.
• To do this you need to be aware of the amount of water used in completing certain tasks.
• Some examples of the approximate amount of water used by certain tasks are shown on the table
on page 407.
Collecting and using • Rainwater can be collected from roof tops and stored in tanks. This method is very important to
water many people who live on properties away from major centres and rely on rain water as their main
source of water.
• Rainfall is measured in millimetres and is measured by a rain gauge. This is the depth of water that
the water from the rain would fill if it were not absorbed, run off or evaporated.
• The amount of water collected by rain can be calculated using the formula V = Ah, where A is the
area of the catchment and h is the amount of rainfall.
• Many water tanks are cylindrical. The volume of a cylinder is found using the formula V = πr2h.
Dams, land and • Dams are the main supply of water for cities and other major population centres.
catchment areas • Dams are usually irregular in shape and so approximate methods need to be used to estimate
their area.
• An area can be estimated by placing an overlay grid on the diagram and estimating the area using
the scale.
h
• Simpson’s rule A ≈ [df + 4dm + dl] , can also be used to estimate many areas.
3
Energy and • Energy is measured in watts, kilowatts, megawatts and gigawatts.

sustainability 1 kW = 1000 watts
1 MW = 1000 kW = 1 000 000 watts
1 GW = 1000 MW = 106 kW = 109 watts
• The amount of electricity used is measured in kilowatt hours. This is the amount of energy
needed to run a 1000-watt appliance for one hour.
• Most major appliances have a rating label. The more stars the label has the more energy
efficient it is.

Chapter review
1 A toilet has a dual flush system. The smaller flush uses 12 litres of water but the larger flush
m u lti p l e
uses 18 litres of water. In a family of four, each person uses one large flush and two small c hoic e
flushes per day. Given that water is charged at $1.60 per kilolitre, the cost of toilet flushes
per year is closest to:
A $50
B $100
C $150
D $200
2 A rectangular roof measures 16 metres by 11 metres. Rain falls onto this roof and is
funnelled into a cylindrical water tank 2 metres in diameter. The amount by which the height
of water in the tank increases during 25 mm of rain is closest to:
A 0.35 m
B 0.7 m
C 1.4 m
D 2.8 m
3 An aerial photo is taken and a length that is known to be 150 m measures 1 cm on the photo. The
scale on the map is:
A 1 : 150
B 1 : 1500
C 1 : 15 000
D 1 : 150 000
4 2.4 GW equals
A 2.4 × 106 watts
B 2.4 × 107 watts
C 2.4 × 108 watts
D 2.4 × 109 watts
1 Look at the water bill on page 406. S ho rt

a What is the amount of this bill? a nsw er
b How many litres of water are being used per day?
c How does this compare with the last billing period?
d Use the above answers to estimate the amount of the previous bill.
2 A tank collects water off the roof of the house. The roof is 16 metres long by 16 metres wide.
Calculate the amount of water collected from 18 mm of rain in litres.
3 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 1.5 metres and a height of 2 metres. Calculate
the capacity of the tank correct to the nearest 100 litres.
4 A farm house has a rectangular roof of length 18 metres and width 12 metres.
a Calculate the amount of water collected after 45 mm of rain.
b The water collected is funnelled into a cylindrical water tank of diameter 3 metres.
Calculate the amount by which the depth of water in the tank will rise.

5 The photo below shows Flemington Racecourse, where the Melbourne Cup is run.
120
0m
The long straight on the race course is 1200 metres long. Calculate the scale on the photo.
6 The photo below shows Double Bay, which is a bay on Sydney Harbour.
200 m 200 m
300 m
400 m
500 m
Use Simpson’s rule to estimate the area enclosed by Double Bay.

7 Complete the following conversions.
a 3400 watts = ___ kW b 0.75 kW = ___ watts c 0.5 MW = ___ watts
8 A lamp has a 120-watt light globe. In total the lamp is on for 3 hours per day.
a Calculate the kilowatt hours used by the lamp in a 3 month billing period (3 months = 91 days).
b Calculate the savings on the power bill if the bulb is replaced with an energy efficient 30-watt
globe given that electricity is charged at 22c/kWh.
9 The figure below shows the energy label for a clothes dryer.
Energy
consumption
206
kWh
per year
a Calculate the cost of running the clothes dryer for one year at 23c/kWh.
b Given that this is based on the clothes dryer being run for three hours per week calculate the cost
per hour of running the clothes dryer.
1 An air conditioner uses 1200 watts of power. Ex tended

