93

The 12th International Conference

on Port and Ocean Engineering
under Arctic Conditions
17 .- 20. August 1993 , Hamburg

PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 1
POAC 93
The 12th International Conference
on Port and Ocean Engineering
under Arctic Conditions
17.- 20. August 1993, Hamburg

VOLUME 1

flJlranff~ THE HAMBURG

LnJc::JL/"~ SHIP MODEL BASIN
Copyright © 1993 by
Hamburg Ship Model Basin (HSVA), Hamburg, Germany
Printed in Germany

Publisher: Hamburg Ship Model Basin (HSV A)

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Environmental Technology
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Phone: +40-69203-428
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Front Cover: Painting of Caspar David Friedrich

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Provided with the Courtesey of: HAMBURGER KUNSTHALLE

Photo: Elke Walford

Title: Kirsten Siedenburg-Evers, Graphic-Design
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 PREFACE

The 12th Conference on "Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions" is being
held In Hamburg from August 17 to 20, 1993.

It is a pleasure for me to welcome all participants from more than 12 countries near and far.
After some years of decline of the activities in Arctic sections the cold climate areas seem
to have regained their attraction to the world economy and thus to the engineering sciences.

Almost 100 papers will be presented during the four conference days in dual sessions. The
scientific and engineering achievements will be summarized at the closing ceremony by well
known experts. These reports will form the basis for a panel discussion, which should
provide conclusions for further developments of Arctic technology as well as for the future
mission of POAC.

As in previous conferences also this POAC is dominated by topics such as lee Mechanics,
leebreaking Ships and Offshore StrUCTures in lee. Numerical Modelling is gaining grounds,
whereas Environmental Problems have not received as much attention as they should have
in order to assure that our engineering developments are accepted by the public.

The potential of the North-European Arctic - especially in Russia - is presently stimulating

the Arctic engineering activities. This is reflected also by the papers and key-note-lectures
at this conference.

POAC is one of the well established and internationally recognized conference series on
Arctic engineering. I am glad we are able to continue the successful history of POAC. In
view of the many competing venues I should like to promote concentration of Arctic
conferences rather than inflation.

The organization of this POAC-conference was possible only through the financial support
of the German Ministry for Research and Technology, the German Science Foundation, the
European Community, the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg and of the Thyssen
Nordseewerke GmbH, for which I like to express POAC's sincere gratidute.

My further thanks go to the speakers of the opening ceremony, to the key note lectures and
to all lectures and participants for their contributions to POAC'93; I sincerely hope we will
have a successful conference.

Joachim Schwarz
President of POAC
and Chairman of Organizing Committee
 CONFERENCE PROGRAM
Monday, Aug. 16, 1993
18:00 - 21:00 h Registration and
Early Bird Get-together

Tuesday, Aug. 17, 1993

08:00 h Registration
09:00 h Opening of POAC-93
Welcome by Dr. I. Schwarz, President of POAC
Official opening of POAC-93 by
Mr. Bernd Neumann, Parlamentary Secretary of State,
Federal Ministry for Research and Technology, Bonn
Welcome addresses
Senator Dr. H.-I. Krupp, Second Major and Head of
the Ministry of Economic Affairs of the Free and
Hanseatic City of Hamburg
Dr. Ache, Chairman of German Shipbuilding and
Ocean Industries Association
Dr. Kohnen, Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and
Marine Sciences
Prof. P. Bruun, Secretary General of POAC
10:00 - 10:30 h Coffee
10:30 - 12:00 h Key Note Lectures
1. "Importance of Marine Transportation for Russian
Arctic", A. Granberg, Adviser Academition to the
Russian Presldent, Russia
2. "Global Change and Arctic Sea Ice",
Prof. Dr. P. Lemke, Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar
and Marine Sciences, Germany
3. "New Political and Scientific Trends in the Arctic",
O. Rogne, The International Arctic Science Committee,
Norway
4. "Plans to the Recovery of Oil and Gas in Russian
Arctic", r. B. Dubin, Vice President Rosshelf, Russia

13:30 - 15:00 h Technical Sessions

15:00 - 15:30 h Coffee Break
15:30 - 17:00 h Technical Sessions

18:00 - 22:00 h Icebreaker Party

Wednesday, Aug. 18, 1993

08:30 - 17:00 h Technical Sessions

Thursday, Aug. 19, 1993

08:30 - 17:00 h Technical Sessions
19:00 h Banquet

Friday, Aug. 20, 1993

08:30 - 12:00 h Technical Sessions
13:30 - 15:30 h Closing Ceremony
 CONFERENCE ORGANIZATION

POAC - International Committee Past Presidents

Chen, A., U.S.A. Bruun, P., Secretary General

Christensen, F.T., Denmark Carstens, T.
Gold, L., Canada Engelbrektson, A.
Kitagawa, H., Japan Michel, B.
Kovacs, A., U.S.A. Peters, R.
Mazurkiewicz, B., Poland Sackinger, W.
Mikhailichenko, V., Russia Tryde, P. (tI993)
Myrhaug, D., Norway
Riska, K., Finland
Sandkvist, J., Sweden
Schwarz, J., Germany - President
Vigg6sson, G., Iceland
Wilkman, G., Finland
Wright, B., Canada
Xu, 1., China

POAC - National Organizing Committee

Clauss, G., Technische Universitiit Berlin

Fritzsche, E., Bremer Vulkan
Hoeft, H.D., Strom- und Hafenbau Hamburg
Kohnen, H., Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Bremerhaven
Lehmhus, R., Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg
Leinweber, J., BMFT, Bonn
Mahrenholtz, 0., TU Hamburg-Harburg
Payer, H. G., HSVA, Hamburg
Ratzmann, H., Thyssen Nordseewerke Emden
Schwarz, J., HSVA, Hamburg - Chairman
Wessels, E., HSVA, Hamburg - Secretary
Anders, M., HSV A, Hamburg - Secretary

Sponsors

Federal Ministry for Research and Technology

European Community, DG XVII
German Science Foundation (DFG)
Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg
Thyssen Nordseewerke GmbH (TNSW)
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Summary)

VOLUME 1

Page

Preface III
Conference Program IV

Conference Organization V
Table of Contents (Summary) VI

Table of Contents (Detailed) VII

ICE MECHANICS

ICEBREAKING SHIPS 147

ICE IMPACT 305
PROPELLER IN ICE 349
NORTHERN SEA ROUTE / BARENTS SEA 391

VOLUME 2

Table of Contents (Summary) III

Table of Contents (Detailed) IV

ICE FORCES ON STRUCTURES 473

OPERATIONS / LOGISTICS / HARBORS 639
OIL SPILLS IN ICE 691

NUMERICAL MODELLING 753

PHYSICAL MODELLING 875
ICE CONDITIONS / ENVIRONMENT / MATERIALS 911

KEY NOTE LECTURES 971

 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Detailed)

VOLUME 1

ICE MECHANICS
Page

Beljashov, V.A. AN INVESTIGATION ON FRACTURE 3

MECHANICS AND ICE LOADS DURING
CUTTING FRESHWATER ICE BY
INDENTERS SIMULATING PROPELLER
BLADES
PART 1: FLAT HORIZONTAL INDENTERS

Dempsey, J.P. SPLITTING OF ICE FLOES 17

DeFranco, S.J.
Blanchet, D.
Prodanovic, A.

Fransson, L. POROSITY EFFECTS ON MEASURED 23

Stehn, L. STRENGTH OF WARM ICE

Frederking, R. EFFECT OF SCALE ON THE INDENTATION 37

RESISTANCE OF ICE

Gulati, K.C. CALIBRATION OF A PORT ABLE ICE 49

Johnson, R.C. STRENGTH TESTING APPARATUS:
Sangolt, A. APPROACH AND SOME PRELIMINARY
RESULTS

Kama, T. RATE EFFECTS IN BRITTLE ICE 59

Muhonen, A. CRUSHING
Sippola, M.

Kovacs, A. COMPARISON OF AXIAL DOUBLE-BALL 72

AND UNIAXIAL UNCONFINED
COMPRESSION TESTS ON FRESHWATER
AND SEA ICE SAMPLES

McKenna, R.F. ICE WEDGE DYNAMICS AND LOCAL 85

Spencer, D. CRUSHING

Nakazawa, N. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE 97

Terashima, T. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION BETWEEN
Saeki, H. SEA ICE AND VARIOUS MATERIALS
Ono, T.
Smirnov, V. MECHANICS OF NATURAL DEFORMING 106
SEA ICE FLOES

Stehn, L.M. A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE 114

DeFranco, S.J. ANISOTROPIC FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF
Dempsey, J.P. ICE

Weber, L.J. USE OF A LOW-POWERED LASER TO 124

Nixon, W.A. MEASURE CRACK FRONT DEVELOPMENT

Wu, Z. NONLINEAR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY 135

Mahrenholtz, O. CREEP DEFLECTION OF ICE PLATE
UNDER CONSTANT LOADING

ICEBREAKING SIllPS

Aboulazm, A.F. REPEATED ICE IMPACTS AND SHIP 149

RESISTANCE IN FRAGMENTED ICE

Backlund, A. ARCTIC CARGO TRANSPORTATION 158

Juurmaa, K. ECONOMIC EVALUATION
Mattson, T.

Backstrom, M. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT 169

Forsen, A.-C. RUDDER/PROPULSION DEVICE
Wilkman, G. ARRANGEMENTS ON ICEGOING VESSELS
USING MODEL TESTS IN ICE

Gagnon, R.E. FULL SCALE DEFLECTION OF ICE BY AN 182

Spencer, D. ICEBREAKER

Herkens, H. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF 191

THYSSEN/WAAS-BOWS

Kleemann, A. 7-MW MULTI PURPOSE HEAVY DUTY 200

ICEBREAKER

Kujala, P. FULL-SCALE OBSERVATIONS OF SHIP 209

Varsta, P. PERFORMANCE IN ICE
Riska, K.

Likhomanov, V.A. PRINCIPLES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT 219

Polferov, S. Y. AND PROSPECTIVE USE OF THE ICE
Stepanov, LV. PASSPORTS
Timofeyev,O.Y.
Faddeyev,O.V.
Rupp, K.-H. SHALLOW DRAFT THYSSEN/WAAS- 227
Jans, P. ICEBREAKER

Salmi, P. ICE FLOE BEHIND AN ICEBREAKING 238

Backstrom, M. VESSEL
Korsstrom, K.
Jarvi, A.

Savikurki, J. PROPULSION SYSTEM BASED ON 249

Koskinen, P. AZIMUTH THRUSTERS AND ITS
POSSIBILITIES IN ICEBREAKING
TECHNOLOGY

Soininen, H. THE ICE CAPABILITY OF THE 259

Nyman, T. MULTIPURPOSE ICEBREAKER
Riska, K. "FENNICA" - FULL-SCALE RESULTS
Lohi, P.
Hrujula, A.

Spencer, D. EFFECT OF LATERAL ICE PRESSURE ON 272

Hardiman, K. SHIP RESISTANCE

Tellefsen, T.P. DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIPURPOSE 280

Hagelstam, L. ICEBREAKER AND OFFSHORE
CONSTRUCTION VESSEL

Tsoy, L.G. ICE PROPULSION OF THE ICEBREAKER 290

"KAPITAN SOROKIN" WITH
CONVENTIONAL FOREBODY

Tsoy, L.G. PROPOSAL ON THE DRAFT OF A NEW ICE 297

CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS USING ICE
BREAKING CAP ABILITY AS THE BASIC
CRITERION

ICE IMPACT

Hieronymi, E. ICE IMPACT ON SHIP HULLS 307

Karavanov, S.B. ANALYSIS OF PARTICULAR FEATURES OF 319

ICE DAMAGES TO THE STRUCTURES OF
ICEBREAKING SHIPS AND THE
RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE INCREASE
OF THE RELIABILITY

Kayo, Y. MEASUREMENT OF ICE LOAD 328

DISTRIBUTION ON AN ICEBREAKER BOW
MODEL COMPOSED BY LOAD PANELS
Kivimaa, S. LONG-TERM ICE LOAD MEASUREMENTS 338
WITH AN ICE LOAD PANEL ON BOARD
THE CUTTER M.S. UISKO

PROPELLER IN ICE

Alekseev, Y.N. HYDRODYNAMIC PROBLEMS OF 351

Beljashov, V.A. PROPELLERS FOR ICEBREAKING SHIPS
Sazonov, K.E.

Beljashov, V.A. METHOD FOR CALCULATING ICE LOADS 359

ENCOUNTERED BY PROPELLER BLADES

Bitsula, A. APPLICATION OF THE REGRESSION 368

Beljashov, V.A. ANALYSIS AND OF THE THEORY OF
Karulin, E.B. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN TO THE STUDY
Sutulo, S. V. OF PROPELLER THRUST AND TORQUE IN
ICE MILLING MODE

Veitch, B. THE PROPELLER-ICE IMPACT PROCESS 378

Laukia, K.

NORTHERN SEA ROUTE / BARENTS SEA

Buzuyev, A. DIVISION INTO ZONES OF THE 393

Likhomanov, V. NORTHERN SEA ROUTE BY DIFFICULTY
AND SAFETY OF NAVIGATION

Gudmestad, O.T. TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES FOR 403

Strass, P. HYDROCARBON PRODUCTION IN THE
BARENTS SEA

Kloster, K. ICEBERG AND GLACIER MAPPING USING 413

Spring, W. SATELLITE OPTICAL IMAGERY DURING
THE BARENTS SEA ICE DATA
ACQUISITION PROGRAM (IDAP)

Loset, S. PRODUCTION OF ICEBERGS AND 425

Carstens, T. OBSERVED EXTREME DRIFT SPEEDS IN
THE BARENTS SEA

Lovas, S.M. STEREO PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ANALYSIS 439

Spring, W. OF ICEBERGS AND SEA ICE FROM THE
Holm, A. BARENTS SEA ICE DATA ACQUISITION
PROGRAM (lDAP)
Spring, W. RESULTS OF THE ICE DATA ACQUISITION 450
Sangolt, A. PROGRAM (IDAP) IN THE BARENTS SEA,
1988-1992

Spring, W. ICEBERG AND SEA ICE DATA OBTAINED 462

Vinje, T. IN THE ANNUAL EXPEDITIONS OF THE
Jensen, H. BARENTS SEA ICE DATA ACQUISITION
PROGRAM (IDAP)

VOLUME 2

ICE FORCES ON STRUCTURES

Croasdale, K.R. A COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM 475

Muggeridge, D.B. TO INVESTIGATE ICE LOADS ON
MULTIFACETED CONICAL STRUCTURES

Gulati, K.C. DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR SAKHALIN 487

OFFSHORE PRODUCTION PLATFORMS

Hara, F. ARCH FORMATION OF THE ICE FLOES AT 497

Kunimatsu, S. BRIDGE STRUCTURES
Muraki, Y.
Enoki, K.
Saeki, H.

Harms, U. NON-SIMULTANEOUS FAILURE BASED ON 507

THE RANDOM WALK METHOD

Izumiyama, K. COMPUTATION OF SHEET ICE FORCES ON 517

Irani, M.B. A FACETED CONICAL STRUCTURE
Timco, G.W.

Kennedy, K.P. LARGE-SCALE ICE FRACTURE 527

Blanchet, D. EXPERIMENTS: PHASE 1
Dempsey, J.P.
DeFranco, S.J. t
Spencer, P.A.
Masterson, D.M.

Lau, M. MODEL ICE FORCES ON A MULTI- 537

Jones, S.J. FACETED CONE
Tucker, J.R.
Muggeridge, D.B.
Lu, M. ANALYSIS OF A FRACTURE OF A 547
Sacidnger, W.M. MULTIYEAR SEA ICE FLOE ACTING UPON
A COMPLIANT OFFSHORE STRUCTURE

McKenna, R.F. IMPACT FORCES BETWEEN FLOES IN THE 559

Gao, L. NEWFOUNDLAND ICE MARGIN

Niidtin, V.A. IMPACT LOADS OF DRIFTING ICE FLOES 568

Ozimov, A.E. IN ARTIFICIAL ISLAND
Sheiidn, LB.
Shushlebin, A.1.

Riska, K. A MODELL FOR ICE INDUCED VIBRATION 578'

Baarman, L. OF SLENDER OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

Sorensen, C. FUNCTIONAL DESIGN OF BRIDGE PIERS 595

Tryde, P.t WITH REFERENCE TO ICE FORCES
INTRODUCING SUPER-ELLIPTIC FORMS

Timco, G.W. ICE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON A FACETED 607

Irani, M.B. CONICAL STRUCTURE
Funke, E.R.
English, L.A.
Carroll, L.B.
Arambarrl, E.

Tuhkuri, J. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS OF ICE- 617

STRUCTURE CONTACT

Wang, Z. COMPUTATION OF SHEET ICE AND 627

Muggeridge, D.B. RIDGED ICE FORCES ON A FACETED
Prodanovic, A. CONE
Chao, J.C.

OPERATIONS / LOGISTICS / HARBORS

Chouinard, L.E. ESTIMATION OF BURIAL DEPTHS FOR 641

PIPELINES IN THE BEAUFORT SEA

Enoid, K. MODEL TESTS ON CONTROLLING ICE 651

Kunimatsu, S. FLOES MOVEMENT AT THE INLET OF
Hara, F. THE SAROMA LAGOON
Fujii, T.
Saeid, H.

HeB, G. SEISMIC SURVEY IN ARCTIC REGIONS 661

Sterzenbach, M.
Saeki, H. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE 672
Yamashita, T. OVERTOPPING OF BREAKWATERS BY ICE
Akihara, S. FLOES AND WAVES
Kunimatsu, S.

Vigg6sson, G. STABILIZATION OF THE TIDAL 681

Sigurdarson, S. ENTRANCE AT HORNAFJORDUR ICELAND
Bruun, P.

OIL SPILLS IN ICE

Christensen, F.T. OIL SPILL SIMULATIONS AS A 693

Steensboe, 1.S. CONTINGENCY PLANNING TOOL
Mosbech, A. OFFSHORE WEST GREENLAND

Johannessen, B.O. EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS IN THE 708

Jensen, H. BARENTS SEA MARGINAL ICE ZONE

Laset, S. EFFICIENCY OF EQUIPMENT TO REDUCE 719

THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS
AT SEA - AN OVERVIEW

Pfeiffer, K.D. MARINE INFORMA nON SYSTEMS AS KEY - 732

Mahnke, P. TOOLS IN PORT AND OCEAN
Duwe, K.C. ENGINEERING IN POLAR REGIONS

Wessels, E. COLD ENVIRONMENT TESTS OF OIL 741

SKIMMER

NUMERICAL MODELLING

Alekseev, Y.N. A METHOD FOR SHIP LEVEL ICE 755

Sazonov, K.E. RESISTANCE COMPUTATION

Andriushin, A.V. A PROBABILISTIC/STATISnC METHOD 763

FOR PREDICTING MAXIMUM POSSIBLE
ICE LOAD LEVELS IN THE PROPELLER-
SHAFTING SYSTEM OF ICE-BREAKING
SHIPS

Christensen, F.T. NESTED GRID SEA ICE MODELLING 774

Lu, Q.-M.
Frederking, R. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF 789
Sayed, M. MESOSCALE RHEOLOGY OF BROKEN ICE
FIELDS

Horrigmoe, G. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ICE 799

Andersen, R. SHEET INDENTATION CONSIDERING
CRUSHING AND TIME-DEPENDENT
DEFORMATIONS

Kujala, P. A SHIP IN COMPRESSIVE ICE, ANALYSIS 810

Varsta, P. OF THE ICE FAILURE PROCESS
Goldstein, R.
Osipenko, N.
Danilenko, V.

Lebiedzinski, K. PREDICTION OF BOW SPRAY FREQUENCY 824

Thomas, W.L. FOR A NAVAL COMBATANT

Valanto, P. A NUMERICAL CALCULATION OF THE 835

ICEBREAKING PROCESS AT THE BOW OF
A SHIP ADVANCING IN LEVEL ICE

Yamaguchi, H. PACK ICE MOVEMENT SIMULATION 848

Rheem, C.-K. USING A DISTRIBUTED MASS / DISCRETE
Kato, H. FLOE MODEL

Zakrzewski, W.P. A THREE-DIMENSIONAL TIME- 857

Lozowski, E.P. DEPENDENT SHIP ICING MODEL
Thomas, W.L.
Bourassa, M.
Blackmore, R.Z.
Szilder, K.
Kobos, A.

PHYSICAL MODELLING

Evers, K.-U. AN ADVANCED TECHNIQUE TO IMPROVE 877

Jochmann, P. THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MODEL ICE DEVELOPED AT THE HSV A
ICE TANK

Kitagawa, H. A STUDY ON ICE TANK 889

Izumiyama, K. EXPERIMENTATION (Part 2)
Koyama, K.
Uto, S.
Spencer, D. SCALING RELATIONSHIPS FOR 901
McKenna, R.F. ICEBREAKING BASED ON ANALYSIS OF A
SIMPLE WEDGE

ICE CONDITIONS / ENVIRONMENT / MATERIALS

Kalinin, E.N. ESTIMATION OF WIND DRIFT PARAMETRS 913

Truskov, P.A. OF SEA ICE IN OKHOTSK COASTAL ZONE

Nortala-Hoikkanen, A. METHODS TO MAP ICE CONDITIONS, TO 921

Riska, K. MEASURE ICE PROPERTIES AND TO
Salmela, O. QUANTIFY ICE FEATURES
Wilkman, G.

Prinsen berg, S.J. USING AN AIR-BORNE 936

Holladay, J.S. ELECTROMAGNETIC ICE THICKNESS
SENSOR TO VALIDATE REMOTELY
SENSED MARGINAL ICE ZONE
PROPERTIES

Saint, S.R. COMPUTER ASSISTED ICE MONITORING 949

Danielewicz, B. AND REMOTE SENSING FOR ARCTIC
Currie, D.H. OFFSHORE DRILLING SYSTEMS

Sakai, S. WAVE ATTENUATION UNDER ICE COVER 959

Horiai, T.
Imai, T.
Sasamoto, M.
Kanada, S.
Hirayama, K.

Sandven, S. REAL-TIME USE OF SATELLITE DATA IN 969

Johannessen, O.M. ICE MONITORING OF THE NORTHERN SEA
Kloster, K. ROUTE (Abstract)

KEY NOTE LECTURES

Rogne, O. NEW POLITICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TRENDS 973

IN THE ARCTIC

Granberg, A. IMPORTANCE OF MARINE 978

TRANSPORTATION FOR RUSSIAN ARCTIC

Lemke, P. GLOBAL CHANGE AND ARCTIC SEA ICE 988

ICE MECHANICS
 AN INVESTIGATION ON FRACTURE MECHANICS AND ICE LOADS
DURING CUTTING FRESHWATER ICE BY INDENTERS SIMULATING
PROPELLER BLADES
PART 1: FLAT HORIZONTAL INDENTERS
valery Beljashov Krylov Shipbuilding Russia
Head of ice laboratory Research Institute

ABSTRACT
The paper presents some experimental results obtained from
tests in which natural fresh-water ice was cut by flat
indenters simulating propeller blade leading edges. It
describes the involved test set-ups, the observed features of
ice crushing mechanics and the ice loads on different indenters
under different conditions of interaction, as well as the
effects of ice temperature, cutting speed and the water
reaching into the cut area. These data, combined with
experimental results on indenter-to-ice contact zones, were
used to evolve an engineering technique for computing contact
zone sizes and ice loads on blades chipping the ice while the
propeller is milling it.

I. INTRODUCTION
The full-scale stress measurements from icebreaker propeller
blades and shafting elements first obtained in 1911 ( Alekseev
et al 1980, Antonides et al. 1981 ) and subsequently
complemented by other tests (Jussila,1983; Kannari,1988 et all,
have permitted to sufficiently correct the available conceps of
propeller/ice interaction (Ignatjev, 1966; Jagodkin, 1963 ).
The new data have helped to identify the most dangerous
propeller operation conditions: the milling of large-size floes
when the blades penetrate deep into the ice and this is
accompanied by corresponding changes in the propeller/shafting
kinematic parameters and in the propeller hydrodynamic
efficiency.
Observations of the propeller/ice interaction during ice
model basin tests and inspections of ice fragments crushed by
propeller blades during full-scale icebreaker trials have
revealed that any mechanical contact results in an intrusion of
the blade into the ice and the crush-affected areas turn out to
be quite sizeable in their dimensions. At the leading edge,
there is always a certain contact surface, the size and shape
of which depend on operational conditions of the ship
propulsion system, as well as on the size and orientation of
the involved ice fragment. Therefore, the practical task of
establishing vector parameters for the forces on a propeller
blade due to milling the ice may be reduced to a 3D problem of
mechanics for fast crushing of such a complex and as yet
insufficiently studied medium as ice with surfacely active
water. Mathematically-wise that means a system of well-known
dynamic equilibrium differential equations which should be
complemented by the cauchy equations to relate the relative
deformations with displacements, by continuity equations, and
by a stress/strain law ( chosen depending on the anticipated
deformation pattern). The ice beyond the local area directly
adjacent to the crushed solid portion may be described by the
generalised Hookes law.
The dispersed material which forms at the contact of a
3
cutting tool with a brittle medium may, perhaps, be regarded as
viscoplastic (Kurdjumov, Kheisin, 1976 ). At the moment there
are no equations available for describing general 3D motions of
such mediums within the area of local fractures. Additional
complications emerge when attempting to formulate boundary
conditions on the surface separating the dispersed material
from the solid ice body subjected to elastic deformation, as
well as on the surface of the intruding tool.
Analytical ways of finding the ultimate stress conditions
are based on experimentally derived dependences: the so-called
crushing criteria which in a general format may be written as:
F (61 ; 6;:,;~) = 0 ( 1 )

where '5, ; 52,; t5~ are the principal stresses.

The F function specifies such an empirical relationship among
the principal normal stresses 6 1 ; a:. ; 6..l under which the
deformations increase or at least - have a constant, not
decreasing, rate. Today the above-formulated problem can be
solved only using the hypothesis of flat sections, i.e. for the
interaction of a blade's sectional element at a given radius
with a sizeable mass of ice having given motion parameters VI
and 111_.
Ice'loads are dictated by the ice strength properties and by
the conditions under which it is fractured. Today the available
computation methods for ice interactions with ships and marine
structures involve ice strength evaluations through specimen
testing for ultimate flexture, tension, compression, and shear
resistance, as well as for their hardness, impact toughness,
specific fracture energy, and fracture toughness.
A common feature of all these parameters is that they
describe ice fracture patterns relevant only for simplified
specimen load test arrangements. In addition to that, the
results may be significantly affected by the chosen testing
technique and conditions. Thus, the standard ice strenght
parameters applied for evaluating environmental loads on
realistic structures may sometimes cause sizeable errors.
The errors grow together with the differences between the
actual ice fracture pattern due to interacting with a structure
and the idealised analytical model describing it based on
standard strength characteristics obtained from ice specimen
tests. Therefore, since there are no sufficiently general and
reliable theoretical methods to establish ice loads, it is
necessary to utilise semiempirical techniques based on model
tests which can close enough simulate the ice crushing patterns
observed in actual operation.
When studying ice interaction for a propeller, each blade
may be regarded as an indenter or cutting tool of sophisticated
geometry. A blade's intrusion into'the ice is accompanied by a
variety of 3D ice fracture processes and the value of
describing them with the help of the earlier-named ice strength
parameters is doubtful. On the other hand, the lack of physical
tests on ice crushing under close-to-realistic conditions has
forced Ignatiev ( 1967 ) and JagodKin ( 1963) to oversimplify
their models of propeller blade interaction with ice. That was
the reason for Krylov Shipbuilding Research Iustitute to stage
during 1980-1985 systematic laboratory experimental studies on
the mechanics of ice crushing by indenters simulating propeller
blades. Test arrangements and data procession procedures were
evolved making use of the methods available from the theory of
cutting. Such an approach may be validated by full-scale
experimental data demonstrating that while in the process of
4
milling a blade interacts with the ice during 0.4 to 0.7 of one
complete propeller revolution. For a propeller of about 6.0 m
in diameter, this means that the blade section at the involved
radii cover 7 to 12 m through the ice environment. Therefore, a
propeller blade can be regarded as a cutting tool which crushes
the ice along a certain sophisticated surface.
Assuming that during a short interval t of the duration of
contact t between an ice piece and a blade the ice velocity
does not change the axial ( along the propeller shaft axis )
component of the relative velocity of a small element of the
blade is V.s = V. - VI' while the peripheral component is.
QIls = iii" - IliI , where Vq ; at.; ; Vx ; "'% are the Sh1P speed,
the propeller angular velocity, the floe speed and its angular
velocity respectively. This means that when the ice is cut by a
wedge-shaped blade profile ( which may be regarded as a flat
indenter) the resultant cutting speed ( Fig.l ) constitutes
w =V Vs1. + ( .. r )4 ( 2 )

while the cutting angle in terms of the theory of cutting

( vetrov, 1971) is
SJ' = 1£ - j . . + JI = arctg P IDfJIT - arctg {J:Jfi'" + /1 ( 3 )

and the thickness of the cut layer is

~
~=.:JCDS..P. - m =(J3 D Iz)1C r 11I(;Jt
• r'--.-J-::~2----::"1"""
r + Js ) - m ( 4 )

where
S = Vs In$ z = ~ D I z is the pitch of ice chipping by one blade,
J s = ~ I n$D 1S the propeller advance ratio,
iJ_= arctg ~/J!'r; F = r/R is the blade section relative radius,
D is the propeller diameter, P/D is the propeller pitch ratio,
z is the number of blades, R = D I 2.

2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES: TASKS AND TEST SET-UPS

Experimental studies on ice fracture were started with
series of tests in which natural lake ice specimens were
crushed by rectangular cutters both under the conditions close
to static intrusion of the cutting tools, and with varying
rates of interacting. The major tasks of these studies were as
follows:
-to study the processes occuring when a solid body imitating a
propeller blade intrudes into the ice under conditions as close
as practically possible to the actual propeller I ice
interaction;
-to experimentally establish the relation of the contact zone
area and the forces involved in the interaction processes upon
the indentor geometry, scale effects, kinematic conditions of
crushing, and ice temperature, as well as to study the effects
imposed by the water as a surfacely active agent upon the above
-named parameters;
-to reveal regularities, to identify the principal fracture
types within typical areas of the contact zone and,
consequently, to divide the ice loads into components;
-to generate, based on the thus obtained information,
approximate numerical models of the typical fracture patterns,
and to reveal functional relations between contact pressures
and the contact zone area with the help of these models.
Those e~periments were carried out at test set-ups of the
5
Kiev Institute of Civil Engineering using standard techniques
originally intended for cutting tests with various kinds of
ground and frozen soils ( vetrov,1971 ).
Three types of dynamometer set-ups were used for the
described tests.
(a) Dynamometer rigs similar to planing machines and having
a strain-sensitive element at the planer holder were utilised
for tests in which the ice was crushed by horizontally arranged
indenters at low interaction rates ( v = 0.10 m/s). Such a test
rig ( Fig. 2) consists of a dynamometer carriage 5 which with
the help of a screw 3 and a nut 4 moves along guides 10; a
support frame; a motor 1 with a V-belt drive 2; a calibrating
device, and a control unit for the electric motor. The
dynamometer carriage has a frame mounted on wheels 11 and
supporting the guides for a slide 12 moved by means of screws 6.
Fixed to the slide, there are a horizontal and a vertical
strain-gauging beams attached to which is the planer holder.
Such a set-up permits to measure both the tangential ( the
cutting force ), and the normal ( repulsive force) componet of
the ice resistance to crushing.
( b) A pendulum rig was used for investigating the effects
of the interaction rate upon the force parameters and the ice
fracture mechanics ( W< 12 m/s). This set-up consists of a
foundation, a pendulum, a frame, a winch, and instrumentation
for force and cutting speed measurements. In this arrangement
the fast cutting force parameters are established with the help
of a strain-gauging element which formes part of the pendulum.
The initial interaction speed is found depending on the initial
angle of the pendulum of a given mass.
(C) An impact-and-centrifugal rig was applied for studying
ice fracture mechanics at high speeds ( W< 45 m/s). This
tests were filmed.
Instrumentation arrangements, calibration techniques for
force-measuring elements, and design features of the
above-listed test rigs are described in detail in (vetrov,1971)
The tests were performed using a series of horizontal indenters
simulating propeller blade section profiles and differing from
one another in the thickness of their cutting edges, in the
edge shapes and their bluntness.
since no validated theory was available to describe ice
crushing by propeller blades and it was anticipated to
encounter sizeable scale effects, it was chosen to make the
laboratory tests with natural lake ice which had chaotic
arrangement of 5 - 10 mm crystals. specimens of 1000 x 800 x
500 mm in size were selected so that to have no cracks or
foreign compoments. such blocks of ice were then frozen into
special trays by cooling down to the required temperature in a
refrigeration chamber. Before testing, the open ice surfaces
were carefully smothened, the ice and the air temperatures were
measured. The ice crushing process was recorded by high-speed
filming.
The ice physical and mechanical properties were measured
immediately before the tests. That included the strength of ice
cubes under single-axis compression and the strength of
cylinder specimens under a combined load.

3. MAJOR EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The following independent parameters were controlled during
the tests: - thickness of the crushed ice layer ( hI); - width
of the cut ice layer ( b); - ice temperature ( t~); - rate of
interaction ( W ); - angle of attack of the indenter front face
6
(b ); - leading edge bluntness parameter ( r6 ).
fhe tests were carried out in series. The crushed thickness
h. was varied with the b width and Spangle set as given values
( Fig.l ). A new test series was done varying the 0pvalue, then
the W velocity, the indenter shape, etc.
3.1 STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF THE TESTED ICE
when the ice is fractured by a propeller blade, this happens
under a combined stress pattern in the interaction zone,
including both normal, and tangential stresses. Their mutual
effects were studied on cylinder-shaped specimens ( dL/HI~ 1; dr
is the specimen diameter, ~is the specimen height) us~ng a
method developed at Kiev Institute Civil Engineering
(Vetrov,1971). The specimens were placed into a special
cylindrical cartridge made of two separate parts, compressed
(without fracturing ) to a given level, and then broken by
moving the top section of the cartridge while the bottom one
remained fixed in the original position. The fracture was
occuring mostly within the intended area, i.e. along the line
separating the two parts of the cartridge (deviations did not
exceed 10 - 15 % ).
The obtained results may be seen in Fig.3. They have
confirmed the possiblity to describe the normal I tangential
stress relationship for the case of the ice ultimate
equilibrium utilising Conlomb - Mohr's law:
1:sJ. = C., + 6·<::J
tgO ( 5 )

where c.is the adhesion which characterises the strength of ice

subjected only to shearing (6.= 0 ); JP is the inner friction
angle. The studies have revealed that fhe ice adhesion C., same
as the ultimate strength under uniaxial compression, depends
on the direction of the crushing load ( the shearing forces )
in respect of the ice crystal axes and is determined by the ice
temperature. The lower is the temperature, the higher is the CO
adhesion. At the same time, the inner frictionjP angle changes
only slightly.

3.2 MECHANICS OF ICE FRACTURE INFLICTED BY INDENTERS

Analysis of the experimental data, and filmed and
photographed records permits to offer the following decription
of the mechanical processes occuring in the contact zone. with
the cutting edge intruding into the ice, the chip elements se-
parate step-by-step ( Fig.4 ).
The number of the chip elements depends on the ratio of the
tool's width ( b ) to the cutting depth (h.). At b/hI < 2 the
observations show only single chip elements, with the elements
being virtually elliptical in shape. with b I h l >2 and beyond,
the number of elements also increases, while their sizes
decrease tending ( for h1 = const ) to reach a certain
magnitude. This experimental observation is important since it
demonstrates that the hypothesis of flat sections is
inapplicable in principle to the wide cutting tools because the
ice chipping is a random function at any given point of the
cutter's leading edge. For the single chips ( bl h < 2 ), this
hypothesis is also incorrect due to the effects 0 f the side
cutting edges.
stress concentrations at the corners of the tool cause cone-
shaped cracks at the ends of the cutting edge. When its length
itself is insufficment, the chipping occures due to these end
7
cracks and the portion of the specific energy lost in chipping
at the sides is rather high. with the increase in b I hI the
side chipping contribution decreases because the chip sizes
( for h = const ) remain practically unchanged.
Thus~ the overall process of this step-by-step chipping
occuring while the leading cutting edge maintains continuons
contact with the ice may be described by the following
features. At first the tool intrudes into the ice due to
dispersing the latter into fine milk-like white powder and
gradually forcing it out ( Fig.5 ) towards the free surface. If
the cutting edge is blunt, the amount of the dispersed ice is
larger and then it is pushed out not only to the free ice
surface but as well beneath the cutting face ( Fig.6). while
the cutter moves on, the small in-between elements are also
chipped off.
The leading edge/ice contact area and the smashing zone
gradually increase and so, consequently, does the ice
resistance against the intrusion. Due to the continity, the
stresses propagate further into the ice ( this may be verified
by the local turbidity dropping rapidly with distance away from
the contact zone ). At a crucial instant when the force and the
area of the contact attain ultimate values, the main chip
element is separated (Fig.5b) and that is accompanied by a
sharp drop in the interaction forces.
From the filmed records, it is seen that the fracturing
crackes initiate and propagate from the cutting edge and prior
to the separation the main chip element is compressed ( becomes
turbid) , while the separation comes as typical break-off
showing a mirror-like uneven failure surface without any traces
of shearing. After the separation, the compressive energy
accumulated in the chip rips it virtually in an instant into
small fractions ( this effect increases with the cutting rate
growth ).
An important fact revealed by testing is that in any case
the failure surface remains close to being flat, has an angle
to the cutting surface within ~= 28°~ 30 Q
see Figs. 5 to 7 ),
(

and depends neither on the cuTting angle 0r( which was varied
from 20 to 100°), nor on the cutting rate ( W= 0.05 - 12 m/s
during the discribed experiments ).
These results have confiremed the earlier delibiration by M.
Ignatjev, ( 1973 ) and v.Jagodkin', ( 1963 ) about the chipping
trajectory to be directed towards the leading edge of a
wedge-shaped blade element.
3.3 THE CONTACT ZONE
when crushing the fixed ice blocks by horizontally arranged
indenters, the contact is achieved at the cutting edge front
along the side ones, and also at the bottom edge. The present
report uses only the data registered on the leading edge front
since this information describes the ice interaction with the
indenter's flat face ( a 20 problem of cutting fracture
mechanics ). This zone has turned out to be sizeably smaller
than the cut layer thickness ( hI)' thus indicating to a
brittle fracture in the chipping area.
It was experimentally found that the AB length (Fig.1 ) of
the contact zone Is = ~grow proportionally to hland have a
marked dependence on the culting angle (br.)' At the same time
this length is virtually independent of the indenter width (b
), the ice temperature ( t;) and the presence of the water.
Generalised results of the experimental studies on the indenter
lice contact area size may be seen in Fig.8 as a dimensionless
dependence ~ = a k sin npl hI demonstrating a rapid growth

8
of the contact zone with an inrease in the ~f angle.

3.4 EFFECTS OF THE ICE TEMPERATURE, AND GEOMETRICAL AND

KINEMATIC CONDITIONS OF INTERACTION UPON THE ICE RESISTANCE
The periodic separation of chip elements is accompanied by
periodic fluctuation of the ice resistance. with narrow
indenters at b/hI < 2, the resistance drops practically to zero
at the instant a single chip is shedded. Then the force of
resistance again grows together with the indenter progress
periodically decreasing due to the separation of small
in-between chip elements. Beyond b/h! > 2 there comes a
changeover to multi-element step-by-step chipping, and
therefore, the contributions from individual chips to the total
resistance become lesser. Then there are no drops in the
resistance as far as to zero magnitudes because the indenter
continuously remains in contact with the ice both along the
front edge, and the side ones. Because of the periodic
fluctuations of the cutting force, the test data were
processed using conventional statistic methods. For each set of
cutting conditions, that included finding the average maximum
force, the mean values and a variation factor which is a ratio
between the first two parameters. It may be observed from the
test data that with an increase in the indenter width the mean
cutting force tends towards the average maximum one, i.e. the
variation factor tends to 1 because of the specific fracture
mechanism described above. The present report operates with the
average maximum forces since they are most suitable for
indenter I ice interaction in a 2D cutting problem, i.e. at b/hI
--> 00. The ice temperature effects on the cutting forces
result from the fact that the ice strength depends on the
temperature. The cutting force dependence is linear and can be
expressed as
( 6 )

where oCt is a temperature effect coefficient. when analysed,

the exper~mental data revealed that within the examined ice
temperature range t:f[O, -14·J the value of at practically
never changes with different conditions of cutting and
constitutes on the average 0.06, thus being in a good accord
with experimental data on ice temperature effects upon its
strength under uniaxial compression or pure shearing.
Dependence of the cutting force upon the cutting edge width (b)
During the tests involving indenters of different widths, it
was observed that the geometry of the chips cut at the stress
concentrstion end zones are virtually independent on the
cutting edge length which has a linear relation only with the
size of the front edge contact area. The relationships between
the cutting force and the cutting edge length may be
approximated by linear functions in which the angular
coefficient changes in proportion with the cut ice layer
thickness ( hI)' Experimental studies on the effects of the cut
layer thickness ( h~) upon the cutting force ( P ) have
revealed that the cutting force is a square function ofhz '
The cutting angle effects upon the resistance to cutting.
It was obvious from experimental results that this parameter
9
plays an important role in ice fracture. This may be observed
from Fig.9 which gives an example of the cutting force plotted
against the angle for a number of indenters. It may be easily
observed that the ~ force growth rate drastically increases
beyond Op> 60°. It showld be as well noted that with the rise
in op there also comes an increase in the compressive energy
accumulated by the separating chips and causing them to
disintegrate into fragments after the separation.
Effects of blunt cutting edge.
The ice cutting force significantly grow with the cutting
edge of the indenter becoming more and more blunt ( Fig.ll ).
The resultant additional resistant force is directed to the
open face of the ice block and opposite to the indenter. The
high level of forces measured on blunt indenters are explained
by the incompressibility of the ice and by its sufficiently
high strength within certain compression limits ( confined
compressive strength ).
Effecrs of the water and the intraction rate.
These parameters have virtually only a small effect upon the
ice resistance ( not more then 10% ) ( Fig.l0 ).

4. TEST RESULT ANALYSIS AND THE INDENTER/ICE INTERACTION MODEL

Different methods were offered for data processing and
analysing during numerous tests for material fractures under
cutting. This report presents the results obtained with the
help of a technique developed by Prof.J.vetrov. 1971. The main
idea of the method is to separate the P component from the
total measured ice load. i.e. from the sum of :
P~ = PI'" + P.s + PL + Pa = 2
= PI' b ~ + k, Ps hI + k2 P,- hI + PI! b hI ( 7 )
where is the cutting force due to the cutting edge;
P~
~is the force due to the side chippings;
is the force due to sides cutting at the bottom;
P~
Pa is the force due to the bluntness of the leading edge.
only the ~ component is actually suitable for the 2D problem
of a sharp cutter interacting with the ice since this value
does not cover the end effects due to the indenter side edges.
Following the chosen method:
( 8 )

where PF is the specific ice cutting force.

