11th International Symposium on Ferrocement and Textile Reinforced Concrete 3rd ICTRC

TEST METHODS FOR TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Elisabeth Schütze, Enrico Lorenz and Manfred Curbach, Institute of Concrete Structures,
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany

Abstract: The standardization of test methods for determining the material properties of
textile reinforced concrete (TRC) becomes increasingly important, as the composite mate-
rial is gaining significance. While conducting fundamental research on the material as well
as realizing several practice projects, substantial characteristic values and the correspond-
ing experimental tests became evident. This publication gives an overview of this topic,
detailing the tests and values that were used in order to obtain several approvals in individ-
ual cases as well as a general technical approval for the flexural strengthening of steel rein-
forced concrete slabs with a TRC system. The authors describe test setups suitable for the
determination of the bond and strength parameters of TRC and suggest methods for the
evaluation of the experimental results, while demonstrating common mistakes in testing as
well as ways to prevent them. Typical results from the determination of the characteristics
are given for an exemplary TRC system.

INTRODUCTION

In reinforced concrete construction, alternative reinforcement materials have been searched

for some time since steel is susceptible to corrosion. Apart from materials such as alloy
steel or natural fibers, over the last 20 years industrially manufactured fiber materials with
significantly higher load bearing capacities, such as alkali-resistant glass and carbon, were
investigated increasingly. These high performance fibers are already successfully used in
the construction of light and highly stable structures in the aircraft and automobile indus-
try. Now the advantages of these fiber materials can also be used in civil engineering, if
technical textiles are applied as noncorrosive concrete reinforcement, thus creating the
composite material textile reinforced concrete (TRC), e. g. [1]. By combining the material
properties of concrete with those of high performance reinforcements, extremely thin TRC
elements and strengthening layers with superior load-bearing capacity can be realized. In
two DFG collaborative research centers at TU Dresden (SFB 528) and at RWTH Aachen
(SFB 532) intensive research on this topic has been pursued beginning in 1999. Ever since
2005, textile reinforced concrete has been used increasingly in construction practice, [5].
Consequently, approvals for individual cases as well as general technical approvals are
constantly gaining in importance. In the meantime various other research centers in Ger-
many and abroad have started to study textile reinforced concrete. Scientists who research
textile reinforced concrete for the first time as well as numerous regulatory authorities face
the challenge to identify the substantial characteristic values as well as to determine and
verify them. While a number of publications already show answers to individual problems
(e. g. [3]), a comprehensive survey is still hard to find.

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Faced with the growing demand for standardization, this publication shall give an over-
view of the main characteristics of TRC and show how to determine them. Numerous ap-
provals for individual cases (ZiE) as well as the first general technical approval for the
flexural strengthening of steel reinforced concrete slabs with a TRC system [4] have al-
ready been based on the authors’ suggestions presented in this paper. As there will not be a
uniform standard in the near future, this article shall be a guide for scientists and users.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Textile reinforced concrete consists of concrete and textile reinforcement. As is common in

construction, the load bearing capacity, serviceability and durability of the individual com-
ponents and their bond have to be verified before the composite can be used. Current rule-
books are used to test and classify the concrete. However, such normative rules do not ex-
ist for the textile reinforcement and the composite TRC yet. Consequently, the determina-
tion of material properties is based on experience from basic research, practice projects,
numerous approvals in individual cases and the general technical approval [4].

The textile reinforcement in TRC is used to take up tension forces exclusively. The tension
test described in section 4 allows for a reliable determination of the tensile strength as well
as a simple characterization of the tensile load bearing behavior of the composite. For a
safe application of textile reinforced concrete, in addition to the tensile strength of the ma-
terial, the transmission of forces between textile reinforcement and concrete matrix is cru-
cial. The bond test presented in section five serves to determine the magnitude and pro-
gression of the relevant forces. Based on this, the bond stress-slip relationship can be cal-
culated. This specific bond characteristic allows for the evaluation of the bond behavior of
the textile reinforced concrete system. The tests required to determine the load bearing
capacity of the end anchorage and overlap areas are described in section six.

The number of necessary test samples depends on the respective purpose. Accordingly, at
least three samples for tensile tests and six samples for bond tests are recommended for the
determination of the general load bearing behavior and for parameter studies. In order to
find design values and for statistic analyses it is, however, advisable to examine at least 10
to 20 test samples.

The characteristics determined with the test methods presented here make it possible to
establish characteristic and design values subsequently. A design concept for flexural
strengthening and the required partial safety factors are shown in [5].