Jim lives in northern Queensland and has to R es p ons e
run his air conditioner for 6 hours per day
for 4 months (120 days) of the year.
a How many kilowatt hours of energy does
Jim use?
b What is the cost of running the air
conditioner per year at 21c per kWh?
c An electric fan uses 150 watts of power but
he will need to run the fan for 12 hours per
day over the same 4-month period. How
much can Jim save by using his fan instead
of the air conditioner?
2 A roof has an area of 280 m2. Water from the roof funnels into a cylindrical tank that has a diameter
of 2 metres and a height of 2.5 metres. Digital doc
a Calculate the capacity of the tank in litres. doc-11111
Test yourself
b Calculate the amount of rain needed (in mm) to fill the tank.
Chapter 14

ICT activities
14A Interpreting information about water usage 14D Energy and sustainability
ELESSON DIGITAL DOC
• eles-1615: Water: A vital source. (page 405) • WorkSHEET 14.2 (doc-11110): Apply your knowledge of the
• eles-1616: A world of water. (page 405) mathematics of resources to problems. (page 425)
14B Collecting and using water Chapter review

INTERACTIVITY • Test Yourself (doc-11111). Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
• int-3077: Waterworks: Learn how the water cycle works. (page 412) progress. (page 429)
• int-3078: Water benefits us. (page 412)
• int-3079: Thurtila Pula: Learn how Indigenous Australians use water. To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
(page 412)
DIGITAL DOC
• WorkSHEET 14.1 (doc-11109): Apply your knowledge of the
mathematics of resources to problems. (page 415)

Answers chapter 14
Mathematics and 5 11 147 L 9 $45.36
6 3740 L 10 a $57.06 b 7.8c
resources 7 a 1096 L b 14 137 L c $38.09
Exercise 14A Interpreting information c 38 days 11 a $37.08 b 71c per week.
about water usage 8 1154 L 12 a 17.35 hr b
57 W
1 a 15 kL 9 3.18 m c $17.85 d 5.47 years
b about 250 kL higher 10 a 18 000 L b
5.7 m
c $5.27 11 a 5089.3 L b 2 mm Chapter Review
2 a 108 L b 13 140 L saved. Exercise 14C Dams, land and catchment Multiple Choice
3 a 720 L b 432 L/day areas
4 a 70 L b 12 740 L 1 B
1 1 : 5000
5 219 000 L 2 C
2 a 1 : 2020 b 447.68 m
6 C 3 C
c 15 355 m2
7 9360 L 4 D
3 a 795 000 m2 b 198 750 kL
8 a $85.25 b $24.18 4 a 40 000 m2 Short Answer
9 a October b 360 000 m2 (answers may vary) 1 a $268.80
b March c 7200 ML b 554 L
c April and May 5 a 6700 m2 b 1005 kL c 154 L/day higher
d 80 mm 6 a 183 315 m2 b 188 337 m2 d $195.07
e 10 mm lower
Exercise 14D Energy and sustainability 2 4608 L
f October had 141 mm of rain — more
1 a 1 kW b 2.4 kW 3 3500 L
than double the average of 70 mm.
c 800 W d 1200 W 4 a 9720 L b 1.375 m
g October, November, December,
e 0.06 kW f 2.1 kW 5 1 : 20 000
February and June
2 a 2 500 000 W 6 180 000 L
10 a NSW b Agriculture
b 12 000 000 W 7 a 3.4 kW
c 31.6% d 11.2%
c 3 600 000 kW b 750 W
e Victoria — electricity and gas plants are
3 a 1210 MW c 500 000 W
located in this state.
b 1 210 000 kW 8 a 32.76
f 44.3%
c 1 210 000 000 W b $5.41
11 a Hobart
4 a 2 × 109 W b 3.2 × 106 kW 9 a $47.38
b Darwin — extremely hot. Lots of people
c 4 × 108 W b 30c/hr
have pools, use air conditioners etc.
5 a 25 h b 5h
c Melbourne Extended response
c 2.2 h d 1 h 15 min
Exercise 14B Collecting and using water e 37.5 min f 24 min 1 a 864 kWh
1 5600 L 6 a 1500 W b 40 W b $181.44
2 1280 L 7 a 0.57 kWh b 8.5c c $136.08
3 a 320 m2 b
19 200 L 8 a 136.5 kWh b $20.48 2 a 7854. L
4 11 150 L c $12.29 b 28 mm