The dependence of this force on the cutting angle may be
found plotted in Fig.12. Knowing p_and the contact zone size
y~ . it is possible to compute the contact pressure for any
indenter cutting edge ( Fig.13 ):
P" = [PF / 'f"sin(bf+fi)J CAS./'" ( 9 )
as well as the normal component of the cutting force:
( 10 )
Having established the force parmeters involed in the cutter!
10
ice interaction, and using the experimentally found feature of
ice fracture mechanics, i.e. the fact that the main chips at
the free ice surface separate at an angle ~= const ~ 28°
independent of the indenter/ice interaction kinematics, one may
analyse the chip element ultimate equlibrium condition and
determine the critical stresses built up on the conditionally
assumed chipping plane.
The above-discribed features of ice fracture mechanism under
cutting, show that the plastic deformation caused by tangential
stresses prepares the crushed material for the final failure,
while the actual failure results from the normal tensile
stresses. Therefore, the global ice strength criterion should
take into account both these mechanisms. Ice fracture tests
have not revealed any principal difference in. the behaviour
related to chip separation as compared to other materials.
Thus, the ice equilibrium condition prior to crushing may be
assumed to be the same as for rocks, soils, etc, i.e. as the
Mohr's criterion.
This criterion is based on physical test results. The most
common technique for establishing this criterion is to plot an
envelope of the Mohr's circles from tensile and compressive
specimen test data. However,this method has some disatvantages.
The test results depend on the specimen shapes and sizes, as
well as on the boundary conditions at the loading points. The
ice, same as other brittle materials, is also a difficult
subject for purely tensily testing. Therefore, the soil cutting
theory utilises a method for plolting a linear Coulomb-Mohr's
dependence from shear tests arranged under compressive stresses.
The author has also developed another techique based on the
data obtained from ice cutting tests.
Since the formation of macrocracks is determined mainly by
the stress field adjacent to cutting edge, an approximate
theoretical solution of the ice/blade interaction problem may
be related to the following aspects:
(1) when a cutting tool with a long leading edge intrudes
into the ice ( or any other brittle material), the process is
accompanied by multi-element chipping which, strictly speaking,
contradicts the flat section hypothesis applicability
conditions;
(2) critical state curves of the ice do not correspond to
the actual stress-and-strain fields built up in the course of
cutting. Taking these aspects into account, the ice strength
criterion may be established based on the below-described
approximate model of interaction.
While a propeller blade cutting edge intrudes into the ice,
the latter is crushed into fine-dispersed substance witnin the
CAB zone ( Fig.1). The AC zone size depends only on the shape
of the leading edge of the blade section at a given radius r
and the operational conditions of the propulsor ( the bF-cutting
angle), while the AB zone is found from the critical
equilibrium condition for the main chip element immediately
before the failure. The major crack path is approximately
assumed to be a straight line ( AE). The averaged maximum
force parameters of ice/blade interaction are reduced to a unit
of the leading edge, which permits to account for the
unsimultaneous separation of chips along the edge and for the
random nature of their formation.
with the chipping occuring in the assumed plane AE having the
length of 19. = h~ / sin ~~, the ratio of the blade-induced
pressures on--the ice to the material's resistance forces can be
found by taking the BAED chip element inmediately before the
failure ( Fig.1 ). withing the AB zone this element is
subjected to normal pressure forces
11
 11.

dR \~
= dr f Ph (1) dl
0
( 11 )
and to frictional forces
Q.

dF = dr j f.p~(1) dl ( 12 )
o
where 1 IE [ 0; a I, a - being the contact zone size.
Therefore, the ice force vector dRK=~dR~+ dF2, is inclined
at the friction angle ~ = arctg f away from the normal to the
leading edge AB. Then, the ultimate equilibrium condition would
be dR = dR* or
ASh
j Po, (1) dl sin (~h+ b
p + jJ- ) dr
0------------------------------ ( 13 )
cosJu.
where~~; 6. are the critical shear and normal stresses acting
within Ene assumed plane.
Threse charactiristics may be found from the results of series
of ice cutting tests, including those taking into account the
scale, cutting speed and the water effects.
Projections of the integral force RLonto the conditionally
assumed chipping plane AE define the shearing force:
, :t

R = if P (1) sin [9 + 15"1'+ ]4.1) I dl dr / cosJl(1) 14 )

sit <> 0 " SI)
and the break-off force (or, depending on the~p angle sign,
the oppo~~e pressing force) for the chip element:
R,.= - ff p"(l) cos [ ~h +CO,,+jl(l) I dl dr / cos.f(l) ( 15 )
""
The critical normal 6.and~~tangential ice stresses acting
in the assumed failure plane can be found from the following
respective equations:
0* = lfa. PI(, sin 9sh cos ( Op + a,~ +.f ) / cos Jl 16

'"1:'... = <rQ PK sin as)' sin ( 'tip + E}" +..P) / cos y.. 17

where p = p cos}l / IP" sin ( '0 p + JU ) contact pressure,

Fis the mean friction angle.
<jUk >
The ultimate equilibrium curve of ice failure under the
propeller edge plotted from experimental data can be
approximated (Fig.14) by a simple and convenient expression:
't'=A6+B
.... c .. c
( 18 )
C)

where A,and Bcdepend on the ice temperature t~, intrusion speed

w, and the direction of cutting (along or across the ice
crystals) .
The contact pressures Pk are dictated by the cutting force
parameters ( assuming they are uniformly spread along the AB
contsct zone) and also depend on ~ and W.
By substituding (11) and ~&) into the ultimate equilibrium
equation (-Ii), it is possible to perform the necessary
integration and to find the ice/blade contact zone size for a
given radius r, as well as the forces and moments acting on the
blade and the shafting as a whole.

12
REFERENCES.
1. Alekseev Y.N., Beljashov V.A., Shpakov V.S.
'Full scale stress Tests of an Icebreaker Propeller Blade'.
In Russian. Klylov Shipbuilding Research Institute, pp.
69-76 Leningrad, 1980.
2. Antonides G., Hagen A., Langrock D.
, Full scale ice breaking stresses on the propeller of the
polay Star.' propellers 81 Symposium, virginia, SNAME, pp.93
-110, 26-27 May 1981.
3. Ignatiev M.A.
, Screw propellers of ice navigating vessels'. In Russian.
Leningrad, Sudostroenie, 1966.
4. Jagodkin V.J.
, Analytical determination the resistance moment of a
propeller during its interaction with ice'. Problemy Arktiki
Antarktiki, vol.13, Leningrad, Morskoi Transport, pp.79-88,
1963, In Russain.
5. Jussila M.
'Ice loads on the propulsion system of an ice breaking tug'.
Proc POAC'83, Helsinki, Espoo vol.3, pp. 575-590, 1983.
6. Kannari P.
'Full scale and model tests performed with a nozzle and on
open propeller simultanlously'. Proc. IAHR, sapporo, 23-27
August, VOI.1, pp.772-781, 1988
7. Kurdynmov V.A. Kheisin D.E ..
'Hydrodynamic Model of a solid/Ice Impact', Applied
Mechanics, V.12 N10, pp.103-109, 1976.
8. Vetrov Y.A.
'soil Cutting by Earth-Moving Machines.'
Moscow. Machinostroyeniye, 1971.

13
 Fig. 1 Blede ( indenter ) element interection with t he ice.

Fig. 2 Ice cutting test set-up.

T sh (1<Po)

400

2eo

O~~~~~rT~~~~~ (j ,(kPo)
o 200 400

Fig. 3 Ice streghth under combined loeding. Fig. 4- Multi-element frecture.

14
 a b
Fig.5 Ice chipping by a sharp indenter; W = 10 m/s;
- the chip initiation; b - the chip.

Fig. 6 Ice crushing by a blunt indenter; Fig. 7 A chip element; Q - 28 .

w = 8 m/s.

'P. P.(kg)
0.0

=l

~
0.5

0.3 100

0.2

0.0 ~. a 6p
SOO 100· a 5<f> 100·

Fig. 8 Contact zone versu, cutting angle Fig.9 Cutting force ve~us cutting angle

15
 Fig. 10 Cu~ng forces at different interaction rates
( pendulum .wing ang ie ).

3
P.,N > 10 (N) p, (kPa)
800

600
/
/

N
/
/

1
/
/
- /
200

-1 re(mm) o+~,~~~~......~~~~--.-" ~P
Fig.11 0 Effect of the cutting edge biu~ting Fig. 1 ~ Specific cG~~tin~
force 100
radius upon the cutting force versus cutting angle .

Pk(mPa) T.(kPa)
2.0

200
1.5

1.0
100

0.5

Fig. 13 Contact pressure Pk' Fig. 14 Critical .tr.s••• at the AE plane.

16
 SPLITTING OF ICE FLOES

John P. Dempsey Clarkson University U. S. A.

Professor Potsdam, NY 13699-5710

Samuel J. DeFranco I Clarkson University U. S. A.

Research Assistant Potsdam, NY 13699-5710

Denis Blanchet Amoco Production Company U. S. A.

Staff Research Engineer Tulsa, OK 74102-3385

Anton Prodanovic ~10bil Research and Development U. S. A.

Staff Research Engineer Corporation, Dallas TX 75244-4312

ABSTRACT

To extend fracture mechanics-based solutions to the floe splitting problem requires a more
realistic description of the problem if one is to provide information useful for design ice
load calculations. The crushing phase is often stable and develops with initially partial
and then total stress-relaxation in the vicinity of the structure. In some particular cases,
radial crack formation and crack propagation occur suddenly with a dramatic drop in the
ice load on the structure. The type of interaction observed between the structure and the
ice floe can range from ductile (crushing) to brittle (splitting) depending on ice floe size,
material properties, structure size and geometry, ice floe velocity, and loading conditions.
The influence of variations in fracture toughness, tensile strength and the geometrical size
scale need to be investigated. Practical fracture mechanics theory is reqired to incorporate
the effects of ice floe splitting into ice load calculations. The phenomenon of floe splitting
has been most thoroughly treated by Bhat; therem, the splittmg mode was modeled by the
imtiation and propagation of radial cracks on impact with a rigid structure. Bhat treated
the splitting problem using the methods of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and
the finite element method. The effect of floe inertia was included in their analysis as a body
force. The objective of this paper IS to build upon the investigations reported by Bhat and
co-workers.

1 INTRODUCTION
Floe splitting is accompanied by sudden radial crack formation and crack propagation occur
suddenly with a dramatic drop in the ice load on the structure. The type of interaction
observed between the structure and the ice floe can range from ductile (crushing) to brittle
(splitting) depending on ice floe size, material properties, structure size and geometry, ice
floe velocity, and loading conditions (Danielewicz and Metge, 1981; Danielewicz and Metge,
1982; Danielewicz and Cornet, 198,1). The influence of variations in fracture toughness,
tensile strength and the geometrical size scale needs to be addressed. The phenomenon of
1 Now Research Engtneer With the Amoco Production Company, in the Offshore Arctic and Faclhties
Technologies group at the Tulsa Research Center, Tulsa, OK 74102-3385

17
floe splitting has been treated by Bhat, 1988; this study treated the splitting problem using
the methods of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEF~I) and the finite element method.
The effect of floe inertia was included in their analysIs as a body force (Danielewicz et aI.,
1983). The model chosen by Bhat and co-workers regarding the lateral vs parallel loads (F
= ,S?) is explored as one of the contact pressure models because of its inherent flexibility.
The magnitude of (J is influenced by the structure size and geometry as compared to the floe
size, as well as the floe velocity. On impact with a structure. a crushed zone will form. Bhat
(1988)- in Fig. 4 of that paper- assumed the presence of a crack of length a and began
to apply the principles of linear elastic fracture mechanics.

2 BODY FORCE SOLUTION

The ice force calculations for summer ice floe impacts during the Hans Island Experiments
(Danielewicz et al. 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984) were based upon deceleration data. The ice
floe was assumed to decelerate as a rigid body. By d'Alembert's prmciple, the distributed
inertia forces so caused can be replaced by distributed body forces br per unit volume (Bhat,
1988). The same approach is adopted here. However, the body force solution required for
a rectangular floe being decelerated by a sole concentrated force directed along the line of
symmetry is apparently unavailable. The following approach yielded an effective approximate
solution which is hereafter labelled the Timoshenko-Little (TL) solution.
For a rectangular floe (Fig. 1) of length L, width H, and thickness t
p
br = - LHt' (1)

p
_p_-t_________-/H-- x '2

L a~ (x.O)

Fig. 1 a) Rectangular floe geometry; b) Force equilibration of one half of the floe.

In the case of wide rectangular floe (H / L > 5) beam theory would clearly be expected to
be applicable Moreover, there has long been an interest in the stress distribution in a beam
subjected to the action of a concentrated force (see Section 40 in Timoshenko and Goodier,
1971; see also Part II. Chapter 3 of Frocht, 1945-Fig. 3.29 in the latter reference was
particularly interesting since it revealed that the approach described may very well apply for
much lower aspect ratios (H / L "" 1). These applications, however did not involve body force
loadings. However, Little (19i3) presents the solution for a beam bent by its own weight
(see Section :3.3 therein).
The solution derived for the stresses along the line of symmetry uses the equation~ pre-
sented in Section 40 of Timoshenko and Goodier (l9i1) and Section 3.3 of Little (19i3). The
details of the derivation of the superposition solution are not presented here. Given that
~ = x/ L, and using the superscript T L to identify this solution for later use, the solution is

(2)

t7
TL
(x 0) 2 P 1 -~) {1/2
= (-)(-)(- - - + (3 - 3 H
-1r-)
1r L
+ (-- 1 -0 2 --]
-1)[4(- 3} (3)
YY' 1r Lt 2 1/2 - ~ 4 L 2H 2 5

18
3 WEIGHT FUNCTION K J - TECHNIQUE
Bueckner (1970) and Rice (1972) have shown that if a reference Mode I stress intensity factor
l\Aa) and associated crack face displacement solutions llr(a. x) exist for a two dimensIOnal
elastic body with symmetrical loading which contains a crack of length a, that the stress
intensity factor for any other symmetrical loading cr(l') on the same crack is gi"en by:

(4)

where hr(a,x) IS a geometry dependent weight function. The weight function is gi"en by.

(5)

2
where E' = E for plane stress and E/(l - /1 ) for plane strain.

y y
--
F
f I
-a- -
x P/~ _x H
H a ___
P/2

(a)
F
j (b) 1
L L

y y

F F

p/~ ~a......- ----J- 1

H
P/~
~
P/2 P/2

(e)
F
•
j (d)
L

Fig. 2 Edge-crack in a rectangular floe: a) Opening load, F only; b) Body force bx and
ice force P only; c) Opening load F, ice force P and body force bx . Edge-crack in a
semi-infinite floe: d) Opening force F and ice force P.

4 SPLITTING STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS: Kff

For the case of an edge cracked rectangular plate with coordinate origins at the crack mouth,
the weight function has been determined in the form

(6)

19
where 0 :::; a = al L :::; 0.5 and O..j :::; p = HI L :::; 2.0. The coefficient of the singular term IS
simply Ao = V2/.jir. The coefficient functlOn5 A 1 (a,p) and ..h(a,p) were determined using
the finite element method and least squares curve fitting.
For the case of a concentrated opening load F at the crack mouth (x = 0), the crack face
stresses O"(.r) can be expres5ed by:

O"(x) = F8(.r)lt. (I)

where 8(x) is the Dirac delta function and t is the floe thickness. By solving (I) the stres,
intensity factor for the case of a concentrated opening load F at the crack mouth (x = 0) of
a rectangular floe is given by (see Fig. 2a)

.R F ~
f \F = r;;~A •. (8)
tva .=0

0.60 - , - - - - - - - - - - - , 0.30-,------------,
H IL= 1.0 p=o

0.40 020

~I~ ~I~
0.20 010

• - Finite Element Method

(a) 0.00 +---,----.----,--.,.------..1 (b) 0 00 -1----.----,---,-----,---1
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.00 020 040
all all

Fig. 3 a) Splitting load a) Square floe; b) Rectangular floe.

In the case of the body force loading, the stress intensity factor is determined by applying
the negative of the O"~yL stresses determined from the stress analysis of an uncracked floe
(along y = 0) as the crack face loading. This III effect creates a traction free crack surface in an
inertia loaded floe allowing direct determinatlOn of the stress intensity factor due to inertial
forces. It should be noted that the total solution of this problem is the superpOSitIOn of stress
intensity factors from the stresses O"~yL tending to open the crack and from a concentrated
force PIn: acting at the crack mouth tending to close the crack (in the latter case the
associated stress intensity factor is negative). The toial stress intensity factor for crack
parallel forces PI2 is written as (with O"~yL given by Eq. (3)):

K: = ](: IF=-P/~ + KTL Iu;; . (9)

Performing the integrations, the Mode I opening stress intensity can be written III the
following polynomial form:

P 1 2 4
](TL IU TL =
Y!I tva
r;;- L A. L D. e?
7r ,=0 J=1
1 (10)

where the coefficients D'1 (p) can be calculated routinely in closed form. The stress intensity
factor for the concentrated force -PIn: is found from (8). The stress intensity factor for

20
 I\~ = t~~ [~.1' t D,pJ - ~ A,] (11 )

Utilizing (8) and (11), the splittlIlg stress intensIty factor I\s for the body force problem
,hown in Fig. :2c with F = ;3P can be summarized as:

(1:2)

Note the term involving ((3 -l/rr) in (12); if (3 = l/rr, the stress intensIty factor for the
loading portrayed in Fig. 2d is zero (Tada et aI., 1973).

5 RESULTS
The analytical results from the last sections are compared with the finite element results of
Bhat (1988) for the splitting forces in square floes. For the case of a square floe, Fig. 3a
shows the normalized opening load P = FltK~.JL for F only (P = 0) (using Eq. (8)) and
with (3 = 0.5 (using Eq. (12)). The results compare directly with those of Bhat and show a
critical crack length a* ::::: 0.15 and load F* ::::: 0.39 when (3 = 0.5 (critical in the sense that
further crack motion is unstable). To further examine the analytical results for rectangular
floes, the splitting force P (P = 0) for floes with aspect ratios of HI L = 1.0 and 2.0 were
determined by the finite element method (Fig. 3b). The results compare favorably with the
theoretical results; the analytical solution is plotted for HI L = 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 00 using
(8). The effect of different (3-values on the P = PltKf.JL values are shown in Fig. 4a for
a square floe using (12). Again, the results verify those of Bhat (1988).

6.00
160 1'",0-4
H/L-10
H/L_20

1.20
400

~~ 0.80
O~
~~0
200
040

(a) 000 (b) 0.00

000 020 aiL 0.40 0.00 020 0.40
all

Fig. 4 a) Ice force, square floe, (3 = 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6; b) Zero splitting tendency,
rectangular floe.

In Fig. 4b the effect of aspect ratio on P is shown for {3 = 0.4; the rise in P with increasing
HI L is especially dramatic for HI L > 1.0.

21
6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an analytical corroboration of the finite element work by Bhat (1988);
this is a necessary first step to a progressively more realistic look at the splitting of ice floes
using fracture mechanics. The long-term objective is to extend fracture mechanics-based
solutions to the floe sphtting problem to include a more realistiC description of the problem
and hopefully provide mformation useful for design ice load calculatlOns. The crushmg
phase is often stable and develops with initially partial and then total stress-relaxation in
the vicinity of the structure. In some particular cases, radial crack formation and crack
propagation occur suddenly with a dramatic drop in the ice load on the structure. The
type of interaction observed between the structure and the ice floe can range from ductile
(crushing) to brittle (splitting) depending on ice floe size, material properties, structure
size and geometry, ice floe velocity, and loading conditions. The influence of variations in
fracture toughness, tensile strength and the geometrical size scale need to be investigated.
The following general influences have received attention to date, in the ongoing analysis of
the ice floe splitting problem: (1) Geometry: rectangular vs circular ice floes; (2) Crushing at
the contact zone vs far-side flexural failure; (3) Stability: crushing or splitting; (4) Splitting:
path stability; (5) Notch sensitivity vs strength failures and (6) Load path effects.
Practical fracture mechanics theory is reqired to incorporate the effects of ice floe splitting
into engineering ice load calculations. This paper comprises the first part of a splitting study
that has served as the basis for the two-phase joint-industry-agency project "Large-Scale Ice
Fracture Experiments."

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was funded by Canadian Marine Drilling Limited (Amoco Canada) and the
Mobil Research and Development Corporation. Additional support was provided by the
U.S Office of Naval Research through its Sea Ice Mechanics Accelerated Research Initiative
[Grant No. NOOOI4-90-J-1360j.

8 REFERENCES
Bhat, S.U., 1988. Analysis for splitting of ice floes during summer impact. Cold RegIOns
SCience and Technology, 15, 53-63.
Bueckner, H.F., 1970. A novel principal for the computation of stress mtensity factors. Z.
angew. Math. Mech., 50, 529-.546.
Danielewicz, B. W. and Metge, M., 1981. Ice forces on Hans Island, August 1980. Project
No. 180, Arctic Petroleum Operators' AssociatlOn, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Danielewicz, B. W. and Metge, M., 1982. Ice forces on Hans Island, 1981. Project No. 181,
Arctic Petroleum Operators' Association, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Danielewlcz, B. W. and Cornet, S., 1984. Ice forces on Hans Island, 1983. Project No. 202,
Arctic Petroleum Operators' Association, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Danielewicz, B. W., Metge, M. and Dunwoody, A. B., 1983. On estimating large scale ice
forces from deceleration of ice floes. POAC '83, Vol. 4, pp. 537-546.
Frocht, M. M., 1948. Photoelasticlty. Volume II, Wiley. New York.
Little, R. Wm , 1973. Elasticity. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Rice, J.R., 1972. Some remarks on elastic crack tip fields. InternatIOnal Journal of Solzds
and Structures, 8, 751-758.
Tada, H., Paris, P.C. and Irwin, G.R., 1973. The Stress AnalYSIS of Cracks Handbook. Del
Research Group, St. Louis.
Timoshenko, S. P. and Goodier, J. N., 1970. Theory of Elasticity. Third Edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York.

22
POROSITY EFFECTS ON MEASURED STRENGTH OF WARM ICE

Lennart Fransson Lulea University of Technology Sweden

Lars Stehn Department of Civil Engineering

ABSTRACT

In ice with low salinity, most of the porosity originate from trapped air. The effect of
porosity on the measured uniaxial compressive strength is studied under the
assumption that the peak load is limited by a splitting failure. It is supposed that the
splitting is a result of a load distribution changing from uniform to tringular. In the
theoretical treatment, the effective pressure is taken to be proportional to the
porosity dependent fracture toughness. A comparison with uniaxial tests on warm
snow-ice from the Gulf of Bothnia supported the observed decrease with porosity.
The effect of small air bubbles on the measured fracture toughness produced a
large scatter in the result obtained. This was probably caused by variation in brine
vOlume for this type of ice. For cold ice, split vertically, the strength reduction due to
air bubbles was evident.

INTRODUCTION

Gas bubbles, and in sea ice also the relative volume of trapped salt water (brine)
affects the mechanical properties of most naturally grown ice types. When brine is
lost during the test procedure, open brine channels can probably be treated as
cylindrical air inclusions. If a uniform tensile stress is applied on ice with brine
channels, it would be expected that the reduction of peak stress would be
proportional to the reduction of cross sectional ice area. These observations for
different sea ice types have been frequently reported (by Vaudery, 1977, for
example). One difficulty is the uncertainty in brine volume for warm ice if only
salinity, density and temperature are measured.
When ice is loaded uniaxially it often fractures in a brittle manner. Brine and air
pockets, reduce the fractured area and the elastic modulus, and may also act as
stress concentrators. Some investigators (Saeki et.al, 1978, among others) have
reported a strong relationship between density and saline ice strength. The porosity
(air volume / total volume of ice) is usually estimated from density measurements on

23
a small volume, but the volume of air bubbles can also be measured by geometrical
scaling. In this paper uniaxial strength data from a field test in the Gulf of Bothnia
(Lepparanta and Lensu, 1992) is analysed under the assumption of brittle splitting
failure. Several other recent laboratory and field studies on ice from the Northern
Baltic are used for reference in this discussion on the effect of bubbles on the
measured uniaxial strength of ice.

AIR BUBBLE INCLUSIONS IN AN ICE MATRIX

If a droplet of water freezes rapidly on a cold glass plate, thousands of small gas
bubbles can be observed under the microscope, (pyringer and Nieman, 1989). From
a video recording it is possible to follow how the bubbles are trapped between small
"fingers" in the ice-water interface. Pyringer assumed that these bubbles contain
water vapour as well as air. The bubbles shrinked shortly after formation but
remained as micro-bubbles inside the ice crystal with the highest concentration at
the centre of the droplet.
Meano (1966) observed the encapsulation of air bubbles in ice uniaxially frozen
upwards from a cold brass plate. When the water became air saturated loacally,
bubbles nucleated at the ice-water interface. These bubbles were kept in contact
with the ice (probably due to surface tension according to Maeno) and became
trapped as the ice front moved upwards. With a constant air supply the captured air
bubbles grew into a cylindrical shape. Bari and Hallett (1974) observed similar
behaviour but they suggested that the bubble shape was a function of freezing rate.
In experimental studies at Lulea University, S2 ice was manufactured by upward
uniaxial freezing at a controlled rate, (Fransson, 1992). The ice obtained was
columnar with cylindrical bubbles whose shape was only weakly dependent on
freezing rate. The shape of these bubbles, and also bubbles in radially frozen ice, is
shown in Figure 1. The bubbles are trapped at the centre of the grains but may also
be located at any scratch or contamination on the ice-water interface. Gold (1972)
observed similar voids in 82 ice associated with a line where three columnar grains
meet. The shape of the air bubble inclusions tend to be more spherical with time due
to thermal metamorphism and the ice surface becomes de-aired due to sublimation.
Granular ice is often frozen from saturated snow. Depending on the snow type and
the degree of consolidation, the snow-ice includes air bubbles of various sizes and
densities. These bubbles are located mainly at grain boundaries, but smaller
bubbles «O.5mm) may be trapped inside the grain. During dynamic ice formation
large air inclusions (>5mm) may contribute to most of the bulk porosity.

24
FRACTURING PROCESSES IN UNIAXIAL LOADING TESTS

In our uniaxial compression tests most final ice specimens appeared to finally fail
by axial splitting. The question is whether or not the peak load was reached before
the split. Depending on the loading rate and the temperature, the softening appears
to be due to brittle cracking. Cold ice, rapidly stressed, explodes after one or a few
detected cracking events. Warm ice, on the other hand, appears to creep due to
grain boundary slip and local pressure melting and may be modelled numerically as
a continuum even at very large deformations. In this paper we always consider the
ice to be a brittle material right up to its melting pOint.
Specimens (70 mm) sampled from a natural ice cover, were loaded rapidly « 5
seconds to failure) by axially strain-controlled apparatus. The applied load was
perpendicular to the growing direction and the tests were conducted at -10 C (cold
ice) and -3 C (warm ice). In cold ice cleavage cracks formed perpendicular to the
growing direction, but followed the grain boundaries if the ice was warm. The load
histories are compared in Figure 2. Strong load fluctuations can be observed before
the peak load is reached for the warmer ice. Here, load drops were probably
associated with grain boundary slip and redistribution of stress. Pressure melting at
-3 C was also observed before the peak load was reached, most clearly observed at
the ice-load (steel) contact. In this series of tests the effect of porosity was probably
only small.
In an earlier series of tests (Fransson, 1992) cold ice was loaded parallel to the
growth direction. The uniaxial strength of columnar fresh water ice (S1) was found
to be quite sensitive to the presence of spherical air bubbles. The ice tested,
contained 1.5 mm bubbles, well distributed, with an average distance of 10 mm in
the top, 20 mm in the middle and no bubbles in the bottom block. The density
measurements could not yield accurate porosity values. The average strength for 5
specimens of each block was 6.0 MPa, 6.9 MPa and 8.64 MPa respectively. The
temperature was maintained constant at -10 C and the ramped crosshead speed
was 0.01 mm s-1 (maximum load after about 100 seconds). All specimens failed by
vertical splitting and sometimes the cylinder split radially into several segments. The
first crack was formed at about 4 MPa in most tests, but only the pure ice could be
deformed further without accelerated cracking activity.
Manufactured S2 ice tested under the same conditions was weaker in the axial
direction than the naturally grown S1 ice, even though the crystal size was much
smaller. The strength varied with freezing rate, resulting in an average of 3.4 MPa at
40 mm/day and 4.5 MPa at 100 mm/day. The air inclusions of the manufactured ice
had a cylindrical shape, see Figure 1a. The number of visible air cylinders were

25
counted on endcuts to about 60, which corresponds to a geometrical relative air
volume of 1.3 %. The average porosity was 1.7 % based on density measurements.
Strength vs. geometrically calculated porosity in. naturally grown and manufactured
columnar ice is shown in Figure 3.

Parallel to the growth direction

10
......
(II 4
a. 8
~ 6 ...... .-

-...
.c
Cl
c:
G)
4 S1 ice
manufacture S2ice -
2
ti5
o
o 0.005 0.01 0.015
Porosity
Fig.3.

THE SPLITTING FAILURE

The porosity dependence of the failure of ice under uniaxially loading conditions
can be estimated by assuming that the ice splits vertically into two halves, as shown
in Figure 4. From Kendall (1978) we obtain the splitting load

F = - - -EGd
1-wjd 3
bF ... (1)

where band d are the cross sectional dimensions and wid is the effective contact
width at the loading face of the specimen. E is the elastic modulus and G is the
fracture surface energy.

Fig. 4. The assumed splitting failure.

H
J d J (after Kendall, 1978)

26
 The porosity dependence of elastic modulus in brittle solids has been analysed by
Krstic and Erickson (1987) based on crack opening displacement. A round specimen
with spherical pores will according to Krstic and Erickson have an effective modulus
given by

{ ]}
~
2
E/
E
0
1 1 12p(1-v ) 1
=( -p) + p [ R3 9 4-Sv
( +s/ ) + 2(7-Sv)(1+s/R)2 + 2(7-Sv) ... (2)

where Eo is elastic modulus for pure ice whithout air or brine pockets, p is porosity, v
is Poisson's ratio and siR is a relative crack length close to a spherical pore. In ice
the shape of a newly formed air bubble has an elongated form which later tends to
be more spherical. It is therefore reasonable to assume a crack length of the same
order as the bubble radius. With siR = 1 and v = 1/3 in Eq. (2) we obtain

E/Eo = (1-p)/(1 +30p). ... (3)

Smith et. al (1990) scaled the fracture energy linearly by the remaining fractured
area of porous ice, which perpendicular to the axis of cylindrical bubbles results in

GIGo = 1-p. ... (4)

In the case of large pre-existing cracks in the fracturing direction siR will also affect
the fracture energy. Since the effect of air bubble shape on fracture energy is
unknown to us Eq. (4) is applied even for spherical bubbles.
In linear elastic fracture mechanics the elastic energy release rate G, and the
stress intensity factor K, are related as follows:

K, =~E'GI ... (S)

where E' is the effective elastic modulus = E for plane stress, = E/(1-v2) for plane
strain. Thus the reduction the energy release rate and the elastic modulus caused by
the pores must both be considered. The elastic modulus is for the porous ice is
estimated from Eq. (3) and the fracture energy is estimated from Eq. (4). Thus the
apparent fracture toughness is given by

K(p) = Ko(1-p) I (1 +30p)0.S ... (6)

27
where Ko is the toughness at zero porosity = 94 kPa m112 for warm ice and =150
kPa m1/2 for cold fresh water ice, Stehn (1990). From Eqs. (1), (5) and (6) the
porosity dependent splitting load, F(p) is given by

F(p) = Ac K(p) d -0.5 ... (7)

Ac = bd (1 - w/dt 1 (2/3)0.5 ... (8)

where bd is the cross-sectional area, d is the sample width normal to the split, wid is
the effective load width and K(p) is a porosity dependent fracture toughness in the
splitting direction. Ac is referred to here as "the critical splitting area". Ac has a
minimum of 0.816bd for wid = 0, and tends to go to infinity when wid = 1. This
follows from Kendall's (1978) assumption of a uniform load distribution along the
contact width. If we assume instead a triangular stress distribution at the time of the
splitting, as done by Olofsson et.al (1991) at a high loading rate, we obtain wid =
213, and the maximum critical splitting area

Ac(max) = 2.45 bd ... (9)

CRITICAL SPLITTING AREA

To check the assumption of a triangular stress distribution, a series of tests with

wid = 10/1 00, 50/100 and 100/100 was conducted. The specimen dimensions (b x d x
L) were 100 x 100 x 150 mm and the split was made normal to the ice growing
direction. The tests were performed with a constant speed of 0.01 mm s-1 at -10 C.
The resulting split loads are given in Figure 5.
The nominal value of the relative splitting area was calculated to be Ac/bd = 0.907,
1.63 and 2.45. The experimental value was calculated as F/(Kbd 1.5) where F is the
peak load obtained. The fracture toughness K was calculated from Eq. (6) where the
porosity was estimated from density measurements. In Figure 6, the nominal area
vs. obtained non-dimensional load is plotted. The experimental values were much
higher than those predicted with this modified Kefldall model. Several crack plane
were formed before the final split occured. This may be due to a low loading,
However, this also indicates that Kendall's model is not applicable due to 3-~ effects
on the fracturing process, for example. It is however possible to make a nice linear fit
to this limited number of data points. We then obtain

28
 F{p) = 4{2AC - bd) K{p) d-0.5 ... (10)

where Ac is dependent on the relative load width. For the case of complete contact
width, wid = 213 as for a triangular load results in Eq. (9) Ac= 2.45 bd. From Eqs. (9)
and (1 0) we obtain the effective pressure

F{p)/bd = 15.6 K{p) d-0 .5. ... (11)

The effective pressure Eq. (11) will later be compared with the measured uniaxial
strength and this is measured in exactly the same manner on prismatic samples.

Horizontal splitting at -10C

u1L14E±ft1
o 0.5 1.5
Ac/bd
2 2.5

Fig. 6. Relationship between reI. cracking area and reI. splitting load.

POROSITY EFFECTS ON FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Stehn (1993) presents results from fracture tests on short rod chevron notched
specimens, conducted on ice from the Gulf of Bothnia, both in the laboratory and in
the field. Only the tests performed on warmer than -5C granular ice are analysed.
The drilled specimens were accurately machined with a band saw and a milling
machine. In all cases, the crack propagated vertically downwards related to the ice
cover. The average grain size (3 ± 1 mm) was estimated by using the mean linear
intercept method. The average density was 885 ± 10 kg m-3. The test results and
the model prediction are presented in Figure 7.
The Figure shows a large variability and, although this is no strong evidence, it
shows that the toughness is lower for higher porosity. The air bubbles in the fracture
experiments were typically spherical and of the same size as the grains, i.e., 0.5-
4mm and 5-20mm apart. Due to this distribution and pore shape the effect of the air
pores on the initiation/propagation of a crack will only be small. However, as

29
observed by others (DeFranco et aI., 1991; Timco and Frederking, 1982) brine
porosity in sea ice and other saline ice has a much more stronger effect on the
fracture behaviour. The brine pores are mainly cylindrical, at least for warm ice.
Brine pockets are evenly spread and aligned within the grains and around the grain
boundaries. The effect was probably much stronger than for pores located
elsewhere, even for ice with extremely low salinity.

160

1I i
I

I
120 -.!

III
III
Q)
cC)N
...... 000
80
~;:
.2e 01
!~ I
~..:.I: 4°l -i
t)--
...CIS
u.. I
o I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Porosity (0100)

Fig. 7. Apparent fracture toughness versus porosity.

UNIAXIAL STRENGTH VERSUS POROSITY

The field program was conducted under the co-operation of Lule~ and Helsinki
University of Technology from the Finnish research vessel RV Aranda (Reynolds
and Lindholm, 1992). Air temperatures during the test period were unseasonably
warm, ranging from -10.6C, to +4C. Ice strength tests were performed at six different
stations (A-F) during 12-17 March 1992. Stations A and B were on granular ice with
the temperature at the melting point. Station C was located on a thin granular ice
sheet at -O.4C. Station D was on an 80 cm thick ice floe nearby to a pressure ridge.
The ice was a mixture of various granular types with large air inclusions and overlaid
by thin level ice. Station E was situated on the land-fast ice cover which consisted of
well consolidated granular snow-ice. Finally, station F was on a small ice floe with
melting mixed ice where the centre contained thin broken columnar ice. A represen-
tative image of the snow-ice is shown in Figure 8.
Weight and volume were accurately measured for the cylindrical specimen with a
constant diameter of 70.0 mm. The density p = M 1 (1t LD2 /4), where M is weight, Lis

30
length and 0 is the specimen diameter. Using the measured density the porosity p
was defined: p = 1 - plpo ' where Po is the density of pure ice (= 920 kg/m 3). The
air bubbles were spherical with a typical diameter of 1-3 mm located at the grain
boundaries. Smaller bubbles (0.1-0.5 mm) were observed within the crystal. The
salinity of the water of melted samples was estimated from conductivity measure-
ments in room temperature. The low salinity (0.02 - 0.2 0100) and the on-going
melting in the field made brine volume estimations uncertain. Brine volume is
therefore omitted in the porosity estimation.
Uniaxial compression tests were performed on board the ice breaker (in a cold
room) with a small but stiff loading machine. The loading machine was operated by a
manual hydraulic pump, and on each stroke the indentor moved 0.6 mm. A typical
speed of 1 stroke per second was used, but the effective indentation speed was
reduced by the deformation of two 4 mm rubber pads at the interfaces. The time to
failure in most cases was within the range 5-10 seconds. Even though the ice was
weak it was brittle, and the peak load was limited by instability of the sample. The
measured peak load divided by the cross-sectional area was presented as the
uniaxial compressive strength at a specified field station and ice depth. A total of 87
samples were tested. The average strength of the warm granular and mixed ice was
1.5 MPa when loaded horizontally.
Using Ko =94 kPa m 112 and d = 0 = 0.07 m in Eq. (11) results in a strength of
5.54 MPa for zero porosity. In Figure 9, measured and calculated strength is plotted
as a function of porosity.

Porosity

Fig. 9. Strength as a function of porosity for granular ice (all tests).

A falling trend can be traced even though the strength of low porosity ice was very
scattered. One important reason for this may be that mixed ice types with different
degree of deterioration were involved. The deterioration was substantial and the true

31
ice content might have been smaller than estimated. The predicted effective
pressure seems after all reasonable for warm but not for melting porous ice.

DISCUSSION

The split model presented in this paper and Eq. (10) was used succesfully to predict
variations caused by changes in the effective load width. No effects of porosity on
the fracture toughness could be traced from our tests but they may still exist. It is
possible that at least small spherical pores have no effect on the toughness of warm
ice, and conseqently according to this model, no significant effect on measured
uniaxial strength. In the earlier test series discussed where the vertical strength was
strongly affected by air bubbles (Fig. 3) also other variables (ice depth, micro cracks,
grain size, temperature history before sampling) were changed. One or all of these
variables may have contributed more than porosity to the observed difference in
strength. In the case of cylindrical voids the effect on strength was clear and
stronger than predicted from Eq. (11). The effect on fracture energy should pro-
bably be scaled as (1- pO.5) when the cylindrical voids are aligned with the fracture.
Knowing that sperical bubbles may originate from younger cylindrical voids one may
speculate that ice with only a few small air bubbles contains more flaws and have
weaker crystal bonding than pure ice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are greateful to Dr. Thomas Olofsson, who made several important
contributions to this paper. The study was partially funded by the Swedish Council
for Building Research.

REFERENCES
Bari, S. A. and Hallett, J. (1974) Nucleation and growth of bubbles at an ice-water
interface. J. of Glaciology, Vol. 13, No. 69, 1974, pp. 489-520.

Fransson, L. (1992) (Editor) Seminars on experimental studies in the civil eng.

cource: Building Materials. Internal Report 92:4, Div of Structural Eng., Lulea
University of Technology, Sweden. (in Swedish)

DeFranco S.J., Wei Y. and Dempsey J.P. (1991) Notch acuity effects on the fracture
toughness of saline ice. Annals of Glaciology, No. 15, pp. 230-235.

32
Gold, L. W. (1972) The failure process in columnar-grained ice. Canada. National
Research Council. Div of Building Research. Technical Paper 369.

Kendall, K. (1978) Complexities of compression failure. Proc. Royal Society of

London. A 361, pp 245-263.

Krsic, V. D. and Erickson, W. H. (1987) A model for the porosity dependence of

Young's modulus in brittle solids based on crack opening displacement. Journal of
Materials Science No. 22, pp 2881-2886.

Lepparanta, M. and Lensu, M (1992) (Editors) ERS-1 Baltic sea ice calibration /
validiation post-experiment report. Finnish Institute of Marine Reseach. Internal
Report 1992(9). Helsinki, Finland.

Maeno, N. (1966) Air bubbles in ice from nucleating and inclusion reactions on the
ice-water interface. J. Teion Kagaku, Vol. 24, 1966, pp 91-109. (In Japaneese)

Olofsson, T., Fransson, L. and Sandkvist, J. (1991) Ice Crushing: Failure

mechanisms. Coldtech Report 91-1, Lulea University of Tech., Sweden.

Pyringer, J. and Nieman, C. (1989) Studies in freezing of water and aqueous

solutions. POAC -89 in Lulea, Sweden. Proceedings, Vol. 3, pp 1394-1417.

Reynolds, E. and Lindholm, J-E. (1992) Field measurements of Northern Baltic

pressure ridges. Rep. M-19, Arctic Offshore Research Centre, Helsinki University of
Technology, Finland, 32 p.

Saeki, H., Nomura, T. and Ozaki, A. (1978) Experimental study on the testing
methods of strength and mechanical properties for sea ice. Proceedings IAHR 1978,
Lulea, Sweden, pp.135-149.

Smith T.R., Schulson M.E. and Schulson E.M. (1990) The fracture toughness of
porous ice with and without particles. Proc. of the 9th Int. Cont. on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, OMAE 1990, Huston.

Stehn, L. (1990) Fracture toughness of sea ice. Licentiate Thesis 1990:11 L, Div of
Structural Engineering, Lulea University of Tech., Sweden.

Stehn, L. (1993) Fracture toughness and crack growth of brackish ice using chevron
notched specimens. Journal of Glaciology, (accepted for publication).

Timco, G.w. and Frederking, R.M.w. (1982) Flexural strength and fracture
toughness of sea ice. Cold regions Science and Technology, Vol. 8, pp 35-41.

Vaudery, K. D. (1977) Ice engineering. Study of related properties of floating sea-ice

and summary of elastic and viscoelastic analyses. Technical Rep. No. R860, Civil
Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California 93043, 81 p.

33
 (a) (b)

H 1mm

Fig. 1. Cylindrical voids in manufactured S2-ice (a) and radially frozen ice (b).

Fig. 8. Vertical thick section on porous granular sea ice from the Gulf of
Bothnia, station A. The small spherical air bubbles are visible when reflected
light is added to the polarized light. The scale is in mm.

34
 load (kN)
W~--~----~----'----'----~----~1~:"16~.5U6~KN~--'

18 2: 14.02 kN
(a) 3: 8.087 kN
16 4: 14.4kN
5: 15.56 kN
14

12

10

2
time (s)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

load (kN)
20~----'-----'-----'-----'-----'-----'Tl:~1~2.L6°8TI;KNU----'

18 2: 11.8 kN
3: 8.957 kN
(b)
16 4: 12.21 kN
5: 9.804kN
14

time (s)

7 8

Fig. 2. Measured peak loads (perpendicular to the growth) of 70 mm ice

samples at different depths (1-5) in a naturally grown sea ice cover 0.1 , 0.2,
0.3, 0.4, 0.5 m from the surface. Comparison of two similar profiles at
different temperatures: -1 DC, cold ice (a) and -3C, warm ice (b).