SAMPLE PRODUCTION

The TRC samples tested in the standard test setups are produced in hand lamination pro-
cess in smooth, non-absorbent steel formworks as large-format textile reinforced concrete
slabs. The required number of textile and fine grained concrete layers are placed in the
formwork alternately with a concrete layer on bottom and top. The reinforcement layers
are arranged symmetrical to the sample thickness, level and parallel to the slab surface.
After the last concrete layer has been applied, the surface is leveled. According to [1], the
required concrete cover is defined mainly by the yarns’ diameter, the maximum aggregate
size and the manufacturing precision. To avoid spalling and, thus, a reduced load bearing

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capacity of individual yarns, it is recommended to produce a concrete cover of at least

1.5 mm. The suggested layer thickness is 3 mm. However, this value can be varied depend-
ing on the textile reinforcement. The samples are stored according to DIN 18555-3, Table
1. For the first three days, the slabs remain in the formwork at about 20°C, protected
against drying out. Then, they are stripped and stored in water until the seventh day. After
eight days, the samples are cut from the textile reinforced concrete slab with a water-
cooled diamond saw. Especially for samples with a small number of yarns it is important to
set the cuts so the yarns are distributed symmetrically across the sample’s width and no
yarns are damaged. Until the time of the test, the samples are stored in a climate chamber
at 20°C and 65 % relative humidity, standing and exposed to air.

TENSION TESTS

As textile reinforcements in TRC primarily serve as tensile reinforcement, the analysis of

the tensile load bearing behavior is essential for the characterization and safe application of
this composite material. Most of the design models developed in the past years are based
on this. To be able to predict the failure load of the textile reinforced concrete layers, the
uniaxial tensile strength of the textile reinforcement and the respective strain at rupture
have to be known. According to [1] and [6], the effective tensile strength of the yarns in
the textile reinforced concrete is influenced by a number of geometric parameters and the
manufacturing process. As a result, it can usually not be directly deduced from tests on
individual filaments or on individual unprocessed yarns. Consequently, the uniaxial tensile
tests described in [6] and [7] are carried out to characterize the tensile load bearing behav-
ior of the textile in concrete. That way, the uniaxial tensile strength of the textile rein-
forcement in the composite as well as the corresponding stress-strain curve can be deter-
mined.

Test Specimens
Normally, specimens with the dimensions 700 mm × 60 mm × 9 mm and two layers of
textile reinforcement are used in the uniaxial tensile tests, see figure 1.

They are cut from the textile reinforced concrete slabs described in section 3. However,
depending on the specific application, samples with a deviating number of layers can be
examined.

In the course of the advancement of textile reinforcements, so-called heavy-tow yarns –

reinforcement textiles made of carbon with large yarn cross sections – are used increasing-
ly. Particularly for yarns with compact cross sectional shape, the increase of the cross-
sectional area leads to a disproportionally high increase of the yarn tensile force compared
to the composite surface. That is why very large end anchorage lengths can be required. To
guarantee tensile fracture – the objective of the test –, premature failure of the sample
caused by pull-out of the textile reinforcement from the fine grained concrete matrix dur-
ing the tension test has to be avoided, hence an adjusted sample structure may be neces-
sary. For instance, an additional bond improving coating made of epoxy resin and sand can
be applied to the coated textile fabric in the anchorage areas of the specimens before con-
creting [9]. Alternatively, the load transfer areas can be molded in epoxy resin instead of
concrete.

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To maximize the forces that can be anchored, the sample length and thus the length of the
load introduction areas can be increased. Additionally, arranging extra layers of reinforce-
ment in the end anchorage areas allows for a better distribution of the load [9]. Figure 2
shows the structure of such a sample, which was developed based on [6] und [7]. The addi-
tional reinforcement can also be applied in combination with the additional coating of
epoxy resin and sand described above.

Figure 1 : Test specimen for Figure 2 : Test specimen with a geometry adapted for
uniaxial tensile tests, acc. to [8] heavy tows, acc. to [8]

Test Setup
As shown in figure 3, the samples are evenly clamped between steel plates in the upper and
lower load transfer area on a length of 175 mm respectively. These clamping constructions
are flexibly connected to the testing machine. Thus the load introduction is free of shear
forces and moments. To avoid local stress peaks, caused e.g. by unevenness of the concrete
surface, a leveling layer made of 0.5 mm thick rubber is arranged between sample surface
and steel plates. In case individual specimens show greater unevenness, it may become
necessary to apply an additional leveling layer of a suitable mineral mortar. The contact
pressure has to be set at such a level as to prevent the samples slipping out of the load in-
troduction. At the same time, the compressive strength of the sample must not be exceeded
in the load transfer area between the steel plates. If the applied loads are very high the lev-
eling layer of rubber can be replaced by a layer of abrasive cloth to further improve grip
and avoid slipping of the specimen.