ICT activities
Water catchment
SEARCHLIGHT ID: PRO-0152
Scenario
Living in Australia we consider ourselves to be ‘The Lucky
Country’. However, as a nation we regularly have to face
the effects of natural disasters. Bushfires, floods and
tropical cyclones often make the news for the sudden
impact that they have on people’s lives.
One such natural disaster that Australia faces often is
drought.
For this reason we need to be aware of how
important water conservation is, be aware of dam
capacity, and before we are beset by drought to ensure
that plenty of water is kept in reserve.
In this activity you will be researching Sydney’s water
supply and how water is managed in times of drought.
1. What is the main dam that supplies Sydney’s water?
2. Obtain an aerial photo of this dam and estimate the
area of the dam’s surface.
3. Research the amount of rain that falls annually in area
in which the dam is located.
4. Calculate the number of kilolitres of rain water that
this dam collects annually.
5. Research:
Unlike other natural disasters, drought impacts slowly (a) the number of households in Sydney that are
rather than with sudden force, yet the results can be just serviced by water from this dam
as devastating. People on farms feel the impact first (b) the average daily water usage of Sydney
as crops and stock die through lack of water, meaning households.
the farmers will struggle to make a living. Due to short 6. Use you results to draw a conclusion about the
supply, prices for vital commodities rise, and in this way amount of water collected in Sydney and the amount
drought affects all our lives. used.

7. Other than rain, where does water for this dam flow • Create a summary of your findings to present to an
from? audience in an appropriate format (e.g. a PowerPoint
8. In the most recent drought, what water restrictions presentation or a movie).
were imposed? Use your knowledge of water use to • Write a report that includes the results of all
calculate the amount by which water usage can be your findings. Submit this to your teacher for
reduced by water restrictions. assessment.
Task
1. Watch the introductory video.
2. Identify the impact of drought on Sydney people and
why people in wider NSW are usually affected before
city people.
3. Identify the main source of Sydney’s water and get a
aerial photo with a scale so that measurements can
be made.
4. Use the scale together with Simpson’s rule to estimate
the surface area of the dam.
5. Visit the Bureau of Meteorology website
(www.bom.gov.au) to research the amount of rain in
the catchment area each year.
6. Within your class obtain as many water bills as
possible, preferably from different parts of the
Sydney area. Use the sampling techniques you
have learned to make calculations about typical
water use.
7. Research the most recent water restrictions in Sydney.
You will have learned how much water is used in
completing household tasks. Use this information to
set out calculations that show the water that will be
saved by the restrictions.
8. Present a report in the form of your choice that shows
water use and make a conclusion about Sydney’s
capacity to cope with drought at a time when the
city’s population is growing.
Process
• Open the ProjectsPLUS application for this chapter in
your eBookPLUS. Watch the introductory video, click
the ‘Start Project’ button and then set up your project
team. You will invite another member of your class
to form a partnership. Save your settings and the
project will be launched.
• Your teacher will have access to a number of
websites that will get your research started. Use
these to analyse the available data and find the
answers to the key questions. Suggested software
• You will need to access the details of your home • ProjectsPLUS
internet connection. This may be available in the • Microsoft Word
contract or on your internet provider’s website. • Microsoft Excel
• Import the data into an Excel spreadsheet. • Microsoft PowerPoint
• Use the spreadsheet to create suitable graphs to • Google Maps
display the information.
ICT activities — projectsplus 433