35
u.> load (kN) IOdd (kN,
0'1 40
I 3696 40 -~ ,----------.- -------------rr2S-H3N
2 3732 kN 2 2389 kN
35 35 3 2428 kN
3. 38 O~ kN

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10
(a) (b)

0 0
0 15 2 25 35 0 35 4

stroke (mm) strokt:(mm)

load (kN)
'1'814IIiN
2.94 kN
~F
3 6.538 kN

10

(C)

15 25 35 4

slroke(mm)

Fig.S. Measured split loads on 100 x 100 mm snow-ice using three different
load widths: w = 100 mm (a), w = 50 mm (b) and w = 10 mm (c).
 EFFECT OF SCALE ON THE INDENTATION RESISTANCE OF ICE

R. Frederking Cold Regions and Thermal Engineering Canada

Program Manager National Research Council Canada

ABSTRACT

To discern scale effects, load-time data from a number of indentation experiments

were examined. The sources included ship ramming trials, field indentation
experiments, laboratory tests and model basin tests. Results from contact areas
2 2
ranging from 1 x 10-4 m to 6 m were examined. Maximum indentation force ranged
from a few kN to 25 MN. Average pressures as high as 9 MPa were measured over
a 1 m2 contact area and 3 MPa over 6 m2 . The previously observed trend of
decreasing average pressure with increasing contact area during a loading event was
found in many of the data sets. Average pressure was observed to decrease with
increasing aspect ratio. No clear velocity effect was apparent from indentation data.

1. INTRODUCTION

The indentation resistance of ice is required for specifying design loads on offshore
structures and ships. The resistance is recognized to be a function of ice related
factors such as strength, elasticity, fracture toughness and failure mode; the area over
which indentation occurs; the shape of the contact area; presence of free surfaces;
velocity; and stiffness of the test system. With all these factors at play, scale effects
in the results are not immediately evident.

lyre (1983) considered the effect of size on global loads on offshore structures and
suggested that the effective ice pressure decreased with increasing contact areas, at
least up to about 2 m2 • He also found that effective pressure decreased with increasing
aspect ratio, for a given total contact area. Sanderson (1988) examined various data

37
sources for contact areas ranging from 10-4 to 105 m2 and found a similar trend of
decreasing indentation pressure with Increasing contact area. These studies tended
to group all available data. In this study, indentation data from various sources Will be
grouped in a manner to examine scale factor and aspect ratio effects on ice forces or
pressures in a less ambiguous fashion.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF INDENTATION PROCESSES

The term mdentation resistance used in thiS paper is defined as the total force during
continuous penetration into an ice feature divided by the current contact area as can
be best estimated, and has units of pressure. Some researchers distinguish between
indentation for the initial contact between an ice floe and structure and penetration for
the subsequent continuous process when the full width of the structure is enveloped in
ice. In this paper the term indentation will be applied to both aspects of ice loading.
Two basic indentation processes are defined. The first IS characterized by the
availability of a sufficient driving force to move an ice sheet past a structure in a
continuous fashion. This process is comparable to Croasdale's (1984) limit-stress
loading scenario. The other process is one in which the available energy for the
process is limited, for example impact of an iceberg a structure. When the available
energy is consumed, the process stops. This is comparable to Croasdale's limlt-
momentum loading scenario. These two processes will now be further defined and
illustrated with examples.

Sufficient Force: ThiS process occurs when there is a sufficient force to move an infinite
ice sheet past a structure such as a bridge pier, lighthouse of offshore structure at a
constat velocity; i.e. there is an infinite energy source to keep the ice moving past a
structure. Most model tests of structures carned out In Ice tanks fall Into the suffiCient
force category; i.e., a towing carriage moves a structures through an ice sheet at
constant velocity. This scenario IS sometimes referred to as "continuous crushing".
From field measurements or model tests an indentation resistance is derived

a = Fma/wh

where Fmax is the maximum force, w is the structure width and h is the ice thickness.
The force-time record fluctuates; so some systematic procedure is required to
determine the maximum force. Timco (1987) defined the maximum force to be the

38
mean of the peaks or some value denved from the statistics of the force signal (mean
plus 2 or 3 standard deviations). Factors which are normally assumed to influence the
ice pressure include the contact area, A=w·h and aspect ratio, 1= w/h which are derived
from the geometry of the contact surface and velocity, v. From model basin tests or
field measurements, these factors are usually constant during at least segments of the
process. Thus indentation resistance for a set of conditions can be speCified. To
establish area or aspect ratio effect, tests at various geometries and sizes have to be
performed.

Energy Limited: There are several types of energy limited interactions, including, ship
ramming of large ice features, multi-year floe impact on offshore structures, and iceberg
impact on structures. A number of field and laboratory tests have been done to
simulate these conditions. In these tests, force, contact area and velocity may change.
This category can be further divided into two sub-categories, constant aspect ratio or
shape of the contact area and varying aspect ratio during the test. A ship ramming a
large ice feature is a typical constant aspect ratio case (Figure 1 (a)). The ship has a
given initial kinetic energy (velocity, v" and mass, m) and experiences a varying force
F as it slows after contacting the ice. During the process the contact area A increases,
aspect ratio or shape of the contact area remains the same, velocity, v, decreases and
F follows a complex change (Figure 1 (b)). The ice pressure generally decreases
during the process. Force F may be derived from measurements of the structural
response of the ship (Anon., 1985) or deceleration of the vessel. Contact area is
estimated from a knowledge of the geometry of the bow and the Ice edge, and the
amount of penetration of the bow into the ice.

The impact of icebergs on structures was simulated in the Pond Inlet indentation tests
(Johnson and Benoit, 1987). In this case a spherically shaped indentor impinged into
the ice, maintaining a constant aspect ratio or shape and a varying area. A specified
velocity variation was followed to simulate a kinetiC energy impact (a decreasing
velocity). The energy of the servo-hydraulic test system was ultimately limited by the
capacity of the pressure accumulator.

A final energy limited indentation scenario was that of variable aspect ratio multi-year
floe impacts at Hans Island (Danielewicz and Metge, 1981). Here velocity decreased
during the impact, ice thickness remained the same, and contact width and thus area
and aspect ratio increased (Figure 2). A related scenario was for the indentation tests

39
at Hobson's Choice Ice Island (Frederklng et al. 1990). In this case the aspect ratio
decreased, contact area Increased and velocity was nominally constant.

3. SUFFICIENT FORCE EXAMPLES

The literature contains many papers on model and field tests of indentation. A few
of these test series will be examined in some detail. Hirayama et al (1974) carried out
an extensive series of small scale basin tests with fine-grained columnar freshwater ice.
They, found that the indentation resistance decreased strongly with increaSing aspect
ratio, and not quite as strongly With increaSing contact area (Figure 3). For velocities
up to about 1 mm/s they found resistance increased with increaSing velocity, but for
higher velocities It decreased. Sodhi and Morris (1984) carried out tests in urea model
ice. Thw tests were all at velocities higher than 1 mm/s and they saw a decreasing
maximum resistance with Increasing velocity. They found trends Similar to those of
Hirayama et al (1974) for aspect ratio and area. Timco (1987), who also tested in
columnar grained freshwater ice, found similar aspect ratio effects, but only a slight
decrease in resistance with increasing contact area.

Field measurements by Schwarz (1970) yielded a resistance of 1.6 MPa for a contact
area of about 0.1 m2 and an aspect ratio of 4. Neill (1970) measured resistances on
bridge piers of 1.1, 0.9, 0.8 and 0.7 MPa for areas of 0.5,1.7,1.1 and 0.9 m2 and
aspect ratios of 1 4, 3, 5 and 6, respectively. These data support the general trend of
decreaSing resistance with Increasing areas. Note that while the aspect ratios are
comparable to those of Hirayama et al (1974) (see Figure 3), the resistance in Neill's
(1970) measurements are 6 times lower. The largest reported case of continuous
crushing failure IS the April 1986 event With the Molikpaq at the Amauligak 1-65 location.
A maximum resistance of 0.56 MPa at a contact area of 900 m2 and an aspect ratio of
9 was reported by Sanderson (1988) from unpublished data of Gulf Canada Resources
Ltd. All the field data pOint to decreasing indentation resistance with increaSing contact
area.

4. ENERGY LIMITED EXAMPLES

The M.V. Arctic ramming trials at Coburg Island in May of 1984 (Anon., 1985) are an
example of indentation where the aspect ratio of the contact zone remains
approximately constant dUring the Impact and only the area increases. As shown in

40
Figure 1 (b), the force and penetration vary during the impact and a continuous plot of
pressure versus area dunng the process can be developed (see Figure 4). The trend
is one of decreasing pressure with increasing area Of the 10 rams for which the ice
failure process could be described as crushing, the maximum force attained on the bow
was about 25 MN and the maximum contact area projected normal to each plane of the
bow was 6 m2 . Taking the pressure peaks (peaks defined by dashed envelope curve
In Figure 4) from these 10 tests, a composite curve of pressure versus area is obtained
(Figure 5). An upper envelope of these data indicate a maximum pressure of about 7
MPa at a contact area of 1 m2 and about 2.5 MPa for a contact area of 5 m2 . The
maximum impact velocity during the trials was 4 knots.

At the same time as the M.V. Arctic ramming trials at Coburg Island, iceberg
indentation tests were being carried out at Pond Inlet. These tests used a spherical
indentor which was moved by four 4.5 MN-capacity hydraulic rams. The motion of the
rams was controlled so the indentation velocity followed a descending cosine curve,
selected to simulate the velocity decrease of an iceberg impact on an offshore
structure. The initial velocity was 0.1 m/s and the maximum contact area achieved was
3 m2 . Force and penetration were measured and in an analogous fashion to the M.V.
Arctic data, the pressure peaks versus area were determined (Masterson et ai, 1992).
They have also been plotted on Figure 5, which shows a remarkable similarity between
the results of the two test programs.

The Hans Island field measurements provide some of the largest scale field data
available. From the example illustrated in Figure 2, Sanderson (1988) developed a
pressure area curve for the impact (Figure 6). The aspect ratio increased from about
3 to 12 during the impact. During these measurements both the contact area and
aspect ratio are increasing during the impact, but. as shown In Figure 6, the resistancG
first increased and then decreased as the impact progressed.

Two medium scale indentation test programs were carried out at Hobson's Choice Ice
Island (Frederking et al 1990 and Masterson et al 1993) using the Pond Inlet test
equipment. In the Ice Island tests flat indentors loaded truncated wedges of ice,
thereby producing an increase of the contact area as well as a decrease of the aspect
ratio during each test. Indentation velocity was kept constant at 100 mm/s, except for
a few tests at 400 mm/s. A schematic of the test setup is shown in Figure 7 (a) and
a typical load-time and pressure-area curves are illustrated in Figure 7 (b). During this

41
particular test the aspect ratio decreased from 5 to 1 and the contact area increased
from 0.45 to 1.5 m2 , while resistance remained about constant. This contrasts with
Pond Inlet and M.V. Arctic results, and could be due to a balance between contact area
and aspect ratio effects, or increase In geometric confinement at the end of the test.
The resistance-contact area results at 400 mm/s were the same as those at 100 mm/s.

5 0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Several trends are apparent from the sufficIent force or "continuous crushing" tests:
(i) resistance increases with increasing velocity up to about 1 mm/s, (ii) resistance
decreases with increasing velocities greater than 1 mm/s (the upper velocity limit of this
trend has not been established), (iii) resistance decreases with both increasing contact
area and aspect ratio, at least at laboratory scales, however there are not sufficient
data at field scales to separate the two effects. In limited energy indentation cases the
following trends were observed; (i) the constant aspect ratio tests, M.V. Arctic and
Pond Inlet, showed decreasing resistance under a combined effect of increasing contact
area and decreasing velocity, (ii) the increasing contact area and aspect ratio tests at
Hans Island showed resistance to first increase and then decrease as velocity
decreased, and (iii) the increasing contact area, decreasing aspect ratio and constant
velocity tests at the Ice Island showed resistance to remain constant or increase slightly
with increasing contact area. Note that for limited energy indentations there were three
different cases of contact area and aspect ratio variation.

These results show that in making comparisons it is Important to ensure the similar
test scenarios are being compared. Indentation for areas up to 6 m2 at constant aspect
ratio show a clear decrease of maximum resistance with increasing contact area.
Larger aspect ratiOS, for the same contact area, seem to result in smaller resistances.
There is no clear evidence for larger maximum resistances for larger velocities.

6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper has ItS origin in a number of field and laboratory projects on the indentation
resistance of Ice carried out in collaboration with the Canadian Coast Guard. The
author would like to acknowledge the interest in and support of this work by Mr. Victor
Santos-Pedro, Manager, Arctic Ship Safety, Canadian Coast Guard and Mr. John S.
McCallum, Senior Naval Architect, Canarctic Shipping Co. Ltd.

42
7.0 REFERENCES
Anonymous. 1985. M.V. 'Arctic', Test results and analysis, Final Report. German &
Milne Inc and the Technical Research Centre of Finland, Ship Laboratory, Report TP
6270 E to Transport Canada, Coast Guard Northern.

Croasdale, K.R. 1984. Designing offshore structures for Ice. Published in Coastal
Engineering in Canada, 1984, J.W. KamphUis editor, Department of CIvil Engineering,
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario

Danielewicz, B.W. and Metge, M. 1981. Ice forces on Hans Island. Arctic Petroleum
Operators Association (APOA) Report 180, Pallister Resource Management Ltd.,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Frederking, R., Jordaan, I.J. and McCallum, J.S. 1990. Field tests of ice indentation
at medium scale, Hobson's Choice Ice Island, 1989. Proc. 10th IAHR Int. Symposium
on Ice, August 20-23 1990, Espoo, Finland, Vol. 2, pp. 931-944.

lyre, S.H. 1983. Size effects in ice and their influence on the design of offshore
structures. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions,
April 5-9, 1983, Helsinki, VTT Symposium 37 vol. 3, pp.414-432.

Hirayama, K., Schwarz, J., and Wu, H-C. 1974. An investigation of ice forces on
vertical structures. IIHR Report No. 158, The University of Iowa, Iowa City.

Johnson, R.C. and Benoit, J.R. 1987. Iceberg impact strength. Proc. 19th Annual
Offshore Technology Conference, April 27-30, 1987, Houston, OTC 5599.

Masterson, D.M., Nevel, D.E., Johnson, R.C., Kenney, J.J., and Spencer, PA 1992.
The medium scale iceberg impact test program. Proc. 11th IAHR Ice Symposium, June
15-19,1992, Banff, Alberta, Vol. 2, pp. 930-966.

Masterson D.M., Frederking, R., Jordaan, I.J., and Spencer, PA 1993. Description of
mUlti-year ice indentation tests at Hobson's Choice Ice Island - 1990. Proc. 12th Int.
Conf. on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, June 21-24, 1993, Glasgow,
Scotland, Vol. 4, pp. 145-195.

Neill, C.R. 1970. Studies of ice pressure on bridge piers in Alberta, Canada. IAHR Ice
Symposium, September 8-10, 1970, Reykjavik, Iceland, Paper 6.1

Sanderson, T.J.O. 1988. Ice Mechanics - Risks to Offshore Structures. Graham and
Trotman, London, 253 pp.

Schwarz, J. 1970. The pressure of floating ice-fields on piles. IAHR Ice Symposium,
September 8-10, 1970, Reykjavik, Iceland, Paper 6.3.

Sodhi, D.S. and Morris, C.E. 1984. Ice forces on rigid, vertical, cylindrical structures.
CRREL Report 84-33, USA Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover N.H.

Timco, G.W. 1987. Indentation and penetration of edge-loaded freshwater ice sheets
in the brittle range. J. Offshore Mech. and Arctic Eng., Vol. 108, pp. 287-294

43
 ~aWl:.
m
Line
/ / / / / ICE' / / / /
//////, ;////,

/////////////
(a)

"-
0
2
Z
>
u..

5 10 15
Time, s

~ 2
~
'13
0 0
~
-2

-4
0 5 10 15
Time, s

4
E
E
(J)
-0
E 2

0
0 5 10 15
Time, s
(b)

Figure 1 Limited energy loading scenario with constant asrcect ratio; (a) schematic
of icebreaker impacting a multi-year ice floe, (b) oad time series.

44
 v
~ ( 7 ( ( (I

(a)

E 100
,, 800 NE
(J)
c: (J)
c:
0 80
N 600 0
N
U U
CIl 60 CIl
C 400 C
0
u 40 0
u
'0
.c 20 200 '0
CIl
-t5 (J)

~ 0 <'i:
0 40 80 120 160
Elapsed time (s)

280

240

Z 200
6
(J) 160
u
(;
LL 120

80

40

0
0 40 80 120 160
(b) Elapsed time (s)

Figure 2 Hans Island impact; (a) schematic of loading ~eometry, (b) Indentation
width vs. time and force vs. time plots (after anderson, 1988).

45
 20
Ice Thickness, cm
18 - - __ - - 0.8 - 1.0
•~
. .. ~ 1.5-1.6
. - -- - 1.9 - 2.2
ttl
16 • - - +- -- 2.5
0.. \
::: 14 \
Gl-
U
c
ttl \
en 12

.
'iii
Gl
~\
a: \ \
10 \~\
\
\
\
\
.
\ •
8 \.
11'.
"-
.- .....
~

"
•
.. ~
6

4
0 2 3 4 5
Aspect Ratio

20
Aspect Ratio
18

•• ·0.3-0.7
~ 0.8 - 1.2

16 • • 1.5 - 1.9
• 2.5 - 2.8
ttl
0.. 14
:::
Gl-
u

en
c
ttl
.iii
12
• • •
Gl
10
a:
• ~

8
• • ~ ~

6 • ••
4
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Contact Area, cm'
Figure 3 Aspect ratio and contact area effects on indentation resistance of fine-
grained columnar freshwater ice (after Hirayama et ai, 1974)

46
 as 4
a...
~
ai
0
c:
as
iii
'(ij

a: 3
CD

c:
0
.~

'E
CD
"C
-= 2

o 2 3
2
4 5 6
Contact Area, m
Figure 4 Variation of indentation resistance with contact area during Ram 130,
M.V. Arctic trials (after Anon., 1985)

20 I

18 'X
• Pond Inlet
16 • M.V. Arctic

14 ""I
as
a... 12 ••
~

~ · .,
c:
as
iii
'iii
10 7.

8
............ • ..
CD
a: .-. ..
.". .....
6. II>
"'• .f.·t ....... ..
4
•
..·"4·~f,.·
I
.. - ..
- -. .....!I,. ~.,~ . ·..... . " ..
1'JI""'__~••
2 .~ • ....'.JI!I'.......
.~
~.:.'7' "Il. .... • • ••• • ••

o
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Area, m2

Figure 5 Composite plot of peak indentation resistance as a function of contact

area for M.V. Arctic ramming trial and Pond Inlet iceberg impact tests.

47
 ro
0.. 350
-""
cD
u
c:
ro
1il
·Cii
CD
a: 250

150 L...:-,s~ta=rt.:..l-~_.J......~_~~_'--~--'_ _.....J

300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Contact Area, m2
Figure 6 Pressure area curve derived from August 4, 1981 impact of a multi-year
floe on Hans Island (after Sanderson, 1988)

(a) (b)

Figure 7 Ice Island indentation tests; (a) schematic of tests, (b) load vs. penetration
and pressure vs. area plot for test TTF1 (after Masterson et ai, 1993)

48
 CALffiRATION OF A PORTABLE ICE STRENGTH TESTING APPARATUS:
APPROACH AND SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

K.c. Gulati and R.C. Johnson Mobil R&D Corporation USA

A. Sangolt, Mobil Exploration Norway, Inc. Norway

ABSmACT

"Portable EqUipment for Ice Strength Testing" (PEIST) is a borehole jack type apparatus
developed by Mobil Exploration Norway Inc. The equipment is deSIgned for in-SItu testing to
assess ice strength propertIes for use in design PEIST consists of a 75 mm dIameter Indenter
emanating from and mOVIng normal to the axis of a 170 mm diameter X 595 mm long cylindncal
barrel housing a servo motor, power drive and controls. The instrument IS deSIgned to prOVIde
a peak indenter displacement rate of 8 mmls at an indentation pressure of 40 MPa, or a mInImum
peak force of 180 KN. The apparatus prOVIdes force-displacement histOrIes for a three
dimensional indentation of ice. The objective of PEIST calibratIOn is to correlate indentation
failure pressures with laboratory determined uniaxIal unconfined compressIve strength of Ice
~ield experience with PEIST has established that for gIven mIcrostructure and temperature of Ice,
the failure pressures are somewhat constant above a certaIn indenter displacement rate ThIS IS
similar to the uniaxial loading behavior of ice in the bnttle regIme PEIST calIbratIOn thus con-
sisted of correlatIOn of the bnttle strengths in indentation and umaxlal tests

1. INTRODUCTION

Ice strength properties normally speCIfied for design are determined by laboratory unIaxial tests
A number of parameters influence thIS strength detenmnatlon These Include the salimty and
microstructure of ice, the test temperature, and loading or strain rate. For many deSIgn apphca-
tions, e.g, thin floating ice sheet in contact with water, or, ice break-up in the Arctic In spnng,
field ice temperatures are relatIvely warm, for example, above _5°C. Sample retrieval under
these ice condItIOns and laboratory testing of ice close to the melting temperature are difficult.

49
In many cases, this is circumvented by performing laboratory tests at colder temperatures and
estImating ice strength charactenstlcs at the desired temperature by inference.

In the past twenty years, a number of Instruments for in-situ field testmg for ice strength
properties have been developed Typical eqUIpment used for field testing consists of a device
that can be inserted in a borehole down to a desired depth Hydraulically or mechanically
actuated pistons are then pressed against the borehole walls and sufficient force applied till the
failure occurs For a description of some of these Instruments and their performance characteris-
tICS, the reader is referred to [1,2]. The objective of the present paper is to describe the design,
calibration and performance of a borehole Jack type field testIng apparatus developed by Mobil
Exploration Norway Inc.

2. DESCRIPTION OF mE PEIST TEST APPARArus

The borehole jack developed by MobIl consists of three main modules: (l) PEIST, consisting of
the borehole Jack, electronic controls console, and data logging/recording system, (2) power
supply, and (3) drilling equipment. Figure 1 shows the equipment. Details of the design are
presented In [2].

The borehole jack IS a mechanical system consisting of a servo motor, gear, pinion, roller screw
system, an indenter, and indenter positIon, force and temperature measurement sensors The
overall dimensions of the borehole jack are 170 mm diameter and a length of 595 mm. The
indenter housing IS built with titanium because of Its strength, light weight and corrosion resis-
tance The 75 mm diameter indenter located 200 mm from the lower end of the housing is
curved in one directIon to conform to the cylIndrical shape of the hOUSIng. The indenter can be
readily removed and replaced with other indenter shapes and sizes.

The motion to the indenter is provided by the servo motor equipped with an integrated
tachometer and position feedback system. An incremental position encoder type position sensor,
with a resolution of 1110 of a degree, is mounted on the motor shaft. A control computer, in-
cluded in the electronic data unit, computes the pOSItIon of the indenter from the signals provided

50
by the position encoder. The position accuracy of the indenter is specified to be 0.01 mm. A
specially developed force sensor is mounted between the roller screw and the indenter. This

'-.

Figure 1: PElST Apparatus

permits direct measurement of the indentation loads. The accuracy of the force measurement is
specified to be 50 N (equivalent to a 0.01 MPa nominal pressure on the indenter).

The PEIST indenter displacement rates range from 0.01 mm/s to 8.0 mm/s. The instrument can
provide an indentation pressure of 40 MPa at the maximum speed, or a minimum total force of
180 KN. The testing depth of PEIST is limited by the drilling equipment and the capabilities of
the accessories such as the wires and cables used to lower the equipment into the hole. The
equipment is presently configured to test to a depth of 5 m. PEIST is designed to be operational
at a temperature of -40°C.

The electronic data unit ·consists of a purpose built motor amplifier, control computer and dupli-
cate data storage units. Commands to the control computer are provided by a hand held operator's
panel. The power supply consists of a two stroke engine/generator feeding a 200 V battery box.

51
The battenes supply 24 VDC to the electronic data unit. In tum, electronIc units supply power
to the various PEIST components at the desired voltages

Miscellaneous equipment necessary for field operation of PEIST includes a tripod, power and
signal cables, and drilling equipment ( a core barrel capable of dnlling a smooth 175 - 180 mm
diameter hole to the desired depth).

PEIST computer samples and logs data from the force and position sensors at a rate of 1000
Hertz. The data is used as input to the control loop which ensures constant indenter speed
irrespective of the indenter load. A speed control loop compensates for structural deformations
under load, thereby ensunng that as-specified indenter speed is achieved with high accuracy The
PEIST data can be plotted m various formats including a force-displacement relationship.

3. DETERMINATION OF DESIGN ICE STRENGTH WITH BOREHOLE JACKS

A particularly difficult issue in the development of a borehole jack is the interpretation of the test
results to obtam the desired ice strength characteristics. A fundamental principle of any testing
is to isolate the phenomenon under examination from spurious influences such that the cause and
effect relationship can be unequivocally established. In uniaxial laboratory testing of ice, this is
achieved by designing the test set up such that a uniform compressive stress field in the desired
gage length of the test specimen (as determined by the solution of the correspondmg boundary
value problem and/or observation) is obtained. When failure in the gage length is encountered,
the uniform stress intensity can be interpreted as the failure strength.

Loading and failure of Ice by a borehole Jack falls m a class of problems described as indenta-
tion. For a discussion of the mdentation problem, the reader is referred to [3]. For the present
discussion, It will suffice to say that an indenter induc,<s a complex, spatially variable three
dimensional stress field in the material. In indentation literature, tensile stresses, which invariably
exist under all indenter/punch type loads, are considered to cause localized fractures and thus
initiate material failure. Other brittle type failures m ice are associated with local fractures under
compressive loading [4].

52
As discussed above, the stress states in the two tests, namely, the uniaxial laboratory tests and
the indentation tests by borehole jack, are distinctly different. Uniaxial test procedures are
designed to provide a uniform uniaxial stress field while a multlaxlal stress state exists in an
indentation test. Conceivably, the multi axiality of stress state under indentation suppresses
certain failure modes and mechanisms found in the uniaxial tests while bnnging forth others that
are unique to indentation. What then is the basis of correlation for the test results from the two
tests?

Correlations with uniaxial ice strength for some borehole jack designs, e.g., [1], have been
established through a function of the indenter displacement rate known as the diametral strain
rate. Diametral strain rate, e, for an indenter of a charactenstic dimension (e.g., diameter of
circular indenter) D, is defined as e = uID, where u is the indenter displacement rate. According
to this concept, the borehole tests replicate the failure behavIOr of ice when the diametral strain
rate equals the strain rate in the uniaxial test. Studies on indentation of plates in [4] have
provided some credence to this concept. The biaxlality of stress state in the edge loading of an
ice plate, however, results in suppression of damaging crack growth, thus resulting in higher
failure loads in indentation than in uniaxial tests when the diametral strain rate in indentation
equals the uniaxial strain rate.

In a three dimensional indentation problem, an important question also concerns the influence of
the indenter shape on the magnitude of the failure load. There IS some evidence from experience
with brittle and ductile materials that the indentation failure loads are insensitive to the indenter
shape. Nonetheless, the stress state under three dimensional indentation is complex with the
failure processes that are conceivably different than those Involved under uniaxial loading.
Therefore, there is no a-priori reason to indicate that equivalence of strain rates can provide a
basis for correlatIOn between the indentation and uniaxial strength tests.

4. PEIST CORRELATION WllH UNIAXIAL TESTS: PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH

A point by point replication of the uniaxial tests, i.e., relationship between the failure strength
and the corresponding strain rate determined in laboratory, by in-situ tests with borehole jacks

53
is at best difficult The pnmary reason for thiS, as stated above, is the disparity 10 stress fields
and deformation/failure processes of the three dimensional PEIST mdentation and the umaxial
unconfined compressive tests in laboratory.

To faclhtate calibration of PEIST, a limitmg bnttle type behavior as encountered in uniaxial test-
ing is postulated to exist in three dimensional indentation of ice. In uniaxial testmg, ice strength
increases with increasing strain rate. Above a certam stram rate, dependmg on the ice
microstructure and temperature, etc., however, the strength reaches a plateau and further increase
with strain rate is not encountered [5]. Based on theoretical considerations and test results, a
similar limiting process is hypothesized to exist under indentation. The objective of the calibra-
tion then is to identify the range of displacement rates associated with the limiting process under
indentatIOn and correlate the corresponding faIlure loads with the brittle behavior uniaxial ice
strengths. Once the brittle regime strengths are correlated, uniaxial strengths at other strain rates
can be determined by inference from pnor knowledge of the laboratory behavior of a particular
Ice.

The following three step approach to PEIST calibration was used.

1. PEIST "Brittle Regime" Displacement Rates: Perform PEIST tests 10 field over a Wide range
of mdenter displacement rates; identify the sub-range over which indenter pressure at failure
is approximately constant. These are the PEIST "Brittle Behavior StramlDisplacement
Rates."
2. Determine Laboratory Uniaxial Strengths' Perform uniaxial tests (ice from step 1) at a strain
rate of 10-3 and a temperature of -1 O°e.

3 Calibration Develop correlations by comparIng results 10 steps 1 and 2.

5. SOME PRELIMINARY TEST RESULTS

At the end of the prototype development, several tests were performed on ice grown in a cold
room at Norsk Forsvarstecknologi as (NFT) in Kongsberg, Norway. Typical results for an

54
indenter speed of 8.0 mmls are presented In
100
Figure 2a and b. Also presented (Figure 2c) are
results of a numencal simulation of the closed 80 ,
z

~
loop PEIST Indentation process error in Indenter 60
//
position. Values for system stiffness and gains l!i 40 ,I
~

used in the simulation were measured In the 20

i /
laboratory. o
i/ I

000 020 040 0.60 080

TIME

a) Indentation vs. TIme

PEIST preliminary calibration tests were
performed at the Folgefonna glacier In Norway, in 2000

October 1991. The field test conditions were less

l
II .-/lJ
r
1500
~
than ideal. Ice temperature at a depth of 0.6 m
~
I
::J i
(the test depth) were estimated to be _2°C, while
at times, the air temperature was above the ice
12
~
a::
1000
I
: V·
~ 5.00

melting point. ~
~
000
i/
000 200 400
I
600
INDENTATION
A total of eight tests each at three stations were
b) Indenter Pressure vs. Indentation
performed. The indenter displacement rates for
the tests varied from 001 mrnls to 8.00 mm/s. ,
'~=+lII
000

Figure 3 shows the typical load-deformatIOn

~
I
·1000
a:: i
relationship obtained from the field tests. The w
....
z
w -2000 I \
particular test depicted in Figure 3 used an in- Cl
~ iI
Cl \
I I
denter displacement rate of 2 mm/s. Figure 4 I!!::J -3000
"- I
presents the composite data from a number of 8 -4000
I
I
000 020 040 060 080
PEIST field tests. It clearly shows the trend that TIME

at higher indenter displacement rates, the failure c) Computed Error from Simulator

strength of ice under indentation is nominally Figure 2: PEIST Prototype Testing

constant. For the relatively warm granular ice
found at Folgefonna, the brittle behaVIOr (as
defined above) occurred at displacement rates of about 2 mrnls. The PEIST determined brittle
strength can provide an index value for the laboratory determined uniaxJal ice strength, once the

55
correlation between the two is established

Ice samples for laboratory testing were retrieved from the drill cores obtained from boreholes.
These samples were used to prepare specImens for unIaxIal tests. The laboratory tests were
performed at strain rates that provided a full range of ductIle to bnttle failure behavIor. The test
temperatures were maintained at -4°C. Brittle Ice strength in the range of 3 MPa was measured
for the unIaxIal unconfined compressive tests.

30

/" f.r-- I
I I
/ I
,. I 1/
/
I i
I !

/ I I
10 12

INDENTATlON (mm)

Figure 3' StresslDisplacement Plot at 2 mm/s Indentation Rate

For the granular ice at warm temperature of approxImately _2°C, and unIaxIal tests performed at -
4°C, a correlation factor of 8 was found between the brIttle strengths determined by in-situ PEIST
testing and uniaxIal laboratory testing It should be pOinted out that the correlatIon factor is
expected to be a fun~tlon of the Ice grain structure and temperature

6. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE PLANS

A CritICal examination of the Indentation faIlure (typical of PEIST tests) and the uniaXIal tests
mdicates that for ice, broad correlations between test results over a wide range of strain rates are
perhaps not possIble. The problem lies in the dispanty In stress fields and deformation/failure
processes in the entirely different stress states induced by the two tests. CorrelatIons between

56
a bnttle regime strength of the two tests can, however, be established. Field tests have shown
that for a given ice type and temperature, a constant correlation factor between the two bnttle
strengths will be obtained. In subsequent testing With PEIST, a full range of ice strengths can
be obtained (by inference) from the correlations developed during the calibration stage and the
knowledge of the behavior of Ice in laboratory.

35

..
a. 25
30
/c --- ~

~
rJl
rJl 20
,IF
w
II:
!iiw 15 f
II:
::J
....J
;;:
10 i
LL
5

o
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
INDENTAnON RATE (mm/s)

Figure 4: PEIST Failure Stressllndentation Rate Plot

Further field and laboratory testing IS planned for estabhshing correlation between the PEIST and
laboratory uniaxial bnttle strengths for sea and lake ice The plan also includes companson of
PEIST results With biaxial and triaxial ice strength data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions to the PEIST development by FORUT, Norsk
Forsvarsteknologi as, and Labyrint as of Norway. Thanks are also due to SINTEF Geoteknikk,
and Lulea UOlversity of Technology, for performing the laboratory tests. The financial support
from Mobil Exploration Norway, and permission to publish this paper from Mobil Norway and
Mobil R&D Corporation managements is gratefully acknowledged.

57
REFERENCES
1. Sinha, N.K., "The Borehole Jack, Is It a Useful ArctIc Tool')" Proceedmgs of the FIfth Interna-
tIonal Offshore MechanIcs and Arctic Engmeenng SymposIUm, Vol. 4, pp 328-335, Tokyo, Japan,
1986.

2. Johnson, R C. and A Sangolt, "PEIST - An In-Situ Ice Strength Testmg DeVIce", Proceedmgs
of the lOth International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Vol. 4, pp
23-28, Stavanger, Norway, 1991.

3. Lawn, B. and R. Wilshaw, "IndentatIOn Fracture: Pnnciples and ApplicatIOns", Journal of

Materials Science, Vol 10, pp. 1049-1081, 1975.

4. Grape, lA. and Schulson, E.M., "Effect of Confinmg Stress on Brittle IndentatIOn FaIlure of
Columnar Ice", InternatIOnal Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineenng, vol. 2, No 3, pp. 212-
221, September 1992.

5. Michel, B., "Ice Mechanics", Les Presses de L'Universite' Laval, Quebec City, Quebec,
Canada, 1978.

58
 RATE EFFECTS IN BRITTLE ICE CRUSHING

Tuomo Kama Technical Research Centre Finland

Chief Research Scientist of Finland

Ari Muhonen Helsinki University ofTechnology Finland

Post Graduate Student

MeIja Sippola Technical Research Centre Finland

Research Scientist of Finland

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an analysis of the data received in a series of indentation tests. Features
of an ice failure mode known as crushing with flaking are considered. Special attention is paid to
the rate effects that appear due to the changes in the relative velocity between the ice edge and
the indentor. The present data on slender structures shows that the nominal ice crushing
pressures are considerably reduced when the relative velocity of the indentor increases during a
spring-back phase of the interaction. Visual records show that this decrease of the crushing
pressure is associated with changes in the ice edge geometry during various phases of the ice-
structure interaction.

A class of numerical models predicts ice-induced vibrations by exploiting the assumption that
the ice crushing force decreases with an increasing indentation rate. The present paper provides
a physical explanation for such a rate dependence

59
1. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

This paper presents some laboratory results on the physical interaction phenomena that
are responsible for the steady-state vibrations of offshore structures located in ice-infested
sea areas Such vibrations have been common in Cook Inlet as reported by Blenkarn
(1970). Later on, the same problem has been the subject of several field measurement
programs in the Baltic Sea (Engelbrektson, 1977; Maattanen, 1978; Nordlund et aI., 1988).
Steady-state ice-induced vibrations have also been observed and measured in laboratory tests
reported by Maattanen (1983), Toyama et aI. (1983), Tsuchiya et al.(1985), Timco et aI.
(1989), Sodhi (1991a), Muhonen et al. (1992) and Timco et al. (1992).

Theoretical work has been conducted to understand the measured dynamic response
Miiiittanen (1978) proposed that steady vibration of a narrow vertical offshore structure is a
self-excited process where the non-linear forces due to ice crushing provide an apparent
negative damping effect to the structure. A similar approach has been adopted by Xu and
Wang (1986) as well as Vershinin and Iliadi (1990). A straightforward method for evaluating
the structural response during steady vibration was developed by Kama and Turunen (1990).
The key formula of their approach was confirmed later on by Timco et al. (1992) More
comprehensive numerical models developed by Eranti (1992) and Kama (1992) for wide
offshore structures employ a zonal approach and the concept of finite ice failure depth. In
these models a detailed description of the ice failure process takes account of the coupling
effects developed between the zonal forces during dynamic ice-structure interaction

Daley (1992) has approached the problem from a new point of view. He has developed a
chaotic model for asymmetric ice flaking process. It is based on observations made from the
results of ice block crushing test series. Lindholm et al. (1993) have used the model in an
analysis of a large offshore structure.

The analysis presented by Kama and Turunen (1990) shows that a variety of different
models can be developed which give good estimates for a measured dynamic response The
same analysis indicates further that steady ice-induced vibration is not a simple resonance
phenomenon. Most of the models described above assume that the steady-state vibrations
are caused by a velocity-dependent ice force The force is assumed to decrease with the
increase of the relative velocity. This kind of phenomenon was observed in laboratory tests
by Sodhi (199Jb) as well as Muhonen et al (1992). However, the physical reason for such
behaviour is not fully understood, yet.

The main objective of this paper is to provide a new physical explanation for the observed
rapid decrease of the ice force at a transitional velocity. In addition, the paper defines and
provides values of several parameters that are relevant for dynamic ice-structure interaction.

60
2. TEST ARRANGEMENT

The laboratory indentation tests reported by Muhonen et aI. (1992) were conducted using
columnar grained S2 freshwater ice with a typical thickness of 100 mm. The test setup
comprised of a small structure and an indentor installed in front of it as shown in Fig. 1. The
natural frequency of the structure was changed in the range of 2 Hz to 28 Hz by varying its
stiffness and mass. The indentor was pushed into the ice sheet with a hydraulic actuator. A
servo unit was used to provide a constant indentation velocity v= dU21dt at the support of the
structure. Nominal pushing velocities v between 10 mm/s and 80 mm/s were used. The
velocity of the indentor "1 = dU11dt varied owing to the flexibility of the structure.

MEASUREMENTS

Figure 1. Test configuration and instrumentation.

Table 1. Parameters of the tests analysed in the present paper.

Test Structural Indentor Ice depth Aspect Pushing

no. stiffness K width D h Ratio velocity v
(kN/mm) (mm) (mm) (mm/s)
15 65 300 115 2.6 80
16 60 300 115 2.6 10
17 65 300 115 2.6 50
18 60 300 115 2.6 30
48 10 100 112 0.9 80
49 10 100 112 0.9 50
50 10 100 112 0.9 30
53 10 300 110 2.7 80
54 10 300 110 2.7 30
56 C.) 10 100 95 1.1 80
57 (.) 10 100 100 1.0 50
58 C.) 10 100 100 1.0 30
67 2.4 100 65 1.5 10
68~ 2.4 100 100 1.0 80
69 C.) 2.4 100 100 1.0 30
Co) Origmal force recordS contained an error which had to be corrected.

61
 Several concurrent measurements and visual observations were made in order to observe the
ice failure phenomena. The test records were sampled at a rate of 1000 Hz and passed through
a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz. Two video cameras as well as high-
speed photography at 470 frames/s were used. The filming and the recorded time histories
were not synchronized in the tests.

The present paper gives an analysis of selected tests where flat indentors with a vertical face
were used. The main parameters which were varied in these tests are given in Table 1. A few
tests are marked with an asterisk indicating that the original force records contain an error This
was corrected by using two techniques First, the ice force signals were compared with the
measured pushing forces. Second, the measured time signals of the displacements uland U 2
(Fig. I) together with the structural stiffuess K were used to find a correction factor. This way
the error was reduced considerably.
100

10

100
100
a
3011
uI 200
(nun/s) 100
0 . .w.~~"~~~~~~~4A~~~~~~
·100
·200
o3OIJ

10
•
6
•
"I
(m/s2)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.2
___ 21
~
-6
·a
·10
Tune (s)
Figure 2. Time signals of the ice force, velocity, and acceleration in test no. 69.

3. PHASES OF INTERACTION

Time histories of the ice force as well as the velocity and the acceleration of the indentor are
shown in Fig. 2 for a test which was conducted with a flexible structure. Fig. 3 gives a detail of
the force and velocity as a function of the displacement of the indentor. The figures show that
the interaction consists of cycles each of which has two parts. During the loading phase the ice

62
force increases almost linearly to a peak value The spring-back phase begins at the event of ice
failure and the subsequent unloading The force drops to a low level but starts then to increase
slowly. The ice force record shows several small peaks during the spring-back. In an early stage
of the next loading phase the force drops to zero for a moment. This is caused by a backward
movement of the indentor (Fig. 3/phase A). The contact between the indentor and the ice edge
is lost at this moment.

A salient feature of the interaction is that the velocity u1 of the indentor is close to zero
during the loading phase. In the spring-back phase the velocity is substantially higher than the
nominal pushing velocity.

Loading

~-;/I S_ _ _

10

F 10

(kN)4CI

20

O~~----------~~Dd~ ______ ~ ______ ~~~~

100

•
"1
(nun/s) 200
:1
300

100

O~~-----------+--~~~------+--------;~~-
5 550 650
·100

Displacement "1 (mm>

Figure 3. Details of the force and velocity records of test no 69 as a function
of the displacement u1

A video analysis was performed for two tests to find further details about the ice failure
process. Even though no synchronization between the time histories and the video recording
was made the comparison is possible within ± 40 ms time scale error. This can be done by
calculating the frames of the video film from the beginning of the test.

The video recording from test no. 50 shows clearly the phases of the interaction cycle. In the
loading phase the indentor seems to be still. It starts to move and a big ice flake is extruded.
During the spring-back phase small ice particles fly out from the contact area. One essential
observation is shown in Fig. 4a which is a sketch drawn from the TV screen. It shows a
semicircular crack which forms an edge for the ice flake. The edge of the previous flake is still
to be seen and the extruded flake has left a cavity in front of the indentor. This means that,
63
in the beginning of a loading phase, the area of the contact is smaller than the nominal area
(indentor width times ice thickness) In the spring-back phase the contact area is still smaller
because the indentor is in contact with only the tip of the ice edge

The video recording of test no 69 is difficult to analyze due to the perspective. However, the
shear cracks and the formed ice flakes of the first five interaction cycles can be seen fairly well.
The situation differs from the test no 50 in that the indentor springs further than the ice flake
edge. Therefore, more shear cracks are formed during spring-back. Thus in addition to the
crushing of the ice edge the local force peaks during the spring-back phase are caused by this
new shear cracking and flaking. A sketch of this situation is given in Fig. 4b. A cavity can be
seen in front of the indentor like in Fig. 4a. The edge of the shear crack makes the second
transverse line and the third one shows the ice edge before the next loading phase.