In case samples with additional reinforcement in the end anchorage area (Figure 2) are
tested, longitudinal splitting cracks may occur in the area of the jump in height, particularly
if an additional bond improving coating has been applied to the textile in the end anchor-
age area. To prevent this, it is necessary to arrange a small additional clamping consisting
of steel sheets (100 mm x 30 mm x 5 mm) screwed together on both sides of the specimen.

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Figure 3 : Test setup for uniaxial tensile tests and typical stress-strain relationship of TRC for rupture and an-
choring failure, acc. to [8]

Experimental Procedure and Measurements

After fixing the clamping, the sample is mounted in a servo-hydraulic testing machine with
accuracy class 1 according to DIN EN 12390-4 and a load capacity of 100 kN (Figure 3).
A preload of 0.2 kN is then applied so that the sample straighten. The subsequent loading
is applied displacement-controlled at a loading rate of 1 mm/min until the sample fails due
to tensile fracture. The registered measurements are force F, machine path s and elongation
Δl in the center of the specimen measured with extensometers with a gauge length of
l = 200 mm on both sides of the sample. At this loading rate, a measuring rate of 5 Hz is
recommended.

Results of the Tension Tests

Direct results of the tests are the ultimate force Fu and the corresponding elongation Δlu in
the area of the extensometers. The strain ε is calculated by relating elongation Δl to meas-
uring length l as shown in equation (1):

Δl
ε= (1)
l

The measured force can be related to the textile cross section At as well as to the cross
sectional area of the concrete Ac. The concrete gross section can be determined from the
width b and the height h of the tensile specimen with equation (2).

Ac = b ⋅ h (2)

Subsequently, the stress σc in the concrete cross section can be calculated with equation
(3).

F
σc = (3)
Ac

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These values can be used to find the stress level at the first crack σcr as well as for a general
comparison of the tensile stresses that can be carried by the textile reinforced concrete lay-
er.

However, the tensile strength of TRC depends on the number and cross section of the
yarns. Consequently, the characteristic values relevant for the design are determined based
on the stress σt which relates to the respective textile cross section At. According to equa-
tion (4), the yarns’ cross sectional area At of the textile results from the number n of yarns
in the TRC cross section as well as the manufacturer’s information concerning the textile
fineness f and the density ρ of the yarn material.

f
At = n ⋅ (4)
ρ

According to equation (5), the stress σt in the yarn cross section is the quotient from the
force F and the yarn cross sectional area At of the sample in test direction.

F
σt = (5)
At

Based on this, the ultimate strength regarding the yarn cross section can be calculated
through equation (6)

Fu
σtu = (6)
At

Furthermore, the corresponding stress-strain curve can be derived. According to [6] and [7]
the stress-strain curve typically consists of three distinct sections, which are all approxi-
mately linear (figure 3).

In the first section (state I), the textile reinforced concrete sample – similar to steel rein-
forced concrete – is still non-cracked. The course of the curve is accordingly steep. The
textile reinforcement does not yet carry a considerable part of the load. When the first
cracks occur, the sample passes into state IIa (multiple crack formation). Due to the low
stiffness in this state, the increase of the curve is usually very low here. With the increase
of load and corresponding strain, further cracks develop while the crack distance decreases,
similar to steel reinforced concrete. As a result, an almost horizontal plateau develops in
the stress-strain curve. The course of the curve steepens again in the following state IIb
(final crack state), fairly close to indicating the stiffness of the textile reinforcement. When
the tensile strength of the textile reinforcement is met, a brittle tensile failure occurs. Ten-
sile fracture can be recognized easily by a characteristic tearing noise in connection with a
rapid decrease of force towards zero. Further elaboration regarding the tensile load bearing
behavior can be found in [6].

In contrast to this, premature and unplanned failure may also occur when the textile is not
sufficiently anchored in the end anchorage areas of the specimen. In this case, the textile
reinforcement may be pulled out from the anchorage areas on each end of the specimen. As
figure 3 shows, this leads to a gradual decrease of force before the ultimate force Fu has

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been reached. In contrast to tensile failure, the textile is pulled out from the sample slowly
and without a tearing noise.