Glossary
Angle of depression: The angle through which you must look down Depreciation: The reduction in value of an asset.
from the horizontal to sight an object. Ellipse: An oval shaped figure. The shortest distance from the centre
Angle of elevation: The angle through which you must look up from of an ellipse to the circumference is called the semi-minor axis and
the horizontal to sight an object. the longest distance from the centre to the circumference is called the
Annuity: A form of investment involving regular periodical semi-major axis.
contributions to an account. On such an investment, interest Energy rating: A rating given to household appliances which
compounds at the end of each period and the next contribution to the indicates the amount of power that the appliance uses.
account is made. Expected outcome: The number of times that an outcome can be
Annulus: The area between two circles that have the same centre expected to occur in a given number of trials.
(concentric). Exponential function: A function where the independent variable
Area chart: When line graphs are stacked on top of each other so is in the exponent (index). An exponential function is of the form
that the area between each of the lines can be used to compare each y = ax or y = b(ax).
data set. Extrapolate: To extend a graph so as to make predictions about future
Asset: An item that is of value to its owner. trends.
Bell shape: A normal distribution where scores are distributed evenly Flat rate loan: A loan where the interest is calculated using only the
about the mean is said to be a bell shaped distribution. initial amount borrowed.
Box-and-whisker-plot: A method of graphically displaying a five- Fundamental counting principle: The number of elements of the
number summary. The plot is drawn to scale with the box representing sample space for a multi-stage probability experiment is found by
the interquartile range and the whiskers representing the range. Within multiplying the number of ways each stage can occur. This is the
the box, the median is also shown. fundamental counting principle.
Building Sustainability Index (BASIX): A measure of how Future value (FV ): The value of a compound interest investment on
efficiently a home uses water, electricity and gas resources. It is a maturity (the completion of its term).
requirement under NSW State Government legislation that new homes Future value of an annuity: The value of an annuity at the end of
must be given a BASIX certificate. This certificate will only be given a given period of time.
once certain standards are reached. Great circle: A circle of the greatest possible diameter that can be
Capture-recapture technique: A method of estimating a population. drawn on the surface of a sphere.
A sample is captured and tagged before being released into the wider Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The standard time in Greenwich
population. A second sample is ten recaptured. The percentage of which is used as the basis for calculating the time in all other parts
that second sample that is tagged allows or an estimate of entire of the world.
population.
Greenwich Meridian: The meridian of longitude from which angular
Causality: When the occurrence of one variable causes another. For distances in the east–west direction are measured. Using the longitude
example there is a strong positive correlation between a person’s shirt calculated from the Greenwich Meridian, time in different places on
size and shoe size but one does not cause the other. On the other hand, the Earth’s surface is calculated.
there is a strong positive correlation between the amount of a Lottery
jackpot and the number of tickets sold. In this case, it would seem that Grouped data: A data set tabulated in small groups rather than as
one does cause the other. individual scores.
Compass radial survey: A survey taken from a central point in a Histogram: A column graph that displays the frequency for a set
field. Critical points are sighted from this central point and radial lines of scores.
are drawn. The distance from the central point to each critical point is Hyperbolic function: A function where the independent variable is
then measured and the compass bearing of each radial line is noted on in the denominator of the function. A hyperbolic function is of the
the survey. form y = x.
Correlation coefficient: A figure between –1 and 1 which indicates Interest factor: The value of $1 under particular investment
the strength of a correlation. The closer to 1 the coefficient is, the conditions.
stronger the positive correlation; the closer to –1 the coefficient is, the International Date Line: The meridian of longitude opposite to the
stronger the negative correlation. A coefficient close to zero indicates Greenwich Meridian. The International Date Line is, however, bent
no correlation or, at best, a very weak correlation. for convenience. When crossing the International Date Line, the
Correlation: A statement reflecting the relationship between two date changes.
variables. A positive correlation indicates that as one variable Interpolate: Drawing a graph using data found at the end points.
increases so does another, while a negative correlation indicates that Interquartile range: A number that represents the spread of a data
as one variable increases, the other decreases. set. The interquartile range is calculated by subtracting the lower
Cosine rule: A trigonometric formula used in non-right- angled quartile from the upper quartile.
triangles that allows: Kilowatt: A measure of power used to run an appliance.
