Excersises 1 , Media Access

List and explain the different media acces approaches. Discuss how these approaches influence
the services of upper layer protocols in regard to guarantees., QOS, and time critical application.

Answer :

Media Access:

a. Implemented on layer 2, usually in Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer

b. Static vs. dynamic
c. Slotted vs. unslotted
d. With vs. without contention
e. Collisions vs. collision-free
f. Fair vs. unfair access probability
g. Contention leads to delay
h. Successive failed media access tries can lead to dropped frame
i. Media access can limit channel utilization and lead to low performance
j. Quality of Service (QoS) has be considered over the whole protocol stack
k. Static, contention-free and collision-free approaches best to ensure QoS
Exercise 2, Network Topologies
Consider the following four network topologies each with n nodes:
 Star
 Full Meshed
 Undirectional Ring
 Bidirectional Ring
Give a formula to calculate the minimum, maximum and average number of hope between any
two nodes for any number n
Answer :
 Star
 In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e. not intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as active ?hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them
Advantages of Star topology
1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected
with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the
hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of Star topology
1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system
of star topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device require only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
  Full Meshed
In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through
a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries
data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n devices in the network then
each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a
mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is
only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required
must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link
 Undirectional Ring Topology
This types uses a single strong cable throughout whole Computer Network. All
the Nodes are connected to this single cable. Moreover, direction of flow of data is single.
This types is least costly to build and manage. It means that data can either travel in
clockwise direction or in an anti-clockwise direction. Direction is also per-configured in
this type. One important thing to note is that in some cases this type is configured to
be Simplex. However, certain other scenarios may also involve a Half-
Duplex communication flow. In Simplex, the Network will continue to operate in pref-
configured direction. For instance, if the direction configuration is set to clockwise
direction then the Network will always operate in the same direction. However, in Half-
Duplex, data can flow in both directions. But the direction changes alternatively. In other
words, data can`t flow in both directions simultaneously. Instead, it flows in clockwise
direction at one time while it starts to flow in an anti-clockwise direction at another tim
In a unidirectional ring network, the data flows in only one direction either clockwise or
anti-clockwise and such a network is called a half-duplex network. In general, most of the
ring network allows this kind of data flow only
 Bidirectional Ring Topology or Dual Ring Topology
This type is usually more reliable. But trust me it is costly to build. In this type,
each Network Node connects with a pair of Backbone Cable. Moreover, you can
get the advantage of a Full-Duplex transmission. So, data can flow in both
directions at the same time. It means that a Node can communication with two
other Network Nodes at the same time. You may configure first wire to go in anti-
clockwise direction while other to be in clockwise direction. That is the reason
why SONET is the choice of most enterprises. It is just because of reliability and
simultaneous communication. In any event of failure you will find this type more
fault-tolerant and operational. So, whenever a wire fails there is an alternative
way to communicate. Unidirectional ring network can be converted into a bidirectional
network by having two connections between two network nodes. It is also called a dual-
 ring network in which two rings are created to send data in the opposite direction. Dual
rings provide alternate paths to reach any node in case of failure in any of the
intermediate nodes while sending data in one direction.
Exercise 3, Network Topologies 2:
Discuss the bus and star topology. Name the disadvantages of each topology. How does a broken
cable affect a bus and a star topology? Discuss how these topologies differ in regard to security,
e.g how an unauthorized connected node can be detected
Answer :
1. Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end.
All nodes like workstations, printers, laptops, servers etc., are connected to
the linear cable. The terminator is used to absorb the signal when the signal
reaches the end, preventing signal bounce. When using bus topology, when a
computer sends out a signal, the signal travels the cable length in both
directions from the sending computer. When the signal reaches the end of
the cable length, it bounces back and returns in the direction it came from.
This is known as signal bounce. Signal bounce may create problems in
the computer network, because if another signal is sent on the cable at the
same time, the two signals will collide. Collisions in a computer network can
drastically reduce the performance of the computer network.

A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of bus topology : 
 If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1 ?which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are
required.
 Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is used to built small
networks
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.
Problems with bus topology : 
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD etc.

2. Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (like workstations, printers, laptops, servers
etc.) connected directly to a central device called as a network switch. Each workstation
has a cable that goes from its network interface card (NIC) to a network switch.
Most popular and most widely used LAN technology Ethernet operates in Star or Star-

Bus topology.
Advantages of Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing device
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
• If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and cannot
participate in computer network communication.
• More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the connecting devices
(network switches).

List of the Advantages of Star Topology

1. Star topology features a better fault tolerance.
When a star topology experiences a cut cable or a NIC failure, then it will only
affect one node. This advantage is due to the nature of the installation as each device
connects independently to the central core. One cable run connects the nodes to each
other. Although this approach is someone expensive compared with other designs,
the cost issues are usually outweighed by the advantage of improved fault tolerance.
The only way to take down all of the devices at once is to compromise the central
core. Since this equipment is not readily available to the average person, it is a safe
network that businesses of any size can use to support their needs.
2. You can extend the reach of the network by creating multiple stars.
Star topology has natural limitations that come into play when setting up the network.
The reality of this approach is that you will run into physical limitations eventually.
Either the cable length will not be suitable for your needs or the number of ports
available for use will all be supporting the system. When you use star topology, then
you can extend the length of the network by configuring multiple stars with a central
core device in the middle to serve as a server. The backbone of the network must have
enough power to support all activities for this approach to be useful