INDENTOR

(;}'
icefl1
cavity

ice edge after

fmt loading
avity

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Flake formation as seen from the video record in test no. 50 (a) and in test no 69 (b).

The behaviour of the ice edge during an indentation cycle can be sketched using the
information received from the analysis of the time histories, photagraps and the video records
described above. In the beginning of the spring-back phase the ice edge has a wedge shape.
The force is at its minimum immediately after unloading as shown in Fig. Sa. The indentor
meets increasing resistance when it springs forward crushing the wedge ahead (Fig. 5b). Part
of this resistance is evidently related to the extrusion of the crushed ice. However, the visual
records reveal that the peaks in the force record are caused by ice failure events. The ice failure
mode is evidently combined crushing with flaking. The transient vibrations of the structure
affect somewhat the overall force level.

When the contact area has increased enough the indentor practically stops and the loading
phase begins (Fig 5c) High-speed filming shows that there is no ice flow at the ice-structure
interface during the loading phase. Hence, macro-scale ice failures do not occur until the ice
force attains approximately its peak value. Small irregularities in the ice force signal are caused
mainly by the transients in the indentor displacement. For a slender structure these transients
can cause a backward movement of the indentor (Fig. Sclphase A).

64
 The load drop is caused by the appearance of two symmetrical shear cracks (Fig. Sd). The
formed flakes are pushed simultaneously up and down and the indentor starts to move faster
forward (Fig 5e) The phenomena occurring in the middle of the ice sheet are not known and
therefore the area is crosshatched in the Figs. Sd and 5e The moving indentor squeezes the
flakes out leaving a wedge at the ice edge and the cycle begins anew

Figure 5. Phases of the dynamic interaction of a slender structure with an ice sheet. A part of
the force record of test no. 50 is used.

65
4. FAILURE DEPTH PARAMETERS

Several numerical models use the concept of finite ice failure depth (Eranti, 1992, Kama,
1992). Kama (1993a) presented a prooffor the physical validity of this concept and derived
numerical values for some relevant parameters using the results of a few tests of the present test
series Additional data is provided in this paper.

Figure 3 shows the displacement d! that the indentor proceeds between the events of a
peak load and the subsequent minimum. In addition, another displacement parameter d er is
denoted. This is the indentor displacement during loading and unloading. A detailed analysis
(Kama, 1993a) shows that d er is a measure of the total amount of ice that fails and is extruded
during a pair ofloading and unloading. We refer to it as the total depth of crushmg and
flaking. The same analysis shows further that a characteristic horizontal measure of the ice that
fails during unloading is given by the parameter df = d! + de ,where de is the elastic
displacement of the ice edge during the peak load We refer to the parameter df as thefimte
ice failure depth. Table 2 gives the evaluated values of df and d er They were determined
here only for the major loading phases indicated in Fig. 2 Corresponding values can be
determined for the smaller crushing events of the spring-back phase. The significance of the
finite ice failure depth can be seen by noting that it amounts to around 70 % of the total depth
of crushing and flaking.

Table 2. Parameters describing the brittle crushing events. Values are given as
(mean value ± standard deviation).

Test Pressure ratc Pier [(C dCT dJ dCT/h dJ/dCT

no. p (Mpa/s) (Mpa) (kN/mm) (mm) (mm)
15 36+9 2.3 + 1 43 +24 5.9 + 2.7 5.6 + 2.0 0.05 0.9
16 6± 2 3.4:: 1.3 28 ± 11 9.2 ± 3.4 7.8± 2.7 0.08 0.8
17 26+9 3.0 +0.7 31 + 17 5.8 + 1.3 5.2 + 0.6 0.05 0.9
18 13 ± 1 2.4 ± 0.4 27± 10 5.6 ± 1.0 5.2 ±0.6 0.05 0.9
48 16± 7 4.1 ± 1.3 38 ± 30 6.5 + 4.0 3.2± 1.5 0.06 0.5
49 29 + 7 6.4 + 2.6 31 + 11 9.0 +4.0 4.3+ 1.2 0.08 0.5
50 18 ± 3 7.1 ± 1.0 19± 6 12.0±2.2 6.4 ± 1.8 0.11 0.5
53 21 ± 2 6.6 ± 1.9 39± 6 12.0 ± 8.3 6.2± 1.3 0.11 0.5
54 9+ 3 5.0 + 1.2 31 + 10 10.3 +4.5 6.2+ 2.7 0.09 0.6
56 71 ± 22 9.6 ± 2.2 70± 30 6.8 ±2.1 4.7± 1.0 0.07 0.7
57 - 8.5 ± 2.0 - 7.7 + 3.5 4.8± 1.5 0.07 0.6
58 - 7.0± 1.8 - 11.1±3.7 6.2±2.0 0.11 0.6
67 3 ±1 5.5 ± 1.7 7± 4 12.0±3.1 6.2 ± 1.7 0.18 0.5
68 20+ 1 12.0+3 40± 13 8.0 +2.8 5.8 + 1.4 0.08 0.7
69 6±1 8.5 ± 2.0 31 ± 12 9.7 ± 3.5 5.8 ±2.1 0.10 0.6

66
 The parameters df and d cr are not sufficient to characterize the whole force-displacement
pattern shown in Fig 3. Hence, we define a third failure depth parameter d S as the distance of
a spring-back phase and the subsequent loading phase. Figs 6 and 7 show d S as a function
of the nominal crushing pressure and the stiffness K of the structure We can see that d S
increases with the crushing pressure. Analysis of field data shows (Kama et al 1993 b) that a
similar relationship holds for the parameters df and d cr

A preliminary analysis indicated that d S is not strongly correlated with the nominal pressure
rate of the loading phase. However, Fig. 7 shows that d S decreases if the stiffness of the
structure increases. In fact, for a very stiff structure the spring-back phase reduces to the
unloading phase that follows an event of ice failure. This kind of force-displacement patterns
were seen in tests 15 to 18 (Muhonen et al. 1992)

100
0
80
dS tIJ 0
0
(nun) 40 0
00 0 0
20 0
0 0 0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
pr (MPa)
Figure 6. Failure depth d S as a function of the nominal crushing pressure pr of the loading
phase.

100
80 0

as tIJ 0

(nun) 40 o
o
o
20
0~ ______+ -_______________ 8~~o ______________

o 20 40 80 100
K(kNImm)
Figure 7. Failure depth d S as a function of the structural stiffness K

5. RATE EFFECTS

The time histories of the tests described in Table 1 were analysed also to find rate effects.
Nominal crushing pressure per was determined for each crushing event of a test. It is defined
here as the peak force f'Cr divided by the nominal contact area,

(1 )

67
 where h is the ice thickness and D the width of the indentor The nominal crushing
pressures were determined separately for the loading phase (pr) and for the spring-back
phase (p/r) Table 2 shows the nominal crushing pressures pr and nominal pressure rates
for all of the tests analysed. The latter was determined as

(2)

where Po is the nominal pressure at the onset of the loading phase and ilt is the duration
of the loading phase. A penetration coefficient KC was also evaluated. It gives a linear
approximation for the force displacement relationship in the form

(3)

Figure 8 shows the nominal crushing pressures p{r of twelve tests. In addition, the peak
pressures p/r that were identified during the spring-back phase are denoted. Each marker of
pt and p/r was evaluated as a mean value ofa test. The values of pressures p{r and p/r
are shown as a function of the rate of indentation, it] = du]/dt, at the time of the peak load.

Loading
phase
12 a
a
per
(MPa) 8 cfh Spring-back phase
Ba
a a /;.
4 a /;./;. /;.
f1/;.
/;.
/;.

/;. /;.
/;.

o~----~-----------------------
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Velocity ul (mrn/s)
Figure 8. Nominal crushing pressures in the loading phase (pr) and in the
spring-back phase (pF)

The visual analysis shows that peak pressures p/r are caused by ice failure events during
the spring-back phase. A possibility exists, however, that some of these peaks are caused by the
frictional effects of the ice extrusion process (Singh et aI., 1993)

A dominant feature of the Fig. 8 is that the crushing pressures p/r of the spring-back phase
are substantially lower than the crushing pressures pt of the loading phase. When plotted as
a function of the indentation velocity as in Fig. 8, this difference appears at a transitional
velocity of around 100 mm1s. Sodhi (l991b) received the same result from another series of
laboratory tests. An analysis of indentation tests that were carried out in 40 cm thick sheets of
sea ice (Kama et aI., 1993b) suggests that the transitional velocity is lower than 200 mmls.

68
 Sodhi (1992) conducted tests with segmented indentors to find a physical explanation for the
drop of the ice pressure at high velocities. He found out that the peak pressures at various
segments of the indentor occur randomly. This indicates that nonsimultaneous crushing and
flaking takes place at high indentation velocities The analysis of the visual recordings made for
this paper supports this conclusion. On the other hand, a further explanation for the reduced
crushing pressure applies for slender structures As explained in section 3, the symmetrical
flaking event that occurs after each loading phase forms a wedge to the edge of the intact ice.
This wedge can resist only minor ice forces during the subsequent spring-back phase, which
occurs at a high velocity The calculated nominal pressures are small compared with the
effective ones due to the big difference between the nominal contact area Dh and the true area
of the wedge tip

6 o
5 o
o o Pml
P 4
(MPa)3 '" '" o '" Pm2
----·-6S·0·-·-·-·-A-·-·-·-· rr ·-·-
2 ••••••• .to.. -b~••••••• to... 0 0
1 00 00 0 0 ci.····"O···o······· ..... . - - - Regr. PSCT
O~----------~------------~ ....... Regr. Pml
o 100 200 300 400
-.-.- Regr,pm2
Velocity III (mm/s)
Figure 9. Pressure levels in the spring·back phase. p/' is the nominal crushing pressure in the
spring.back phase, Pm] is the minimum pressure level after the loading phase and
Pm2 is a minimum pressure level in the end part of the spring·back phase.

Figure 3 shows that the spring·back phase starts with a major drop of the ice force. During
the rest of this phase the level of the nominal pressure increases A more detailed analysis of the
pressures of the spring-back phase is shown in Fig. 9 The parameters Pm] and Pm2 show
the minimum pressure levels, correspondingly, in the beginning and in the end of the spring-
back phase. The regression line for the peak pressure p/' shows that nominal crushing
pressures of the spring·back phase increase slightly with the velocity. This occurs in the velocity
range of 0.1 mls to 0.5 mls. A similar result was achieved by Kama et al (1993b) for a stiff
structure that was indented into sea ice at velocities in the range of 0.2 mls to 2.5 mls.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Detailed analysis was performed on the visual and digital records of fifteen indentation tests.
The tests were done using relatively thick sheets of freshwater ice. The flexibility of the test
structure as well as the pushing velocities were varied. The dominant ice failure mode of the
tests considered here was crushing with flaking. The analysis was done by considering
separately loading phases and spring·back phases of the interaction. During the loading phases
the rate of indentation was very low whereas high indentation velocities were attained during
spring-back.

69
 Several parameters pertinent to the ice failure process were defined and values for them were
determined These parameters include the penetration coefficient of the ice edge, the total
depth of crushing and flaking as well as the finite ice failure depth. The analysis shows that the
finite ice failure depth amounts to about 70 % of the total depth of crushing and flaking. It was
also shown that the nominal crushing pressure depends strongly on the indentation velocity.
High nominal pressures occur in the loading phase where the velocity is very low During the
spring-back phase the indentation velocity is high and the nominal crushing pressures are low.

The major conclusions of this paper can be summarized as follows:

(1) The ice fails after each loading phase by symmetric flaking. The flakes are extruded
simultaneously up and down from the ice edge.

(2) The low values of the nominal crushing pressures at high indentation velocities are due
to the geometrical changes of the ice edge. The symmetrical flaking event after each
loading phase forms a wedge to the edge of the practically intact ice. This wedge can
resist only minor ice forces during the subsequent spring-back phase, which occurs at a
high velocity Also the nominal contact area is considerably bigger than the true contact
at the tip of the ice edge.

(3) Visual records support the observation made by other researches that nonsimultaneous
crushing takes place at high indentation velocities.

REFERENCES

Blanchet, D., Churcher, A., Fitzpatrick and Badra-Blanhcet, P. (1988). An analysis of

observed failure mechanisms for laboratory, first-year and multi-year ice. Proc. 9th IAHR
Ice Symp. Sapporo, Japan, Vol 3, pp. 89-136.

Blenkarn, K.A. (1970). Measurement and analysis of ice forces on Cook Inlet Structures. Proc.
2nd OTC Con/., Houston, TX, aTC 1261, Vol II, pp. 365-378.

Daley, C. (1992). Ice edge contact and failure. Cold Reg. Sci. Techn. 21(1992), 1-23.

Engelbrektson, A. (1977). Dynamic ice loads on a lighthouse structure. Proc. 4th POAC Con/.
St.John's, Canada. pp. 655-663.

Eranti, E. (1992). Dynamic ice structure interaction - Theory and applications. VIT
Publications No. 90.81 p.

Kamii, T. & Turunen, R. (1990). A straightforward technique for analysing structural response
to dynamic ice action. Proc. 9th OMAE Conf. Houston. Vol IV, pp. 135 - 142.

Kamii, T. (1992). A procedure for dynamic soil-structure-ice interaction. Proc. 2nd ISOPE
Con/., San Francisco, Vol II, pp. 764-770.

70
Klima, T. (1993a). Finite ice failure depth in penetration of a vertical indentor into an ice edge.
Annals of Glaciology, Vol 19. (in print).

Klima, T., Nyman, T., Vuorio, J. and Jarvinen, E. (1993b). Results from indentation tests in
sea ice. Proc. 12th OMAE Conf. Glasgow. Vol IV, pp. 177-185.

Lindholm, J-E., Makela, K. and Bo Z.C. (1993). Structure-ice interaction for a Bohai Bay oil
production project. Proc. 3rd ISOPE Conf., Singapore, Vol II, pp. 538-547.

Muhonen, A., Klima, T., Eranti, E., Riska, K., Jarvinen, E and Lehmus E. (1992). Laboratory
indentation tests with thick freshwater ice. Vol!. V1T Research Notes 1370. Espoo, 92 p.

Maattiinen, M. (1978). On conditions for the rise of self-excited ice-induced autonomous

oscillation~ in slender marine pile structures. Winter Navigation Board, Finland, Res. Rep.,
25.,98 p.

Maattiinen, M. (1983). Dynamic ice-structure interaction during continous crushing. CRREL

Report 83-5. 48 p.

Nordlund, O.P., Klima. T. and Jarvinen E. (1988). Measurements of ice-induced vibrations of

channel markers. Proc. 9th IAHR Ice Symp. Sapporo. Vol 2, pp. 537-548.

Singh, S.K,m Jordaan I.J. and Xiao, J. (1993). The flow properties of crushed ice. Proc. 12th
OMAE Conf. Glasgow, Vol IV, pp. 11-19.

Sodhi, D.S. (1991a). Ice-structure interaction during indentation tests. In lee-Structure

Interaction: Proc.IUTAM-IAHR Symp. (ed. S. Jones et al.) Springer-Verlag. Berlin, pp-
619-640.

Sodhi, D. (1991b). Effective pressures measured during indentation tests in freshwater ke.
Proc. 6th Int. Cold Regions Eng. Specialty Conf. Hanover, NH, pp. 619-627.

Sodhi, D. (1992). Ice-structure interaction with segmented indentors. Proc. 11th IAHR Ice
Symp. Banff, Alberta, Vol 2, pp. 909-929.

Timco, G.W., Frederking, R.M. and Singh, S.K. (1989). The transfer function approach for a
structure subjected to ice crushing. Proc. 10th POAC Conf. Lule:1, Vol I, pp. 420-430.

Timco, G., Irani, M.B., Tseng, J., Liu, L.K and Zheng, C.B. (1992). Model tests of dynamic
ice loading on the Chinese JZ-20-2jacket platfonn. Can. 1. Civ. Eng. Vol. 19, pp. 819-832.

Toyama, Y., Sensu, T., Minami, M and Yashima, N. (1983). Model tests on ice-induced self-
excited vibration of cylindrical structures. Proc. 7th POAC Conf., Vol II, pp. 834-844.

Tsuchiya, M., Kanie, S., Ikejiri, K., Yoshida, A. and Saeki, H. (1985). An experimental study
of ice-structure interaction. Proc. OTe Conf. Paper No. OTC-5055, Houston, pp. 321-327.

Vershinin S.A. and lliady, A.A. (1990). A new approach to dynamic ice-flexible structure
interaction. Proc. 10th IAHR Ice Symp., Espoo, Finland. Vollll, 73 - 80.

Xu, J. and Wang, L. (1986). The ice force oscillator model for dynamic ice-structure
interaction analysis. Proc.1st ICETECH Conf. Cambridge, Springer-Verlag, pp.391-397.

71
 COMPARISON OF AXIAL DOUBLE-BALL A:-;D
UNIAXIAL UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS ON
FRESHWATER AND SEA ICE SAMPLES

Austin Kovacs U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Umted State5 of AmerICd
EngineerIng Laboratory
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755-1290

ABSTRACT
AXIal double-ball load tests were made on freshwater ice and I1rst-year and multiyear sea ice. From this
simple test method, the apparent uncontined compressive strength of the ice was determined. These strength
results are compared with those obtained from the complex and costly uniaxial unconl1ned compression test
made on similar ice at a strain rate of 10-3 s-l. The scatter In the test data and the average ice strength obtained
from both test methods were similar. The I1ndings indicate that the expedient axial double-ball load test IS well
suited for determining the unconl1ned compressive strength of ice, especially in the field where logistical
constraints and the demanding sample preparation reqUirements needed for unconfined compressIOn test
samples cannot be met.

INTRODUCTION
Ice formed in nature IS almost always structurally anisotropic. An exception is the equiaxed granular ice
found at select depths in polar Ice caps where the coaxes of the ice crystals are randomly OrIented. ThiS Ice has
been found to exhibit the same strength properties Irrespective of the direction of the applied load (Kovacs
et aI., 1969). Unfortunately, most engineers are faced with unraveling the strength characteristics of natural
ice in its many nonhomogeneous forms.
Freshwater Ice IS often considered to be a single phase materIal; however, it frequently contains numerous
gas bubbles of varying size that affect Ice strength. Sea Ice IS truly a multlphase materIal composed of solid
freshwater Ice, hqUid brIne and gas. Like freshwater ice, the sea ice structure can consist of granular and
columnar crystals. which can vary In Width, length and Internal structure With Ice sheet depth. Most Ice IS
heterogeneous and anisotropic; therefore the structure of the Ice and the direction of the load applied to It. as
well as Its temperature and the rate of load application, must be factored mto the interpretatIOn of load test
results
Many test techmques have been applied, with mixed results, to understanding the strength characterIstics
of Ice. The most performed test IS the umaxlal unconfined compressIOn test. This 1S a deceptively Simple test
that has not always been done "correctly" because of the difficult and labor-mtenslve sample preparatIOn
reqUired. In additIOn, a stiff testing machme, With sample load or strain rate feedback control IS needed.
Another Issue stIlI being reViewed IS the preferred contact that should exist between the test sample and the
loading apparatus. To help resolve some of the problems and attempt to develop a standard test procedure,
the InternatIOnal ASSOCIation of Hydraulic Research Committee on Ice Problems deVised gUidelines for
performing the umaxIaI unconfined compressIOn test on Ice (Schwarz et aI., 1981). Nevertheless, sample size
and platen contact conditions are stIll a topic of review (Kuehn et aI., 1992) and the equipment reqUired to make
high quahty ice samples and the heavy loading apparatus needed to perform the umaxlal unconfined
compression test pose logistic problems when l1eld testing is d~slred.
To circumvent the demanding sample preparation reqUirements and heavy equipment needed to perform
uniaxial unconfined compression tests In the field. Kovacs (1978) explored the feaSibility of USing a Simple
lightweight aXial double-ball load test deVice for determining the unconfined compressive strength (Yc of snow
and Ice In the Antarctic. This evaluation led to another study In which sea Ice strength was evaluated vs loading
ball size, temperature and ice density (Kovacs, 1985). From this study the unconfined compressive strength
determined With use of 16-mm-diameter loading balls was found to agree with the umaxIaI unconfined
compressive strength obtamed at a stram rate of 10-3 s-I.

72
 Figure I. Axial DB test apparatus in use at CRREL.
The load cell is located on the inside face of the right
vertical jig plate and the hydraulic ram is mounted
on the opposite jig face plate. The small hand pump,
being used. is to the left of the loading jig. Several
tested freshwater ice samples are also visible.

Figure 2. Logging sea ice core in the field. The core length is first measured. Small
holes are then drilled about 2-3 cm deep into the core side at 20-cm increments and a
thermistor is inserted in each hole to determine the in situ temperature of the ice sheet.
The core is next cut into lengths using the cutoff saw on the right, and the axial length
of the ice cylinderthen is determined (in this case using adial gauge measurement jig
located beside the note book). The sample is next weighed on an electronic balance and
tested in the axial DB system. The fractured ice pieces are then placed in plastic bags
for later melting and salini!), measurements.

73
AXIAL DOUBLE-BALL TEST
The CRREL axial double-ball (axial DB) test system consists of a loading fmme . a manually operated
h) draulic pump and ram. and a digital load indicator (Fig. I). The load frame con,ists of two upright stainless
steel plates. The distance between the plates is adjustable using various spacers to accommodate ice samples
of different lengths. After adjustment, the plates are locked parallel into a rigid structure by tightening spacer
rod bolts. To the inside of one pbte is mounted a hydraulic ram and on the opposite plate is fastened a load
cell. On the load cell and the h) draulic ram is mounted a load ball. To support the ice sample. two parallel rods.
spaced about four centimeters apart. extend between the plates. These rods can be adjusted up or down to
accommodate ice samples of different diameter. A spacer tube, as seen in Figure I, may also be sl id onto the
support rods when needed to ensure that the load balls are in line with the axis of the ice sample. The hydraulic
hand pump was sized to ensure that one swift downward stroke of the pump handle would quickly drive the
ball. mounted on the face of the hydraulic ram. sufficiently deep into the ice to cause it to split. For several
tests a linear potentiometer was installed for monitoring ram travel and time to peak load.
Test sample preparation is straightforward. Previous testing revealed that for ice. the sample length must
be 1.05 to 1.1 times the sample diameter. The former length is preferred. Longer sample lengths result in lower
strength assessments. Ice samples should have reasonably parallel ends. This may be achieved with use of a
miter box or, as we preier, with the use of a carpenter's power cutoff saw (Fig . 2).
The test procedure is also straightforward. An ice sample is set onto the support rods. the ram is moved
forward until the balls contact the ice and the ram is then propelled forward with one down stroke of the
hydraulic pump handle. When the balls are forced against the ice. stresses develop in the ice at the contact zone.
In the fresh ice sample shown in Figure I, cracks have developed in the stress zone, giving the ice a cloudy
white appearance at each end. The crack formation sequence has been described by Reichmuth (1968). He
speculated that en echeloll cracks first form in the stressed zone (see Fig. 3). As the cracks multiply they
coalesce and form sliplines, as depicted in Figure 4. Sample failure occurs when a critical stress level is
reached, which most often causes crack propagation along the axis of the sample. The peak force at failure.
as sensed by the load cell. is displayed on the high speed digital peak load indicator. The unique feature of this
test procedure is that ice may be tested within moments of being removed from the core barrel.

Load Ball

En Echelon Cracks
Coalesce
Forming Slip- lines
Figure 3. Failure concept for ball loading of test sample as
postulated by R~ichmuth (1968).
Sample Cleaves when
Crack Spontaneously Progresses Through
Critically Stressed Region

Failed ice samples typically split in two (Fig. 4) or three pieces but four pieces sometimes occur. Spalling
also occurs in conjunction with axial splitting and at times as the sale fracture. The latter event renders the test
unacceptable. This type of failure may be the result of a slip-line crack. shown in Figure 3. propagating
laterally.
The equation for determining G c from the axial DB test is

Gc = KP
L2
where K = a shape constant
P = peak force (Ibf)
L = sample length (in.).

74
 Figure 4. Example of failed freshwater ice loaded in the axial DB test system.
Note the interesting lacy crack "pipe" visible at the center of the left fresh water ice
piece. "Cloud" cracks are also visible in the ice.

40 K = exp (2.712 + 0.008 D)

c
~c
o
'; 30
0.
'"
~

'"
",'

20

20 120
D. Core Diameter (mm)

Figure 5. Shape factor vs. ice core diameter.

The shape constant varies with sample diameter as shown in Figure 5. Kis used to normalize the peak force
resulting from the testing of sample s with different diameters .

ICE TESTED
Laboratory-grown freshwater ice and natural first and multiyear sea ice were tested. Laboratory ice was
made at CRREL using a procedure described by Cole (1979) and at the Ice Research Laboratory (IRL) of the
Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College. This ice was made using a modified Cole procedure
(Schulson, 1990). The CRREL-grown ice, made in -70-mm-diam molds, had a mean density of 0.904 MgI
m3 and a related porosity of -1.4%. The equiaxed grains had a mean diameter of 3.5 mm. The IRL ice was
provided by Dr. Erland Schul son. The same ice was being used at IRL in an assessment of the effect of grain
size on the uniaxial (Jc (Cannon, 1985; Schulson, 1990). This ice was made in -82-mm-diam molds and
contained grains having a mean size of 5 mm. The ice had a preferred higher density of -0.912 Mglm 3 and
a lower porosity of -0.6%.

7S
 The multiyear sea Ice tested with the axial DB loadmg system was collected m the Beaufol1 Sea by Cox
et .11. (1984). They made umaxial uncontined compression tests on the same source of Ice at CRREL u,mg
nght cylinder, having a machmed diameter of 102 mm. We tested samples at CRREL uSing the as-cored
diameter of -105 mm.
The first-year sea ice cores were obtained from large 1.2 m-square-blocks of ice removed from the I 3-
m-thick sea ice m Steffamen Sound, Alaska. The Ice cores were mined from the ice block at the same depth
m both the vel1lcal, 0° and honzontal90° plane of the ice ,heet In the /arter, the Ice cores were taken parallel
90°_0° and perpendicular 90° -90° to the well aligned honzontal c-axes oithe columnar Ice crystals. The mean
crystal size was about II mm. The 77-mm-diam ice cores were cut to length and tested m a shed on ,hore.
Vertical ice cores were also obtained from the first-year sea Ice in a refrozen melt pool in a multiyear tloe
and from the fast ice in Steffanson Sound.

TEST RESULTS
Freshwater Ice
SIX ice cylinders were provided from the IRL at Dartmouth College. From these cyhnders, 12 samples
were cut. Each had a length of -102 mm and a diameter of91.4 mm. Priorto axial DB testing, a 100-kHz somc
velocity meter was used to measure the compression Vp and shear vs. wave velocity Vin each sample. With
these measurements and the prevIOusly determmed Ice density, the shear and Young's modulus, volume
rigidity and Poisson's ratio were detemuned.
The -SoC test results are hsted in Table I. The average O'c strength was 5.72 MPa, which needs to be
adjusted to _10°C, the temperature at which 10 right cylinders of the same Ice type were tested. at the IRL,
in uniaxial unconfined compressIOn (Schulson, private communication). Schul son stated that the IRL tests
gave a mean ice strength of 5.8 MPa at a strain rate of 10-3 s-I. To adjust O'c fortemperature, a correcllon factor
based on the analysis of Kovacs et al.( 1977) was used. They found that O'c for snow and ice changed at a rate
of -0.075 MPa/°e. This value is in good agreement with the work of Butkovich (1954) on lake Ice, Wolfe and
Thiem (1964) on fiver Ice, Kovacs (1978) on mUltiyear sea ice and Brown and McKittrich (1992) on a smgle
crystal of freshwater Ice These authors found O'c to increase, at temperatures below about -10°C, at a rate of
0.074, 0.08, 0.07 and 0.065 MPaJOC, respectively.
When thiS temperature correction IS apphed to the average axial DB O'c value of 5.7'2 MPa at -SoC, it
increases to 5.87 MPa at _10 0 e. Clearly, the average axial DB strength IS m excellent agreement with the
average uniaxial O'c value (5.8 MPa) prOVided by Schul son for the IRL tests. The two independent test
techniques on the same ICe type show that the simple axial DB test provides comparable O'c values to those
obtained in the laboratory at 10-3 s-I using highly sophisllcated tesllng equipment and sample preparation
techniques.
The average dynamiC Young's and shearmoduh given in Table I forthe aXial DB tested ice were 7.9 and
2 9 GPa respectively. These average values compare extremely well With the dynamiC modulus test results

Table 1. Test data for 5-mm grain size freshwater ice at -soc.
SpeCIfic VeiOCIIV (mls) Pmsson's Young's Shear Volume
Sample gra\'lty PWQ\.'e Swave ratlO modulus modulus rIgIdity 0',
no. (Mglm3) IV~) IV,) Iv) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (MPa)

IL 0.910 3845 1728 0.374 ]5 2.7 98 781

IR 0.912 3817 1629 0.389 6.7 2.4 10.0 703
2L 0.913 3799 1697 0375 72 2.6 9.7 6..14
2R Q.912 3822 2001 0.3/1 9.6 3.6 8.5 4.15
3L 0.909 38/1 1704 0.375 7.3 2.6 9.7 4.66
3R 0.913 3784 1680 0.377 7.1 2.6 9.6 5.18
4L 0.915 3761 1689 0.374 7.2 2.6 9.5 5.00
4R 0.914 3781 1660 0.381 7.0 2.8 10.8 5.12
5L 0.908 3812 1703 0.375 7.2 2.6 9.7 4.42
5R 0.913 3818 1854 0.346 8.4 3.1 9.1 8.06
6L 0.914 3819 1984 0.315 9.5 3.6 8.5 5.54
6R 0.913 3812 1993 0.284 9.5 4.6 8.5 5.29
AVG 0.912 3807 1765 0.358 7.9 2.9 9.5 5.72

76
 ;;; • Cole (1987)
Cl.
e.
~
a ShuJson (1990)
• Shulson and Cannon (1984 \
g.
~ a Lachane and Michel (1988)
iii ... Camp Century, Greenland
~
> {19 pts t:. This study
;;;
e 10 :"ooo-._.~" 8io
~
<.)
-", 8~~ (6P~S
"C o _)

i::>
Cc = exp (2 554 - 0 158 G)
r 2 =0787
~ 2 pIS

0" Std Error = , 33

FIgure 6. Freshwater Ice uncontined 1

0 4
compressi ve strength vs. gram sIze. G, Gram Size (mm)

12r-----.------r-----.------r-----.---~~
1 ~
~ Cc = (-48 246 + 252153 P - 371 826 p2 + 219 755 p3)21145
.c
c;, ,2=0942
:: ..
c:
~ SId Error = 0 76
iii 8 "
~
.~
; .:.~ .
, "
~
c.
E
o
()
"0 4
~
"E
Figure 7. Camp Century, Greenland, 8c:
f1Tll and ice unconfined compression ::>
strength vs. density at -25°C and a ~~ oL--=~~~L_L_ ____ ~ ____ ~ _____L_ _ _ _ ~

strain rate of-I0-3 s-I (Kovacs et aI., o.S 0.8

1969). p, DenSity (Mg/m 3)

of SmIth (1965) who tested firm and ice at Camp Century, Greenland, between -12 and -15°C. Also, the
average value for Poisson's ratio m Table 1 agrees wIth the findmgs of SmIth. No temperature correctIOn was
applied to the modulus data, as the modulus of ice IS not sensitive to temperature m the range of these tests.
The objectIve of making the Vp and Vs wave determmatlOns was to see If a correlatIOn existed between <Yc and
the velocity values. No correlatIOn was found.
The average axial DB <Yc at _10°C (19 tests) and -20°C (19 tests) on the 3.5-mm gram SIze freshwater
Ice made at CRREL are 7.76 MPa and 8.44 :'.1Pa. respectively The change tn Ice strength from _10°C to
-20°C is 0.068 MPa/°C, whIch is m agreement with the <Y, temperature correction preVIOusly discussed.
To assess how well the temperature-corrected aXIal DB <Yc values agree wIth uniaXIal unconfined
compressIve strength tests made at 10-3 s-I, the aXIal DB <Yc data are compared wIth -10°C UnIaXIal <Y, data
for ice of the same gram size. In Figure 6 the uniaxIal <Yc test results of the authors listed and the average axial
DB <Yc value obtained for the 3.5- and 5-mm gram sIze ice are shown. As can be seen, the axial DB values fall
nIcely beside the appropnately weighted regression curve passing through the data. The outlier at the far right
was not included m the regression analysis.
The data pomt lIsted as Camp Century m Figure 6 was determined as follows. In 1966 the gram size of
the fim and ice in the mcltned drift at Camp Century, Greenland, was determined (Gow 1974). This slopmg
passageway extended to a depth of 100 m below the surface where the ice denSIty reached a density of 0.89
Mg/m3 at an ambient temperature of -24°C. We obtained Gow's data (Gow, private communicatIOn) and
determined that at 0.92 Mglm3, the density of pure ice at -24°C, the gram size would be 1.76 mm.
In 1967, uniaxial unconfined compression tests were made m the Camp Century inclined drift (Kovacs
et aI., 1969). These tests were made at a stram rate of about I0-3 s~1 and a temperature of -2SoC. These test
data are replotted in Figure 7. The regression curve passing through the test results, when extrapolated to a

77
density of 0.92 Mg/m 3, gives a uniaxial unconfined compressive strength of 11.11 MPa. U;mg the <Yc
temperature correction of 0.075 MPa/°C, this uniaJual <Yc value reduce; to 9.99 MPa at -10°C. where the Ice
on warmmg would now have a density of -0.917 ~lglm3. This unIaxial <Yc value I' plotted versus the above
deterrnIned graIn size of 1.76 mm In Figure 6.
There is considerable data scatter In Figure 6. However, such scatter IS common with unIaxIal uncontlned
compression tests. In any event, what Figure 6 does Indicate IS the need to run multiple tests on the same Ice
In order to obtain a representative mean peak strength value. In our prevIOus work we attempted to use 10 or
more samples to obtaIn an average value (Kovacs et aI., 1969 and 1977 and Kovacs, 1985). ThiS minImum
number is In agreement with the work of Yamaguchi (1970) who determIned that a minImum of 10 ;ample,
are needed and more recently by KIrk (1989) who indicates that 12 samples are a reasonable test number. Such
numbers can be difficult to obtain and transport to the testIng facilIty. The Ice at Camp Century was unIque
In that at a given depth one could extract endless samples of the same denSity and graIn structure. Unfortu-
nately, thiS resource is no longer accessible. In pnnclple, laboratory-grown ice can also be replIcated to a high
degree of structural and density conformity. However, first-year sea Ice does not lend itself to repetitive sample
conformity due to a wide variatIOn in thiS matenal's composition and structure WithIn the Ice sheet (Weeks
and Ackley, 1982).

Multiyear Sea Ice

The physical and mechanical properties of the mUltiyear sea ice tested are listed In Table 2. Also shown
IS the lIme to failure and the total distance the two load balls penetrated the ice a peak loadIng The time to

Table 2. Multiyear sea ice test data at _soc.

Bnne Air Porosltv Bulk Ice FlUl Time Ball
Sample vol. vol. vol. denslIy denSity load IOfatl Ident C>e
no. (%0) (%0) (%0) (Mglm3) (Mg/m3J (kg) (ms) (mm) (MPa)
RIA-a 32.5 9.4 41.9 0.913 0.888 254 96 71 721
RIA-b 32.5 9.4 41.9 0.908 0.887 211 91 6.0 509
RID 48 21.2 26.0 0.899 0.894 182 80 25 605
C8-a 15.7 8.8 24.5 0.912 0.895 200 50 2.8 5,59
C8-b 157 77 23.4 0.913 0.896 225 35 3.4 6.19
C9-a 97 15 .. 25.2 0.905 0895 202 40 6.9 574
C9-b 196 13,8 33.4 0.908 0.887 209 90 59 5.77
C9-c 16.7 6,8 23.5 0.914 0896 216 40 5.4 596
ClI-a 9.8 12.2 22.0 0.908 0898 211 72 37 600
CJl-b 12.7 10.5 23.2 0.910 0896 257 42 32 7 II
Cll-c 12.7 10.5 23.2 0.910 0.896 209 25 4,1 589
ClI-d 17.7 8,0 257 0.913 0.894 254 110 6,99
ClI-e 17.7 9I 26.8 0.9!:! 0893 204 52 36 5 II
AVG 16.8 11.0 27,8 0.910 0.893 218 63 46 605

12

• •
'"
Cl.
~ 10
.<::
crc = exp (1 987 + 0 005 n)
r 2 =0235
C,
c Std Error = 1 35
~
•• ttI
• Cox et al (1984)
iii 8
c! o This Study
'>" .CO •
•
lli •
'"a.
E 6 • • •• •4-
0
() e ·III,';~ •
'C • •• •
'"!;;
1:: 4 • •• •
0
u
c •
:::> •
"," 2
•
Figure 8. Multiyear sea ice unconfined
0 50 100 150 compressive strength vs. poroSity at
n, POroSity (%0) _10°C and a stram rate of 10-3 ,1.

78
failure in the axial DB test is more than an order of magnItude shorter than the typical times to fallure m a
standard UnIaxial unconfined compression test run at a 10-3 s-I stram rate.
The axial DB O"c values listed m T .lble 2 show considerable scatter. ThiS IS common With strength data
obtained from unIaxial unconfined compressIOn testmg of mUlti) ear sea ice. To Illustrate this and compare
our results With the unIaxial O"c values obtamed by Cox et al. (1984) at-10°C on a unIversal electrohydraulic
testmg machine, we first applied the temperature correction of 0.075 MPa/°C to the axial DB O"c data obtamed
at -SoC. Both data sets are shown m Figure 8. The axial DB O"c test results are shown to fall well wHhm those
obtained by Cox et al. (1984).
The regressIOn curve passmg through the data m Figure 8 md,cates that the strength of multiyear ,ea Ice.
as with all materials, is governed by its porosity. However, many more test results are reqUired to betterdefine
thiS trend, not only at this stram rate but at other strain rates and temperatures as well.

First-Year Sea Ice

First-yearsea ice is a more difficult material to strength categorize because of itS wide structure anIsotropy
and inhomogenity. Brine volume, ice denSity and porosity are the most used sea ice phySical properties against
which sea ice strength has been correlated. The latter is preferred because porosity controls the strength of a
material when all other conditIOns are equal.
Vertical and honzontal axial DB load tests were made on the sea ice from Steffanson Sound. As prevIOusly
mentioned, this ice contained ice crystals about 11 mm m width. The coaxes were highly aligned m the
horizontal plane. Tests were made at temperatures from _5° to -16°C. Little has been published on sea ice
strength vs. temperature and what has is conflicting [e.g., Schwarz (1971) shows a high and Brown and
McKittrich (1992) show a low O"c change with temperature]. Therefore, the O"c data are referenced to the ice
porosity, a common procedure in sea ice strength studies.
Axial DB load tests were applied perpendicular to the predommant coaxes orientation (21 tests at -16°C)
or in the conventIOn of Peyton (1966) at 90°-90°, and parallel to the preferred c-axes alignment (11 tests at
_5°C, 12 tests at -16°C) at 90°_0°. The direction of the applied load was a visual estimate; Richter-Menge
(1991) found that such visual estimates may be offby ±5%. The axial DB O"c values vs. porosity for the 90°_
0° and 90°_90° axial DB load tests are shown in Figures 9 and 10 respectively. Also shown for comparison
is the curve derived from the equation proposed by Timco and Frederking (1990) for estimatmg the average
O"c strength of horizontally loaded columnar sea ice. The equatIOn for their curve is O"c = 37(E)O ~2 [1 - (nl
270)05] which may be simplified to O"c = 8.08 - 0.492(n)0 5 for a strain rate E of of 10-3 s-l. These equatIOns
relate the horizontally loaded uniaxial unconfined compreSSive strength explicitly to columnar sea Ice,
porosity and strain rate, and impliCitly to the salmity, temperature and brine-free density of the sea ice (Timco
and Frederking, 1991). As seen in these figures, the axial DB O"c VS. n trend is Similar to Timco and
Frederking's, but the axial DB O"c values are higher. ThiS may be due to the higher apparent stram rate under
which our tests were made, a stram rate for which their equation may not be valid (Timco and Frederkmg,
1991). The axial DB O"c results may also be compared With the first-year sea ice UnIaxial O"c results of Richter-
Menge (1991), which were made at _10°C and a stram rate of 10-3 s-I. At a load directlon of 90°-0° ,he
reported an average O"c of 7.30 MPa for sea ice wah an average porosHy of 30.5%0 . At thiS porosity the
regressIOn curve m Figure 9 gives a O"c value of 7.41 MPa. For her tests at a load directIOn of 90°-90°, the
average porosity and O"c values were 33.0%0 and 6.56 MPa respectively. This O"c value compares wah a value
of 6.61 MPa, which can be determined for the same porosity from the regressIOn curve in Figure 10
The regression curve determmed 90°_0° and 90°-90° O"c values of 6.81 and 6.32 MPa, respectively at II
=40%0 (Fig. 9 and 10), and the UnIaxial O"c values of Richter-Menge ( 1991 ), at an unknown porosHy, are plotted
in Figure II. Also shown is the horizontal a c trend vs. the angle between the applied load and the preferred
c-axis directIOn as estimated by Wang (1979) from tests made at -10°C and a strain rate of 10-3 s-I and the
trend established by Peyton (1966) from tests at a slower stram rate, which he gives in terms of a load rate of
-0.053 MPa s-l. The temperature at which his tests were made was not given in his report.
The horizontal uniaxial a c anisotropy trend shown in Figure II is sea ice structure related and is Similar
to the strength anisotropy trends observed in the data from uniaxial a c tests made on bedded rock (Brown et
al., 1977). The trend established by Peyton (1966) was well determmed through the large number of UnIaXial
a c tests he made. The curve proposed by Wang (1979) was less well determined experimentally. However,
it can be inferred from the tests of Richter-Menge (1991 ), as plotted in Figure 11, that furthertestmg is required
to verify Wang's strength anisotropy trend at a stram rate of 10-3 s-l. The axial DB a c values, at n = 40%0,

79
 00

00 J
Tlmeo and
"c' = 11 569-0 7521n)' 5 Frederkrng (1990)
r'=0273
Std Error = 0 77

Figure 9. Honzontal tirst-year sea Ice un conti ned

compressive strength v,. pOroSity at a ,tram rate
of 10-3 s-I. Loading was parallel to the predoml-
'-----;4!;;o--'--;5!;;0:---'--;:6"'o--'--~7o!;O;--'----;d80 nant honzontal c-axi, direction
n, PoroSIty Ir~)

",10 1 I
~
""c;,c:
-
-- ........
... -... . 00
. "c1 ' = 9.456-0.1 495(n) 05
r' =0,345
Std. Error =0 49
_

_
~
"> -
.~ Tlmco and Frederkrng (1990)
"EC.
0
()

""c: - -
Figure 10, Horizontal first-year sea Ice uncon-
'E
8c: fined compressive strength vs, porosity at a
::>
strain rate of 10-3 s-I, Loading was perpendicu-
"," 1 1 lar to the predommant honzontal C-axIS direction.
40 50 60 70 80
n, Porosity (%0)
12

"'e
CL

•
-
--
Wang (1979)
Payton(1966)
""g. • Rlchter·Menge (1991)
o ThiS study @ n = 40%.
~
"~
!!!
a.
E \
••
0 \
• •
()
'0
1!
\
\
,, ••
'E ,
8c: ',.
::> '~
-----_ .... Figure II, The horizontal unconfined compressive
"," strength of first-year sea ice vs. the angle between the
applied load and the predominant C-axIS directIOn,
Angle Between Applied Load and C-axIS

as shown in Figure II, are comparable With the umaxial <Jc values of Richter-Menge but do not reveal the
magnitude of the strength anisotropy suggested by the Wang curve. It should also be noted that Smha (1983)
only observed a 1.1 strength increase between uniaxial <Jc tests made parallel vs. perpendicularto the preferred
coaxes direction. His tests were made at _10°C and a strain rate of about 1()-4 s-I.
Axial DB load tests were made on Steffansen Sound first-year sea Ice With the load applied in the growth
direction, parallel to the columnar crystal axes. Tests were made at _5° (16 tests), _7° (9 tests) and -18°C (9
tests). The average <Jc values at-7° and-18°Care5.l9and6.09MPa,respectively. The aXial DB <Jcdifference
represents a temperature effect of 0.082 MPal°C.