• a side length to be found when given the two other side lengths and 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts.
the size of the included angle Kilowatt hour: The amount of power used to maintain one kilowatt
• an angle to be found when given the three side lengths of the of power for one hour.
triangle. Latitude: The angular distance of a point on the Earth’s surface either
Cross tabulation: Data is collected in terms of two variables and north or south of the equator.
presented in the form of a two way table. Least squares regression line of best fit: A line drawn on a scatter
Cubic function: A function where the independent variable is raised plot that is drawn such that the shortest distance of each point on the
to the power of 3. A cubic function is in the form y = x3. scatterplot, when squared is a minimum.
Cumulative frequency: A progressive total of the frequencies. Life expectancy: The average life span of a particular group of people.
Glossary 435
Line of best fit: A line drawn on a scatterplot that passes through or Radar chart: A type of line graph drawn around a central point. The
is close to as many points as possible. categories are labelled in a circle and data points marked on each line
Longitude: The angular distance East or West of the Greenwich emanating from the centre. The points are then joined. A radar chart
Meridian. is suitable to show a pattern that is likely to repeat. For example, sales
Lower quartile: The lowest 25% of scores in a data set. made during each month of the year.
Measure of location: A general term for the typical score in a data Range: A number that represents the spread of a data set. The range is
set. The typical score can be measured as the mean, median or mode. calculated by subtracting the smallest score from the largest score.
Measure of spread: A general term for the distribution of data. Reducing balance loan: A loan where the interest is calculated
Measures of spread are the range, interquartile range and standard periodically on the outstanding balance at that point in time.
deviation. Scatterplot: A graph that shows two variables, one on each axis,
Meridian of longitude: A line on the Earth’s surface that runs from and their relationship by plotting the points generated by each
the North Pole to the South Pole. Each meridian of longitude is data pair.
measured by the number of degrees east or west it is of the Greenwich Sector: The area between any two radii of a circle.
Meridian. Simpson’s rule: A method used to approximate the area of an
Nautical mile (M): A distance on the surface of the Earth that is irregular field.
equal to an angular distance of 1 minute on a great circle. Simulation: An experiment where a computer or other device
1 M = 1.852 km. replicates the results that would be obtained if an experiment were
Normal distribution: Occurs when a data set of scores is performed in reality.
symmetrically distributed about the mean. Sine rule: A trigonometric formula used in non-right-angled triangles
Offset survey: A survey taken by taking offsets to key points from a that allows:
traverse line. • a side length to be found when given one other side length and the
Offset: In a traverse study, an offset is a line perpendicular to the size of two angles
transversal. It is drawn from the transversal to a vertex on the area • an angle to be found when given two side lengths and one
being surveyed. non-included angle.
Ordered selection: A selection of outcomes where the order each Skewness: The distribution of a set of scores in a data set.
item is selected is important a. Positively skewed — more scores are gathered at the lower end of
Outlier: A score in a data set which is an extreme value. The outlier the distribution.
can be much greater or much less than all other scores in the data set. b. Negatively skewed — more scores are distributed at the upper end
The effect of an outlier is to greatly increase or decrease the mean of the distribution.
such that the mean is no longer a reliable indicator of a typical score
Small circle: A circle that is drawn on the surface of a sphere that is
in the data set.
of a smaller diameter than a great circle.
Parallel of latitude: A line on the Earth’s surface parallel to the
Standard deviation: A measure of the spread of a data set. The
equator. Each parallel of latitude is measured in terms of the angular
standard deviation is found on a calculator using either the population
distance either north or south of the equator.
standard deviation or the sample standard deviation.
Percentage error: The maximum error in a measurement as a
Standardised score: (also called z-score) — A figure which
percentage of the measurement given.
represents the distance of a score from the mean in terms of the
Plane table radial survey: A survey taken from a central point in standard deviation. The standardised score is the number of standard
a field where critical points are sighted from this central point and deviations that a member of the data set is from the mean.
radial lines are drawn. The distance from the plane table to each
Stem-and-leaf plot: A method of displaying a data set where the
critical point is then measured and the angle between the radial lines
first part of a number is written in the stem and the second part of the
is measured with a protractor.
number is written in the leaves.
Present value (PV ): The initial amount that is to be invested under
Term of the loan: The length of time that a loan is repaid over.
compound interest.
Tree diagram: A method of listing the sample space for a multi-stage
