PHILOSOPHICAL BELIEF SYSTEMS

Copyright (C) 2001 by Robert N. Barger

1. Introduction

1.1. The concept of a system:

A "system" is a unified whole made up of interdependent parts. A part is said to be "interdependent" since no single

part can perform the total functions of the whole, but rather must depend on the other parts, and the other parts in turn

must depend on it. Take, for example, a microcomputer system: In order to use a microcomputer, you need the

following parts: 1) an input device (e.g., a keyboard) to supply data to the computer, 2) a microprocessor to compare

or to change the data (i.e., to process it in some way), and 3) an output device (e.g., a monitor screen, printer, or storage

disk) to receive the results of the data processing. Notice that each part of this trio (input device, processor, and output

device) depends on the other parts to do its job. If one of the parts is removed, no results will be received. It is also

worth noting that the parts must be "compatible." That is, they must interface, or fit together, properly. You cannot,

for example run a Windows software package on a UNIX operating system because they are not designed to work

together.

1.2. Philosophic Systems:

There are philosophy systems, just as there are computer systems. There are essentially four such systems in

philosophy. These are Idealism, Naturalism (often known as Realism), Pragmatism, and Existentialism. A synopsis

of each of these systems will follow. Additional notes on a non-system called Logical Analysis will also be added.

Philosophy systems, like other kinds of systems, are composed of interdependent parts. The parts of a philosophy

system are: metaphysics (basically indistinguishable from what is sometimes called ontology), epistemology, and

axiology.

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 1.2.1 Metaphysics:

Metaphysics is the theory of the ultimate nature of reality. It asks the question: what is real? Another word for

metaphysical "theory" might be metaphysical "belief," since one's metaphysics, or fundamental worldview, is

basically an assumption - it cannot be proven. It is simply a belief held by a person as being the best explanation of

what reality is and what it means, in that person's view.

1.2.2 Epistemology:

Epistemology is the theory of truth or knowledge. It asks the question: what is true, and how do we come to know that

truth?

1.2.3 Axiology:

Axiology is the theory of value or worth. It asks the question: what is good and bad? Axiology is made up of two sub-

parts: ethics, which is the theory of the goodness or badness of human behavior, and aesthetics, which is the theory of

the goodness or badness of visual appearance or audible sound (expressed in terms of beauty or ugliness).

1.2.5 Metaphysics as the fundamental component of philosophy:

Metaphysics (one's explanation of reality) is the fundamental, or controlling, element of philosophy. Metaphysics

determines epistemology and axiology. That is, the way you explains reality will determine your view of knowledge

and of value. In other words, you tell me what your view of reality is (i.e., what you think is the meaning of life and

the universe) and I can then predict how you think knowledge is to be gained and what you think is of value. [Note:

since this is an ethics course, we will be concerned mainly with how different metaphysical views influence different

ethical views. We will not be concerned with epistemology or aesthetics. However, for completeness in describing the

different philosophical systems their epistemological and aesthetic views will be included here. When we talk about

morality though, we are talking about ethics. If you are asked about the ethical view of Idealism, don't throw in what

Idealism thinks about epistemology and aesthetics.

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2. Idealism

2.1. Idealistic Metaphysics:

The person with an Idealistic worldview believes that reality is basically spirit, rather than matter. For the Idealist, the

idea is more real than the thing, since the thing only reflects or represents the idea. The world of spirit or idea (i.e., the

immaterial world) is static and absolute. Socrates and Plato are perhaps the best known ancient representatives of this

view. For example Plato's parable of the Cave for his idea of what reality is. Immanuel Kant is a modern Idealist. For

example the commentary on Kant's 'Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals'.

2.2. Idealistic Epistemology:

Since reality is spirit, Idealists believe that knowledge results from the mind grasping reality. Since the mind and the

ideas that it knows are immaterial, the process of knowing is entirely abstract. Right reason is thus a primary concern

for the Idealist.

2.3. Idealistic Axiology:

2.3.1. Idealistic Ethics:

For the Idealist, goodness is found in the ideal, that is, in perfection. It is found on the immaterial level, that is, in the

perfect concept, or notion, or idea, of something. Thus, perfect goodness is never to be found in the material world.