80
 ... .
I

Figure 12 Vel1lcal fir;t-year sea ice unconfined

cr, .• (3 170-() 227
r 2 '" 0 411
,~n)2 j
Sid Error. 060
compressive strength vs. porosity ~t a strain rate
of 10-3 s-l
60 70 80
n, PorosIty {%o)

Another set of vertical axial DB tests were made at _7° (13 tests) and -17°e (13 tests) on first-year sea
Ice obtained from a melt pool in a multiyear floe. In this sea ice the crystals had an average Width of 10 mm
and thec-axes did not have a preferred honzontal alignment The difference m the ,trength at each temperature
mdicates a <Jc vanatlon of 0.07 MPa/°C.
At _7°C and 18°C the average <Jc value for the c-axis aligned Steffansen Sound sea ice IS 5.19 and 6.09
MPa, respectively. Forthe nonaligned melt pond Ice the average <Jc value was 5.21 and 5.91 MPaat-7°C and
-17 Q C respectively. Because these values are m good agreement, it would appear that the vertical <Jc strength
of columnar sea ice is not affected by honzontal c-axis alignment.
All the vertical aXial DB <Jc values are plotted vs. n in Figure 12. At a porosity of ~Oo/co the regressIOn curve
through the data gives a <Jc of 5.44 MPa. This value IS low when compared to the honzontal aXial DB load
test results in Figures 9 and 10 and it is not in conformity with vertical vs. horizontal umaxial unconfined
compression tests made on first-year sea ice.
To Illustrate the latter, Sinha (1983) reported vertical uniaxial <Jc values from 2 to 5 urnes higher than those
obtamed from honzontal tests at _10°C and a strain rate of about 6 x 10-5 s-1 Frederkmg and Timco (1989)
observed a uniaXial <Jc value three times larger m their vertical vs honzontalload tests at -II °e and at strain
rates between 2 x 10-5 and 5 x 1<r' s-I. Kuehn and Schulson (1993) made uniaxtal tests on laboratory grown
columnar salme Ice with unaligned coaxes in the horizontal plane. The only consistency shown over a
temperature range of _5° to -40°C .md strain rates from I O~ 10 10- 1 s-I wa; that the vertically loaded ice failed
at a stress I I to 7.5 times higher than the honzontal loaded samples. At a stram rate of 10-3 s-I and a
temperature of _5,° _10,° -20 ° and -40°C, the vertically loaded samples were 1.2,2.8, 1.1 and:2 times
stronger, respectively, than the horizontally loaded samples. Richter-Menge (1986) showed first-year sea Ice
to be about 1.5 umes stronger when loaded vertically vs. horizontally 10 the crystal columns. Her unconfined
compression tests were made at 90° to the mean c-axls direction at a test temperature of -10°C and strain rate
of I 0-3 s-I However, Schwarz ( 1970) found that the umaxial <Jc of Baltic Sea Ice, tested at 0°, _10° and-20°C
and at stram rates from 3 x I ()-l to 3 x 10- 1 s-I, was always stronger when loaded m the honzontal vs. vel1lcal
directIOn'
Except for the contradictory results of Schwarz, there is a strong indication that sea Ice falls at a higher
uniaxial <Jc when the Ice IS loaded in the growth direction vs. parallel to It However, It is not pOSSible at thiS
time to quantify what the vertical to horizontal strength ratio IS for a given set of sea ice properties and loading
conditions. With regard to the anomalous aXial DB vertical vs. honzontalload test results, it can be expected
that ball loading parallel to the crystal columns Will induce stresses that result m the Ice sphtting along ItS
weakest plane, parallel to the crystal lattice basil plane and the columnar ice structure. Therefore, it IS most
reasonable that the axial DB test would give the results noted.

DISCUSSION
The aXial DB test results presented in this report indicate that thiS test is well SUited for determining the
uncontined compressive strength of multiyear sea ice and freshwater Ice. The agreement between the axial
DB and laboratory uniaXial unconfined compressIOn tests made on these Ice types was found to be to excellent
agreement at a strain rate of 10-3 s-l
The axial DB tests on first-year sea ice, a less "bnttle" material, were more difficult to assess because of

81
the mherent vanation in sea ice structure and physical propeI1le, Numerou, ,trength tests on sea Ice need to
be mJ.de to estabbh trends related to crystal Size, load onentatton :md rate vs. the Ice structure, Ice pOroSity,
temperature. etc The aXial DB honzontalload test results did show a <J c dependence on the direction of the
apphed load to the c-axlS ahgnment The results also J.ppearto gl\ e a good assessment of the mean hOrizontal
,ea Ice strength, which IS the preferred strength for use m the design of offshore structures (Wang, 1979).
In thiS report J. <Jc temperature correCtlon factor of 0 075 MPal°C was used to correct freshwater and
mUltiyear sed Ice test results to a common temperature. This value was reported to be in agreement with the
results of other authors and was found to be m agreement With the test results reported here. However, It should
also be noted that thiS temperature correction IS not m agreement with the test results ofCarter( 1970), Schwarz
(1971), Haynes (1978) and Schulson (1990). These investigators found Uniaxial unconfined compressive
strength temperature correction factors two to seven times higher than the one used m this report. Further work
is needed to resolve thiS mconsistency, as well as the issue of sea Ice strength vs. porosity and temperature.
For example, a gi ven sea ice porosity can be found at different temperarures. Therefore, all other condittons
being equal, the ice strength Will be temperature dependent. The strength equation ofTimco and Frederkmg
(1990) presented in thiS report does not account for thiS 11 vs. temperarure effect, which must be responsible
for some of the scatter observed m the unconfined compression test results.
Another issue not addressed In this report is the effect of sample geometry and size and the various types
of end conditions that may have affected the uniaxial <Jc values obtamed by other investigators. For example,
"bonded end caps exert a lateral confinement which suppresses both crack nucleatIOn and the propagation
through the end zones of axIal splits which initiate during loading" (Schulson, 1990). This confinement results
m failure strengths on the order of 20% higher than if the ends were not constramed. Such test confinement
vs. nonconfinement, as well as sample-machine ahgnment and different sample slenderness ratIOS, may have
contributed to the variatIon in the Uniaxial O"c values reported in the literature and used for comparative
purposes in this report.
The axial DB test Will not proVide <Jc values at a stram rate other than 10-3 s-I. Nor will the test provide
stress-stram information for determming, for example, the static or Young's modulus. However, a simple
sonic velOCity meter, as used in thIS study, may well serve this purpose. In rock mechanics, it has been shown
that Young's modulus can be well correlated with the dynamic modulus denved from sonic velocity tests
(Eissa and Kazi, 1988). With additional testing of ice a similar cross-correlation could be found
In rock mechaniCS the pomt load strength frequently replaces the uniaxial unconfined compressive
strength because the test IS quicker to perform and less stringent sample preparations are required. The test
may be readily done In the field at near in-SItu conditions and has been shown to be as reliable as the Uniaxial
unconfined compresSIOn test with ItS expensive electrohydraulic loading and sample preparation systems
SImilar exacting sample preparation procedures and testing eqUipment are reqUired in the uniaxial unconfined
compression testing of ice. For Ice tests, the only eqUipment reqUired forthe axial DB test system IS a ,imple
loading jig, a hand-operated hydraulic pump-ram and a load cell with a digital peak load indicator Auxiliary
equipment would be a cutoff saw, used to section core mto lengths of 1.06 ±D.O I times the core diameter, and
appropnate measunngeqUipment fordeterminmg sample density and temperature. The findings of this report
indicate that the aXial DB test IS Ideally suited for determining the unconfined compression strength of Ice In
the field.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to acknow ledge the field and laboratory assistance ofJohn Kalafut and Richard Roberts
ofCRREL, and the donated multiyearseJ.lce samples proVided by Dr. Gordon F.N. Cox, formerly ofCRREL,
now at Amoco ProductIon Company, and the freshwater ice samples donated by Dr. Erland M. Schulson of
Dartmouth College.

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Schwarz. J .. R. Frederktng. V. Gavrito.l.G Petov, K.l. Hirayama, M. Mellow. P. Tryde ~nd K.D Vaudrey
(1981) Standardized testing methods for measuring mechamcal properties of Ice. Cold Regions SCience
and Technology, 4(3): 245-253
Smha, N.K. (1983). Field te,ts of compressive strength of first-year sea Ice. Annab of GlacIOlogy. 4 253-
259.
Smith, J.L. (1965). The elastic constants. strength and denSity of Greenland snow as determmed from
measurements of somc velocity. U S Army Cold Regions Re,earch and Engmeerlng Laboratory, CRREL
Techmcal Report 167
Timco. G. W. and R.M.W. Frederkmg (1991). Seasonal compressive strength ofBeaufor,t Sea Ice sheets. S.
Johnes, R.F. McKenna, J. Tillotson and I. Jordann eds .. Ice-Structure InteractIOn. IUTAM-IAHR
Symposium, SI. John' s. Newfoundland. 267-282.
Timco. G.W. and R.M.W Frederkmg (1990). Compresl\e strength of sea ice sheet;,. ColdReglOns SCience
and Technology. 17 227-240
Wang. Y.S. (1979). Sea Ice properties. Techmcal Semmar on Alaskan Beaufort Sea Gravel Island DeSign,
Exxon Co .• Houston, TX.
Weeks. W.F. and S.F. Ackley (1982). The growth, structure, and properties of sea Ice. US Army Cold RegIOns
Research and Engineering Laboratory. CRREL Monograph 82-1.
Wolfe, L.H. and J.O. Thiem (1964). PhYSical properties offrozen soil and ice. Journal Society of Petroleum
Technology. 4(1): 67-72.
Yamaguchi. U. (1970). Test pieces reqUIred to determtne the strength of rock. InternatIOnal Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 7(2): 209-227.

84
 ICE WEDGE DYNAMICS AND LOCAL CRUSHING

Richard F. McKenna Institute for Marine Dynamics CANADA

Donald Spencer National Research Council of Canada
P.O. Box 12093, Station 'A'
St. John's, Newfoundland A18 3T5

ABSTRACT

A method for analysing the dynamic failure of ice wedges against ships and sloping
structures has been developed. The approach is based on beam theory and incorporates
local crushing and shear at the contact, as well as flexural failure. 80th upward and
downward breaking mechanisms are included, and the approach has been useful for
assessing ice loads on conical structures. Examples are included to illustrate the influence
of in-plane forces on failure loads and the dynamic effect during high speed loading.

1. INTRODUCTION

The present model was developed

initially to aid in interpreting a Sloping
series of experiments in which Structure
inclined plates were moved against
the tip of floating cantilever ice
wedges (Keinonen et ai., 1992; see IceWedga
Fig 1). The primary requirements
were to calculate the reaction
forces on the plate, to detennine
the breaking length of the wedges
and to apportion the applied energy
into crushing and flexural
components. This energy
breakdown is an important feature
in assessing the ice breaking Fig 1 Floating cantilever wedge loaded by inclined
efficiency of ship hull fonns and is indenter
discussed in Spencer and
McKenna (1993). During the model development, it became obvious that the model would
prove to be useful in a variety of other ice breaking problems, particularly for estimating
in-plane forces and the influence of rubble piled against conical structures. In many
situations, ice fails initially against conical structures by radial cracking to fonn wedges,
with the maximum loads occurring when these wedges break.
Ice wedge failure has been addressed by Nevel (1992) using series solution to the
flexure problem, and by Maattanen and Hoikkanen (1990) using a finite element
approach. 80th of these consider static conditions only and address the failure of several
wedges against conical structures. Both models account for ride-up on the sloping surface
and the latter also considers the influence of rubble overburden on the ice breaking
process. Several others have addressed beam dynamics against sloping structures using
numerical techniques (e.g. Sodhi, 1987; Valanto, 1990) and Ssrensen (1978) has
presented dynamic solutions for beam and plate bending using an analytical approach.
What is unique in the present model is that crushing, shear failure and flexural

85
 ... 1

T
W2

Fig 2 Schematic of a wedge segment on an elastic foundation

1
failure interact in a dynamic framework for the wedge geometry. The numerical solution
is based on a displacement finite element formulation of an Euler beam with suitable
modifications to allow for a full wedge or a truncated wedge shape. A special element is
included at the tip of the wedge to account for both crushing and shear, and the actual
geometry of the wedge tip and the inclined plate are considered. The finite element
solution allows for a full range of boundary conditions at all points along the wedge.
To date, the model has been used to assist with the formulation of analytical
models of wedge failure and to evaluate the importance of dynamics and of in-plane
forces. The solution is efficient and takes in the order of a few seconds for static analyses
and several minutes for dynamic problems. As a result, it is useful for sensitivity analyses
and it may also be appropriate for determining probabilistic ice loads.

2. WEDGE DYNAMICS

The dynamics of the wedge segment on an elastic foundation shown in Fig 2 will now be
considered. This segment represents a single element within a finite element assembly.
The element ignores horizontal strains which are perpendicular to the direction of motion
and therefore gives accurate results when the wedge angle is not large.
An energy relation for the wedge segment can be established using the method
of virtual displacements. If arbitrary vertical displacements flu are applied to the wedge
segment, then the total energy resulting from flexure, in-plane forces, buoyancy,
hydrodynamic drag, inertia forces, end moments and end forces is

86
 -[M ddxflu -F flU]'"
v
,.0
=0'
where E is Young's modulus, 1=(wh'J/12 is the moment of inertia for a vertical section, U
is the vertical deflection, 9 is the acceleration due to gravity, Pw is the water density, p, is
the ice density, c.. is a hydrodynamic drag coefficient applicable to the vertical velocity u
of a segment and 0 is the vertical acceleration. The remaining parameters are illustrated
in Fig 2.
Buoyancv has been treated by assuming an elastic foundation. The term 1tPwW/8
is the added mass per unit length of the water displaced on one side of a thin plate of
width w. The hydrodynamic drag coefficient c..=1 is appropriate for this same geometry.
The static deflections along a uniform beam without an elastic foundation vary
according to a cubic relation in x, and vary as a quadratic for the wedge element. We
have chosen an Euler beam with a cubic relation for U (e.g. Hinton and Owen, 1979),
expressed as

U,

_~2 <:] :: (2)

62J
where u,' u2 and 6 / 62 refer to the vertical deflections and slopes at the ends of the
wedge segment shown in Fig 2. By successive differentiations of (2), the substitutions
2
du = Gu, d u = Bu, (3)
dx dx 2
can be made in (1) and similar substitutions can be made for the spatial derivatives of flu.
The thickness of the wedge h is assumed to be constant, however the width varies
according to
W2-W,
W = a+bx; a = w" b =_ _ (4)
I
for the prismatic section. The substitutions (2) through (4) allow (1) to be rewritten as
6u T(Mi1+Cli+Ku-F) = 0, (5)
and, since the virtual displacements flu are arbitrary, one obtains

Mi1+Cli+Ku = F, (6)
where

(7)

87
 (8)

(9)

and
(10)

in which the width w.vg in (8) and the velocity iJ.vg in (9) are area weighted averages over
the segment. The integrals in (8), (9) and (10) can be evaluated analytically to obtain 4
x 4 matrices for the segment.
The moment at any point along the wedge segment shown in Fig 2 is
M = EIBu. (11)
If there is an axial stress Fh in the segment, the top and bottom fibre stresses are
_ -Fh 6M (12)
atopbonom - -'1'--,
. wh Wh2
in which the neutral axis is assumed to be at mid-depth in the section. Flexural failure
occurs when
(13)

where at is the flexural strength of the wedge. In practice, the moments and stresses
were obtained at the optimal pOints of a segment (xiI = 0.2113,0.7887).

3. CRUSHING AND SHEAR CONTACT MODEL

Crushing at the contact between the structure and the corner of the wedge may involve
local damage to the ice, spalling at the edges and shear through the depth of the ice
sheet. In the present situation, flexure dominates for structure slopes that are close to the
horizontal, whereas all of the above mechanisms are probably active when the ice is thick
or when the structure is nearly vertical. Damage and spalling are introduced in the
present model by assuming a constant contact pressure. Friction between the ice and
structure has been modelled using a constant coefficient. A simple shear failure criterion
is also included.
The normal and tangential forces resulting from the assumption that ice crushes
at a constant normal pressure ac can be expressed
(14)

where Ac is the area of the ice crushed against the structure and 1.1 is the coefficient of
friction. The vertical and horizontal components of the force are (see Fig 3)
Fv = Fn(coS<!>-llsincj»; Fh = Fn(sincj>+llcoS<!» , (15)
where <I> is the angle of the structure from the horizontal. Referring to Fig 3, the vertical
crushing distances into the ice can be related to horizontal distances by
(16)

in which us' Usx refer to the length of the wedge that has already been sheared off and uc'
UCJt are the crushing distances since the last shear failure. The contact area is then

88
 A
c
= ~[Wl 2+W2];
Sln¢
W1 = Wo+2usxtan(1I'); W2 = Wo+2(Usx +ucx)tan(.!), (17)
2 2
where Wo is the width of the wedge at the tip (allowing for a truncated wedge) and 11' is
the wedge angle. Combining the expressions (14) through (17), the vertical force at the
tip of the wedge can be related to the vertical displacement by

Fv = Kcuc; Kc = [COS~i~~Sin<l>][ Wl;W2}c. (18)

in which Kc is the effective stiffness for the crushing element. When there is no contact
between the ice and structure, e.g. uc<O, then Kc=O. The point of application of the force
is at the centre of the contact area, which is a distance

e = !!..- (2Wl +W2) U (19)

2 3(W1 +W2) c
above the neutral axis of the wedge. With the horizontal force obtained from (15) and
(18), the applied moment at the tip of the wedge is Fhe.

Intact Ice Fn h/2· e

~ f'-'·'·'·'·'·'·'
i t
-f---t-----~~
i // !
h
u. i /' PROFILE
I ! . 'cit
-L--S:--:'-~-
i
ii ................._ _-!-_ _ _ _ _ _""""_ _ __
I I ~i__________
I I I
I I I
*- Usx--"- Ucx-l
: : I
I
, I

---·-·~···i" ..·..'..·
----- i PLAN
~_::-- - - ) • i Wo
---- ------ ---l..b-- - I , • • • , • •_ , .

Shear failure occurs when the maximum shear stress due to horizontal and vertical
forces exceeds a critical value cr., i.e.

max ((FvCOS(3 +FhSin(3)COS(3] (20)

~ cr.,
(w.rt.~) [w2 +htan(3tan(1I'/2)]h
89
where 13 is the inclination of the shear plane from the vertical. Equation (20) assumes that
the shear failure is initiated from the edge of the contact face and this expression is used
to determine whether shear failure actually takes place. In practice, (20) will cause a
reduction in the contact area to zero. Visual observations of crushing processes indicate
that the contact area is routinely reduced by a factor of two when flakes of ice are
sheared off (Gagnon, 1991). A semi-empirical approach was included to allow a
proportion etAe of the contact area to be sheared off, and the incremental distance that
is sheared 6.us can be determined by solving

etA = 11w + w +2(u +6.u \ tan (lP/2) ] 6.us (21)

e 21. lOs sI tan<l> tan<l>
for 6.us' The parameter et=1/2 is used to indicate that one half of the contact area is
sheared off. Appropriate corrections are required to (17), (18), (19) and (21) when ue>h.
Expressions (20) and (21) have been solved separately and, if necessary, shear stress
could be maximized by considering the influence of et as well.

4. DYNAMIC SOLUTION

Since it is a feature of many ice interaction situations, we now solve the dynamic problem
of ice moving relative to an inclined slope at a constant speed for the reaction forces and
tip deflection. Equation (6) gives the dynamics of a wedge segment, while (18) gives the
crushing at the tip of the wedge.

....
Structure
~ El8ments~
(2) ...
Ice Sheet I
I
................ ...............--i:
~
I
I ... (n-l) (n)
1-----'----,----
'"

!i~~i~~j~:>'~'I")4'~~::,, "
I
'(
Fig 4 Finite element discretization of ice wedge including contact crushing element

The entire wedge is modelled using several segments in a finite element

framework which accounts for many modes of vibration and addresses the in-plane force
properly. The wedge can be divided into the s=1,n segments shown in Fig 4, with
corresponding segment matrices MS), (is) and #(IS) derived from (7), (8) and (9). The
contact stiffness relation (18) is also included as #(Ie) to yield a dynamic system of
equations for the entire wedge of the form

M"O" +C°li" +K"u" = F", (22)

Space prohibits a description of the matrices M, C' and 1(, however the vectors in (22)
are

90
 P,e)
(vtan¢) t vtan4> 0
0
M,(e)
Fhe 8e 6e ee
FJ.e) +FP) u, u, 0,
0
M~e)+M,(1) 0 8, 6, 13,
= = = (23)
F" = F~') +F,(2) 0 u" Ii" 0"
0 Un_, Un_,
M~')+M,(2) Uno'
8n_, 6n_, en_,
FR 0
F~n) 0 0
MR 0 0 0
Mt)
A constant displacement rate at the tip is established by the specification of the tip
displacement in which v is the relative horizontal speed between ice and structure, and
t is time. Note that I(v tan¢)t - u,1 is simply u'" The displacement and rotation at the root
of the wedge are prescribed to be zero, which allows the reaction force and moment (FR
and M,J to be calculated there. The rotational stiffness of the crushing element is set to
a large value to make certain that the crushing element does not rotate, which forces the
equality 8e=8 1•
The dynamiC equations (22) were solved by the Newmark method (e.g. Bathe and
Wilson, 1976) which ensures a stable solution. The contact stiffness Ke is altered by the
change in penetration at each time step and the solution is therefore explicit with respect
to this component. Stiffness, mass and Rayleigh damping have been incorporated in the
model to accommodate the discontinuity resulting from shear failure, although
hydrodynamiC damping is the only contributor to C* in the results which follow.

5. MODEL VERIFICATION
'800
Aexural FaJlure
Returning to the loading of the ,~
simple wedge shown in Fig 1, '200
the model was compared to the EsooTest#2
Model
results of Keinonen et al.
(1992). We focus on the
experiments conducted in the
Esso outdoor test basin on 90 0
~
ice wedges cut from floating ice
sheets and cantilevered at a 200
distance of 1m from the tip. o
These wedges were loaded
·200.L---:--::":---::':::---::'=----::":-"'""7"::---='::---::':::---;;'";;"___;;'
downward by inclined indenters -0.' 0 0' 02 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 07 O.S 0.9

moving at a range of speeds TIfT18[s[

and at different slope angles. Fig 5 Reaction force on a flat, downward-breaking

Independent measurements of indenter inclined at 24S to the horizontal, moving at
the static flexure of Simple 0.051 mjs against the tip of a 0.215 m thick, 1 m long,
beams, elastic moduli and 900 ice wedge
uniaxial compression were
obtained from the surrounding ice sheet, providing the input data for the model. The
friction coefficient between the ice and the structure had an average value of 0.02 and
91
a maximum of 0.05 based on a resolution of the forces in a number of the tests.
The experiments were conducted at speeds just below which the dynamics have
an effect, and it was not possible to calibrate this part of the model. Predictions of static
failure loads were good, particularly when the wedges failed exclusively in flexure and not
by local shear failure near the tip. An example of the predictions is given in Fig 5 where
er t = 200kPa, ere = 2.4MPa, E = 468MPa, ¢ = 24.5°, h = .215m, ~ = 0.05 and v = .051 m/s.
The horizontal failure load was overpredicted by 25% and the total horizontal penetration
at failure was 20% high as well. Since there was no attempt to fit parameters, this result
is very good.
Some of the test results indicated that shear failure took place in the wedge near
the tip. Since independent measurements of the shear properties of the ice were not
made, it was only possible to estimate a shear strength from the model runs. This was
in the order of 100 to 200 kPa.

6. ANALYSIS

The influence of in-plane forces and the dynamic

effects for upward breaking structures are now
addressed using the model. Particularly for steep
slopes, in·plane forces can have a Significant effect
on the flexural failure of conical structures. Consider
the truncated 45° ice wedge pushed against the
upward breaking inclined structure shown in Fig 6.
This is a realistic situation for a faceted cone
structure and a close approximation to the case of a
circular cone. The truncated width of the wedge is
assumed to be 5m, which corresponds to a cone
waterline diameter of approximately 12m. The wedge
is modelled using 40 elements and is cantilevered at
a distance of approximately 4 times its characteristic
length so that it is effectively semi-infinite. The
lengths of the bending elements were biased to
make the elements smaller closer to the structure. Fig 6 Truncated ice wedge
The ice parameters shown in Table 1 were selected impacting an upward
to represent a fairly strong ice sheet moving against breaking sloped structure
a rough structure. A low value for ere (1 MPa) was
used for the underside of the ice sheet in the upward breaking case.

Table 1 Ice and water parameters for Fig 7 through Fig 10 except when specified
otherwise in the figures
Flexural Strength 500 Kpa
Constant Crushing Pressure 1 Mpa
Young's Modulus E 3500 Mpa
Ice-Cone Friction Coefficient 0.30
Structure Slope from Horizontal
Wedge Angle 45°
Width of Wedge at Tip 5m
Ice Density P, 900 kg m-3
Water Density 1025 kg m-3
Hydrodynamic Drag Coefficient 1.0

92
 Consider first the static
'5r--------------~--,
case. The effect of the ice
f
i
,45
CrushIng Stress 5 0 MPa thickness and the crushing
stress on the applied force for a
S 14 ,0 MPa 60° sloping face (from the
~ horizontal) is shown in Fig 7.
..
1!
i5 ,35
05MPa
The ratio of total horizontal
forces with and without in-plane
effects is plotted. In-plane
effects include the compressive
force in the wedge and the
applied moment induced by the
eccentric application of in-plane
forces at the contact with the
structure. Both of these alter the
Ice ThIckness 1m] force at which flexural failure
Fig 7 Influence of crushing pressure on the ratio of will take place. From Fig 7, it is
horizontal static forces including and excluding obvious that in-plane effects
in-plane effects for a truncated 45° ice wedge cannot be ignored when
against a 60° upward-breaking structure estimating horizontal forces. For
a 1m thick ice sheet and (J c = 1
MPa, the calculated horizontal static load is 33% larger when in-plane effects are
included. An increased constant crushing pressure will tend to increase the load on the
structure because the moment arm, e, for the in-plane horizontal force is greater when
the crushed distance Uc is less. Fig 7 shows that the ratio between the load calculated
with and without in-plane effects increases with the ice thickness.
The 60° face is quite
steep, particularly when one _ 1.5r-~-_ _-~-~---_-_----'
considers a surface with a I
1 45 Slope Angle

friction coefficient as high as j 1 4

c-
0.3. Fig 8 shows that the ~ 1 35
relative influence of in-plane s.
forces is less for shallower @ 1 3
~
angles. :::: , 2S
Ice dynamics are often 12I
excluded when estimating ice ~
forces. We will briefly illustrate 1.15!
how the model was used to i "
estimate the ice speed at which 1!' 05
the dynamics begin to play a ~
role. The number of elements 'O!---:O:'::2-0:'-4:---::'06::--::0'="e-:---',:'::.2:--:-'4:----7, 6::---::,'="e----!2

was reduced to 25 for the Ice Thckness 1m]

dynamic simulations and the Fig 8 Influence of structure slope angle on the ratio of
lengths of the elements were horizontal static forces including and excluding
biased as before. Relating the in-plane effects for a truncated 45° ice wedge
added mass in (1) to m(1 +c",)
for the truncated wedge, where m is the mass of an ice wedge segment, one obtains cm
= 4.5 for h = 0.5m and cm = 1.5 for h = 1.5m at the tip of the wedge. This shows that
added mass, and how it is expressed, can have a significant influence for this geometry.
The results given in Fig 9 show that there is a significant increase in the horizontal
ice force for speeds greater than about 0.2 mls and that this threshold speed increases
with increasing ice thickness. The increase in force is also accompanied by a significant
decrease in the distance from the cone at which flexural failure takes place (Fig 10). This
93
feature has been observed in practice but never quantified.
The changes in the force and failure length seen in Fig 9 and Fig 10 should be
related to the natural frequencies of the ice wedges. Intuitively, the critical velocity should
be that which will cause sufficient deflection to break the ice in approximately one quarter
of a cycle for the lowest (mode 1) vibration frequency. The vertical deflection at failure,
u'lfallure)' for static loading conditions and the frequency for the first mode, 'mooe,. were
calculated for ice thicknesses of 0.5m, 1.0m and 1.5m. The critical relative horizontal
velocity between the ice and structure can then be estimated from

V ,,4 U 1 (failure) 'mooe1 (24)

en1 tan¢·
Velocities of 0.09 mIs, 0.19 mls and 0.31 mls were obtained for ice thicknesses of 0.5m,
1.0m and 1.5m which are in accord with the velocities at which changes in the force and
breaking length were observed in Fig 9 and Fig 10. From these results, it is evident that
the breaking distance for static failure and the first mode frequency are sufficient to
predict the point at which dynamics begin to influence the failure process. Crushing and
in-plane forces do not appear to have a significant influence on the critical velocity of the
impacting ice.

5
Ice Thickness
+ 1.5 m
Z 4 x 1.0m
~ o 0.5m
CD
~
0
u. 3
iii
C
0
N
'g 2
:c

Ice Speed [m/s]

Fig 9 Horizontal ice force at flexural failure as a function of ice speed for 45° wedge
impacting a 60° upward-breaking structure

Ice tank experiments on conical structures conducted at the Institute for Marine
Dynamics indicate that there may be shear failure in the ice sheet adjacent to the cone
at high speeds. The maximum shear stress in the ice near the point of contact was
calculated using (20) for the conditions of Fig 9 and Fig 10. At the instant of flexural
failure, the shear stress was found to increase with speed in a similar manner to the
horizontal force, which is not surprising since the shear stress is a function of the
94
 20

18 Ice Thickness
+ 1.5m
16 x 1.0 m
o 0.5m
14
E
CD
0
12
c
to
Cii 10
is
~
.;! 8
'a
U-
6

0
10-2 10-' 100 10'

Ice Speed [m/sJ

Fig 10 Flexural failure distance from 60° face as a function of ice speed for a 45°
wedge

horizontal force. While the force required to cause flexural failure increased substantially
in Fig 9, the actual force experienced by the structure will be limited by shear or by
another mechanism. We are reluctant to ascribe a shear failure stress with confidence
since we do not believe that crushing is understood well enough. As well, we have
assumed that the mechanics of the ice which influence the maximum ice force do not
depend on the relative speed between ice and structure at the contact point. This is not
always the case, and details of the crushing process will also have an influence on the
mode of failure.

7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The finite element beam/wedge solution has proved to be very useful for estimating the
influence of in-plane forces on the static failure of semi-infinite ice wedges against inclined
slopes. Forty-five degree ice wedges with a 5m contact against a flat slope were
modelled. In-plane forces are significant for faces sloping 60° or more from the horizontal.
The influence is lessened for shallower slopes, for thinner ice and for ice that fails at a
lower crushing pressure.
The dynamic model showed that there is a critical ice speed at which flexural
failure is impeded. Above this speed, the horizontal force increased and the breaking
length decreased, although it is probable that other failure mechanisms such as shear will
limit this force. One implication of the present analysis is that the icebreaking process for
ships should include an inertial component because of the high velocities involved.
When ice impacts a sloping structure with a face nannal to the direction of motion,
there will be considerable ride-up of ice blocks and rubble formation. In the vast majority

95
of cases, ice on the structure will increase the applied force. Provision for both of these
has been made in the model and the results will be reported in a subsequent publication.
The sloping structure was assumed to be rigid in this paper. We have also
investigated flexible structures by connecting a series of vertical beam elements to the
crushing/shearing element.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The initial incentive for the work came from experiments conducted by Arno Keinonen,
Robin Browne and Alan Reynolds, and we thank them for their efforts. The research was
funded, in part, by the Panel on Energy Research and Development through the
Canadian Coast Guard.

REFERENCES
Bathe, K.J. and Wilson, E.L. (1976) Numerical Methods in Finite Element Analysis,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Gagnon, R.E. (1991) Heat Generation during Crushing Experiments on Freshwater Ice,
in Proc. of the 8th International Symposium on the Physics and Chemistry of Ice,
Sapporo, pp.447-455.

Hinton, E. and Owen, D.R.J. (1979) An Introduction to Finite Element Computations,

Pineridge Press Limited, Swansea, U.K., 385p.

Keinonen, A.J., Browne, R. and A. Reynolds (1992) Model/Full Scale Ice Analysis Report
prepared for Transportation Development Centre, Policy and Coordination Group,
Transport Canada.

MAAttanen, M. and Hoikkanen, J. (1990) The Effect of Ice Pile-up on the Ice Force of a
Conical Structure, in Proc. IAHR Ice Symposium, Espoo, Finland, Vol.2, pp.1 01 0-1 021.

Nevel, D.E. (1992) Ice Forces on Cones from Floes, to appear in Proc. 11th International
Symposium on Ice, International Association for Hydraulic Research (IAHR), Banff,
Alberta, Vol. 3.

Sodhi, D.S. (1987) Dynamic Analysis of Failure Modes on Ice Sheets Encountering
Sloping Structures, in Proc. Sixth International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
Symposium (OMAE), Houston, pp.281-284.

Ssrensen, C. (1978) Interaction between Floating Ice Sheets and Sloping Structures,
Series Paper 19, Inst. of Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University
of Denmark, 175p.

Spencer, D. and McKenna, R.F. (1993) Scaling Relations for Icebreaking based on
Analysis of a Simple Wedge, in Proc. 12th International Conference on Port and Ocean
Engineering (POAC), Hamburg, (this volume).

Valanto, P. (1990) Theoretical Investigations of the Icebreaking Cycle in 2-D, in Proc. 9th
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symposium, Houston, Vol.IV, pp.111-126.

96
 Factors Influencing the Coefficient of Friction
Between Sea Ice and Various Materials

Naoki Nakazawa Engmeer Pacific Consultants. Sapporo. Japan

Takashi Terashima Engineer Ditto
HiroshI Saeki Professor Hokkaido Univ .. Sapporo. Japan
Toshiyuki Ono Research Assistant Dino

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the summary of the coefficIent of friction test between sea ice and vari-
ous construction materials conducted by the authors.
Through the several years expenmental studies on ice-material friction. the following con-
clusions have been drawn by the authors [1.2]. The coefficient of friction have been found to be
affected by i) relative velocity. ii) sea ice temperature. and iii) surface roughness of construc-
tion materials.
In order to quantify the ice pleasure agamst offshore structures and the frictional resistance
between floating sea ice and ice-breaking ships. coefficient of ice-friction studies have been
conducted by Arnold [3]. Oksanen [4], Tabata and Tsushima [5. 6], Forland and Tatinclaux [7],
Kishi et al [8], Itagaki and Huber [9]. etc. The effects of the factors influencing the ice-friction
in these studies are also compared and summarized in this paper.

1. INTRODUCTION
Since fracturing of sea ice is more easily induced by bending rather than compression, in-
clined-pile and cone-type structures are usually considered more effiCIent. In this case. the
relationships of the coeffiCIents of friction between sea ice in various conditions and construc-
tion materials must be evaluated. Also of importance is the minimization of frictional resistance
between floating sea ice and ice-breaking ships.
When a solid interacts wIth another of much greater hardness, as in the case of ice with
concrete or steel. the frictional resistance developed in the area of interaction may be attributed
almost entirely to shearing forces - if the normal stress is sufficiently high. This phenomenon
occurs when the surface of the softer material (ice in this study) is forced by the normal stress
into conformity with the surface irregularities of the harder material (steel or concrete) [10].
Therefore, in the case of a sufficiently high normal stress, any movement of one solid rela-
tive to the other will be accompanied by shearing of the softer material's surface irregularities.
In order to evaluate the frictional characteristics of the ice and concrete or steel interface,

97
the relationships between the coefficients of friction and the surface roughness of the construc-
tion materials (concrete/steel) were investigated.
Experiments were conducted using various construction matenals in order to evaluate the
effects of the follwing :
( i) contact area.
(i i) normal stress.
(iii) growth direction of sea ice.
(i\') relative velocity (i. e .. velocity of test specimen relative to the sea ice).
( \' ) water in the sea ice and construction material interface.
(vi) sea ice temperature.
(vii) surface roughness of construction material.

TESTING APPARATUS AND METHOD

A diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The apparatus was designed with
consideration of the following:
( i) use of various construction material test specimens.
(i i) variable normal stress.
(iii) use of variously sized sea ice samples,
(iv) variable relative velocity.
( v) submersion of test interface.
A horizontally mobile test platform was used. The platform was powered by a hydraulic
jack. On this platform. variolls construction material te~t specimens were secllrely placed. The
sea ice sample was then placed upon the test specimen. Static vertical loading was accom-
plished by placing weights on the steel cap protecting the ice sample. The sea ice sample re-
mamed immobile relative to the test bed. while the relative velocity between the ice sample and
test specimen was controlled by varying the hydraulic pressure applied to the jack.

TEST MATERIALS
Of the commonly used construction matenals for coastal and offshore structures. four types
of steel and one concrete were used in this study:
( i ) steel plate - uncoated and uncorroded.
(i i) steel plate - uncoated but corroded by sea water.
(iii) steel plate - coated with marine paint: ZEBRON.
(iv) steel plate - coated with marine paint: INERTA 160.
( v) concrete - smoothed by trowel.
Cylindrical ice samples were used because they are easy to obtain using a coring auger and
are less likely to become damaged. The original ice block was obtained from Saroma Lagoon,

98
Sea of Okhotsk. The sample diameters were 4.5cm. 1O.0cm and 15.0cm. respectively. with a
height of IOcm. The standard samples had a diameter of 10cm.

TEST RESULTS
The authors will limit their discussion to the effect of i) contact area. ii) normal stress. iii)
relative velocity. ivY ice temperature and v) material surface roughness. More detaIls of the
author's study can be refferd to their papers [l. 2].

1 Ct)ntact Area Effects. The results for uncoated steel plate (uncorroded) are shown in Fig.
2. The coefficient of kinetic friction (fJ. k) shows almost no change despite an II times increase
in apparent contact area. Although the difficulty of precisely measunng the coefficient of static
friction ( fJ. s) caused significant scatter of the data. it can be concluded that this coefficient is
also relatively independent of the apparent contact area. The other materials tested (coated
steel, corroded steel and concrete) showed similar results. The grain size of the sea ice used in
this study was between 8-12mm.
The experimental results indicate that both coefficients of friction are relatively indipendent
of contact area: satisfying Amontons' 1st law.

2 Normal Stress Effects. The results for the uncoated steel plate (uncorroded) test specI-
men are shown in Fig. 3. The coefficient of kinetic friction ( fJ.) with the uncoated steel test
specimen remained constant and independent of normal stress ( a ) in the range tested. The
coefficient of static friction ( fJ. s ) approached constancy when a, ~ 0.5MPa.
The decrease of fJ. s (approaching a constant) with increasing a, can be attributed to the
visco-elastic properties of ice. The surface irregularities of the ice are destroyed by the normal
stress. thereby producing a smoother surface. This effect increases until the normal stress ex-
ceeds the plastic failure limit for the ice sample. Above this stress limit. fJ. s approaches a
constant value.
The result conferms to Amonton's 2nd law: fJ. s above a cntical normal stress level.

3 Effects of Relative Velocity. The effects ofrelative velocity on the coefficients of friction
is important for ice-breaking ships as well as for stationary structures. Experimental results for
uncoated steel (uncorroded) and concrete test specimens are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The rela-
tive velocity test range was between 0.04 and 130cmls. For both materials. the coefficients of
friction decreased with increasing relative velocity. approaching a constant at approximately
3cmls for uncoated steel test specimens and 30cmls for concrete.
Below these critical values. it appears that the lower relative velocitIes enable greater inter-
action to occur between the surface irregularities of the ice sample and test specimen. At higher

99
relative velocllies the actual contact area appears to be lessened due to the irregulariues tending
to "ride over" rather than mesh with each other.

4 Effects of Ice Temperature. In general. the strength of ice depends on its temperature.
The sea ice surface irregularitIes. which are meshed with those of the test specimen. are sheared
at the onset of relative motIOn. Because the shear strength of ice increases with decreasing
temperature [II], the coefficient of static friction will also Increase due to the greater stress
required to shear the meshed ice irregularities.
The experimental relations between the coefficients of frictIOn and ice temperature are
shown In Fig. 6 for ~L, and Fig. 7 for /1 k' When the temperature is varied. the coefficient of
kinetic friction IS not greatly affected. Although the results for the coefficient of static friction
are complicated by the effects of the test specimen surface condition. it can be concluded that /1
5 in general increases with decreasing ice temperature.
From these results It can be inferred that test specimen's surface roughness affected the
coefficients of friction's sensitivity to ice temperature: /1 5 • which in general increased with
decreasing ice temperature. was more greatly affected than ~L k •

5 Effects of Surface Roughness of Construction Material Specimens. Figures. 6 and 7

show that the coefficients of fnction not only vary with materials but also depend on the condi-
tion of their surfaces. Surface analyses. using a high-accuracy surface roughness meter. were
conducted on three kinds of concrete and four kinds of steel plate. The relation of the coeffi-
cients of frictlon with Ii (mean wave height of irregularities) are shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen
that the coefficients of kinetic friction increase with increasing wave height (Ii).
For the test with high relative velocity (V ~ 30 cm/S). /1 ( is much smaller than the test with
low relative velocity (V < I cm/s). The details of the velocity effect are presented in subsection
3 in "TEST RESULTS" section.

DISCUSSION
In order to quantify the ice pressure against offshore structures and the frictional resistance
between floating sea ice and ice-breaking ships. coefficients of ice-friction studies have been
conducted by Arnold [3]. Oksanen [4], Tabata and Tsushima [5, 6], Forland and Tatinclaux [71.
Kishi et al [8]. Itagaki and Huber [9], etc.
As mentioned previously, the coefficients of friction can be affected by various factors:
such as normal stress. relative velocity. and material's surface condition. etc. The effects of
these factors as reported in the aforementioned studies are compared and summarized in the
following.