Present value of an annuity: The single sum of money which, if
invested at the present time, will produce the same financial outcome probability experiment. The diagram branches once for each stage
as an annuity. of the experiment at each level showing all possible outcomes to
each stage.
Probability tree: A tree diagram where each outcome is not equally
likely. The probability of each selection is written on the branches and Two-way table: A table that compares a population in terms of two
the probability of a sequence of selections is calculated by multiplying variables. One variable is displayed in rows the second variable in
along the branches of each individual selection. columns.
Quadrant: A quarter of a circle. Ungrouped data: Data for which each score is individually tabulated.
Quadratic function: A function where the independent variable is Unordered selection: A selection of outcomes where the same items
raised to the power of 2. A quadratic function will take the form selected in a different order is considered the same selection.
y = ax2 or y = ax2 + bx + c. Upper quartile: The highest 25% of scores in a data set.
Quartile: 25% of the data set. The upper quartile is the top 25% of Watt: A measure of power usage.
the data set and the lower quartile is the bottom 25% of the data set. z-score: see standardised score.
436 Glossary
Index
addition composite solids, volume 157–63, 167 exponential functions
algebraic expressions 279–81, 294 compound interest form 335
algebraic fractions 279–81, 294 formula 16, 27 graphs 335, 336, 350
algebra present and future value 16–19, 20 extrapolation 346
index form 281 cones, volume 154, 167
index laws 281–5, 294 constant of proportionality 342 flat rate interest 7–11, 20
algebraic expressions correlation 370–7, 391 force of gravity 349
addition 279–81, 294 causality 373–4, 391 formulas, and equations 290–3, 294
division 281–2, 294 correlation coefficient 371–3 frequency tables, histograms and polygons,
expanding 285–6, 294 explained 370, 391 grouped data 49, 51
explained 279 Pearson’s Moment Correlation future value (FV)
like terms 279 Coefficient 371 annuities 27–32, 43
multiplication 281–2, 294 positive or negative 370–2, 391 compound interest investments 16–19, 20
raising a power to another power 282 strength of 371–3 creating table in Excel 28–9
simplifying 285–6, 294 cosine rule
subtraction 279–81, 294 derivation of 193–4 gradient formula 302
zero index 282–3 finding angles 197–202, 219 graphs, loan repayments 40–2, 43
algebraic fractions finding side lengths 193–7, 219 gravity, calculating force of 349
addition 279–81, 294 counting techiques 257–61, 272 great circles 233, 234–6, 248
subtraction 279–81, 294 committee selections 259 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 243–4
algebraic functions fundamental counting principle 257 Greenwich Meridian 237, 243
force of gravity 349 ordered arrangements 257–8, 272
home loans
graphing physical phenomena 345–9, 350 and probability 265–7, 272
home loan calculators 12–14
representations of physical situations 345 tree diagrams and ordered
arrangements 258–9 repayments 11–12
angles of depression 181
angles of elevation 181 unordered selections 259, 272 hyperbolas 334, 336, 350
annuities credit cards 1–6 hyperbolic functions, equation 334, 350
future value 27–32, 43 annual rates 1 index form 281
present value (PVA) 32–6, 43 minimum payments 1–5 index laws 281–5, 294
annulus, area 134, 167 overview 1, 20 First Index law 281, 294
arcs, lengths 229–33, 248 cross tabulation, comparison of data sets Fourth Index Law 282–3, 294
area 71–2
Second Index law 281, 294
annulus 134, 167 cubes, surface area 146, 167
Third Index Law 282, 294
circles 133 cubic functions 334, 336, 350
interest
composite shapes 136–41, 167 cylinders, surface area 149–53, 167
compound interest 16–17, 27
ellipses 167
data flat rate interest 7–11
irregular figures 141–6
grouped 50–1 simple interest 2, 3–4, 7
parts of circles 133–6, 167
organising 49–51 International Date Line 237, 244
quadrants 133
ungrouped 50 interpolation 346
sectors 133–4, 167
data sets interquartile range (IQR) 55
Simpson’s rule 141–6, 167
analysis 59–69 inverse operations, to solve linear
triangles 202–6, 219
area charts 65 equations 286
see also surface area
box-and-whisker plots 62–4 inverse variation 341–5, 350
area charts
comparison 69–76, 81 investments, present and future value 16–19, 20
analysis of data sets 65
cross tabulation 71–2 irregular figures, area 141–6, 416–17
comparison of data sets 69
displaying statistical data 68
bearings 206–13, 219 grouped data 49–53, 81 latitude 237–40, 248
compass bearings 206–7, 219 measures of location and spread 54–9, 83 important parallels 240
true bearings 207–9, 219 radar charts 54–5 parallels of latitude 237
types 206 skewness 76–80, 81 life expectancy 386–90, 392
body measurements 361–82, 391 stem-and-leaf plots 62 like terms 279
correlation 370–7, 391 direct linear variation 307–9, 321 linear equations
drawing scatterplots 361–9, 391 direct non-linear variation 337–41, 350 explained 286
fitting a regression line 377–81, 391 distances solving using inverse operations 286
box-and-whisker plots on Earth’s surface 240–3, 248 linear functions 301–6, 321
analysing data sets 62–4 nautical miles 241 conversion of temperature 306
comparison of data sets 69 division, algebraic expressions 282, 294 linear modelling
dosage rate, medication 384–6 linear relationships 310–12, 321
calculators, TVM mode 3 problem solving 313–15, 321
causality 373–4, 391 Earth’s surface, distances 240–3, 248 loan repayments 11–16, 20, 36–40, 43