BOND TEST

A safe load introduction and transfer is essential for a fully functional TRC-system that
uses the load bearing capacity of the textile reinforcement to its full extend. The basis for
the evaluation of the bond behavior is the determination of the effective bond strength.
That is why an asymmetrical pull-out test was developed in [10], that serves as a standard
test for the bond behavior of coated textile reinforcement structures in TRC. In contrast to
bond tests on single filaments or single yarns, the bond properties of textile processed
structures in fine grained concrete are directly verified in this test.

Test Specimen
The specimens presented in figure 5 have the dimensions 270 mm × 60 mm × 9 mm. They
are reinforced with one textile layer. The textile reinforcement inside is arranged symmet-
rical and parallel to the edges. During the textile pull-out test, only one individual yarn of
the structure is tested. It is anchored sufficiently in the lower long part of the sample on a
length of 180 mm. In the upper short section of the sample, yarn pull-out is forced by chos-
ing a short but well-defined anchorage length lE,o.

Figure 4: Test setup for textile pull-out tests, acc. to [10]

This anchorage length lE,o is defined through a saw cut right below the clamping device in
which the tested yarn is cut. Toward the bottom, the upper anchorage area is limited by a
predetermined breaking point, which is defined through saw cuts on both sides of the spec-
imen. The size of the upper anchorage area is set to the same length as the simple distance
of the weft yarns. The cross-yarn should be located in the center of the upper anchorage
area. This way, the bond behavior of the yarn can be analysed in sections taking into ac-
count the influences of the textile processing. The length lE,o should not be smaller than
14 mm in order to ensure safe handling of the specimen. If the distance of weft yarns is
smaller than that, lE,o should be chosen as a multiple of this distance.

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Test setup
As figure 4 shows, the load is applied through a clamping device on the upper and lower
end of the specimen. The clamping construction is flexibly connected to the testing ma-
chine at the upper end of the specimen. At the lower end, the specimen is clamped directly
into the tensile testing machine. The contact pressure is set in such a way that the specimen
doesn’t slip out of the clamping and the sample’s compressive strength is not exceeded.
The test area remains unaffected by the resulting lateral pressure, as the sample is clamped
above the anchorage area. Thus an influence on the bond can be avoided. To avoid damag-
ing the bond between yarn and fine-grained concrete during the installation of the upper
load introduction and mounting the specimen in the testing machine, the saw cuts at the
predetermined breaking point are stabilized with PU foam until the test.

Testing Method and Measurement

After the upper clamping has been installed, the specimens are mounted into a servo-
hydraulic tensile testing machine of accuracy class 1 according to DIN EN 12390-4 and a
suitable (low) load capacity. The force transducer is at the top of the testing machine. The
pull-out tests are carried out displacement-controlled at a loading rate of 1 mm/min until a
crack opening of 3 mm is reached. Subsequently, the tested yarn is pulled from the upper
anchorage area entirely at a rate of 10 mm/min to visually check the yarn’s surface and
determine the anchorage length lE,o.

The registered measurements are force F, machine path s and the crack opening w in the
area of the predetermined breaking point, measured with extensometers on both sides of
the sample (figure 4). The suggested measuring rate is 5 Hz. The dead weight of the upper
clamping and sample part has to be taken into account when determining the actual pull-
out force FG. Hence, the measured force F has to be corrected according to equation (7).

FG (w ) = F(w ) − Fkorr (7)

The corrective force Fkorr is defined as the remaining force due to the dead weight of the
test setup’s upper section measured after the complete pull-out of the yarn.

Results of the Textile Pull-Out Tests

The result of a textile pull-out test is a force-crack opening-curve as shown in figure 5. The
force FG correlates to the pull-out-resistance of the examined yarn. The corresponding
crack opening w equates to the sum of the relative displacements in the crack from the up-
per and the lower anchorage area.

The remaining concrete cross section in the area of the predetermined breaking point
cracks while the pull-out force FG is still at a low level, before the examined yarn is fully
activated. This effect does not have any influence on the examined bond behavior. That is
why the ascending branch of the FG-w-relation can be connected linearly from the point
were this crack forms at the force Fcr to the origin of the coordinate system, as shown in
figure 5.

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Figure 5 : Results of the of the textile pull-out test

In order to evaluate and compare the bond behavior of various textile reinforced concrete
systems independently of the respective bond length, the results of the textile pull-out tests
are described as bond flow-crack opening curves (figure 5). The bond flow TG in N/mm is
calculated by relating the pull-out force FG to the anchorage length lE,o of the filament yarn
(equation (8)).

FG (w)
TG (w) = (8)
lE,o

The test results allow an evaluation of the bond forces of different textile reinforcements in
TRC. The experimentally determined bond flow-crack opening-curves typically consist of
three distinct sections that are characteristic for textile reinforcements in a fine grained
concrete matrix (figure 5): an ascending (a), a descending (b) and a subsequent slightly
ascending or descending branch (c). The sections show the activation of the adhesive bond
(a), the destruction of the adhesive bond (b) and the friction bond (c).