100
 1 Normal Stress. Table I summarizes the effect of normal stress on the coefficients of
fm:t1on as reponed in various studies. The studies can be roughly divided into two groups:
normal stress up to 0.02 :YIPa and normal stress up to 1.00 MPa. The first group includes studies
by Oksanen [4]. Forland and Tatinclaux [7]. and Arnold [3]. The second group includes the
present study as well as Tabata's [5. 6].
Ok~anen [4J. usmg normal stresses from 0.001 to 0.005 MPa. found that f.J. k decreased with
increasing normal ~tress when ice was tested with the following materials : steel, concrete,
wood, various surface coatings. and some plastics. /1, showed no systematic correlation to
normal stress levels.
Forland and Tatinclaux [7]. studymg kinetic friction between ice and stainless steel. found
that f.J. k decreased with increasing normal stress and approached a constant value when a y ~ O.
007MPa
Arnold [3] measured the coefficient of static friction between ice and smooth or painted steel
using normal stress levels from 0.001 to 0.02 MPa. f.J., was found to decrease with increasing
normal stress - approaching a constant value when a y ~ 0.012MPa.
Tabata and Tsushima [5. 6]. using normal stresses up to 0.23 MPa. measured the coefficient
of kinetic friction between sea ice and various metals. plastics. and coatings. He concluded that
with most test materials f.J. k varies little with normal stress. This is consistent with the present
study.
These studies demonstrate that the coefficient of kinetic friction decreases to approach a
constant value as the normal stress is increased. This occurs at a normal stress level which is
dependent on various factors: i. e .. surface roughness. ice hardness. etc. Thus Amontons' 2nd
law is satisfied when the normal stress is large.

2 Relative Velocity. Table 2 summarizes the effect of relative velocity on the coefficients of
friction as reponed in various studies.
Tabata and Tsushima [5], using relative velocities up to 0.2cmls. concluded that f.J. k for most
test materials decreases with increasing relative velocity.
Although results varied with test configuration. Forland and Tatinclaux [7] found in the
majority of tests that the coefficients of kinetic friction either decreased or exhibited little
change as the relative velocity was increased from 5 to 25cmls.
Oksanen [4] found the coefficients offriction for concrete, steel. and coated steel behaved in
a manner similar to the results of the present study when using following test conditions: ice
temperatures less than - 5°C. relative velocities of 50 to 300cmls, and a maximum normal stress
200 times smaller than in the present study.
These results agreed qualitatively with the findings of the present study.

101
 3 Estimation of Friction Coefficient. The effect of matenal surface roughness on the coef-
ficients of fnction is reported by Kishi et al (8]. Itagaki and Huber (9]. and Saeki et al [1. 2].
These studies show that the coefficients of friction greatly depend on the materials surface
roughness. and they also indicate the importance of the material's surface analyses when the
friction tests are conducted.
Figure 9 shows the coefficient of kinetic friction between sea ice and concrete. corroded
steel and uncoated steel. The area between the lines of each material is the range of coefficient
of friction obstamed from our five years friction tests. Mean wave height of irregularities is
shown beSide the data line.

REFERENCES
1 Saeki. H.. Ono. T.. Takeuchi. T.. Kanie. S. and Nakazawa. N. "The Coefficient of
Friction Between Sea Ice and Various Materials Used in Offshore Structure." OCT '84.
Houston U. S. A.. Vol. 1 pp. 375 - 382. 1984.
2 Saeki. H .. Ono. T .. Nakazawa. N.. Sakai. M. and Tanaka. S. "The Coefficient of Friction
Between Sea Ice and Various Materials Used in Offshore Structures." Journal of Energy
Resources Technolgy. Transaction of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Vol.
108.1986.
3 Arnold - Alabieff. V. I. "The External FrictIOn of Ice." Journal of Technical Physics. Vol.
7. No.8. 1937.
4 Oksanen. P. "Coefficient of Friction Between Ice and Some Construction Materials. Plastics
and Coatings ... Laboratory of Structual Engineering. Report 7. Technical Research of
Finlad. Espoo. Apr. 1980.
5 Tabata. T.. and Tsushima. K.. "Friction Measurements of Sea Ice on Flat Plates Metals.
Plastics and Coatings." Proceedings. Vol. 1. The 5th International Conference on Port and
Ocean Engineering Under Arctic Conditions (POAC 79). Trondheim. Norway. August 13 -
18.1979.
6 Tabata. T.. and Tsushima . K. "Friction Measurements of Sea Ice on Some Plastics and
Coatings." Proceedings. Vol. 1. The 6th International Conference on Port and Ocean Engi-
neering Under Arctic Conditions (POAC 81), Quebec. Canada. July 1981.
7 Forland. K. A.. and Tatinclaux. J. c.. "Laboratory Investigation of the Kinetic Friction
Coefficient of Ice." Proceedings. IAHR Ice Symposium. Hamburg, W. Germany. 1984.
8 Kishi. S .• Yamauchi. Y.. Inoue. M. and Narita. S. "The Friction Coefficient Between
Model Ice and Roughened Model Surface." Procedings. The Seventh International Sympo-
sium on Okhotsk Sea & Sea Ice. Mombetsu. Japan. February 2 - 5. 1992.
9 Itagaki. K. and Huber, N. P. "Measurement of Dynamic Friction of Ice." Physics and
Chemistry of Ice. Hokkaido University Press. 1992. Sapporo. Japan.

102
10 Bowden. F. P.• and Tabor. D. The Friction and Lubrication of Solids. The Delegates of the
Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1954.
11 Saeki. H .. Ono. T .• Niu en Zong. and Nakazawa. N. "Experimental Study on Direct Shear
Strength of Sea Ice. " International Symposium on Snow and Ice Processes at the Earth's
Surface. lOS. Sapporo. September 2-7. 1984.

Table 1 Summary of normal stress etTecrs

Author IJ. a II(MPa) Material Comments
Steel. concrete.
Oksanen[4] IJ.k 0.001.$. a II .$.O.OOS coatings. plastics IJ. k decreases with increasing a I)

Forland and IJ. k decreases and approaches

Taunclaux[7] IJ.k 0.001 .$. a II .$.0.04 Stainless steel
constant for a II ~ 0.007 MPa
Arnold[3] IJ.s 0.001 .$. a II .$.0.02 Painted steel IJ. s decreases with increasing a /I

Tabata and Metals. plastics.

Tsushima[S.6] IJ.k 0.003.$. a II.$. 0.23 coatings independent of a II

IJ.s Uncoated steel. IJ. k : independent of a II

Present syudy 0.10 .$. a II.$. 1.00 coated steel. IJ. s decreases and approaches
IJ.k concrete constant for a II ~ O.SO MPa

Table 2 Summary of relative velocity etTecrs

Author IJ. Vfcm/s) Material Comments
Tabata and 3.5X 10·5.$.Vs .$.0.20 Metals. plastics. IJ. k decreases with increasing Vs
Tsushima[S.6] IJ.k coaungs
Stainless steel. In majority of tests. IJ. k
Forland and
Taunclaux[7] IJ.k S.O.$. Vs .$.2S.0 alminium. decreases with increasing Vs
lNERTA 160 or is Independent
IJ. sand 11 k decrease and
Uncoated steel. approach constant for
Present syudy IJ.s
O.04.$.V s .$.IIO coated steel. Vs ~ 3cm/s - uncoated steel.
IJ.k concrete Vs ~ 30cm/s - concrete
Uncoated steel. T .$. - S'C. IJ. k decreases and
Oksanen[4] IJ.k SO.0.$.Vs.$.300 coated steel. approaches constant with
concrete increasing Vs

103
 06
UNCOATED STEE:.. (UNCORRODED)

05 Vs 1 3 - 1 4 crnIsec
T -20--30'C
Stress 02 MPa
04r

il
03[ f-- ils

02

01 1r -~-~--§- ilk

J 0 10 15
0/DgI

Fig. 1 Diagram of experimental setup Fig. 2 Effects of contact area for uncoated
steel (uncorroded)

06r-----------------------------
UNCOATED STEEL (UNCORRODEDI 03r--------------------------.
UNCOATED STEEL (UNCORRODEDI
05 Vs , 3 - , 4 em/sec
T -B'C
" 10cm
T ·23- ·3S·C " lOcm
04 Slress 02 MPa

!l 03
. 02
• jJ,

.. ..
~
; o jJ k
'. : /.ls

0.2 .~------I--·-
. . 01
o
~
~o---- g ~
•
,.. .
o • :;,.........
.. . ... ;

~ ~~
: ~o_--
01 o .'
o 0 0

02 04 06 08 10 12 10 10° 10 I 10'
G, (MPa) V (em/s)

Fig. 3 Effects of normal stress ( a,) for un- Fig. 4 Effects of relative velocity (Vs) for
coated steel (uncorroded) uncoated steel (uncorroded)

03 _ •• 07r---------------------------,

~
CONCRETE Stress 02 MPa
• il, 06 v lScm's
0-.., ••

02
00
.
0 0
0 Ilk
05
o 100Tl

COARODED STeEL

~
I
o • ~ • • 04
o---~.­ il, CONCRETE

o 03 U~COATED STeEL
o
0.1 (UNCORRODED)
02
T
o
-B'C
10an 01 ~ COATED STEEL (INERTA 160)
Stress 02 MPa
OOL-~~--~~~--~~--~~~
10° 10 I 10 2 o -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 ·9 -10
V (em/s) T rei
Fig. 5 Effects of relative velocity (V sl for Fig. 6 Relation between /.L 5 and T for vari-
concrete ous materials

104
 03,--------------------------, 0.3,--------------,
SU'ess 02 MPa
V , SemIS

/-
" lOan
/CONCRSTE

02 0.2

-------
I COQRODED STE::L

0,
'UNCOATED STEEL {UNCO:::<.RODEiJj ";, /:.-~~
'COATED STEEL (INEATA 160)
CD
v> JOcm/s
oc~~~--~----~~----~~~
o ., '2 '3 '4 ·5 '6 '7 ·8 '9 "0
T (C)
h (mm)
Fig. 7 Relation between fl k and T for vari- Fig. 8 Relation between fl k and wave hei-
ous matenals ght of irregularities (ii)

03-------------------------------, 02r-~------------------------,
S.ess 02 MPa SITess 0.2 MPa
v 'SemIS v ,.semis
o 'Oem O.17mm o 'Oem
Ii = O.027mm
, , ( ; ,(,/

02
CORRODED STEEL
~k 01
CONCRETE «

Ii = O.013mm
01
« « ( ( I (( ( (I (((tLL

h = O.007mm
OO~~--~~--~--~~--~~--~~ ooL-~--~~--~~--~------~~
o ., '2 '3 '4 ·5 '6 ·7 ·8 ·9 '10 o ., '2 '3 ·4 ·5 '6 ·7 '8 . 9 '10
T (e) T (e)

a) concrete b) corroded steel

02-------------------------------,
Stress 02 MPa
V 1 Son's
o 'Oem

O.002mm

01
UNCOATED STEEL

, , C

h = O.OOlmm
Fig. 9 Obtained value of coefficient of kin-
etic friction between sea ice and (a)
ooL-~--~~--~~--~~--~~~
o ., '2 '3 ·4 ·5 '6 ·7 ·8 ·9 '10 corroded steel, (b) uncoated steel
T (e) and (c) concrete as a function of
c) uncoated steel ice temperature.

105
 MECHANICS OF NATURAL DEFORMING SEA ICE FLOES

Victor Smimov Arctic and Antarctic Russia

Research Institute St. Petersburg

ABSTRACT

Mechanics of deforming sea ice floes under a compression and for wave conditions
was investigated in the Arctics and Antarctic Strainmeters, stressmeters, tiltmeters and
seismometers have been used Values of strains and stresses for different flexures of ice floes
have been determined. It was found that phenomena of "stick-slip" and self-excited
oscillations exist during interactions "ice floe - ice floe" and "ice floe- iceberg".

1. INTRODUCTION

The mechanics of deforming sea ice floes is studying carefully now. The correct
knowledge of dynamic and quasistatic mechanisms of natural deforming and destruction of
sea ice near offshore structures will make it possible to predict dangerous ice phenomena.
Observations by Hunkins (1962), Smimov & Shushlebin (1990), Smimov (1991) and
Wadhams (1986) revealed an ability of an ice plate to reflect different processes in the
atmosphere and in the sea A necessity of investigating the ice mechanics in larger scales has
arisen. It will permit us to construct large scale models of ice interactions with shores, the bed
and with offshore structures (Frederking, 1989, Nikitin et aI., 1992).
This paper presents a short description of ice phenomena being of interest for
exploring polar regions, these phenomena are important for calculations of ice loads on
offshore engineering structures, maximum load of an ice cover, predictions of dangerous ice
phenomena, etc.

106
2. DESCRIPTION OF ICE PHENOMENA

Let us consider a few examples of large scale deforming sea ice floes during different
kinds of interactions and under an influence of surface and internal waves
2.1. A grows of stresses in the ice can be connected with dynamic and quasistatic
forces If the stresses have been measured inside the ice close to another floe or to a vertical
wall, the ice load can be calculated according to empiric formula:

where (j x, (j max the normal stress on the distance x from the contact and at the
contact, correspondingly; h, , the ice thickness; k, the empiric coefficient.
Ice load calculations was performed for pack ice, fast ice, stamukhas, and for the ship
side. The range of measured stresses was sufficiently wide. The maximum values of them made
up2MPa.
An influence of the ice compacting increase on a drifting ice floe is illustrated by the
curves on the Fig.I. A compression resulted in buckling of the plate, and, therefore, in an
increase of strains ana stresses up to 10 (Fig.la). Additionally to these stresses, at the
moment t\ other deforming processes (up to 0.02 MPa) arose. Strainmeters, stressmeters and
tiltmeters detected synchronous periodic stresses of saw-like shape. Each period of increase
and drop of the stress apparently caused by an appearance of self-excited oscillation system:
compressed crack in the ice floe under the constant force. At the moment t\ an intermittent
movement of the crack sides began (effect "stick-slip"). The period of cyclic changes of
buckling was about 20 s (Fig. Ic). A slip started exactly when the stresses on the sides of the
crack amounted to the strength of the ice on shift. There were up to 7 pairs increase-drop of
stresses in a group of the "stick-slip" process. So during the process of shifting and slipping
elastic waves being generated, they are spreading on long distances. There are narrow spikes at
the frequencies of 0 3 to 3 Hz in the spectrum. The duration of these self-excited oscillations
may be up to a few dozens min., i.e. the velocity and the compression force of this friction
slipping are constant during relatively long time. The oscillations stopped only when the
boundary is destroyed or the force disappears( t ,,) .
Self-excited friction oscillations can play a prognostic role for a prediction of sea ice
compression. According to statistics the appearance of self oscillations usually anticipates

107
 -6
c,IO C1.)
20

10

Q :2 4- €I 8 10 1'2. lit t, hour's

I 0,02 MPa
NP-23 b)

a 20 40 60 80 LOa t, s
A,
MKM
c) Fig.1 strains of
Ifa ice cover (a) ,
stress when
stick slip (b) and
spectrum of waves
when slipping in
SO compacted crack(C).

OA O.b 0.8 f,Hl

Fig.2 Scheme of formation of stick slip when ice compacting

108
changes In meteorologic or ice conditions (Smirnov & Shushlebin, 1990; Smirnov et aI.,
1993).
An explaining scheme is drawn in Fig.2.
Two hypotheses for the explanation of this phenomenon can be proposed.
The first one follows. A displacement of a part of the floe in the transverse direction
(relative to the crack direction) causes a buckling of the ice floe and a gradual increase of the
stress in the interface zone. At a moment the ice inside the boundary zone being destroyed and a
clearance between the parts of the floe is appearing. The flat shape of the floe is restoring and a
sliding in the longitudinal direction is going on due to a decrease of the friction between the
sides of the crack.
An alternative explanation is based on the phenomenon of self-excited oscillations,
arising due to nonlinear dependence of friction upon the velocity. The velocity of one part of
the floe in relation to another part remains zero until static friction is larger than elastic
deformation forces. As the elastic force begins to exceed the static friction, the sliding starts.
After that during some period the edge of the floe does not move due to the static friction.
The self-oscillation of a point in the crack can be described by the equation:

.a
where Z, a displacement of a point along the crack, P = c/m; c, parameter, being proportional to
h-... of the ice plate and to the moduls of elasticity; m, a parameter, having a dimension
of mass and depending upon h-,;, the density and elasticity of the ice, v, the relative

velocity of displacement; t, the time, 1\( and Rdyn , static and dynamic frictions.
2.2. During observations of interactions between the sea ice and Arctic icebergs
(drifting ice islands) it has been noted a phenomenon of slitting ice floes by icebergs Pack ice
was destroyed in this process by crashing, cutting and buckling.
The instruments on the iceberg and on the ice floe was recording mechanics of ice
deforming and waves, both elastic and gravitational ones, in the period range up to 100 s
(flexural-gravity waves and bobbing oscillations).
The tilts of the Antarctic iceberg during the slitting of the ice floe and the spectra of
oscillations are shown in the Fig.3. The destruction ofthe ice floe is accompanied by the iceberg
tilts (Fig 3c) and by the appearance of self-excited system "iceberg-ice floe". The buckling of

109
 d)
4 - - ICE FIELD

a 20 40 60 80 100 t, S

Fig.3 Interactions
between ice field
and iceberg (a),
tilts of iceberg (b)
and spectrum of
oscillations of
iceberg and
ice field (c)

frequency. Hz

110
the ice floe in this case (like that in the previous case) is associated with extremal stresses in the
contact zone. The stable periodicity of iceberg tilts seems to be curious. The saw-like shape of
the deforming and tilts is observed in essentially different ice conditions, like the picture in the
Fig. 1c. During the sliding elastic waves with the frequency about 1 Hz are observing close to the
boundary. The source of this friction self-excited oscillations is located either in the interface
iceberg - floe, or in a crack of the floe.
2.3. Stresses and strains in sea ice associated with elastic and gravitational waves
result quite often in regular cracks in the ice cover The similar process perhaps takes place in
larger scale: regular structures of cracks (like a mosaic) are seen from satellites. This
"mosaic" apparently can be explained by elastic and plastic deformations under the permanent
forces of synoptic scale. Wave phenomena in this case can play a role of trigger mechanism for
an already been strained ice cover.
A generalized scheme (Fig.4) of wave and oscillation spectrum, firstly proposed by
Hunkins (1962) and supplemented by us on the base of recent Arctic and Antarctic
measurements follows.
i) The range of periods 0 01 to 10 0 s is an inherent property of cracking, destruction and
hummocking of the ice.
ii) Cracks arise during heat compression and expansion of the ice, drops of stress take place and
elastic waves with periods 0.01 to lOs are generated.
iii) During the ice hummocking, when the ice being destructed by buckling, the so called
"flexural-gravity" waves are generated, they fade very soon (periods I s to 10 s).
iv) A phenomenon of velocity resonance arises quite often in the range of periods 4 to 12 s: the
phase velocity of waves may be close to the wind velocity; in this case the amplitude of waves
increases, strains become destructive (Hunkins, 1962; Wadhams, 1986).
v) Self-excited oscillations arise due to ice floe motions with the friction (periods 0.5 to 3s).
vi) Swell waves and waves from crashing down glaciers and iceberg generation occur with
periods 15 to 60 s (Smirnov, 1991; Wadhams, 1986).
vii) Short period internal ocean waves impact the ice cover, the system of progressive waves in
it has period of about 30 min. and phase velocities up to 1 mls (Smirnov, 1972).
viii) Bobbing 0 f ·Icebergs and shelf glaciers have penods
. 10 2. to 10 It s (Hunkins, 1962;
Wadhams, 1986).
The whole picture may not restricted by the considered kinds of waves and
oscillations.

111
 A,m
Fig.4 Scheme of
ro- I 5 spectrum of wave
and oscillation
ro-2 amplitudes in
sea ice (addition
to K.Hunkins
I 0-3 2 scheme [1962)
1 , 2 - elastic wave
ro-4 6 3-6 - gravity wave

ro- 5
ro- 6
ro-7 1 - cracking;
2 - compacting;
ro-8 3 - swell;
4 - calving;
ro- 9 ~ -
glacier
tongue;
ro- I LO~-eOG 6 - internal
SC!ocee. wave.

IO-I I ro ro 2 T, s
IO I ro- I ro- 2 f, Hz.

3.CONCLUSION

Studying the impact of static and dynamic forced on the sea ice would permit us to
elucidate the mechanics of the ice cover deformations of different time and space scales. The
considered examples of ice phenomena can be expanded to considerably larger scales. In
particular, for example, ice observations should be accompanied by satellite images of the
ice cover.

4. ACKNOWLEDG.MENTS

The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr.P.Wadhams and

Dr.R.Pilkington for helpful notes and discussions.

112
5. REFERENCES

Hunkins K. (1962), "Waves on the Arctic Ocean," J.Geophys.Res., Vol. 67, No

6. p.2477-2489
Frederking R. (1989). "An introduction to the Measurement and Interpretation
of Dynamic Ice Loads on Complaint Structures" IAHR Special Report 89-5, pp
167-187.
Martin S., Drucer R. (1991) "Observations of Short-Period Ice Floe Accelerations
During Leg II of the Polarbjorn Drift" J.Geophys.Res., vol. 96, pp 10567-10580.
Nikitin V.A., Shushlebin A I, Sheikin lB. (1992). "In-situ Stress Measurements in
Fast Ice and Possible Tidal Loads on Structures". Proc. of the second Int. Offshore and
Polar Eng. Conference, USA, 1992, pp
Smirnov V.N. (1991). "Wave deformations of Sea Ice Floes in the Antarctic due to
storms and icebergs". Proc. 1st Int. Offshore and Polar Eng. Conf, ISOPE, vol. 2, pp
510-514, Edinburgh.
Smirnov V.N. (1972). "Oscillations of the ice cover, governed by internal waves
of Arctic Ocean," Dokl AN SSSR Vol. 206, No 5 pp 1105-1108.

Smirnov V.N., Shushlebin A.I. (1990) "The results of the studies on natural deformation
of sea ice fields". Proc. of the First European Offshore Mechanics Symposium, Norway,
pp.512-S16.
Smirnov V.N., Korostelev Y.G., Stepanov LB. (1993)
"Physico-Mechanical Model of Self-Excited Processes by Sea Ice Compacting" Proc.
of the Third Int. Offshore and Polar Eng Conf, Korea. pp.
Wadhams P (1986); "The seasonal ice zone· in the Geophysics of sea ice," Nato
ASI series, Vol. 146 pp 825-991.

113
 A l\!IETHOD FOR DETERl\!IINING THE
ANISOTROPIC FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
OF ICE

Lars Iv!. Stehn l)('pcutlllellt01 C'I\ II 1'..llglllt·(,IIJl~

Research Asslstent Lulea I,; nil ""It I' ot Tedlilolol; \
S-951 87 Lulea

Samuel J, DeFranco Department of CiVil and El1\'ilOIlmental U.S.A

Research Assistent Engineenng, Clarkson U niver<Hty
John p, Dempsey Pot')dam. ?liew York. 13699-,5710
Professor

ABSTRACT
The influence of structural a11l50tlOp) on the 1I det UI<> loughne" of ')1 type fre5hwater ice
was investIgated by f<ll)Jicatmg dnd te,tmg three dJllewu, rldC'Ule 1',eollle'l'Ie, [10m a single
ice core, The Ice was tested at -16°(' using the (,hel Ion Edge \fotth Round Bar in Bending
(CENRBB) a ?l10chfiE'd Short Rod eheVIOII Not( hed ('\,[Sf(C',\~ ,p('cilllen and the Se11l1-
Circular Bend (SeE) "peUIIlf'Il B\ I hI' 1)1 O( (-'ri 11 I", " ( 01111'1('1 (' ,,"i,ol I OJ)I(, "1'1'''1 C'111 h act.II!('
toughness (I\Q) thaldClel'lZdllOIl " 1'0>'1],1(' 11(1I1i 011(' «)I(' 111<' '1)<'(1111('11' (dll be pI('palcd
with very littl(' llldtilltllll~. rill .... dpprOrlCil I .... lIWI('!()1(' "'1111.dllt' lot 11<,111 Ilc·ld ..-1 lid . ..-h III
this work, laboralol) ,tudiC', Th('l'(, I' d \\Id(' '(.111('1 111111<' I'q IC',(iIl, hili 111<' ,'ppdlelll
fracture toughness wa" foulld to 1)(' IllgllCI 101 U dlk, p('lj)(,IILiltlildl ,lien to! Cl'dtj;" parallel
to the c-axis and the columnar glail1", PO"lble e'\pldllalioIlo; to! th" <lmbigllous behavior
are dIscussed in term'> of miclOstlucLlll'ul lllfiuence, and "peCll11<m &Ize effects,

1 INTRODUCTION
Thele alP '5f'\"er,d IneC'hallhlll<'" 01 ]( (-> tr (H! III t-> In ell1 H ('-..,1 t ll( 1111 (' 1111('1 de t 1011 C'\ ('111: '-lprlilillg.

ladlal 01 CIICUllli(-'J(-'111r,11 nel< kllig 1II)1I-('ld ..... ' j{ 11111 k!1!l~ <lltd 1111' 1I('\lIldl !ltodl' oj Idlllll<'

The.;;e hactul<:> IIlOcic"I 1('/>1(-· ... (·111 1IIdl'])('1H]('111 (ldC!...I!I!.!, (d .... (· .... \\lllt \dIII1I1011 .... III \11(' (ld(1\

plane and cr(lck pI Up<l~dt 1011 elir (.( llull I <']d 11\ (. t () 111<' 1('\1 lit (' ( .... hdpt' 01 111<' ~1(\l1l"") dlld idhrl(

(orientation of t.lw I;lall1') oj IIIP 1«' '1'11('''' (lil(I-I,I<1I1(, ,,,1<1 (1<1(1- PIOJl<'g"tIOIl diIC(tiOIl'
ale def1ned II1 FIg,UIC 1 ac('ordlllg t.o Ihe (OIIl"IIII()11 III [><11--.011' ('I,d. (lLJS6), TIl(' fll'st.let.tC'l'
Identine" thilt ,lIe CI<1ck 1'1<111<" "<'Ilhel (II) IIU"%OI1I,d 01 (Ii \(:Itl(<l1. tlIe v'(ond letter
identIfie~ that the dllcctlOIl at (li,,1; l)1oJ>"g,«lloll " ('111«(,1 (1/) 11011%OIlI,d or (Ii "'l'tleat.
The inHuence o( (\1I1..,oIIOP' Oil Ild( 1111(' tOLI~!IIl(''''''''' (II ~I 11C· .... II\\dlc·1 iu' ha.., !lOt. r('-

ceived much att.entlolllIl tllP 10ICI"I11I<' (J\oll(, Iq~l, J)<1I1I1c11ko, 1<)8::i, J)C'IllPS<'Y et al.,1988;
Demp5ey and 'I'Ve I. 1989) FIlii hell 1101<', til<' '(dllCI IIPlt,dl) obsen'ecl in ice testing can
only partially be accollnted for b~ '1"'( II11('n "ZC' effecb, Aftel all. there are two size effects:
a specimen ,ize efrect dml a gl<llli ,1/(' ('fl'('( t, \\'helJ t.h(' fLncture "pecimen i5 too small with
l(";IW(t to L:n<'<ll EL"II( f-\<lCI<lI<' \1(,( 11.1<11<' I/.I:F.\I) (OI1'II""lh ,mel till' grulll ,iz('.

114
 HH VV VH
vClli<...:t.l Ollcnldtloll vertical Orienta tlon
horizontal orientation
vertical propagatloll horizontal propagation
horizontal propagation

Figure 1: Schematic showing the notation fOl the lillee Pllncipal cldck ol'lentation and
crack plopagatlOn dll cet 1011'3

it is notch inSensItIVe and a repre'3entatll'e ftaclllJe elenl i, not measllled (Demp5ey, 1991:
Dempsey et aI., 1992). When thele ale too ["II g','"" '" III!-' llotch uo>,-,ectioll. tlte rull
confining effect imposed by nelghbollllg glrlll1' (polycl, ,talillll!.,) IS lIOt mobilized . .\ddl-
tionally, If the imtial notch eneh I\'itlnn d gldln. the local ollentation. not tlte global e-ax"
orientation mea$llled over the II'hole agglega!.e. ot ,I,at gldll' tlld~ in I,llge part deternnne
the energy needed to inltiat.e and plOpag,'te' a (lMi; Til" " '1)(',i,,11I impOItdllt 1'01 large'
grained SI ice.
This paper ill\estigatC''-I ttl<' illlll\('JI«' 01 III<' .... !IIt1IUI,d dl11-.(JIIOP' 1I .... llIg 1111('(' dd/{'I('lil

fractme ,peCinlf'lh alld 11<',11\1,,1"1 '-,1 "" "I -Ii> 0(' 01,,·,,1 II II I'UI I"",,· lUI 11"ld ,I lid"" I'
the development of d frdctUl<' 1I1dllOdolugl 1"'IIg (01<' '1)('( 1111('11'

2 METHOD
A common feature of all oft.he abOle 'Iuciif-"" lit" IIf'«'",11 10 clIl tlw bf'am, both hOl'lzOJ1-
tally and vertically in OJ dr>l t.o 1111·",11:;" te I I", III n11('11' f' 01 ,I Illel III rll ,1111'30t 101" III t.he field,
this 1'3 d difficult and l'0.,,,bh rldll<;(,Il)'" 1,,0«'d1"" dlld '"'1''''''' tillck ic" 1'01 t.h" 'I'(,CIII](-'Il'
to be of a large sIze. TIt" lead to tit" df'I('lul'''1C'1I1 01 d IIlf'litod """.'; (ol<,-I",,(·d It"f-
ture geometne5: the Chel'ron Edge r\otch I~olllld 13", III 13f'lldlllg (CE:\'U.13f3). t.h" Mocltfleci
ShOlt Rod ChevlOn Not.ched (MS!(C:\l "lid th" S"'l1l-C'IICld"" Bf'nd (SC13), ",e F"gurr-',
2(a-c). The concept 0llglllate5 trom tlw ISH \01 (1 f)8~) 'uggf"t"d method, lor detel t1l111111g
the fracture toughne" of lock.
For each choseu COIf'. lit" 1<-,,1 ,,,!!, 1'I<)(("'rI, I" (I) I,,,, 1111111!!, II,.. ('f- \'I!l111 11,,,1 " "
:3pt bene! 'peCllllC~ll II'llh d d}(,IIOIl 1101,1" III 1"'II",,,dIClIl,1I 10 II,.. "",. ,,",: (:!) 1,011, II,..
ren1aining halve.., t,\'r"O .'vISNC',\" "p('( 11111'11 .... ell (' Illd1111 (c!( t 11I(·d \\ Jill II hll\(' (IH'\ lUll 1101,( h(· . . (ul

parallel to the core a'Cis: (.3) hOIll I I,.. b'llk,," ,1,0, I 'Orl h,iI,," dt If'd,t 1'0"1 ';eIJ 'peClmell'
can be tabllc"ted. The tl,r('e-I),,,,,I I","r1'lg «)II['t;II1,lil<)1I ,)1 Ihe SCB has a '3tlalght nolch

115
(tit 111(\ t I .... 1)( 'tll( III lit llj,11 I (J 111( Illll ( 1\1" III ! " ,Ill 1,1 : III I II ilt I .... 1II ( I: I II II.... : \ I \)1 I I',", I It)l II jill,'..!,

to rc1lbal Uc:HJdUg III titl':. \\d~. til(' Liuc(' ptllHlj>dl (Jcll!... U 11-". ULLllllJ<..',jllJ Flgule 1 Cdll I)l:

obtained from one Ice COle

(a)

1
c-~ao
LsJ '
(b) (c)

fl'SlllC 2 (al ChPIiOli bl~r \olliwrll<Ollll<l 1,,,1 III 1","<1111", (11,'\1/1311),

(I)) 'do<l,f,,,d 'iliull nut! ('helloll \ulell<'d i \/~'fl('\-I ~1)(,'"11"II,
rllHI lei 'it'1l1l ('Ilrll!." Ilclld (~I'/iI '1"'"Il""

3 EXPERIl\1ENTAL PROCEDURE
Freshll'atel Ice COle, "ele collect"rI 11<)111 d POliel IOIIll<'d III "" "h,1IJd,,"ecllll1w<,tollP (juan)',
near Clali<soll tlll\'Pl'lty, Pobciall1 N \ , dllllll!; .\I""h, 1')<)2 The a\elage Ice thickness
lI'aS-±SOllllll TI](,\-(,I\ "'dlllllCf'C\lllld(,I'lollllf'IllIWI<1lllW+2°C)\\(,[(,lIlappeciinplastlc,
tlanspOiteel to a COlellOOlll at CI;llk,,," 'lIlri ,lowel al ·1 jO(' to ·20°(, for approxlmately two
months,

The non·tull)lllpllt II atel' oj Ill<' I,,,"d hold 1'",,1,,«·" 111,11 "" I \ ,I" 11111" C, I I( ,. ", ddilleci
by ~Iichel aud Bt111hC'I('1 (1<)71 ).lullllHJ,",(·d u! Ill('gtlldlj\ .... lldp<'d (Ulllllll1dl (1\ .... I..-t! . . \\1111 \('\_

tICal or neal-n~l tIcal c-a ,IS at 1(>111 d 11()1] Till" gl dill .... 1%(' .. 110\\ (-lei d II 111( 1('..-1'-1(' \\ I' Ii dept h. trom

6.8±0 1111111 at tlH' top to to <,,±I (, 1I111l 1,,',,1 II", ilolloll" 'I'll<' «,11111111,11 111<1' 1(,,,,,1.,,1111,,'
ff'.1tlllf'IJt ']1(' l,tlll:.111.)1 1((
i l :'

116
 ~

E
>--

t--

(al (bl

(el

figure :): \Iacro sIIUrlur,' 01 tlw SI pond icc: (d) "(>rli",/ Ihill seclioll Irulll SIHTill"'" \ I,)!'"
Horizonlal thill secl ion" (b) 111'''1' Ih" lop, "lid (e) IH'ilr II ... bOl,lonl 01 slJC>cilliC'n ;-'[:)g,

Tile c-axis orielltiltion on three difr,~rC'111 cor"s"1 IIln'(' dirrrlrlli deplhs was 11l<'ilsured by a
universal.stage on horizontallhill :-;('ctiO!l ..... .-\ ~t('t'('o!.;rapllll projpdiorl ,11 ('(ICII ](,,,pl of these

c-a.xes are "ho\\,1l ill Figure' -L The rir . . l Ip\'pl \\'(1..., ;q)prn,illl;Ut'h -)0 '/0 Illl)) from the top

(99 grains l1le<l,sLtrecl), lite s"colICl I~(J Ih() 111111 ir",,, Ilw 1,,1' ('1,-, ~ldiIlS) ,,"ci II", tl,ilci w,"
located ISO mm Irom 1,Iw lap (:3,) grilil1s), In Ilw I"sl !<-""i ; I 'j,. "I Ih .. ,,?lilillS InT" lOIlJlcilO
b" "enira) orn"iH-nTlic,d (10 wlillill 10 </"';I("'S III' 1,,;.rI""1 "I Ih,' (' iI\I' 1,0,11 ,'O'r1ical), ill
the s('cond len'I" 'X (10 ,,,ilhill I('s, 11"'11 1-, d"!.',I"('S, ,,,"1,11 Ilw II,ilt! 1"",1 '1/ 'It, Thus, it is

orienLed.

90G =10 /;glll-' <11 _1(;0(', I'lli' I"II~II" ""d ,Ill""'" ,",~I,'" i,,, II". (L \/!/JIJ ,111\1 ,I/S/!('\'
~pecimen, \I'('rc lornwd !J,' a !Jdlld Sill\'. 'I'l,,' prop"r allgles, <)0° "nd 17,:3°, l't'spl'clively,
\\'ere ensurpd by IIsilig sililple Ilotel, CIII I illg fi\t ules simi lar to that cI('scribecl in the ISRl\I
(1988), The sea spl'cinwlls \\'('1(' [O,lIlrel frolll bro/;'>Il ,IISII C\' 'ppc im ens alld the straight
[(\ce. origillilll~ 111l' lIll1'\'(-'1I l' r ;-lel.: pl;I!I!' ut' Ill(-> .\IS'h'C'.\. w;.-,;.. plrlllt·d wilh ,\ plaller-joiner. A
sharp crac\.:: \ri1~ ilitrociu(C'rI ill ('(lel, . . Iwcilll<:n illlllwdia\(' I., ' prior to 11\1' testillg 11.\' "icrihing
t it(> Ilolch \lilh " r"zor hied" (\\"i ('I .. /. 11)'11 I, l'I,i, (n'.I"'" " ,I",,"" ,1)(11'1 nile/; \I'ill, iI

117
 !
· :\0;••.
.•.. r..

(a) (b)

:~.

(e)

FigUle -I' Slcreog,lapllic pJOjeclloll of Ill<' I-d"", OIII'lllat.101l 01 ') IIOII/OIII,t1lhlll ""cIIOll':

(a) .50-70 mm hOlll t1w lap. (b) I:2D--1(11l111111 110111 11,,'101'. <llld (, I I~O Illlll 1t01l11.he top

.-\ plol III the «'111"1 111(\1(<11", <I \(~III(rll I d\I'

displacell1ellt'i (',\l()D . . \\('1(' Ill<'d'-lIlI'C'd dIll III,!.!, Ill(' Iidt 1111(' ('\1)('111111'111 .... 11 .... 1I1!!, d plo(c'dtlJ'e

slnl11c'll tv thi11 dp . . (IJi)('ti h\ \'\('1 d dl (Iqql) 111 \\llltiIIIW('ltOl (' .... lllllcltt' .. I' . . !!)!.; Illh 1('cll-

11lque can be 10111\(1 -\ I\<lllld]! 1\1)-~~lU-ll IIUII-lutild( Illig dhl'ldl( 111<'111 gdtlg( (1IW(L.... UJlllg

range 25 ± 0 02J/I1lI) II," 11'07('11 "1110 III<' 'I'''CII1\1'11 "111<111' ,t1Ii'<1d "I III<' IInlel, ,\lId fOI t.he

CENRBB and .IISReX 'IH'CIIIlf'II'. <1 ]\,lJll<t11 1\ D-2ll n-I (: IllI'a""IIg, the COD, (measuling
range 1000 ± 0 1I" 11 ) 'I'd' also at.tMb"d Ilf','l tliP Cl<1ck 1l10111b

All "peClmen5 lI'ere l11ilcllllWd ,llld I(-',I('d ,11 _16°(' Tltp Ip,{< lIelf' pelfolllled on an

ImtlOll ,,)00 te'tlng itaJlle \\llh flo"llIwl \(>10< Ii"" "I [} 01 (\/SflC\) 0 112 (S('/J) alld 0.0-1

(CErRJJIJ) mill ... -1 -III<' 11<1II ... dllll'h ullll'lll "'1~lldl ... \\('11' I'IIH{' ...... I,d IJ\ d h,'lIld, ~('II(''''

,jOO ZlIlZllog-lo-rllgl1.d (OII\{'1 1('1 «)IIIII', I (,d I () d C.11 ('\\ <1\ ~()(1 1110dt'] [,'(1/ ~ ~ JllIt 1(}( Olll[)!II('!

D<ttd ':lflmpllll,g Idle'", 1)1 HJO tn ()OO 'II. \\('1(' 11 ... (,d dept'lldlll'..!, 111'"11 !lit' ""lllkl' 1,111'

4 FRACTURE GEOMETRIES
In Olciel to 1I11e'II~,I1i' tlw Illfi'l<'I1((' 01 II,,· ,111I<ll1l,d <1111'oIJOI" 01 'il "" Oil I Ill' Ir,,,t.un'
toughne'-l . . \alu('.,. lilt' /\/ P;-.pl(' ....... Ulll ... [til til<' tlll('I' ddr""'('111 ~('()IIH'IIIt'''' \\('IC' d('lc'llllill('d

by Stehn et"1 (1 1)1)1<1) 11I1l<'II'III 111 III"'" I. I·,/- \I "\1'11''''0'1' ,'1" Ill<' <1"1111'1'11011' t.h'll
the 111att'llai , ... hOllIO!!/'JleulJ." elr) ... tll dll,1 h(.tIOPI( ,'n! ,III'" lC'rI ... nll. tllC' tlfJl){lI(lIt /I'octlll'e

118
The Chevroll-Edgc-Notch-Holllld-Bal' in B(>lIliillg (CE)1R.BJ3)

The (CENRBB) hi)' been u,eci bl OIl<!lIet!oll, 11<)82) 101 iJdclUl'P toughne~'i. Clack leSI"
tance, R-culTe behal 101. and J--lIlteglalle'I'Ii1Il«~ IIw,,'ulellwllt'i 011 10(1; TIlf' dllll 01 this
paper IVa, to use til<' 'itandald SI)f'cimen cOllligll1 a11011 !ell til(" ('/:' \ J( IN! '1)(-'( illlPlI III til"
ISRIII (1988) suggested nwthoc\, 11011""'1. til(" lul,,1 I<e 11",1-,1<''' 111"<1,, II 11111'''''11;1(' to
mall1talll a SID ('p,lll/dl,H1wtcrj 1,,11001 j II. '" III<' 1,,11« "I 'IJ)=I 7 ""'<1 "I 1111' ,[ud,
required a nell' 'ihaIWful1ctlol1. 1"10111 Stelill "I ,Ii (I'l')\,,) III(" ,11'1'<11('111 11<1('tlll(> tOllglill""
is evaluated as:
1\1111 = ~-, 16 [".1 -. + I j in,···· + II;;o~;lU" (1)
Q DI-, /n - ".)

where ncb = aiD and F,,,,,. the opelllllg 10dd. IIQ I' (()1111"lt,~<1 lllld"l the d"lIl1lpliol1 of
ideal brittle matel'lal behal'iOl 11'\\('1('0, I' t lie <11111('11'1<1111"" (1llICdl C1dck lellgth occurring
at the maximum load. See FigtilP :2(a) and T,lbk I tOI dimen,iolh.

The Modified-Shol't-Rod-Chevl'on-Notched specimen (MSRCN)

The (MSRCI\~ specimen lI'a.' Ii,,!. 1I,ed. in a Ihllall,,1 """dlcll ('[fort, bl' Stehn et aL (1993b)
The complete details of th,'''' tp,t, dlld tl](' "I,lllI"tl"ll 01 tlJ(' 1"'lIlh <11(' PJe"'lItpc\ III tlIP
lattel paper. The !,',-eXple'iWlIl 1'01 the \{SRC\ I' glIC'1I III

., I F ".. " (
j 'Q =--/-
R'l
() 'I'll /' [I ,(II ,.
(0" - ,,~.)I .
11/11)-/1/(11
"I).11/11) (:2)

\\"hele R Ie.; the (01(-' I (HI III"". 11' til<' '-11>"( 1111<'11 I('II,~! 11 dud !Iul (', II ~I == (/ / II lilt' I \\() 11111( t !Oll'-l

fda" .II'IR) dlld 11/(0" .II/H) <III' ~I\I'II ",

.fr (C\ " • 11/ R) (I,(II/H)e,('1 +( ,(-.=-1)

r,,( 0" . II/R) 0'(11//,')'('; + '211 111 /,,)('/',(,,=11 + ('I) C (4)

( 2" (11//,')C:+~(',(,,=li I

in which

'1Ilh' \, + 'III' \(
('I 2
(Sa)
.... 11111f\{ - '-IIII..! ,\{

'Ill Ii .\, ,,,,h ,\, + '1'111 .\( ('" ,\(

(ib)
'-Il11h.! /\( - "HI..! ,\(

,60 ()( )

In (ia.b) ,\c = 1.,60(I-n)(\1//1)

The Semi-Circular-Bend SpeCillH'1l (SCB)

The Senll-C'ilcul,II-I3(,IIt! (SCI!) 'I"" 1111<'1/ II,,, 11111",1,1,('(1 I" (,11""i',1'I "I (1 ' );;", dud b)
101 h\lCltll(' ... lucllI'''' l)11 01l- .... "iI1(, 1111' .... 11('(11111·11 \\"'" IlIud(,[('d 11 .... 1I1!.l, 11](' 1-'1: Il1CtIIOd. 1'IH'

119
apP(Ill'llt h,1(II1j(' tull!.!,l11l(' ........ lot II l.JtJu ",'/JJ
(fig 5) ",.
\6)

lI'here O,cb = a/ R dnci II I' the "IWClmen tiIICkne" \ 10lill 01 1\ I,·,,, 11('1<' l'eIiOlllled. "'('
Figure 2( c) and T"ble 1 101 dI111"11'1011'

T(~ . . t '1 ~ pt> DII1Wn';;IOI1-.. ! D (111111) \0 .)1 '1(' .... ]-..

