Algebraic Structures

Groups, Semi-groups, Monoids

Rings and Fields
Vector Spaces and Lattices
• Abstract algebra is the study of algebraic
structures.

• Such a structure consists of a set together

with one or more binary operations, which
are required to satisfy certain axioms.
 Algebraic Structure
• A non empty set S is called an algebraic structure w.r.t
binary operation (*) if (*) is a closure operation on ‘S’.

• For example : S = {1,-1} is algebraic structure under *

(multiplication)
As 1*1 = 1, 1*-1 = -1, -1*-1 = 1 all results belongs to S.

• But above is not algebraic structure under + as 1+(-1)

= 0 not belongs to S.
Various Algebraic Structures
• Semi-group
• Monoid
• Group
• Abelian Group
• Ring
• Field
• Vector spaces
• Lattice
 Semi Group
• An algebraic structure (S,*) is called a semigroup
if a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c for all a,b,c belongs to S or
elements follow associative property under “*”

• Example : (Set of integers, +), and (Matrix ,*) are

examples of semigroup.

• So the properties of Semigroup are:

ØClosure
ØAssociativity
 Monoids
• A Semi-group (S,*) is called a monoid if there exists an element e in
S such that (a*e) = (e*a) = a for all a in S.

• This element is called identity element of S w.r.t “*”

Examples:
• (Set of integers,*) is Monoid as 1 is an integer which is also identity
element

• (Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exists

any identity element. But this is Semigroup.

• But (Set of whole numbers, +) is Monoid with 0 as identity

element.
 Group
• A monoid (S,*) is called Group if to each element there
exists an element b such that (a*b) = (b*a) = e .

• Here e is called identity element and b is called inverse of

the corresponding element.

• (Set of rational number , *) is not Group because there is

no inverse for 0

• Thus for a Group following properties must be satisfied

1) Closure Semi-group
Monoid 2) Associativity
3) Identity
4) Inverse
 Abelian Group
• A group (G,*) is said to be abelian if (a*b) =
(b*a) for all a,b belongs to G.
• Thus Commutative property should hold.
 Example
• The set of all finite strings over some fixed
alphabet Σ forms a monoid with string
concatenation as the operation. The empty
string serves as the identity element. This
monoid is denoted Σ∗.

• See the question aheadà

Question

• Consider the set ∑* of all strings over the alphabet ∑

= {0, 1}. This set ∑* with the concatenation operator
for strings forms which algebraic structure?
(i) Monoid
(ii) Group
Solution: This is a Monoid.
(i) it follows Closure property (after concatenation of two
strings, the resultant string will always be in the set ∑* )
(ii) It follows Associative property also. (Suppose 000,
111, 101 are to be concatenated, then (000.111).(101) =
(000). (111.101))
(iii) Null string exists as identity element
(iv) No element exists as Inverse (So not a group)
 Field
• A field is a set F together with two binary operations + (the
addition operation) and * (the multiplication operation), that
satisfy the following 9 axioms:
1) The addition operation is associative. That is, a + (b + c) = (a +
b) + c for all a; b; c ∈ F.
2) The addition operation is commutative. That is, a + b = b + a
for all a; b ∈ F.
3) There exists a special element of F called the additive identity,
denoted by the symbol 0. This element has the property that
a + 0 = a for all a ∈ F.
4) For each element a ∈ F, there is an element -a ∈ F, called the
additive inverse of a, with the property that a + (-a) = 0
 Over multiplication *
5) The multiplication operation is associative. That is, a *(b*c) = (a
*b)* c for all a; b; c ∈ F.

6) The multiplication operation is commutative. That is, a*b = b *a for

all a; b ∈ F.

7) There exists a special element of F called the multiplicative identity,

denoted by the symbol 1. This element has the property that a *1 =
a for all a ∈ F.

8) For each element a ∈ F other than 0, there exists an element a-

1 ∈ F, called the multiplicative inverse of a, with the property that a
* a-1 = 1.

9) The multiplication operation distributes over the addition

operation. That is, a *(b + c) = (a *b) + (a *c) for all a; b; c ∈ F.
 Examples of Field
• The Real numbers R form a field under the usual operations of
addition and multiplication.

• The Rational numbers Q form a field under the usual operations of

addition and multiplication. In particular, we can add or multiply
two elements of Q to obtain another element of Q, and these
operations obey all of the axioms listed before.

• The Complex numbers C form a field under the commonly defined

operations of addition and multiplication. Complex numbers do
obey all of the listed axioms for a field, which is why elementary
algebra works as usual for complex numbers.
 Explanation

Additive Inverse: Multiplicative Inverse:

(1+4) mod 5=0 (1*1) mod 5=1
(2+3) mod 5=0 (2*3) mod 5=1
(3+2) mod 5=0 (3*2) mod 5=1
(4+1) mod 5=0 (4*4) mod 5=1
Corollary: Zn is a field if and only if n is prime.
 Ring

• Unlike a field, a ring is not required to have

multiplicative inverses, and the multiplication is not
required to be commutative.

• A good example of a ring is the set of all nxn matrices

under the operations of matrix addition and matrix
multiplication.

• The integers Z also form a ring under the operations of

addition and multiplication
 Commutative Ring
A commutative ring (with identity) consists of a set k and two binary
operations “·” and “+”, defined on k, for which the following
conditions are satisfied:

1. Associative: (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) and (a · b)· c = a ·(b · c), for all a, b, c ∈

k.
2. Commutative: a+b = b+a and a · b = b · a, for all a, b ∈ k.
3. Distributive: a ·(b+c) = a · b+a · c, for all a, b, c ∈ k.
4. Identities: There exist 0,1 ∈ k such that a+0 = a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ k.
5. Additive inverse: Given a ∈ k, there exists b ∈ k such that a+b = 0.

A simple example of a ring are the integers Z under the usual

operations.
 Summary
<S,+,*>

SemiGroup

Ring
Abelian Group

Distributive

If * is commutative also- Commutative Ring

If * is a Monoid also- Ring with Identity

Commutative Ring+ Multiplicative Inverse à Field

Lattice
Fig 2.2. a.(b V c) = a.1 = a, and
a.b V a·c = bV0 = b
 Vector Spaces
• Let V be a set on which two operations called
addition + and multiplication * have been
defined.
• If u and v are in V, the sum of u and v is
denoted by u+v and if e is a scalar, then the
scalar multiplication of u by e is denoted as
eu.
 Properties
• If following axioms hold for all u, v and w in V and for all scalars c
and d then V is called a vector space and its elements are called
vectors.
1) u+v is in V (closure under addition)
2) u+v=v+u (commutative under addition)
3) (u+v)+w= u+(v+w) (Associativity)
4) There exist an element 0 in V called zero vector such that u+0=u
5) For each u in V there is an element –u in V sich that u+(-u)=0
6) cu is in V (closure under scalar multiplication)
7) c(u+v)=cu+cv (Distributive)
8) (c+d)u= cu+du (Distributive)
9) c(du)= (cd) u
10) 1.u=u