If, however, the results of the textile pull-out tests are to be used for further investigations
such as the determination of end anchorage- und lap lengths of textile reinforcements in
textile reinforced concrete, it is necessary to determine the bond stress-slip-relation as the
textile specific bond characteristic. [10] describes a way to determine the bond stress-slip-
relation and [8] gives a simplified approach to the problem.

END ANCHORAGE AND OVERLAP TESTS

According to analyses by [11], various failure mechanisms can apply for the end anchorage
of a TRC strengthening of structural components. Thus, the old concrete or the bonding
joint between old and fine grained concrete may fail. Apart from this, longitudinal matrix
splitting (delamination) within the textile layer or yarn pull-out before reaching the ulti-
mate load of the textile reinforcement may occur. In [11] comprehensive research regard-
ing the three plane failure modes by delamination, old concrete failure and the destruction
of the bonding joint between fine grained and old concrete has been conducted. The end
anchorage test which was developed based on [11] is shown in figure 6. With this test set-
up the end anchorage length required for the end anchorage of a specific textile tensile
force can be determined, taking a possible delamination failure of the TRC system into

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account. Furthermore, the test can prove that the strength and the pre-treatment of the con-
crete as well as the roughness of the concrete surface that is to be strengthened can guaran-
tee an adequate bond between old concrete and TRC strengthening. Based on a design ap-
proach described in [11], the end anchorage lengths of TRC-strengthening layers for spe-
cific reinforcement textiles can be calculated in such a way that delamination and old con-
crete failure can be avoided. Premature failure by yarn pull-out can be avoided if the inter-
dependences presented in [10] are taken into account.

Figure 6 : TRC end anchorage test acc. to [11] Figure 7 : Overlap tests with photogrammetric measurement,
acc. to [10]

When applying textile reinforced concrete, lap joints of the textile reinforcement layers
usually cannot be avoided. That is why research concerning the load-carrying behaviour
and the dimensioning of lap joints was conducted in [10]. A uniaxial tension test with a
symmetrical lap joint at the sample’s centre, which was developed to test the joint areas, is
presented in figure 7. This overlap test takes into account the limit state of a delamination
failure or longitudinal matrix splitting as well as premature failure by yarn pull-out before
the ultimate strength of the textile reinforcement has been reached.

[10] proves that the required lap lengths in the limit state of yarn pull-out correlates to 1.0
times the value of the end anchorage lengths. Consequently, the lap tests can also be used
as a simplified method to experimentally investigate the pull-out failure in end anchorage
areas. Based on the bond characteristics of textile reinforced concrete determined accord-
ing to section 5, the lap joint areas can be dimensioned and the failure loads predicted
through the calculation approach presented in [10].

DURABILITY, TEMPERATURE, LONG-TERM AND FATIGUE TESTS

The tests described in this publication are usually carried out to investigate the material
behavior of TRC under predominantly static and short time loads at indoor climate, mean-
ing approximately 20°C and 65 % relative humidity. However, when TRC is applied in
practice, it is exposed to sustained and dynamic loads as well as to varying climatic condi-
tions. As a result, the tests described above have to be supplemented by temperature tests,
durability tests and tests regarding the long-term and fatigue strength of the composite.
Typically, these tests are conducted based on the specimens and test setups described in
section 5 and 6 in order to provide comparable test results and material characteristics.
Further details can be found in [5], [12], [13] and [14].

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SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

The increasing dissemination of textile reinforced concrete entails the increased im-
portance of a standardized way to determine material characteristics. This publication gives
an overview of test and evaluation methods that are used to determine and assess the deci-
sive strength and bond parameters. Additionally, experimental methods to test the load
bearing capacity of end anchorage and lap joint areas are presented – further parameters
that are relevant for design. The tests described above have been the basis for several ap-
provals for individual cases and a general technical approval. Experiences from basic re-
search, numerous practice projects and procedures regarding the granting of approvals will
be part of the process of standardizing textile reinforced concrete in the years to come.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for funding
the research regarding textile reinforced concrete as well as the TUDALIT e. V. group for
supporting the investigations necessary in order to obtain the General type approval for the
flexural strengthening of steel reinforced concrete slabs with a TRC system. Further thanks
go to the staff of the Otto-Mohr-Laboratory at TU Dresden for their numerous contribu-
tions to developing the test methods described in this paper.

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