0'" III (llItll)
CE.YIUJB ~-l /I) ttll'l .J
(/0=0 liD
liB (/1=0 b.JD
:!0't, = 9Uo
I
,1[SReV \\=l.J,!D IlJt\ I,
V\· (/o=O.J(,O
20" = >4 6'
SeB S-OoD Hl~ l.l
VII a,=O 14D ')4-18

Table 1. Specimen Dllnen;ions

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The e'\pelliTlentdl If'~ull ~ .lIfO ""Ull1llhlll/(-'d 1\1 T..-tlJl(· ~ \\ 1)('1 {' ('<l( II t {".. I I .... Id('llllfwd h\ ~ ""pe(-

nnen type letter. d "f'<lUClllE' llulllbel dLld til(' lOt(' l!ul!1 \\ II\( II Ill!' "P('( 111\('11 \\(h IIlddc' 0-1l

1'3 the onentatlon of the' noel\ p](111(-' (1I1d \I..-1rk jll()jl<l~c\llurl dlll'( 11011. II, I"" 1 II(' ..-'IPP!()'lll1dlc~

crack lllitiatioll d"lJth IrOlll IiI" 1.01' ,,"I,ll(' ,,,"I ( I()/J "III<' <I,,,k III' "IH'lIl1lg dl>pld"'-
n1ent at ha.dul(' -\111('''llllg \\ct..., p<'ilollllC'd (d -If I 0(' clod 1][(' II/d", Icl110"" \(lllC'd..-1"" I~

(.lIS-ROY). S (SC13) and () (CI:."Y/-I/-jJ3) TIl<' 11111<' [(, I"IiIIlI' I""gee! h01l1 3 to 23 ,econd,
resultlIlg ill a ,tie" Illten'lty late i\' 01 'i to jO kl'" JIll,-1
In each Cdse the Clile!; PlOP,\g"t"e! ,"01l1\ .111 """111,,,11\ '11"lghl IllH' lOJJ IllC<l 1 II"lth the
ongInal crack Hence, thf' ..,tlc"~~Il1ten"lt\ I,,(tlil" d('ll'll11I)!('rl Inl illt t'-.OlIOPIC ca"e are ap-
plicable
The t)plc,,1 F - ('TOD 1'101' 1<'\('.11 d ("Ic", <idlel"II(l' 111 Ild(llll(' bel]dllOI belween the
CENH.B13. FIglile j(,\). alld ';C/i l'lgul<' )\1) 101lII,,,,,'d It! III<' :liSHeN. Figure 5(b) In
the first tllO the lllltliltion at a 'itatlolldl\ llldCIO<l,l(k lid' 10110\\"('d h\ llll'it,able lractllre.
The loae! \,('1>11' Lllllr 1'101> lIeif' 11IWdi al1d III<' Ill'" 1"111111 IUdd co11ld I", ,,1('111 d\('d III .. aeh
case at tIle II1o..;tdbdlt\ p01l11 TIl<' IlIlIlIj) III Fl~IlI\' -lid I I" cill<' 10 ..... IIPI>(111 -,('111('111<'111. TIl<'
behaviol tor til<' C£\'/(1313 '1)('(111\('11 I' ,,,"1"!!,1I01l' ,,,,,I \\111 1)(" di" ",,('d Idl"I. 1·)o\V(>\·PI.
the 11fSRC.Y1P'poncleci (Oll1plc>lei, d,II('I<'l1lh 111111" ''','' ,I." 1">',-11= ('IOf)" d"ill1ecl d'
the -nf'al- \Idr]\ tiP 01H'tltllg dl ... p1.ltt·IIII'111 .... /111(' lilt' '2,clll.'2.(' .... \\('1(' .11 IcttIlf'd to 11](' . . 1)('()[11<'11

'Sul'f(l.ce at d <.!J"tdIJU· ul lOU 111111 lit/III !III' 111111(d (1<1lk IIp lIlt' dldllg(· .... oj "llu[J(' 1111..111...,

curve IS a~<:;oClatecl \\ It h u a.(k jllIlIP" \\ ]WI(' t h(' ( 1cH k (',1 ("1 . . 1011 O(elll"" ullder deCleao:,lng

iO<1d .-\11 llIl .... tclh\c fl d( till (' IW\ ('I (I( ( 1111 ('(I. ! 1](' III( 1"111('111 til {T I( k (',\ (·II...,jOIl took pldce alollg

120
J/SIIC.\"l'eCIIlH'11 I, l'lll,IIc>,I'd lIpOIl III "11'iIl' "I,d li'l') II»)

lD Fill,}.!. I\Q CTOD,

# O'n a, (mm) (1'\) (kPaVm ) ,I (7,,-1 lJ"n) x 0"0_1

CIJ I 21)10 I'll!

Clio
C',c H II 1311 I
H{jq
nil
2111
I )~
I :.!70 1-),
21
1\ [1 ~
C-IJ b<JO:! 3U I L~
;\1 Ie 12', Il.q 11·1 i II
71')
,
~I:!I I;W Ll:! II
,Il~ 11 I 10'i () ill IlJ~ III
I I" :!() i:) II
'I·lh 1<1.; j,I,1 t-:tJ :!7
,15, UO l,iO 12'1 40
~161 I ,to <J'ib 19.) It'
51e 160 <J~l.) I.lll 10
S21! IliO 11,·12 lq(\ 1"1
S,l" '21-)
21;
lIl.! I :ti ~ I" I
54e ~ Ih IO~ ! .:
S,f lti-} 11'1:!
, ~II .. !I
S6f .:q', (Jill III II .~
., ,
II
Sih \ 1/ ll) I,b,l ~·I 1111 II ,1.1 I i
S8h :un '.l·1 (\q '{:!
S9, 1.3, <),10 1'2.: 0 ..
SIOI 19.j lUH J·II 4 I
SllJ 195 :)C)b Ii) 18
SUI 1<)0 IOil Il~ :1 H
SJ.lJ 145 781 % :! ')

Note: T = RIOIlP II1('dll \al!J(!' (1,,_1 = -.lflUdclld dl'\l~tlorl

.-\ "tathtlcdi (JYX I011I1d(>1l(' 1111('1\(11 kn d dllkl('lltl' III Illt'ell!'" .... 11(l\\('(1 -,111 pi I'·dllgh. cl ,">Igllli-

1C3ntiv IOII'(l'dPP(I[('1I1 ildctlllC' ton::;,]lllt' ........ fot IIII' \\111, 1(' .... l'c'(1 to lilt' (-d-..;:i:-. OIIr'ntatlOll-

halcllatl 0'11' 111 ,1l1d 1'1 \\1111 I "'I)('C1 10 1Ill' 111/ () II II l' IIIlIHl,ldll1 1,0 110lp that.liJe'"

plelin11Jlal\ le .... l .... 111c!lldt' too fc'\\ 1(, . . . 1" I()! 111(' Ull .... t'I\('clllt'llIl .... \u 1)(' . . \(111 ... 11«(11" \cllid. It 1. . .

lecognlzed [lId! il Idl~('1 ..-1111011111 (II (Llld I" 111·(·(1('11

The.> t\\O ,:-IZ(' ('IIr'll"> (1lH'1I110IWd 111 III(' 11111(J(lll(illJll rliid (·llll'll.I-"I/I·d Il\ 1)('llIp .... (·\ clllrl

\Vel. [Y8CJ) (tH' PJ<'dC1Il111t(llllh !( .... pi.ll' . . rI,lt· lUI [III' .... (,I1\t'1 II I ..... tI . . u ]>u ........ I1>II· tllrlt t.he "'12(-'

and COUflgUI{llIOJl al <l "PCCiIlICII Itdlll<'1H ( .... till' l<"... llll .... -"0 111etl t IH' \cill\(' of /\'Q bcconle~ 1110le

or le5'> deppnclent on tllf' an150110p' 01 t.lw 1«' I"UIWI I 1<'"

The une~pc(\.rci beh," 101', plob"bh- (,lll,rei III d 100 'Illilll 'J)(,Clmen 'pall, of the GEN-
RBB specimen must be t,ilkpli IlIlo ,'CCOIIIl\. TIl<' """II ,>/D 1<lt.IO lllcillced higher shear

':)hesse'S In the ",Pf>ClIlWJl III reI( 1. I \\u .... IW(·IOWI] ... Jill! 11]( Il1d('d in tlw",(' 1C' .... IIIt!-l. did 1101

bl(~ak at tlH'> notch hilt ':;llfr('I<'d d .... ]1('.11 Ilk(' 1.!l1111(' UII'..!,IIIc-lIll1!!, rlUJ11 tl](' ... IIPIHHI ..... 1I1 .... 1<,rld

In i1dcbtIOli. tl)(,I(' \\," II() I" Idl'lI( I'. ""11 II<'I III Ill<' (' r()f! "lid I II<' I 'I/O/! lll<'''''U!('IIl<'III,

nor b\ wildt tOlild \)(' \ i. . lI .. dh delt'! It'll. (II . . 1.d.l(' (1<111... g,lo\\111 Pllu! to 1I1I .... lfd,lc l r.llkillg.

Thh ,.., lit". ('''Y''d 1 \ lUI l'qUclllUII (I I III III \dll.1 1111'" Illelk,· .... IIH'ldl, Illdl('d dj'jJdlC'llt !iclLtUJ('

f 011:;1111(·...... /\)j /I \ (li III'" !llli ('I 1.1111

121
 2400
700
2~OO

2000 600
1800
1600 500
~ 1400
400
- 1200 (a) <: (b)
"- 1000 300
800
"-
200 --I
600
400
100
200

2 6 8 10 12 14 ~ ~ ® ~ l00I~I~I®l~

CTOD (I'm) 6., (I'm)

400 - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

300

200 (e)

100

00 02 04 06 08
('TOD (/"n)

FlgUle') Load "er'u, ('1'01) plOh lo[ ("1 II", ('I'\I!lf!J '1'("(1111<'11 «,~bl, (bl Ihe HSRC'.Y

6 CONCLUSIONS

• A ne\\' met IJOdo[og' "'"1,~ II" "" d 111('1 ('Ill 'OJ(' """,d II", lUI (" 'I)(,Cl11t('II' II',,, d(', eloped
The r'l1l101111t t)[ lldlldlJ!1~ dIll! !lld( 1il!ll!lg (<1111)(' 11l11l!1111%C'r\ rind! IW1<'101(' II h .... tllLed 101

field . . lllrlle.... e"'[H'()(111\ 011 \\<11111 11(' h)1 It(' lllHkt'1 Illdll hid) 111111. (,1('\('11 "'P(,UIII(-'Il"

of !.lI~/"""J7(·t'ltl ht'llldlllll.ll\lllll] illllll(J1H'IC( 1111(' II! 1111 .... 111.11111('1 tit! 1111('('1>1111(11>(11

10\ll1d Ih .. 1 l'I",kll[~ [, "')'''') 1),,,,,11,,11011[(' I d'" 11/"11('\ "lid 'i('lil 1.1[,," PCI!'('IJ'
cI[et",,[ [e, Ih,,<>I""llo 11[(' /,,,,,,/ 1'/"'" 10 [I «('I'\I!li!1) 1:'pl"""I[()[" lo[ tit" ita,
been pllt rOI\\(,lId.\\ IWI(~ t\\() "1)('{ lI11t'l) .... 11.(· p{f,'( h [11el\ ],r PIPc!OII1IIH\lltly Ic..,pon:-,ible
for the l)('h<1' 101 10g('I('[ II [II[ 11[(' """'1)(" I,'d J("IH)[)«' ul 11[(' C'ENR /3/3 'pecimen and

122
ACKNOvVLEDGl\IIENTS
The experin1enl . . !('polled 111 Ihl" Prll)( 1 \\(.]( ((.lldll! It,d III IIII' Itt' Illt'elldI11( .... I~t·...,('tlldl

LaboratOlY at Clal 1;'011 I 1111 C'I "I,I II", ,,·,"d I< I, II ,I' 'II 1'1'<>11 ,·d '" I"" I I" II", I '1 \" i\ t 10ilili
Science Foundation unclet Grililt ~o ~ISC;-()O-O,C)21 ,)llcllll Jlillt bl the U.S Office of Nal'al
Research unclet Grant No \()OOl~-t)O-J-I.3('O l'lw I"",alch lI'a, "Iso ,uJlJlOlted in part by
Cold tech and in palt by tliP R",,'ilrch C'ollnClI 01 \'011 bot ten (Nonbotten" Forskningslild).
Sweden, and in part by t.he SlI'eciJ,h Connell 101 Builcllllg Research (BFR). The duthol'
thank Mr. .10'1" Lazo for hiS a"l,tanel" ill t.lw I"'qwlimelltal part of thl' stuc"

REFERENCES
Chong K.P .. I\ufllPP" :Od.D, dud 1\1I~;;JIl~lId J S Iq.~j"" I'l~l( }.II[(' IOII1!.lll1(· ....... dl'I<'llIlIllrtIIUIi ollork . .
with cot'(l-ha-.ed .;;penmell:... SE.tf/UJJ.I.'.l/ illlclll(J/1011li1 ('lIllf(IfI/f{ (JII 1"'tIUlr oj ('Oll(/r/(

and Rock. Eds. ~hah S P rlild S"",II. 'i I.. l-I:!I- I·I:!>'
Chong K.P., I":uruppu M.D. "lid I\U,ZllhHlI.J S 1<)":,1>. 1",1( 1111<' 1011g,hlle" dCtCllllJllrltioll 01 laleld
matenal,;, Ellg Fill(. Ifull.. 28. ·I.J- -)-1.
Danilenko. V I. 1985 DctCl'llllHdtlOIl of ('Jacl.. I('",I,,"CC (fl /() of flc,llI\oIlel Ice. I!£.rh. 501,,/5,20.
131-136
Demp,e),J.P.1991. Thc·fl,'('IIIII'I"".~I,,,,·,,(lI,,'· III\\II\IIII~"III' Ie ('/">1 I I" 11111' 11111'1""
tion, August 1·1-[ •. 19>\0 'it. I"hlls \]'11). 111.1";'''//111/1111 111/'"1,//1)11. 1011(" ('I "I (Eel,).
Spnngel'-Verlag. 100J-1 ,I ')
Dempsey. J. P. alld \\'1'1. Y.. 19.~9 F',l(lllIe t()II~III"'" I,'Q alld 11,I('togl'''I')1\ of 'it fleshwatel
ice, Advance, III FICt,i1l1c IIE'UI/(/'. I,. Sa),lIlIa. 1\. 11.,\l-Challd"l. D. 1-1 R. Taplill and P
Rama-Rao (Eds). 5 ..J-12]-'3-12x
Dempse.vJ.P. \\'CI Y.alld DeflilllcoS J I'J'!:! 'ioteh S/'I"ltlllll dlld hlittlellc""IIt,l(tuI01~St.IIlf',
of S2 colu111"al' fleshll'atcl ICC. 111/. 1.1'111(/ 53 101-1:'0
Dempsey J.P. \"galll J) <I1HI Cole I) \1 Iq,~., n" [1(,,,1111' .11111 II''' 11111' "I "'<I"o""t,IIIIIII' 'il
tvpe fIeshll'atcl Ice. Pror i//, 111/ () 1/ t r ",/11,/, IV 1"- III
ISRlvl. InteTIl<ltlOllrll",(l(jr>l\ 101 Hock \1('(11<1111('" (()IlIIIIJ..,,,,IIHI ~JlI 1f' ... !I!!\.!, 1114'1111)(1 .... le),"",,- '-)11,!.!,!.!,1'..,111<!
method rOt dl'If'IIIIIIIIII'.!, III(' fide III/(\ 1(jII~hlll''''''' (d III( k /11/ !tOt /, l/u II 1/11/ S( I

G'r:om(c/i 1" .. 1/.25. 11 ()h

I\:olli 1..1 J<J~l rl;)(illl(' l()u!.!,IIIH' ...... ol!!I' tJ\ .... t.dlo;..!.ldpllll .1111 .... 11111111\· 1',lIt 1111,1111 ('IIII)

PnrtflndOr((f"III(1 I mIll \1I11f ('/Jlldd,llll'" I)()\('-\/ 1. ~h(, ~II

~Iicllel B illit! HdJII"I'I('1 H (). jllil ('I.I""t!I(,lljjlll (Ii JJ\4'J ,llId 1<11..(' 1(1' ('f/II ("I I)/U I, 8
,3.')--1').
Ouchterlon~ F. 1<)82 Hf'\ 1('\\ of II.J( 1 tI 1(' 10IJ~III1(''''''"" 1 p .... IIII,t; of IIJ{ k. "'rAul i!f( h .ll(h. 7 I.n -2ll
Parson, B.L. SneJlell.J U "nd IIdl Il 1<).'1, 1'1,,,",11 III"dl'llIl"- oIlid IIJI' I,,\( 11111' to,,~IIII!'" of ,(,,'
Ice. PrOf ')th lut (',,"r 011',1,,'"'' ~I,·(II. \111" 1.11,,-.0\1 \1: 11).% IV 1-,,-1111
Stehn. L.~J.. Derlalllo. S I. ,111(11),011'1""" 1'.10' ).;., 0111'11'''''011 efli'lh 011 the II <lCtUI'l' of pond
ice I. GI(Je .. ,uhlllltl('ci 101 I'lIhl""IIOIl
Stehn.L.~I..Derl'aliro.S.I.,1I1(1 DI'IIII""'. I I'. 11J')lh FI.I(IIIII·II',hl,'lIu,delPl'llIillatlolloffle5h-
water Ice U51n~ a t!1<'\'rOI1 1I01(lrl'd 11'11"1011 "1)('( 1!lI('II. III/ J !/fIf .. ..,uhlllltlcd fot puhllcatlOll,
\Vei Yo. DefulJlco S.I <I Jill ])'-'11 'I h(.' \ II' Il)fJl ('I<\(k Idll1l«IIIUII tl,Lillllqlll' . . . <loud lhpil t'ffclh 011
the ftactule tOIl~hlle,s alld (''1'01) 1",111.. ,1111<11"1 ltll'"I1I1,11 111' • .1. G/llr. 37.2,0·2.,0

123
 USE OF A LOW-POWERED LASER TO MEASURE
CRACK FRONT DEVELOPMENT

Larry J. Weber Iowa Institute of USA

Research Engineer Hydraulic Research

Wilfrid A. Nixon Iowa Institute of USA

Associate Professor Hydraulic Research

ABSTRACT

Measuring crack growth in ice is a very difficult task,

particularly because the crack front is not straight, but
rather exhibits extreme irregularity. Typically, the crack
will be well advanced in some grains, while significantly
lagging in others. This means that measuring the growth of
a crack by observing one point of the crack front may be
less than ideal. A single point may not advance for a
large part of the experiment, because growth is less
favorable. This may be due to dislocation activity or
local stress state at the crack t~p. Other points may grow
at a rate significantly greater than the average crack
growth rate. Ideally, the position of the crack along the
entire crack front should be measured. This cannot be done
using tradit~onal crack measuring techniques, i.e. back
face strain gauges, potent~al drop or a travel~ng

microscope.
Accordingly, a new technique has been developed. A low
powered laser is used to illuminate the crack tip. The
laser is mounted on vernier slides, so that the position of
the laser is known both vertically and horizontally. The
laser beam is tracked along the crack front, and in this
way a 'map' of the crack front is generated. As the crack
grows over time, the crack front is mapped out at specific
intervals, and thus the development of the whole crack

124
front over time can be monitored. This paper describes the
laser measuring techn~que in detail, and provides
preliminary results us~ng th~s techn~que.

1. INTRODUCTION.

Very little data exist on the cyclic behavior of ice.

The main sources of data are Cole, 1990; Nixon and Smith,
1984 and 1987; Mellor and Cole, 1981. No data are
available that describe the effect of cyclic loading on
crack growth in freshwater ice. While trying to measure
the crack growth in a notched-four-point bend specimen
traditional crack length measurement techniques proved
inadequate. Therefore, new method has been developed that
can . map' an entire crack front in a notched- four-point
bend specimen of freshwater ice.
This paper will describe che development of a technique
to measure crack growth during fatigue tests using a low
power laser. Also, experimental results are presented that
have successfully measured crack growth along the entire
crack front.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF CRACK LENGTH MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE.

Throughout the experimental program a great deal of

effort was expended to develop a successful method to
accurately measure crack growth. The first idea was to
adopt standard crack growth measurement techniques used in
metals testing, ~.e. a back-face strain gauge or a
traveling microscope. The back-face strain gauge, although
useful because it could monitor crack position
electronically, was not used due to d~fficulties associated
with mounting such gauges to the ice surface. Although the
use of a traveling microscope showed more promise, it also
encountered difficulties during its adaptation as are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Preliminary experiments were conducted to refine the
crack length measurement technique using a traveling

125
 R ratio= Km1n
Kmox

Time

Figure 1. Schematic of sinusoidal wave form.

microscope. All specimens were loaded cyclically at 5 Hz

with a sinusoidal wave form as shown in figure l. The
minimum and maximum stress intensities during a cycle, Kmin
and Kmax were approximately 5% and 95% of Krc · This
resulted in an R-ratio of 0.05. A datum was scribed onto
the surface of the specimen slightly behind the crack tip
(see figure 3) and the length from the datum to the crack
tip was measured with a traveling microscope at various
times throughout the experiment. The traveling microscope
was mounted on an X-Y vernier that could measure position
with increments of 0.0025 mm.
The crack growth (current minus initial crack length)
versus cycles for one experiment is shown in figure 2 (for
details of preliminary experiments see Nixon and Weber,
1991). The data are somewhat scattered and there appear to
be periods when 'negative' crack growth occurs.
The scatter in the data and the apparent negative crack
growth results from limitations in the use of a traveling
microscope for measuring crack growth in freshwater ice.
As shown schematically in figure 3, cracks prepared in ice

126
 025

0.20

E
.s
.<:
0.15

"i0
C;
.Y.
0.10
u
...0
u
0.05

0.00 .......----''--.--1._--'-_-'-----'"------'_-'-_--'----'
o 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Cycles (Thousands)

Figure 2. Crack growth measurement using traveling

microscope.

by the method developed by Wei et al. (1990) have an

irregular crack front. Also, during the experiments it
became obvious that crack growth was not as pronounced at
the specimen surface as it was along the crack front within
the specimen. Therefore, it was necessary to measure crack
growth at one point, or possibly a few points, along the
crack front by focusing the microscope at locations within
the interior of the specimen. A schematic representation
of possible crack growth measurement locations is shown In
figure 3. The traveling microscope could focus only on
crack tips unobstructed by the crack front, i.e. the crack
tip at A could be seen, but the crack tip at B could not be
seen through the microscope.
Two major concerns arose about using the traveling
microscope to measure crack length. The first was whether
crack growth at a given point should be used to
characterize the crack growth properties along an entire
crack front in ice. Specifically, crack growth at a point

127
 Locations

Figure 3. Schematic of crack measurement locations.

along the crack front often exhibited discontinuous growth.

The crack at a point may not show any growth for many
thousand cycles, may grow rapidly for some time, then again
exhlbit a perlod of no growth. This could be due to the
crack growing at localized 'favorable' areas, which vary
along the crack front during time.
The second major concern with using the traveling
microscope to measure crack growth relates to repeatability
of the results. To measure the crack length the load was
held constant at the minimum applied stress intensity,
Km1n . The traveling microscope was used to record the
position of the datum and the posltion of the crack tip
(vertical location) at a
few locations along the crack
front (horizontal locatlon) To record the position of the
datum the microscope was focused on the specimen surface.
Then, microscope had to be refocused on the crack tip at
the location or locations of interest. The abillty to
return to the same location along the crack front was very
difficult. This may explain the apparent negative crack
growth, as seen in figure 2.
With the two concerns about the traveling microscope it
quickly became obvious that a better technique must be
developed to measure crack length. The next attempt to
measure the crack length was by using the traveling

128
 0.8

07

06
E
..s.
..c:;
05
··· Fatigue J
Fabgue "

·,
Fctlgue 5
0 0.4
Fatigue 6
Fatigue 14
'60 0.3
U
02

0.1

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Cycles

Figure 4. Crack growth versus number of cycles.

Experiments using the traveling microscope
wlth the solid state laser.

microscope in addltion to a 0.5 mW solid state laser (for

details see Weber, 1993) . This technique addressed one of
the major concerns with the traveling microscope, the
ability to return to the same location along the crack
front. The laser was positioned such that the beam
traveled through the end of the specimen and was focused on
one point of the crack front.
The red light from the laser illuminated one facet of
the crack. However, the uncracked ice was not illumlnated.
Therefore, after recording the location of the datum the
traveling microscope could easily be repositioned on the
crack tip at the same location along the crack front. In
addition to the location along the crack front, the laser
ensured that the exact crack tip location was found. This
was especially important because the tlP of the fatigue
crack was difficult to see through the microscope without
illumination from the laser. Crack growth measurements
using this technique are shown in figure 4. This technique
provided significant improvement in crack measurement
capabilities over the unaided traveling microscope.
The one remaining concern mentioned earlier, with the
traveling microscope, was whether fatigue crack growth at a

129
 Figure 5. Specimen in test rig with helium-neon laser.

point or an average along the entire crack should be used

to describe the fatigue characteristics of ice. The final
technique to measure crack length was developed to address
this concern. This technique uses a 1.0 mW helium-neon
laser mounted on an X-Y vernier (accuracy of 0.025 mm) to
locate the position of the entire crack front, see figure
5. To measure the location of the crack tip the laser beam
was focused through the uncracked ice near the crack tip.
The beam was then moved toward the c;::ack tip by turning the
Y-vernier. Once the edge of the beam (diameter of 0.59
mm.) intersected the crack tip the crack was illuminated
bright red. Theref ore, the vertical position of the crack
tip could be located using the edge of the laser beam and
the Y-vernier.
The horizontal position of the crack tip (shown
schematically in figure 6) could be determined by using
Snell's law of refraction. After incorporating the
geometry of the test setup and simple trigonometric
manipulation the following equation is obtained

v (
C = sina ( 90 - arcs~n
tan . (Sin(90-a)
1.3049 )))

where C is the location along the crack front, V is the

130
 Crack Front \

· ..... )_3~

Helium-Neon Laser

Figure 6. Plan View of Laser and Ice Specimen.

location on the ex. .is the angle between the

x-vernier,
laser beam and the surface of the specimen (usually _32°)
and 1.3049 is the index of refraction for ice and air.
The crack length was measured at thirty-five points,
spaced 2.54 rnrn apart, along the crack front. From these
measurements a 'map' or profile of the crack front could be
plotted. This technique is a substantial improvement over
previous methods because it allows the entire crack front
to be mapped over time. To the author's knowledge this has
never been accomplished for any material.
Figure 7 shows the crack front of a fatlgue experiment
mapped for various cycles. Whlle figure 8 shows the crack
length, current minus initial length, for the same
experiment. As can be seen from figures 7 and 8 this
technique allows the variability along the crack front to
be quantitatlvely measured. With the capablilty of
analyzing the crack growth a various points, or possibly
the average along the entire crack front, this crack
measurement technique has unbounded potential in lce
mechanics testing. For detailed discussion of the fatigue
results of freshwater ice loaded in four-point bending the
interested reader is referred to Weber, 1993.

131
 E
..
.s
.c

'"~ 31

...J
-"
u
E -_.-.
u
°5'

- ,.,
...... 'OJ

---- 236
······445
-717
.. -- 918
..... 1135
- 1555

50 .. 7. . 100

Location Along Crock Front (mm)

Figure 7. Crack profiles of experiments using Helium-Neon

laser.

.--- 54
.. 103
-1-4-1
---- 236
...... 445
-717
.--- 918
- -- - 1135
-1555

,
j
i

\/

Locotion Along Crock Front (mm)

Figure 8. Fatigue crack growth along crack front.

132
3. CONCLUSIONS

Measuring crack growth in ice ~s a d~fficult task.

Traditional methods used in metals testing were inadequate
for measuring such an irregular crack front as found in
ice. A new technique has been developed to measure crack
growth along an entire crack front in ice using a low
powered laser mounted on an X-Y vernier. This method has
shown considerable success and holds great promise in
future ice mechanics experiments.

4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the director of the

'Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research for the use of its ice
laboratory. The current work was sponsored by the Army
Research Office grant number DAAL03-89-K-0069, this support
is gratefully acknowledged. Also, the authors would like
to thank the Mobile Foundation for providing funding used
to purchase the laser equipment described above.

5. REFERENCES

Cole, D.M. (1990). Reversed Direct-Stress Testing of

Ice: Initial Experimental Results and Analysis. Cold
Regions Science and Technology, vol. 18, pp. 303-321.

Nixon, W.A. and Smith, R.A. (1984) . Preliminary

Results on the Fatigue Behavior of Polycrystalline
Freshwater Ice. Cold Regions Science and Technology, vol.
9, pp. 2 67 - 2 6 9 .

Nixon, W.A. and Smith,

(1987) . R.A.
The Fatigue
Behavior of Freshwater Ice. In The Seventh Symposium on
the Physics and Chemistry of Ice, Grenoble, France, pp.
329-336.

133
 Nixon, W.A. and Weber, L.J. (1991). Fatigue Crack
Growth in Freshwater Ice: Preliminary Results. Annals of
Glaciology, vol. 15, pp. 236-241.

Weber, L.J. (1993). A Study of Fracture Toughness and

Fatigue of Freshwater Ice. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Wei, Y., DeFranco, S., and Dempsey, J.P. (1990). Notch

Acuity Effects on the Fracture Toughness of Freshwater Ice.
Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Houston, Tx,
USA, vol. 4, pp. 253-257.

134
 NONLINEAR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CREEP DEFLECTION

OF ICE PLATE UNDER CONSTANT LOADING

Zengqiang Wu Section of Ocean Engineering Germany

Research Associate Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg

Oskar Mahrenholtz Section of Ocean Engineering Germany

Professor Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg

ABSTRACT
In this paper a model is developed to simulate nonlinear creep deflections of ice plates or ice
decks under constant loadings. It is assumed that an ice plate creeps only in the primary and
secondary period, and the tertiary creep is negligible. The creep curvature of the ice plate is
assumed to be composed of three parts: elastic, recoverable viscous and permanent viscous
curvatures. The relations between bending moments and the curvatures are deduced. The
nonlinear moment-curvature relations and the equilibrium equations constitute the differen-
tial equations for the problem. The nonlinear differential equations are solved by means of
a finite difference technique. The obtained approximate solution is compared with the creep
experiment on ice plates under centrally distributed loadings at a temperature of _10° up e
to 100 hours.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the creep process of an ice plate most regions within the plate are in a state of small
stress level. For the tensile strength of polycrystalline ice at -lOoe is about 0.80-0.90 MPa
(e ~ 10- 7 - 10- 5 s-1), the maximal stress in the plate should be held well below this value
so that the ice plate will creep and not be crashed in a short time. At small stresses the
primary and secondary creep is predominant, and the tertiary creep is negligible (5ego and
Morgenstern, 1983). So it is reasonable to analyse the creep behaviour of an ice plate on the
basis of primary and secondary creep laws.
The long-term response of ice plates or ice decks under static and quasi-static loadings has
been studied by many researchers such as Hutter and Williams (1980), 5elvadurai (1984)
and Vinogradov (1992). All these investigations are based on linear viscoelastic constitutive
equations. Nonlinear secondary creep deflection of ice plates has been studied by Tinawi and
Gagnon (1984) and Mahrenholtz and Wu (1991a). Recently a model based on an extended
Nutting's law was proposed by Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993) to simulate the whole creep
deformation process of ice plate.
In this paper a model for nonlinear primary and secondary creep deflection of ice plate
under static loading is developed. Based on a general constitutive law an approximate nu-
merical solution is suggested, in which the total deformation of the ice plate is assumed
to be composed of three parts, namely elastic, recoverable viscous and permanent viscous
components. The proposed model is compared with Mahrenholtz and Wu's (1993) primary
creep model and the experiments.

135
2. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATION
It is generally accepted that the total strain of polycrystalline ice in the three-dimensional
case can be divided into three parts, namely the elastic (::~}). the recoverable viscou, C<})
and the permanent viscous strains (c~)):

(I)

Each strain component in eq. (1) is independent function of stress. According to the ma-
terial model of Mahrenholtz and Wu (1991b) we have

~. {(l + 11)' G.) - 11' Gw o.)},

3 d t !!l.::!.
2" AI' dt j(3h) , . f(t - r)· 5.)dr,
o
3 ~. 1
"2 . A2 . (312 ) 2 ·5.) wIth 5.) = (Y.) - 30.)(Ykk, (2)

where 0.) is the Kronecker delta, E is Young's modulus and 11 is the Poisson ratio. nl and
n2 are the temperatur-independent material parameters, and A2 is a temperatur-dependent
material parameter. In analogy with Sinha's model (1978) it can be seen that AJ depends on
the grain size. f(t) here is a memory function with the characters frO) = 1 and f(oo) = O.
which can usually be written as a series
N
f(t) = :LA.exp(-7].t). (3)
1=1

For the first approximation f( t) = Al exp( -7]1 t) = e-"', eq. (2) becomes:

(4)

where 1] is a temperatur-dependent material parameter.

The temperature dependence of the parameters." and A2 can be determined according to
Sinha (1978) as:

A (T ) = A 2 (T2 )
2 1 51, 2 ' 7](Td = 7](T2).
S1,2 WIth 5 1.2 = exp [Qv
R"
( 1
Tl - T2
1 )]
' (5)

where Qv is the activation energy; R" is the general gas constant (R.=8.31 J. (mol· 1\)-1);
Tl and T2 are temperature values in Kelvin. For polycrystalline ice we have Qv=67 kJ Imol
(Sillha, 1978) in the primary creep, and Qv=65 kJ/mol (G~ld, 1973) in the secondary creep.
The extended McVetty's primary creep law (Ohno. Murakami and Ueno, 1985) has the
form:
IJ 2 TJ
[3
C'r = 7] _. -Al . (312 ) !!l.::!.
, . 5 - f- T]
I) IJ
(6)

It is easy to prove that eq. (4) IS identical to (6). So the primary creep law used here is
an integral form of the extended McVetty's law. For constant loadings eq. (4) or (6) has the
form
(7)

136
 ro
H
,.L
h h if;; rqn )k
R .1
I'

(a) (b)
Figure 1: Schematic drawing of ice plate analysis

The viscous material parameters in the present creep law are determined by means of
uniaxial creep tests as follows (Wu, 1993):

E = 9.5 GPa; fl = 0.33;

Al = 3.32 .10- 4 MPa-n1h- l ; nl = 1.13; 1) = 0.165h-t, at _10°C;
Az = 4.74 .10- 4 MPa-n'h- l , at - 10°C; nz = 3.08.

3. FORMULATION OF NONLINEAR VISCOUS ELASTOPLASTIC PLATE

BENDING
It is assumed that the total strains of the every point in the plate consist of three parts, i.e.
elastic, recoverable viscous and permanent viscous strains, and each strain component III the
plate is distributed linearly across the plate thIckness, as shown in Fig. l-(a) schematically.
Correspondingly, the curvature of the plate (I>:,}) can also be divided into three parts:
(8)

where I>::} is elastic curvature, <} is recoverable viscous curvature and 1>:;' is permanent
viscous curvature.
Because of this assumption the relations between the curvatures and the strains for thin
plate are expressed as:
(9)

To determine the relations between the bending moments and the curvatures, eqs. (2) and
(6) are inverted:

(10)

(11)

(12)

Inserting eq. (9) in eqs. (10) to (12) we have the relations between stress and curvatures:

q,}«}) = ~
I-fl
[(1 - fl)<} + j.Ll>:kk8,}] z, (13)

137
 2) ~ [AI
( "3 -;)(1- e-'1t)] -* r
(K./I:.,
r
+ KkkKll)
r _!!J...=!.
r
'"'
r
. (K., + Kkk 8.,)z",..L ,
r
(14)

("32)
~
2n2 _..1.. p p p p _~ p p l
(A2t) "' (K.,K., + KkkKll) '", (K., + Kkk 8.,)Z"',
t,},k,I=I,2. (15)

The moments with respect to elastic, recoverable viscous as well as permanent viscous
defOJ;mations in unit plate length can be calculated from eqs. (13) to (15):
h/2

M.~ = J Z17.,(K~,)dz = Ke [(1- Jl)K~, +

-h/2
Jl Kkk8.,] with
•
Ke = 12(1
Eh 3
_ Jl2)' (16)

(17)

h/2 • _.'!1..::l
M~ = J Z17.,(K;j)dz = Kp (K;,K;, + K~K~k) 2", (K;, + K~k8.,)
-h/2

J G) "' ,
!!.tt: ~

with Kp = (D 2", (A 2 tr 1 n
/ , (2n~~ (18)

i,j,k.I=I,2.

It should be pointed out that none of the moments defined in eqs (16) to (18) describes
the real moment distribution in the plate for the whole time range. At the beginning of
the creep process (t = 0) the recoverable viscous and the permanent viscous curvatures are
equal to zero and the moment distribution in the plate is determined by the moment tensor
corresponding to the elastic curvature: M.,(t = 0) = M.~. After a long time of creeping
(t = 00) the elastic and the recoverable viscous curvatures, in compared to the permanent
viscous curvature, can be neglected, and then the moment corresponding to the permanent
deformation dominates: M.,(t = 00) = M~. Usually the moment distribution in the plate is
a linear combination of M.~, M~ and M~, such as

M., = al(t)}vJ,~ + (1 - al(t) - a2(t))M~ + a2(t)M:;, (19)

where functions al(t) and a2(t) have the following characters:

0:S al(t):S 1, O:S a2(t):S 1, O:S al(t) + a2(t) :S 1,

altO) = 1, al(oo) = 0, a2(0) = 0, (}2(00) = 1. (20)

Eqs. (16) to (18) are inverted as to determine the relations between the curvatures and
the moments:

e 1 [Me _ _ Jl_Me 8 ]
"-'l (I-Jl)Ke I, I+Jl kk" ,
(21)

(22)

138
 (23)

i,j,k,i=1,2.

The moments M,~, M~ and M:'" defined in eqs. (16) to (18), must satisfy the equilibrium
conditions:
a2M,~ a2M[,
-x,aa X + qz = 0, -X.aa x, + qz = 0, (24)
J

where qz is the distributed loading on the plate.

The relations between the curvatures and the deflections are:
• a w.
2
(25)
K,] = - ax, ax] ,
where w. is elastic deflection, Wr is recoverable viscous deflection and Wp is permanent viscous
deflection.
The total deflection of the plate is the sum of these three terms:

(26)

By means of eqs. (21) to (23), combined with the corresponding equilibrium equation (24)
and the curvature-deflection relation (25), the general primary and secondary creep problems
of ice plates can be solved.

4. SOLUTION OF CREEP DEFLECTION OF AXIAL-SYMMETRIC ICE

PLATE
The relations between deflections and moments for axial-symmetric plates can be obtained
from eqs. (21) to (23) and (25) as follows:

_ Jlw e = 1. [M(e) _ M(el]

dr2 (1 _ Jl2)K e r Jl 9 ,

(el
"9 (27)

(r) _ _Jlw
_ _T _
[(M(rl)2
r
+ (M(r))2
8 _ M(r)M(r
r 8 ]
l 2 [2M(r)
r _ M(r l ] "-1._
8?~}' nl
"r - dr2 - 3 3 - \r •

where r and () denote the polar coordinates.

139
 The equilibrium equations for axial-symmetric plates read
M(e) _ M(e)
(J T _ Q, (29)
r

M(r) _ M(r)
8 r _ Q, (30)
r

M(p) - M(p)
8 r _ Q, (31)
r

where Q(r) is the shear force per unit length, which is defined as

j (q(O - AW(O) ~d~

Q(r) = ,,-0_ _ _ _ __
(32)
r

with q(r) as the distributed loading and A as the Winkler coefficient which denotes the
reaction of fluid base on the ice deck.
From eqs. (27) to (28) and (29) to (31) the differential equations for the problem can be
deduced

-t-
dM(r)
= {6(M;r) - MJr)) [(M;r))2 + (MJr))2 - M;r) ,\IJr)]
+(MJ"l _ M~r) - rQ) . [2 ((Mjr»)2 + (MJr»)2 _ MJr) M~r»)
-(nl - 1)(2MJr) - M;r»)(2M;r) - MJr))]} .
{(nl - 1)r(2MJ") - M;r)? + 4r [(MJ"lj2 + (M;r))2 _ MJr) M;r)] } -1, (34)

-t- = {6(M;p) - MJp») [(M;P))2 + (MJP»)2 - M;p) MJp)]

dM(p)

+(MJp) - M;p) - rQ). [2 ((M;P))2 + (MJpl)2 - MJP).\I;p))

-(n2 - 1)(2MJp) - M;p))(2M;p) - MJP1)]}.
{(n2 - 1)r(2MJp) - M;p)? + 4r [(,\IJP))2 + (M;p»)2 - MJp) M;Pl] } -I. (35)

The boundary conditions are

MJe)h) - M;e)(rr) = 0, M;e)(R) = 0, (36)

MJr)h) - M;r)(rl) = 0, M;r)(R) = 0, (37)
MJP)(rl) - M~p)(rrl = 0, M~p)(R) = 0, (38)

for simply supported plates and

MJe)(rd - M$e)(rl) = 0, MJe)(R) - JlM;e)(R) = 0, (39)

MJr)(rl) - M$r)h) = 0, 2MJr\R) - M;r)(R) = 0, (40)
MJp)(rl) - M;p)(rd = 0, 2MJp)(R) - M;p)(R) = 0, (41)

for clamped plates.

140
 Eqs. (33) to (35), together with the equilibrium equations (29) to (31) and the boundary
conditions (36) to (41), describe a boundary-value problem, which can be solved by the
procedure proposed by Mahrenholz and Wu (199b, 1993). The differential equation system
for elastic deformation is linear and can be solved analytically for some special problems.
The differential equation systems for the viscous deformations is highly nonlinear and can
only be solved numerically.
The elastic, the recoverable viscous and the permanent viscous deflections of ice plates can
be calculated from eqs. (27) to (28) by using the bending moment values obtained by solving
eqs. (29) to (41):
r
~. (M(e) - p.M(e»)d~
we(r) =
J
R (1 - p.2)Ke 9 r'

wr(r) 1- {2k~' [(M!r»)2 + (M;»)2 - M!r)Mn}

~

2 • [2MJr); M!r)] d~,

1- J;2 r [(M!P»)2 + (M;»)2 - M!P)MJP)]}

~

2 • [2MJP); M!P)] d~.(42)

The deflections and bending moments are normalized as follows:

(43)

6 '>{(e) 6 _M_r(r)_
M(e)=~ M(r) = _7r (44)
r F' r F'
",(e) (r)
6
1V[(e)_~ M(r) 6 _M_9_
= _7r
F ' (45)
9 - 9 F'
On the basis of the material parameters determined by uniaxial creep tests (Wu, 1993),
the dimensionless deflections and the dimensionless moments with respect to the elastic, the
recoverable viscous and the permanent viscous deformations are calculated for ice plates and
plotted in Figs. 2 to 5. The ice-plate analysed is loaded by distributed loads in the center
(0::; r::; r o , r o =15 mm and 75 mm) and is simply supported on the boundary (Fig. 1-(b)).
The deflection of each ice plate can be calculated by the demonsionless solution curves shown
in Fig. 2:

(46)

5. COMPARISON OF SIMULATION WITH EXPERIMENT AND DISCUS-

SION
To verify the present model the creep experiments with ice plates under centrally dis-
tributed loads were carried out at a temperature -lOoe up to 100 hours. The plate speci-
mens are of granular-polycrystalline fresh-water ice with an average grain size of 0.86 mm.
The experimental procedure has been discussed by Mahrenholtz and Wu (1991a,1992,1993)
in detail.