Evil, for the Idealist, consists of the absence or distortion of the ideal. It is a breaking of the eternal law. Since ideals

can never change (because they are static and absolute), moral imperatives concerning them do not admit of

exceptions. That is, these imperatives are stated in terms of "always" or "never." For example: "Always tell the truth"

or (put negatively) "Never tell a lie." Since truth is the knowledge of ideal reality and a lie is a distortion of that reality,

truth must always be told and lying can never be justified.

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 2.3.1.1 The Ethical Theory of Emmanual Kant:

2.3.2. Idealistic Aesthetics:

When an Idealist wants to visually or audibly represent an idea, his or her approach will be to get that idea across to

the viewer or listener. The Idealist is not overly interested in specific or concrete instances, since reality is in the

general idea of something, and less in a particular representation of that idea. An Idealist painter, for example, will

therefore try to paint the "perfect" person - to bring out the person's inner identity. If the person in the painting had cut

herself or himself and had a scar on her/his face, the painter would leave the scar out (or at least idealize it) because

the scar is an imperfection -something that should not ideally be there.

3. Naturalism

3.1. Naturalistic Metaphysics:

The person with a Naturalistic worldview believes that reality is basically matter, rather than spirit. For the Naturalist,

the thing is more real than the idea. Whatever exists is therefore primarily material, natural, and physical. "Whatever

exists in some quantity and therefore can be measured" (as Edward Lee Thorndike, one of the first experimental

psychologists, said). It exists independently of any mind and is governed by the laws of nature, primary among which

are the laws of cause and effect. The universe, according to the Naturalist, is one of natural design and order. Aristotle

was an early representative of this view. B.F. Skinner, the behavioral psychologist, is a more current representative.

3.2. Naturalistic Epistemology:

For the Naturalist, knowledge is gained through the senses. Reality exists in the material object, not in the immaterial

mind. Therefore, it is the mind that must conform to the object - not the object to the mind. This conformity of the

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mind to the object is done thru the senses and is an entirely physical process. Science is thus a primary concern for the

Naturalist.

3.3. Naturalistic Axiology:

3.3.1. Naturalistic Ethics:

For the Naturalist, the baseline of value is that which is natural - that is, that which is in conformity with nature. Nature

is good. One need not look beyond nature to some immaterial ideal for a standard of right and wrong. Rather, goodness

will be found by living in harmony with nature. Evil, for the Naturalist, is a departure from this natural norm either in

the direction of excess or defect (i.e., having, or doing, too much or too little of something which is naturally good).

It is a breaking of the natural law.

3.3.2. Naturalistic Aesthetics:

In seeking good appearance, or sound, the Naturalist will look to nature as the standard. Thus, for the Naturalist, art

should imitate nature. If a Naturalist is painting a portrait of a person who has a facial scar, the Naturalist will paint

the scar because reality includes imperfection.

4. Pragmatism

4.1. Pragmatic Metaphysics:

For the Pragmatist, reality is not so easily pinpointed as it is for the Idealist and Naturalist. Reality is neither an idea

nor is it matter. It would be a mistake to view reality as either a spiritual or physical "something." Rather, the

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Pragmatist believes that reality is a process. It is a dynamic coming-to-be rather than a static fixed being. It is change,

happening, activity, interaction...in short, it is experience. Reality is more like a verb than a noun. It is flux and flow

where the concentration is not so much on the things as on the relationship between the things. Since everything

changes nothing can have any permanent essence or identity. An ancient Greek Pragmatist used to say in this regard:

"You can't step in the same river twice." For the Pragmatist, everything is essentially relative. The only constant is

change. The only absolute is that there are no absolutes! The Americans William James and John Dewey are

representatives of this view.

4.2. Pragmatic Epistemology:

Given the Pragmatic understanding of reality, the question of knowledge becomes somewhat problematic. The mind

can certainly not be depended on for knowledge. Even the senses cannot be totally trusted, since things may not be...or

continue to be...what they seem to be. The only sure route to knowledge in a world of constant change is to test things

and see if they work. There is no fixed and permanent truth. Rather, truth "happens" to a thing. If it is found to work

(i.e., to be useful in achieving some end), then it becomes true. When it no longer works toward achieving an end,

then it ceases to be true. This testing of knowledge is a "public" test. That is, it is open to anyone's inspection. It must

be able to be replicated. If it works for you, it must be able to work for me. Thus, truth is the result of a consensual

process. It is an agreement reached by the group (or at least by a majority of the group). It is also tentative, because it

is only held as long as it proves to be true (i.e., as long as it is found to be useful). Finally, truth is relative. It is relative

to the end or goal to which it is thought to be useful, and it is relative in the sense that it is not *always* true, but is

true only so long as it is useful. Society's judgment is thus a primary concern for the Pragmatist.