3. You can connect multiple device types through star topology.

If you have a hub or switch that is capable of sending data packets to various equipment
types, then this network option is useful for a diverse variety of applications. Most
businesses will use star topology as a way to link workstations to different printers,
copiers, and other stations. You can also have a server connect with the central hub to
maximize the reach of each connected device.
As long as the equipment is compatible with your cabling and the software or hardware
of the central hub, then you can connect an entire office with this setup rather easily.
4. It doesn’t create bottlenecks where data collisions occur.
Because each device connects to the central core with its own cable when using star
topology, the likelihood that data collisions will occur is quite minimal. That means the
performance levels of this system are exceptionally high when compared to other
network designs. Although there can be times when it performs slowly due to high
traffic levels, you typically have direct communication between devices. That means
workers have less downtime to manage when using this setup.
5. Some businesses may benefit from a wireless star topology system.
If your central hub supports a wireless connection, then you can avoid the mobility
issues that star topology typically provides. You won’t have the same limitation on the
number of devices you can connect, although you can program a limit into the core if
you prefer. That means you can work in any room in the building while still having
access to your network. This advantage also opens the door for workers who prefer to
use tablet PCs or mobile devices during the workday.
 Wireless star topology systems can help you to avoid the cost of cabling. Since
most devices come with WLAN cards already, you can avoid many of the expenses
that a traditional approach would create using this technology.
6. You can take multiple approaches with star topology systems.
When you design a star topology network, then you can choose to use a switch, an
active hub, or a passive one. If you use a passive one, then the signals pass through
without any intervention, which means no time is necessary to modify the data
packets. Active systems perform additional functions that help it to work as a
repeater in addition to its central core duties.
If you use a switch with a star topology network, then it will read the destination
address of the data message. Then it will transmit the information to the intended
receiver. It will route or bridge the data will serving network management duties.
7. Star topology avoids point-to-point connections.
Although you will lose some of the overlapping connections that result in a high
level of reliability in other topologies, the star design creates a more streamlined
approach that maintains fast communication. This flexibility allows you to install it
in whatever way suits your company well since you don’t need to worry about all of
your devices communicating with one other with the presence of the central hub
That means a star topology system is useful for networks of almost any size. There
are no risks of signal reflection within the network, creating a secure way to
transmit data packets with its uni-cast communication and point-based connections

List of the Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. If the central core fails, then so does the entire system.
The central switch, hub, or core of a star topology system is the critical point of the
network. You can sever cables to it without compromising the rest of the network,
but it must remain functional for data movement to occur. If a failure happens for
any reason, then all of the devices connected to it will not receive a network
connection. You can still perform offline work in this scenario, but it can reduce
your opportunities for collaboration immediately.
 Once a failure occurs, the only repair solution might be to replace the entire hub.
That can be a pricey proposition, even if the cabling is still useful.
2. Star topology is very expensive to install.
The most expensive aspect of the installation of topology is the cabling work
needed for the system. Although the star design is quite reliable, it also requires
each device to receive a direct connection to the central hub. That makes it the most
expensive choice to consider, which is why some small businesses look for
alternatives.
The goal of this expense is to save money by increasing productivity and reducing
the time it takes to hunt down maintenance issues. Since you know a disconnected
device has its cable compromised in some way, less downtime typically occurs.
Some companies may not find ways to recoup the entire cost of this installation
until several years down the road.
3. You must have additional equipment available to make the topology work.
Star topology doesn’t work unless you have a hub or switch serving as a central
core. If you run multiple stars, then each one requires this connection so that the
entire system can work together. This design process adds more to the cost of
installation, and it creates several vulnerabilities within some designs. If you took
out the primary hub with an installation involving multiple stars, then you could
sever the primary communication tool. The other systems could still speak with
each other, but all of them would lose access to a central database for collaboration.
4. Your mobility is adversely impacted by this system.
Although wireless star topology systems are available today, most of them still rely
on wired connections. That means the limited length of the cable restricts the
movements of individual workers. They cannot take their workstations with them to
stay productive. If they choose to print something on the network, then they must
leave their workstation to retrieve the item. This up-and-down can reduce
productivity levels dramatically over time because you’re bound to sit at a specific
distance from the central hub.
5. It can be challenging to attach mobile devices to the system.
It is easy to add new workstations and equipment assets to a star topology network.
 What isn’t as simple to use in this respect is a smartphone or another mobile device.
Some tablet PCs don’t come with the capability to connect to this network either.
Most central hubs lack a port that allows you to use the Internet with this system,
forcing you to rely on a cellular or Wi-Fi connection to stay online.
That means it isn’t as easy to collaborate on projects if you have workers in mobile
or remote offices. Your wired connections will struggle to communicate outside of
your agency, and the same problem affects those who try to connect with your LAN
without inside access.

Exercise 4, efficiency of token ring

Discuss how token-ring networks perform in full load and in low traffic scenarios
a. Efficient under full load; all available bandwidth is used
b. Fair access to the medium due to the token
c. In low traffic situation host have to wait for the token
d. Latency might be higher than necessary

Exercise 5 scalling of token ring

Discuss how a token ring network scales with an increasing ring size. Reference model are
defined by IEEE 802.5?
a. Ring size determines “storage capacity” of the network: bandwidth-delay product
b. Ring with single token → low utilization of medium
c. Ring with multiple tokens increases utilization
d. If the frame is corrupted, station needs to wait for token before retransmitting
e. Token-Ring is a host-to-network technology and defines the physical and data link layers
(PHY + DLL)