circles electrical appliances, energy and calculating each repayment 36–8
area 133 sustainability, 421–5, 426 graphs 40–2, 43
area of parts 133–6, 167 ellipses, area 167 home loans 11–14
great circles 233, 234–6, 248 energy and sustainability 421–5, 426 present value interest factors (PVIF) 36–8
small circles 233, 234–6, 248 equations reducing balance loans 11, 36, 43
compass bearings 206–7, 219 and formulas 290–3, 294 location
compass radial surveys 215–16 simultaneous equations 315–20, 321 comparing data sets 70–1
composite shapes, area 136–41, 167 solving 286–9, 294 measures of 54–5, 56, 57, 70–1, 83
Index 437
longitude 237–40, 248 maximising areas 333 stratified samples 115, 123
Greenwich Meridian 237, 243 shape of parabolas 331 subtraction
International Date Line 237, 244 algebraic expressions 279–81, 294
meridians 237 radar charts algebraic fractions 279–81, 294
analysis of data sets 54–5 superannuation see annuities
means 54, 118–19 comparison of data sets 69 surface area
measurements radial surveys 213–18, 220 cubes 146, 167
body measurements 361–82, 391 compass radial surveys 215–16, 220 cylinders 149–53, 167
electrical power 421 plane table radial surveys 213–15, 220 minimising 153
error in 163–6, 167 random number generators 115–16 prisms 146–9, 167
gauging accuracy of 130, 167 random samples 115, 123 rectangular prisms 146–7, 167
location 54–5, 56, 57, 70–1, 83 range 55 spheres 149–53, 167
maximum error 130, 163, 167 rectangular prisms, surface area 146–7, 167 surveying
medication 382–4 reducing balance loans 11, 36, 43 compass radial surveys 215–16
percentage error 130, 167 calculating each repayment 36–8 offset survey 213
relative error 129–33, 167 graphs 40–2 plane table radial surveys 213–15, 220
spread 55, 57, 70–1, 83 home loans 11–14 radial surveys 213–18, 220
medians 54 regression lines sustainability and energy 421–5, 426
medication fitting 377–81, 391 systematic sampling 115, 123
Clark’s formula for children least squares regression line of best fit
(1–12 yrs) 384, 391 377 temperature, conversion from Celsius to
dosage rate 384–6 line of best fit 377 Fahrenheit 306
Fried’s formula for children relative error 129–33, 167 time zones 243–7, 248
(1–2 yrs) 384, 391 right-angled triangles, review 177–83, 219 in Australia 244–5
units of measurements 382–4, 391 daylight saving 245
Young’s formula for children sampling Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 243–4
(1–12 yrs) 384, 391 estimating populations 120–2, 123 tree diagrams
meridians of longitude 237 explained 115 multi-stage events 261–4
milligrams (mg) 382 and means 118–19 and ordered arrangements 258–9
modes 57 random samples 115, 123 triangles, area 202–6, 219
multiplication, algebraic expressions stratified samples 115, 123 trigonometric ratios
281–2, 294 systematic sampling 115, 123 formulas 177
types 115–17, 123 obtuse angles 183–4
nautical miles 241 scatterplots trigonometry
normal distribution drawing 361–9, 391 area of triangles 202–6, 219
comparison of scores 100–3, 108 investigation 363–6 bearings 206–13, 219
distribution of scores 103–7, 108 sectors, area 133–4, 167 cosine rule to find angles 197–202, 219
explained 95 simple interest cosine rule to find side lengths 193–7, 219
terminology 104–5 calculating 2 derivation of sine rule 184–6
z-scores 95–100, 108 formula 2, 7 formulas for trigonometric ratios 177
using calculator 3–4 radial surveys 213–18, 220
obtuse angles, trigonometric ratios 183–4 Simpson’s rule 141–6, 167, 416–17 right-angled triangles 177–83, 219
offset surveys 213 simultaneous equations 315–20, 321 sine rule to find angles 189–93, 219
ogives 49, 51–2 explained 315 sine rule to find side lengths 183–8, 219
ordered arrangements solving algebraically by elimination true bearings 207–9, 219
counting techiques 257–8, 272 317 two-way tables, comparison of data
and tree diagrams 258–9 solving algebraically by substitution sets 69
outliers 60–2 316
solving graphically 315–16 variation 307
parabolas 331 sine rule constant of variation 307
parallels of latitude 237 ambiguous case 190 direct linear variation 307–9, 321
Pearson’s Moment Correlation Coefficient 371 derivation of 184–6 direct non-linear variation 337–41, 350
plane table radial surveys 213–15, 220 finding angles 189–93, 219 inverse variation 341–5, 350
present value (PV) finding side lengths 183–8, 219 volume
annuities (PVA) 32–6, 43 skewness, data sets 76–80, 81 composite solids 157–63, 167
creating table in Excel 33–5 small circles 233, 234–6, 248 cones 154, 167
interest factors (PVIF) 36–8 spheres, surface area 149–53, 167 pyramids 153–4, 167
investments 16–19, 20 spherical geometry spheres 154, 167
prisms, surface area 146–9, 167 arc lengths 229–33, 248
probability distances on Earth’s surface 240–3, 248 water usage
and counting techiques 265–7, 272 great circles 233, 234–6, 248 collecting and using water
expected outcomes 268–71, 272 latitude and longitude 237–40, 248 412–15, 426
formula 265 small circles 233, 234–6, 248 dams, land and catchment areas
popular gaming 266 time zones 243–7, 248 415–20, 426
rolling a die 268 spread interpreting information about
pyramids, volume 153–4, 167 comparing data sets 70–1 405–12, 426
Pythagoras’ theorem 137 measures of 55, 57, 70–1, 83 and water availability 405–8
standard deviation 55
quadrants, area 133 standardised score see z-scores z-scores 95–100, 108
quadratic functions 329–34, 350 stem-and-leaf plots distribution of scores 103–7, 108
explained 329 analysis of data sets 62 terminology 104–5
graphs 329 comparison of data sets 69 using to compare scores 100–3, 108
438 Index