4.3. Pragmatic Axiology:

4.3.1. Pragmatic Ethics:

Much that was said in the discussion above about pragmatic epistemology could also be said here about pragmatic

ethics. The Pragmatist believes that value claims must be tested and proven in practice. In the Pragmatist's view,

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things are value-neutral in themselves. There is nothing that is always good, nor is there anything that is always bad.

The value of anything is determined solely in terms of its usefulness in achieving some end. In answer to the question,

"Is that good?", a Pragmatist would probably reply, "Good for what?" Thus, the Pragmatist believes that the end

justifies the means. That is, if something is useful for achieving some end or goal, then it becomes good. To state this

another way, a means gets its positive value from being an efficient route to the achievement of an end. Thus, a means

is not valued for its own sake, but only in relation to its usefulness for achieving some end. Results or consequences

are the ultimate measure of goodness for a Pragmatist, since the usefulness of a means to an end can only be judged

after the fact by its effect on the end. Thus, for the Pragmatist, there can be no assurance that something is good...until

it is tried. Even then, it is only held tentatively as good since a thing is good only as long as it continues to work. Evil,

for the Pragmatist, is that which is counterproductive. It is (usually) a breaking of civil or criminal law. There can be

a dispute about which means are more effective for achieving an end. Indeed, there can be a dispute about which ends

should, in fact, be pursued. Thus, the Pragmatist looks for guidance from the group. The reasons for this are

metaphysical: reality is experience, but it is the experience of the whole. For the Pragmatist, the whole is greater than

the sum of its parts. This means that the whole is more valuable than any of its parts. In the field of value judgments,

the group's wisdom is more highly esteemed than the wisdom of any individual within the group.

4.3.2. Pragmatic Aesthetics:

In keeping with the Pragmatist value theory, there is no appearance or sound which is, in itself, good or bad.

Appearances or sounds take their value from their relationships to group goals. Thus, in the realm of art, values will

be determined by the majority view and in relation to the social benefit of the art in question.

5. Progressivism:

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"Progressivism has a respect for individuality..." then goes on to explain how people are manipulated by the educations

system to be what the Progressives want them to be un-judgmental of other people.

It is precisely a respect for Individuality in the sense of Enlightenment politics and social sciences that Progressivism

does not have. It's metaphysics are that people don't know what is good for them and must be forced--as with the

Progressive policies of Medicare and Social Security, President Johnson's 'Great Society', and Obama-care.

5.1. Progressivist metaphysics:

Reality is in flux and ever-changing, so meaning is the context of the individual, who is a “problem solver.”

The metaphysics of Progressivism deny individualism. "Progressives see the act of progressing as....objective of

gradual, related, and cumulative change." But change is expected, not simply anticipated, and the Progressives want

to steer the ship instead of letting the individual do it through social action.

Their metaphysics tell them that wealth is unlimited and can be tapped at will; they fail to realize wealth is made, and

wealth-making becomes broken when too much is taken too fast and for the wrong reasons--but they blame the wealth-

makers who fail to continue to make wealth, all the time wondering where the "unlimited" wealth is going--people

must be hoarding it!

Evidence of this is when Obama told Joe the Plumber he wanted to 'redistribute wealth', and then denied he was a

socialist--except that "From each according to his ability; to each according to his need" is a metaphysical statement

made famous by Marx.

5.2. Progressivist Epistemology:

Knowledge is gained via individual experience. Truth is individually defined so that emphasis is on learning how to

learn.

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5.3. Progressivist Axiology:

Determined by each individual in interaction with his or her culture, based on the shared values of the community or

culture.

5.4. Progressivist Logic:

Emphasis is on inductive thinking & problem solving

5.5. Progressivist Purpose of Education:

Help students become good citizens familiar with the workings of democracy & with good problem-solving skills.

5.6. Progressivist Teacher Role:

Teacher is facilitator of student learning; provides resources for students’ problem-solving abilities. Helps children to

what they want to.

5.7. Progressivist Teaching Strategies:

Stimulates students to plan & carry out activities & research projects using group processes & democratic procedures.

5.8. Progressivist the Child:

Learns by doing & by discovering.

5.9. Progressivist the Curriculum:

Centered on the student’s interest in real problems & interdisciplinary solution seeking.