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MATHS QUEST

First edition published 2001

Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Author: Rowland, Robert, 1963– author.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Cover and internal design images: © vic&dd/Shutterstock.com.

Cartography by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd Brisbane

Illustrated by diacriTech and Wiley Composition Services

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Applications of trigonometry 177 Further algebraic skills and

Mathematics and pro-0152 Life expectancy 402

exercises. Each exercise also contains new further development questions.

Student website — eBookPLUS

Teacher edition eGuidePLUS

Maths Quest HSC Mathematics

NILGÜN SAFAK LEE TOLL

Next generation teaching and learning

This book features eBookPLUS:

Using the JacarandaPLUS

viii About eBookPLUS

1A Credit cards

Balance less than $25

Balance more than $25

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 1

Use the simple interest formula to calculate one I = Prn

2 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

An extract from a credit card statement is shown below.

10 June $400 – repayment $500

3 For 9 days the balance is $900, so enter:

4 Press 1 (SI) to get the interest for these 9 days.

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 3

4 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

Exercise 1A Credit cards

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 5

6 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 7.5 ÷ 100

Alvin borrows $8000 to buy a car at a flat rate of 9% p.a.

1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 9 ÷ 100

2 Write the interest formula. I = Prn

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 7

4 Calculate the interest. = $2880

Narelle buys a computer on hire purchase. The cash price of the

a Find 10% of $3000. a Deposit = 10% of $3000

c 1 Write the interest formula. c I = Prn

2 Substitute for P, r and n. = $2700 × 0.08 × 3

3 Calculate the interest. = $648

e Divide the total repayments by 36 (the e Monthly repayments = $3348 ÷ 36

1 Calculate the total amount that is repaid. Total repayments = $320 × 60

8 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

Exercise 1B Flat rate interest

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 9

10 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

Month Opening balance Interest Closing balance

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 11

Computer application 1: Home loan calculator

12 Maths Quest HSC Mathematics General 2

2 Calculate 23% of $500 000 to find the Interest = 23% of $500 000

Monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed

Chapter 1 • Credit and borrowing 13

1 Look up the table to find the monthly

1 Look up the table to find the monthly