141
 0.8

---ro=75mm
0.6

w(e)
I~ 0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R
Figure 2: Normalized deflections (u:;(e), u:;(r) and w(p)) for the plates under centrally dis-
tributed loading (..\ = 0)

6
,-..
CI)
'-" 4
I~
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
rlR
Figure 3: Parameters M!e) and MJe) for the plates under centrally distributed loading (..\ = 0)
10
8
------------- ro=75 mm
6
4

2
o ~~~~~~~--~~~~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
rlR
Figure 4: Parameters M~r) and MJr) for the plates under centrally distributed loading (..\ = 0)

142
 8
ro=15 mm
6 ------- ro=75 mm
.-- Me(p)
c.
'-" 4
I~
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
rlR
Figure 5: Parameters M~p) and MJp) for the plates under centrally distributed loading (A = 0)

With the help of the present model (eq_ (46)) the distribution of the deflection for each
ice plate at various times is calculated and plotted in Figs_ 6 and 7, together with the
experimental results and the model proposed by Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993).
It can be seen from the comparison that at small deflections there is no great difference
between the present model and Mahrenholtz and Wu's (1993) model. The difference between
these two models becomes greater with the increase of the deformations of the plates. At
large deflections the present model fits better to the test results.
In the present model the stress distribution in the plate is considered to be unchanged.
But in reality the stresses in the plate are not constant even the loading is kept constant.
There is a stress redistribution process during the first three to four hours (Mahrenholtz and
Wu, 1991 b). After that it reaches a 'quasi-stationary' stress distribution in the ice plate. But
the influence of this stress redistribution on the creep deflection of the whole plate is not
significant. So the errors caused by the simplifying in the present model should be negligible.

6. CONCLUSION

• An approximate solution is developed for the non-linear viscous elastoplastic deflections

of ice plate under constant loading, in which the whole deformation of the plate is
divided into three parts: elastic, recoverable viscous and permanent viscous.

• The proposed model is compared with the creep tests of ice plates under centrally
distributed loadings up to 100 hours, and they are in very good agreement.

• The proposed model is also compared with that of Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993): for
small deflections there is no big difference between the two models; while for a longer
creeping time the present model predicts a larger deflection.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The results of the present paper were obtained in a research project sponsored by the
German Research Association (DFG) under the Contract No. Ma 358/54-1.

143
 8
mm
6 --------- present paper
0 test - (a)

>= 4
100h

0
8
mm
6 --------- present paper

--- .. test - (b)

0

>= 4

0
10

mm
8 --------- present paper
0 test - (c)

6
>=
4

o
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r/R

Figure 6: Comparison of the simulation with the experiments (ro = 15 mm): (a)- F=640 N,
h=34.5 mm; (b)- F=282 N, h=22.5 mm; (c)- F=524 N, h=28.5 mm. (R=300 mm)

144
 10

mm Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993

8 present paper
o test - (a)

6
~

0
8
mm Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993

6 present paper
o test - (b)

~ 4

0
10
mm Mahrenholtz and Wu (1993

8 present paper
o test - (c)

6
~

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R

Figure 7: Comparison of the simulation with the experiments (To = 75 mm): (a)- F=765 N,
h=32.0 mm; (b)- F=765 N, h=34.0 mm; (c)- F=282 N, h=21.0 mm. (R=300 mm)

145
REFERENCES
Gold, 1. W. (1973). Activation energy for creep of columnar-grained ice. In Whalley, E.,
Jones, S. J., and Gold, 1. W., editors, Physics and Chemistry of Ice, pages 362-364,
Ottawa, Canada. Royal Society of Canada.

Hutter, K. and Williams, F. M. (1980). Theory of floating ice sheets. In Tryde, P., editor,
PhysIcs and Mechanics of Ice, pages 147-162, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York. Springer
Verlag.
Mahrenholtz, O. and Wu, Z. (1991a). Creep of circular ice plates: analysis and experiment. In
Proc. 10th Int. Con/. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. (OMAE'91), volume IV: Arctic/Polar
Technology, pages 47-53, Stavanger, Norway. ASME.

Mahrenholtz, O. and Wu, Z. (1991b). Numerical simulation of viscoelastic behaviour of ice

structures. In Proc. 11th Int. Con/. on Port and Ocean Eng. under Arctic Conditions
(POAC'91), volume I, pages 416-427, Newfoundland, Canada.

Mahrenholtz, O. and Wu, Z. (1992). Improving creep characteristics of ice plates through
reinforcement. In Proc. 11th Int. Con/. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. (OMAE'92), volume
IV: Arctic/Polar Technology, pages 281-288, Calgary, Canada. ASME.

Mahrenholtz, O. and Wu, Z. (1993). Primary creep of ice plate under constant loading. In
Proc. 12th Int. Con/. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. (OMAE'93), volume IV: Arctic/Polar
Technology, Glasgow, U.K. ASME.

Ohno, N., Murakami, S., and Ueno, T. (1985). Constitutive model of creep describing creep
recovery and material softening caused by stress reversals. J. Eng. Mat. Tech., V107,
Nl:I-6.

Sego, D. C. and Morgenstern, N. R. (1983). Deformatiuon of ice under low stresses. Can
Ceotech. J., V20, N4:587-602.

Selvadurai, A. P. S. (1984). Flexure of a non-homogeneous floating ice sheet. In Proc. 7th

Int. Symp. on Ice (IAHR '84), volume I, pages 123-136, Hamburg.

Sinha, N. K. (1978). Rheology of columar-grained ice. Exp. Mech., V18, N12:464-470.

Tinawi, R. and Gagnon, 1. (1984). Behaviour of sea ice plates under long term loading. In
Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on lee (IAHR '84), volume I, pages 103-113, Hamburg.

Vinogradov, A. M. (1992). Ice plates as laminated composite structures. In Murthy, T. K. S.,

Sackinger, W. M., and Wadhams, P., editors, Advances in Ice Technology (3rd. Int.
Con/. Ice Tech/Cambridge, USA.), pages 65-75, Southampton Boston. Computational
Mechanics Publications.

Wu, Z. (1993). Creep and creep damage of polycrystalline ice under multi-axzal loading.
Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, Germany.

146
ICEBREAKING SHIPS
 REPEATED ICE IMPACTS AND SHIP RESISTANCE
IN FRAGMENTED ICE

Azmy F. Aboulazm Fisheries and Marine Institute of

Faculty Member Memorial University of Newfoundland

ABSTRACT

The problem of calculation of ship resistance in ice fragments due to

repeated impacts with ice blocks has been formulated, and reported in this paper.
The investigation is based on the development of a ship-ice interaction
formulation which is founded on the analysis of the ship impact and repeated
impact with ice fragments of assumed size and concentration.
Ship resistance increase due to ice fragments is calculated based on the
energy loss due to continuous ship impact and repeated impacts with the ice
fragments. Numerical calculations of ship resistance in ice fragments due to
repeated impacts, based on the developed formulation, have been performed and
presented in this paper.

1. INTRODUCTION

In order to accurately evaluate the magnitude of ship resistance in broken

ice covered waters, under a variety of operating conditions, an analytical model
has been developed (Aboulazm and Muggeridge, 1989). The model was based on the
estimation of ship ice impacts and the resulting ship energy loss and resistance
increase.
As the ship proceeds in fragmented ice it interacts with a number of ice
fragments. The number of interactions depend on the size and concentration of
ice floes, the size of the ship and the speed of advance of the ship. From the
loss of ship energy and based on the relation between power and resistance,
Aboulazm and Muggeridge, 1989 developed the following expression for the
resistance increase due to ice floes:

R, = (C m V sin'S (B+d) ) / (2kd') (csc'S - [(cotS-I! (l+.e» '+e']

- (mr'/I) [I! (l+e) ]'1 (1)

The above expression has been used to calculate the resistance of the USCGC
Katmai Bay and to compare with full scale field measurements reported by Vance
(1980) .

149
2. ANALYSIS OF REPEATED ICE IMPACTS

The previous work considered the situation where the ice fragments collided
with the ship hull only once. However, depending on ship parameters, ice
parameters and the interaction mechanism, repeated impacts may OCCur. Repeated
impacts (or ice floe impinging) occurs when the ship entrance collides with the
same ice floe more than one time.
It is clear that the occurrence of repeated impacts will be associated with
increase in the ship resistance. To examine the possibility of repeated impacts
consider the following momentum equations:

-m V sin9 + N n m v' sin9, (2)

m V sin9 - Nt m v' cos9, (3)
Nt r = il' I (4)
e v' sin9, / V sin9 (5)
~ Nt / Nn (6)

By solving the above five equations (see Fig.l) it is possible to obtain

the following reflected speeds and the angle of reflection of the ice floe:

v'=V sin9! [cot9-~(I+e) J'+e') (7)

il' =(mr/I)V sin9[~(1+e) J (8)
9 , =tan- l [e/ (cot9-~ (1+e) ) J (9)

Repeated impact occurrence will depend, among other things, on the

magnitude and direction of the ice floe velocity after impact v', 9, (see Fig.2).
To calculate the possibility and the number of repeated impacts it is necessary
to examine the parameters v' and 9, and the motion response, as a function
of time, of the ice floes after impact. From the equations for v' and 9 it
"
is clear that both parameters are functions of the coefficient of restitution,
the coefficient of friction and the angle of incidence. In the special case
where the coefficient of restitution e is zero, the impact will be completely
plastic and the reflection angle will be equal to zero. This case indicates that
after the impact the ice floe will remain in contact with the ship hull and it
will only slide over the hull creating friction drag.
In the general case where 0 < e < 1 the ice floe will acquire a speed v'
in the direction 9 1 after the impact. The distance travelled by the ice floe,
as a function of time, after impact, can be determined from the equation of
motion of the ice floe, as a floating rigid body. This initial value problem can
be represented by the following equation :

m' Wi' + b w' + C w -D(w,v) (10)

150
 Where m' is the virtual mass of the ice floe, band c are the damping and
restoring coefficients. D(w,v) is a summation of all water drag forces acting
on the ice floe. The terms w", w' and ware the acceleration, velocity and
displacement of the ice floe, respectively.
For horizontal ice floe motion with no vibration, Eqn. (10) can be reduced
to :

ro' w" = -D(w,v) (11)

Introducing the expressions for ice floe form drag force and skin friction
drag force into Eqn. (11), the equation of motion of the ice floe, as a floating
rigid body, will be :

m' w" = -(1/2 cr. A, v C, + 1/2 cr. A, v C, (12)

Where A, is the lateral under water area and A, is the ice floe surface
area. The parameters C, and C. are the form and skin friction coefficients.
Equation (12) may be written as :

m' vdv/dw = -1/2cr.v (A,C,+A.C.) (13)

For relatively slow ice floe speeds, the coefficients C. and C, are
assumed to be independent of the velocity v. Equation 13 can therefore, be
solved by separation of variables as follows

dv/v = - (cr./2m') (A,C,+A.C.) dw (14)

or dv/v = k' ) dw (15)

v' o

Where k' is (cr./2m') (A,C,+A.C,) and the solution will yield:

v = v' exp(-k'w) (16)

Equation (16) expresses the speed of the ice floe v after impact as a

function of ice floe displacement. A similar equation can be developed for the

rotational velocity of the ice floe. The velocity can be expanded in series form

as:

v - v' (1 - (k'w) + 1/2 (k'w) - ..... 1 (17)

151
 Considering the first two terms in the series, the ice floe will come to

stop at the following approximate distance:

w = 11k'
or w 2m' (C,A,+C,A, ) ler. (18 )

The time displacement relationship for the ice floe after impact with the
ship can be obtained from Eqn. (16) where :

dw/dt = v' exp(-k'w) (19)

By separation of variables:

Jo exp(k'w)dw = Sv'dt
0

hence t = I/v'x [exp(kw)-l] (20)

or w = (11k) In (v' k' t+l) (21)

Where w represents the distance travelled by the ice floe after impact.

This distance will be reduced if the ice floe is to collide with another ice

floe.

Repeated impacts between an ice floe and the ship is assumed to take place

when the transverse projection of the distance travelled by the ice floe after

impact from Eqn. (21) fall short of the half beam of the ship, as shown in Fig.3.

In this case the ship will collide a second time with the floe. This collision

may be repeated a number of times until the ice floe is completely cleared from

the path of the ship. This condition can be represented in equation form as :

W cos~ < Q+d (22a)

or sin(9+9, )/K' < Q + d (22b)

Where Q is the distance between the point of impact and the maximum beam and ~

is the reflected v' direction with the y-axis (equals to [x/2-(9+9 , )]).

152
3. EFFECT OF REPEATED IMPACTS

The occurrence of repeated impacts will result in an increase in the number

of collisions per unit time, between ice floes and the ship. Consequently, the

energy loss by the ship will increase as a result of repeated impacts. The

number of ice fragment collisions per unit time can be expressed as:

Cr ' = n (B+d) v (23)

From this equation, the number of collisions per unit length of ship

projected beam, per unit time will be :

Nt - n V (24)

The expression for the distance w in Eqn. (22) represents the condition

required for the occurrence of repeated impacts. Repeated impacts will,

therefore, occur in the area described by B+d-(2Q.cos~) and the number of extra

collisions due to repeated impacts are:

N" n V [B+d-(2Q cos~)l (25)

The percentage increase in the number of impacts will be:

nV[B+d-(2Q cos~)l / nV(B+d) (26)

or ~N = (B+d-2Q cos~) / (B+d) (27)

Accounting for repeated impacts, the total number of impacts per unit

time Nt will be :

Nt = nV(B+d) (l+~N) (28)

The expression for the increase of ship resistance due to ice floes,

153
Eqn. (1), can therefore, be modified for the number of impacts per unit time, to

include repeated impacts. Resistance increase due to ice fragments will,

therefore, be :

R, (CmV'sin'9(B+d) (HON» / (2kd') {csc'9 - [(cot9- I1(He) )'+e']

- (mr'/I) [11 (He) ]'} (29)

Equation (29) represents a new formulation for calculation of ship

resistance increase due impact and repeated impacts with ice fragments. This

formulation accounts for many important ice and ship parameters relevant to the

process of ship advance in waters covered with fragmented ice.

This formulation can be used for the initial evaluation of ship resistance
for use in new ship design and for evaluation of ship trip time for existing

ships in a given ice condition in a given route.

4. APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The theoretical basis on which this formulation was developed and the

assumptions adopted in the development of the approach have introduced some

limitations on the application to general ship resistance prediction. This

formulation is suitable for ships advancing at moderate speeds in waters covered

with relatively small concentrations of small ice fragments. The approach may

not be suitable for slow ship speeds and for high ice fragments concentrations

due to the limited ice floe ship impacts. Numerical calculations using the above

formulation and applied to the R-Class icebreaker are presented here. Figure 4

shows ship resistance due to ice fragments as calculated from the developed
formulation and as obtained from full scale measurements. It is clear that the

calculated ice resistance is reasonably comparable with the measured data.

The analytical approach presented in this paper represents a new

development in the study of ship-ice interaction which is based on the

investigation of impact and repeated impact between ice fragments and the ship.

Results obtained from this approach are promising, however more work is needed

154
in the area of ice impact frequency.

REFERENCES:

Aboulazm, A.F., Muggeridge, D. (1989) "Analytical Investigation of Ship

Resistance in Broken or Pack Ice" OMAE Conference, The Hague, Netherland.
Michailidis, M. and Murdey, D. (1981) "Performance of CCGS Franklin in Lake
Melville, 1980" SNAME Ice Tech Symp., Ottawa, Canada.
Vance, G.P. (19S0) "Analysis of the Performance of a 140-foot Great Lakes
Icebreaker: USCGS Katmai Bay" U.S. Army CRREL Report No. so-s.

NOMENCLATURE

a - Average ice floe area.

B Ship beam.
C ~ Ice concentration.
C, = Collision frequency.
d - Average ice floe diameter.
e Coefficient of restitution.
Er Energy of ice floe after impact.
Ep = Energy loss due to impact.
h Ice thickness.
I = Mass moment of inertia of ice floe.
k = Ice floe shape factor.
k, Added mass coefficient of an ice floe.
m = Mass of an ice floe.
n = Number of ice floe per unit area.
Nn Normal impulse.
Nt Tangential impulse.
P, = Ship power.
r Average ice floe radius (=d/2).
R Average radius of gyration of ice floe.
R, = Total ship resistance due to ice floes.
V Ship speed.
v' = Ice floe velocity after impact.
x,y,z Coordinates.
J.l - Coefficient of friction.
CJ) = Angular velocity of ice floe.
P Density of ice.
9 Incident angle.
9, = Reflected angle.

155
 4y
I
I
8/2 ~oc-...,.~-----I

L._~_._.~._.

Figure 1 Ice floe Impact with Ship

r
I
----- --":::--I--IC
.......... \v'
"
1 v
"- "-

"

Figure 2 Ice floe Repeated Impact

156
 ~---~

Figure 3 Condition for Ice F~oe Repeated Impact

"'
J.
.I
/ /
.---f-2'
f'"
el-
~/

/
-7
::---- /
/
/"
,..---<Y'

8b&p ......

Figure 4 R-C~ass Ca~culated and Ful~ Sca~e Results

157
ARCTIC CARGO TRANSPORTATION ECONOMIC EVALUATION

Anders Backlund KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Project engineer Arctic Research & Development

Kimmo Juurmaa KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Manager Arctic Research & Development

Tom Mattsson KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Project Manager Arctic Research Centre

ABSTRACT

Cargo transportation in arctic waters has again reached greater interest.

This paper deals with the technical and economical feasibility of arctic cargo
transportation. The basIc arctic ship design criteria are presented, beginning with
icebreaklng capability The use of a transit program in calculating the time needed
for a route and for the decision of the power needed, is described. The selection of
parameters is described. The results of this transit calculation is included in an
economical model calculating the total economy of a transportation task. The whole
process IS described by an example.

1. TRANSPORTATION IN ICE

Transportation in ice covered waters IS concentrated to three areas: the

Baltic, the Canadian Arctic and the Russian Arctic.
The most active area IS the Baltic. The traffic has been year-round In the
whole Baltic for tenths of years. All sorts of cargo is transported' oil, ore, paper etc.
The traffic IS partly based on Independently operating vessels and partly on
icebreaker assistance. Restrictions regarding ships' Ice class are used during the
severest conditions. The icebreakers operate in the northernmost areas for about 6
months (December to May). A continuous modernisation of the icebreaker fleet has
taken place in both Finland and Sweden dUring the eighties and nineties, securing
reliable and more efficient operation. Eight Finnish and four Swedish icebreakers
can be used to secure the traffic also in severe winters. No major changes is
expected in the traffic in the Baltic in the near future.

158
 The second active area of arctic transportation is the Russian Arctic.
The main transportation route is the from Murmansk to Dudinka at the Yenisey river
The traffic is mainly handled by SA-15-type arctic cargo vessels transporting mixed
cargo form Murmansk and mainly iron ore from Dudinka. The traffic is kept year-
round by the ass istance of Russian nuclear icebreakers. No independent traffic is
allowed in wintertime . The whole route to Dudinka is ice-free only for about three
months every year.
Traffic to other ports east from Dudinka is done mostly during summer.
In resent years there has been an increasing interest in traffic along the Northern
Sea Route from Europe to the Far East. Some transits have been done to study the
operation, but for a continuous traffic much more investigations need to be done.
Another possible area of development in a longer perspective is the transportation
of oil and condensates from the oilfields in the Russian Arctic.
There is no continuous traffic in the Canadian Arctic. Transportation is
done on a one-off basis keeping the transportation volumes low. The main purpose
of the transportation today is to provide means for transporting goods to isolated
communities in the area. An other type of transportation is the towing of heavy cargo
from the Beaufort Sea to the eastern areas.

Picture 1, Two icebreakers assisting one cargo vessel in heavy ice conditions

159
2. INFORMATION NEEDED FOR TRAFFICABILITY ANALYSIS

2.1. Ice conditions

Ice condition data IS needed for determining the required power and hull
strengthening of the ship. The ice conditions are described by level ice thickness,
ice concentration, ridge number, ridge size and ridge consolidation. Much of the
data collected is devided by month or groups of months. Shorter intervals can
offcourse be used if ice conditions are known to change very rapidly. Other
parameters, such as strength of ice, can be taken as constants dunng one year for a
certain area.
One important parameter to be taken into account is the level ice
thickness distnbution, which shows the Ice thickness distribution based on a certain
statistical number, such as maximum thickness. This distribution varies with the
area.
All ice data should be grouped by severity of winter The most common
case is to have three degrees of seventy: mild, normal and severe, representing
20%, 50% ad 80 % of the winters. An example of monthly maximum ice thickness is
given in figure 1.
Special ice conditions, such as ice pressure, leads etc., are preferably
considered as possible sources for delays or time savings. As long as reliable data
of their occurrence is not available, they should not be Included In the basic
calculations.

'" I
"" 1
100l
"1
80
1
,,~
"I

20

"
"

Figure 1, Maximum level ice thickness during years of different

severity

160
 2.2. Navigational restrictions

To be able to select the possible ship sizes and their main dimensions,
all restrictions should be known. Possible restrictions might be: draught limitations in
straits and harbours, breadth and length limitations in canals and height limitations
caused by bridges.

r 2.3. Cargo flows

r One of the major parameters when doing the analysis is the cargo flow.
If the ship design IS based on speculative needs for transportation of a certain
cargo, also the possible cargo in adjacent areas should be studied to be able to
evaluate the possibilities for combined transportation and avoidance of ballast trips.

2.4. Methods to analyse icebreaking performance

When determining the ship's performance in different ice conditions, the

basic knowledge is the knowledge of determining the ice resistance for different hull
shapes in different ice conditions. The methods can be analytic, based on model
tests, based on full scale tests or a combination of all these The analytic method is
the fastest and easiest way to calculate the ice resistance of ice going ships
Through the years many different formulas for calculating the ship resistance have
been published. They are often based on physical phenomena, the resistance is
corrected by coefficients which are depending of the hull form The coefficients are
mainly based on few full scale results or some model scale tests On the basis of
the experience of more than 150 full scale tests and over 200 model tests KMY has
developed ItS own formula to establish the level ice resistance 1) without using any
correlation coefficients. The analytic method IS only depending on the ice
resistance and the hull shape
The feedback from the model and full scale tests gives the pOSSibility to
have good correlation between the calculations and the test result with similar
vessels. The figure 2 presents the level Ice reSlstance of an Arctic cargo vessel
determined by these three different methods

161
 ICE RESISTANCE RI [kNI

1200 FULL SCALE

1100

1000 • ·• MODEL SCALE

CALCULATED
•
•
900

BOO

•
.•
700

600 *
500 •

400
as 15 25 35
SPEED V [m/al

Figure 2, Level ice resistance determined by different methods

1
1) Lindqvist G.: A straightforward method for calculation of ice resistance of ships.
POAC 89, Lulea Sweden.
The level ice is only one of the ice condition where the ship is moving,
the other ice conditions that mainly are considered are: floe Ice, channels (old and
new) and ridges.
The most significant ice condition, when calculation ship speed, is the
ridge field, which includes both level Ice, channels and ridges and the possibility of
the ship to be In multiple ridges at the same time
The experience of full scale and model scale tests has given the KMY
the possibility to calculate all these other ice conditions. The coefficients and
formulas of these calculations has been transformed to a PC-based programme. In
figure 3 a typical transit simulation of the path of a ship is presented. The simulation
includes some ridges and a level Ice sheet.
TRANSIT

Shp no 1
Wont" no 1 Tf"<ld< no 1

TRANSIT
Sho no 1

L"""QI"'of,,~. 150 m o.r...

<red p e _ 1 .. 7S16. \o:W
8rf!O<1th of ""Do 21.5 m Propeller olOmet... S<4S ...
0<"-,,"1 Ioodect
o,splo:: ....... nt
9.$
2>500
Propeller revoUi.lO"",
"0 ~

L .... e 1 oc .. ,ho<:k_ 0..6 m Floe

~now thd<".,.,.,.. 02 ... ConcentrotlCln
Ckarnel \1'10<:1<.- 02 m
tRod<); thod<n..u. 10 ,} rl(jqes / km
Total ~....uoted ddt"''''''' ... 2. km S,m....,ted <fostanc ...

TQtol,.,.....,,, _ _
Toto/I, ........ _
042'18 .../s
1~f72. h
Yec!n
Tim.'-'
_ed- 04219 m/s
1.3fi'2 h
ToICII~~1OI'\. 99793 MW'h E~ oo... ......-crtoon 99793 WWh

Figure 3 , Transit simulation of a distance of 2000 m

162
 The transit simulation produce the parameters as average speed,
energy consumption, which can be used in the economical calculations.

2.5. Cost factors

The major individual cost component in modem ship projects is the

capital cost. As the capital costs can amount up to 60 % of the total costs, it is
essential to be accurate in determining the ship price and financing terms. A close
contact with a shipbuilding yard IS the most effective way to keep the price
estimations up-to-date In many studies there IS also a need for evaluating the cost
effect of some technical solutions. This also requires a more detailed price
estimation program.
Other cost factors related to the ships are: fuel and lube oil costs,
manning costs and insurance Costs related to the Infrastructure in the selected
ports are harbour fees, towing fees and fees for icebreaklng assistance

2.6 Income

The estimation of income is in many cases a very hazardous task,

especially as many projects start producing Income many years after an economic
evaluation has been done One of the studied alternatives In many arctic projects is
a limited salling season, when interest IS raised upon the possible earnings outside
the Arctic season. Some general notes can ofcourse be done, but one should be
careful about doing decIsions about the profitability of a project based on future
income.

3. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

When making an economic evaluation of an arctic cargo sea-

transportation system, the basic question IS' Is It economically feasible to transport
this cargo by ship? Other questions raising are' Which IS the most feasible
transportation system?, What IS the cost?
The starting pOint of an evaluation IS the need of transporting some
goods from a pOint A to a point B In the case of an arctic transportation system
either of the pOints are in the Arctic. The most common studies evaluate the
economic feasibility of transportation in general and specifying the most feasible
transportation system. Possible alterations include different ship sizes and
icebreaking capabilities.

163
 When we know the type and amount of cargo and the transportation
route, the first decIsion to be made is to select the possible transportation
alternatives These alternatives may include other modes of transportation, such as
railway, truck, pipeline etc. Trucks, railway and pipelines are mostly used to
transport the cargo to an open water harbour, thus making it possible to exclude the
more expensive ice strengthened cargo vessels.
When the alternatives have been selected, a selection of possible
alternations in ship sizes has to be done. The selection of ship sizes can be based
on various grounds: existing vessels, known designs, possible off-season purposes
etc.
When the selection of routes has been made, ice profiles for the route
should be made. The profiles descnbe the existing ice conditions on the route,
based on their effect on the performance of the ship This profile should include the
data presented in 2.1 On the basis of the variation in ice conditions along the route,
a selection of suitable deviding of the route can be made Examples of profiles are:
open water, level ice, ridge fields, assistance by icebreaker.
When, based on the Ice data available, the different Ice conditions
along the route are known, the hull lines of the ships can be made Depending on
the open water portion of the route, the hull lines can be optimised for the specific
route. When the hull lines have been specified, the Icebreaking performance with
different power levels are calculated.
The next stage IS to decide the required power for each studied ship
The selection of power for the ship should be based on the ship's performance in
different conditions, such as open water speed, need of ramming during normal
winter and operation in the most severe conditions Depending on the route and the
prevailing ice conditions, different cnteria may govern the selection of power If only
one ship size is studied, a companson between different power levels can be done.
When the companson of different power levels is Included In the
economical calculations, the effect of the different power levels on the cargo
carrying capacity should be included.
When all the ship parameters are selected and the monthly Ice profiles
on the different parts of the route are determined, a transit time calculation is done
The calculation gives as result the time spent on the route each month, energy (and
thus also fuel and lube 011) consumption each trip Possible ballast tnps should also
be studied as separate cases
When the time spent on the route is known, the amount of cargo
transported by each ship during the year can be calculated. Depending on the total

164
amount of cargo to be transported during the year, the required number of ships can
be calculated
When the maximum Ice conditions are known, the required Ice
strengthening for the ship IS determined. Depending on the area of operation, a
study on the possible required ice class can be done.
When all ship parameters are known, the bUilding price can be
determined The most important factors determining the ship price are the steel
weight and Installed power Good knowledge in determining them IS therefore
essential
A major factor influencing the capital costs IS the financing terms, e g.
depreciation time and load rate. When nothing else IS known, general OECD-terms
can be used. The finanCing terms are often depending on the owner.

ITRANSPORTATION TASK _ISTARTING POINT, FINAL POINT, CARGO TYPE. CARGO AMOUNT I
ITRANSPORTATION ALT. ---tTRANSHIPMENT TERMINALS. PIPELINES. LENGTH OF SEASON

liCE CONDITIONS I --1LEVEL ICE THICKNESS. RIDGES liCE PROFILES

ISHIP DESIGN --!HULL LINES. MAIN DIMENSIONS

llCEBREAKING PERFORMANCE

IpOWER DETERMINATION

lTRANSIT SPEED CALCULATION

INUMBER OF SHIPS

ISHIP PRICE ESTIMATION

lECONOMIC CALCULATION

Figure 4, Flow chart of analysis procedure

One Important parameter is the ship hull strengthening. Different

classification societies have different ways of specifying the required strengthening.
The Russian Rules specify the class according to the traffic area. Canadian rules
have the actual prevailing ice conditions as there starting point Other societies do
not connect the rules to any existing ice conditions To get the correct Ice
strengthening, a study on the risks of operation with a certain hull strengthening in
the existing ice conditions should be made

165
 Cost factors related to the ships that are not yet determined, are the
manning costs, management costs and assistance costs. The influence of the
manning and management costs on the final results are minor, why the data can be
based on published international statistics. The assistance costs can be more
difficult to determine, because fees have not been determined for all areas and all
ship sizes. Assistance fees can also be politically dependant.
Other costs that should be included are storage costs and possible
Investments in harbour facilities. These costs may be kept aside from the ship cost
calculations. but should be noted as bases for the final decIsions

4. EXAMPLE

To describe the analysis process an example IS given

Transportation task: Transportation of 15 Mbbl crude oil from an I

loading terminal In the Pechora Sea to
Rotterdam

Studied transportation system: Independent Icebreaklng tanker from the

Pechora Sea directly to Rotterdam

Ship size: 80 000 dwt

Propulsion power alternatives: 30 MW and 50 MW

Navigational restrictions: Terminal In the Pechora Sea is situated in 25 m

deep water

Cost factors: Ship capital costs, ship operating costs, terminal

(both loading and transhipment) costs,
assistance costs, storage costs.

The ship size has been decided based on expenences of similar transportation.
Terminal sea water depth is based on technical evaluations. One
alternative study could be the comparison of different water depths at the loading
terminal. The main dimensions of one possible solution are'
Length 240 m
Breadth 40 m
Draught 13 m
The Influence of errors in the ice condition data on the mean speed of
the 50 MW tanker is studied. A 100 % error in the number of ridges gives an 15 %
error in the mean speed in the most severe conditions. The influence on the lighter

166
conditions is less. A 100 % error in the size of ridges gives an 80 % error in the
mean speed.
As the most severe conditions represent a very limited time of the year
on an even more limited part of the trip, the influence of errors In the Ice conditions
on the transit times of the total route is very limited. When we consider a fixed
amount of cargo to be transported, the lower average transit speed has a major
affect on the total economy only if an additional ship IS required.
The difference in mean speeds in the most severe conditions between
the 30 MW version and the 50 MW version is about 70 per cent. This is because of
the ramming needed with the 30 MW ship. This Indicates that the propulsion power
has a major influence on the reliability of the transportation (minimisation of
downtime because of insufficient icebreaking performance).
The difference in ship price between the two alternatives is about 20 %.
As the financing costs represent some 60 % of the total costs, a 20 % change in
ship price has a major Influence on the total transportation costs.
Other costs to be Included are harbour fees, manning costs, fuel and
lub oil, shore side expenses. Figure 5 shows the cost structure of one of the
alternatives.

COST STRUCTURE

III 58 % Ca pltal Cost

\ ~ 1 % Shore Side
\\ III 6 % Payroll

05% Ship Expences

:::J 0 % ProvIsion etc

023 % Bunker& Lub all

06% PortCharges

.0% IcebreakerAss

Figure 5 Cost structure of one alternative

167
5. CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of thorough investigations and good knowledge in data on ice

conditions (and their effect on ship performance) and shipping and shipbuilding
costs, reliable economical evaluations can be done. The most essential parts of the
evaluation are.

correct determination of ship price, which is influenced by

- maximum ice conditions
- estimation of required power
- estimation of building costs
correct estimation of financing terms
• correct translation of general ice data into parameters affecting the
ship performance

The most usual errors made are.

overestimated ice conditions (too general assumptions)

old design - > too expensive ships

A constant contact to the development of ship design, a continuing

upgrading of the knowledge of ice conditions and a great expenence in the
performance of ships in different Ice conditions lays the ground of reliable
evaluation of arctic transportation economics

168
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT RUDDER/PROPULSION DEVICE
ARRANGEMENTS ON ICEGOING VESSELS USING MODEL TESTS IN ICE

Magnus Backstrom KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Project Engineer Arctic Research Centre

Ann-Cristin Forsen KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Project engineer Arctic Research Centre

Goran Wilkman KVa9rner Masa-Yards Finland

Manager Arctic Research Centre.

ABSTRACT

Maneuvring characteristics of a vessel espeCially regarding

independent operations in Ice, like operations in harbours, maneuvers close
to loading terminals and actions dUring escort duties are probably the most
important areas in the field of navigation in ice The paper describes test
results with two different kind of vessels· A harbour Icebreaker and an arctic
tanker. The icebreaker model was equipped with two arrangements: one/two
rudders with two propellers and two AZlpod thruster units. The tanker was
eqUipped In addition to the conventional rudder/propeller arrangement also
with Azipod thruster units The tests consisted of basIc cases like resistance
and propulSion tests and maneuvrlng tests

1. INTRODUCTION

The development of Icebreakers and Ice breaking ships has

happened mostly around bow shapes and Ice resistance reduction
PropulSion has been neglected. The search for maximum bollard pull has
dominated the designs. The results from such development has been some
times one sided applications, e g. work well only in certain conditions and
emphasIs has been laid on areas of secondary importance.
The starting point for a ship design should always be the real
operational conditions and owners requirements for sufficient and safe
operation.

169
 Today a lot of emphasIs IS given to the environmental aspects These
include also the following characteristics

reliability
operability
survival In different Ice conditions

The Items mentioned above are all factors to be considered when one
IS making an evaluation of risks involved In the traffic In question.

To make designs practical and to reach all the goals one should study
all the characteristics Involved separately very carefully and make senSible
combinations. Sometimes the temptation of putting many novelties together
takes however over. In these cases it is very difficult to find out how an
individual solution works One good way to study the different alternatives is
model testing.

The main objectives in the research and development at Kvaerner

Masa-Yards is to develop different areas and equipment applications which
then can be combined the best way to fullflll the requirements of the project in
question.

DUring the history the development of principal rudder/propeller has

changed from, one rudder/one aft propeller through three rudders/three aft
propeller to aZimuth thrusters, see figure 1

-8~ Arctic

BcS . -BT --':?

"-------"" - 8 ,

8. ~ '=:ae:==::>
-:C?B: [: c
8~8c
::> J~"'&I'k'

-8"-------""68 ~ t Figure 1, Development

-8 of Rudder/Propeller
-8 8~ -8e:==::> arrangements
-8 8

170
 In the following we are discussing about the recent development done
In the field of propulsion and steering devices

2. THE SHIPS

2.1 Icebreaker

The main duties of the studied Icebreaker IS to give assistance In

harbours and entrances to harbours The vessel is sUitable for towing at open
sea and IS also designed to be used for other duties as firefighting, diving
support and salvage The tests with the tWin screw harbour icebreaker were
conducted with three different versions two conventional propulsion versions
with one and two rudders and one with aZimuth thruster units (Azlpod)
Azlpod IS an aZimuth thruster with an electrical propeller motor built In the
submerged part of the unit. The test results are also compared with results
achieved from both full and model scale tests with icebreaker Dlkson, bUilt in
1983. ThiS Icebreaker is equipped with two propellers and two rudders
The main dimenSions of the tested vessels are.

icebreaker: - length =66 m, breadth =20 m, draught =6 m,

- nominal power = 7 MW
18 Dikson: - length =78 5 m, breadth =20 m, draught =6 m
- nominal power = 7 MW

AZlpod thruster Untt version

The vessel IS equipped with a diesel-electric machinery where the

propulsion and steering device consists of two electriC driven thruster units
(Azlpods) The new propulSion solution together with an innovative new
hullform give the icebreaker a superb manouvering and icebreaklng
capability without sacrifiCing the open water performance

Conventional one/two rudder version

The vessel IS equipped with a diesel-electric machinery where the

propulSion consists of two conventional propeller shaftlines. The two rudder
version was eqUipped with two rudders mounted straight behind the

171
propellers. In the one rudder version one rudder was mounted between the
propellers at CL.
The rudder area at the one rudder version was about 17% larger than
one rudder at the two rudder version. The tested versions are shown In fig. 2.

n 0

Azipod stern

c~ Twin screw
C~

18 Dikson

Figure 2, The Icebreaker Propulsion Arrangements

2.2 Tanker

The tested tanker is an 120000 tdw double-skin crude oil tanker

deSigned for operations In the arctic regions. The model tests were done
with two different stern arrangements

a conventional single propeller and one rudder stern

a stern With two aZimuth thruster units (Azlpod)

Conventional version

The tanker is equipped With a mechanical propulSion drive where a

single cp-propeller is driven by diesels throught a tWin InpuUslngle output
reduction gear.

Azipod thruster Unit versIOn

The tanker is equipped With a diesel-electric machinery where the

172
propulsion and steering device consist of two electrical ly driven thruster
units.(Azipod) The system is ideally suited for operation in ice. The main
dimensions of the vessel are:

Length WL 272 m, Breadth 43 m, Draugth 17 m

Power 30 MW

In figure 3 there are the stern arrangements of the two versions tested .

Figure, 3 Tanker propulsion arrangements

3. METHODS

The primary methods used in the development work have been:

Analysis of the performance of the existing simi liar vessels

Preliminary model tests
Confirmation of the results in full scale
Comparison to the conventional designs through model tests
Application to the projects

The model tests were done using the following main set-ups:

Towed resistance tests

Towed propulsion tests
Operational propulsion tests

173
 Al l the tests were done at MAR C the Kvaerner Masa-Yards Arctic
Research Centre ,see figure 4

Figure 4, Kvaerner Masa-Yards Arctic Research Centre

4. THE MODEL TESTS

4.1 Tests with the icebreaker

Icebrea king performance

The resistance test were done running ahead and astern with all the
different versions. The difference in performance between the one and the
two rudder conventional version is minimal. All res istance tests were
conducted as self propuls ion tests In figure 5 the difference in icebreaking
performance for the vessels can be seen . The Azipod version shows a bigger
advantage in the performance astern due to less propeller! ice interaction.
The icebreaking performance due to the new hullform has increased 45 %
going ahead and 61 % going astern compared to the conventional sharp bow
ib Dikson .

174
 RAZIPOO

i CI TWIN SffiEW :

: R DIKSON

o 02 04 06 08 12 14 16
Ice thICkness

Figure 5. Icebreaking capability

Operational propulsion tests

In figure 6 the results from the turning capability tests are shown The values
are given as a ratio between the turning radius and the length of the ShiP,
R/L. The rudder angle was 35° during the tests.

~ DH.ce: 08m

"L

Figure 6. Turning capability

Compared to the claSSical twin/triple screw and one rudder Icebreaker

deSigns the improvement in using tWin rudders has been remarkable and the
possibility to use the aZimuth thrusters practically allowes the vessel to turn
on spot, see figure 7.

175
 o Dlkson

12.0 I v TWIn Screw

~ >
• • Azlpod

'" 1
B.O •
·Otso

- KapItan Dramtsyn

'-
""
6.0 t 0
• Taymyr
,,+
4.0 )( Kapitan Nlkolaev

.' 1" f
Azlpod 6 Lonna
2.0 ".

-'~~ • Seth
0.0
)( Can mar Kigonak
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Hice[m) + Max Waldeck

Figure 7, Comparison of Turning Capability in level ice

4.2 Tests with the tanker

/cebreaking performance

In the resistance tests ahead there was no difference in ice resistance

between the two versions, this because of the hull form ( long midship section
and deep draught) no propeller I ice interaction occured The tests were
performed as self propulsion tests.

Turning tests

The turning capability is shown in figure 8. The values are given as a

ratio between the turning radius and the length of the ship. The rudder angle
was 35 degrees during the tests. With the aZlpod version an Improvement
was obtained in the turning capability, the ratio RlL decreased with 50 %.

176
 i:; azipod

= conventi on al

t~ _______________ _ ~

0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,0010,0012,001 4,0016,0018.00

R/ L

Figure 8. Turning capability

Even when the vessel has a long parallel middle body and no reamers
the change in the turning devices give remarcable benefit

The tanker has to be designed individually concerning diffrent sea

areas The one that fits to the Pechora Sea does not necessari ly fit to the
Kara Sea or the Sea of Okhotsk.

For comparison in figure 9 there are some turning capabi lity values for other
large ships.

R/L
~ r------------------' walki

•
satka
15 •
sa-15

• arct ic tanker
conventional
t
arctic ta nker
azipod
* ...
•
oL---~----~----~----~----~--~
o 0. 2 0.4 0. 6 0.8 1.2
Hi [mJ

Figure 9, Turning capability of large ships

Examples of the tests are in photographs: 1-3, the icebreaker and 4-6, the
tanker.
177
 Photo 1, Icebreaker, turning test in level ice

Photo 2, Icebreaker running astern in level ice, Azipod version

Photo 3, Icebreker,running astern in level ice,

Twin screw/rudder version

178
Photo 4, Tanker with conventional stem

Photo 5, Tanker with Azipod stern

Photo 6, Tanker/Azipod running astern in level ice

179
5. CONCLUSION

The results of the work done show clearly that there are still
possibilities to improve the performance of ships in ice through new
applications and new development of equipment.

The experience from the Buoy tender Seili with the Azipod propulsion
and the latest tests with the new Multipurpose Icebreaker Fennica with an
azimuth thruster units encourages the designers to new solutions.

The recent result of this development chain is the conversion of MT

Uikku, figure 10 for arctic operations. In this case the vessel will also be
equipped with an 11.5 MW Azipod propulsion device, figure 11.

~ -r ..
~
•
~~
. . . ...
• ••
~ !
.,
.1iI~~ w.-, .•••••O!( '. )
7'
~ =,.. -'-'--: . = : . : . . . . - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - :. /'

Figure 10, Icebreaking Tanker Uikku

Figure 11, The Azopod Unit for MT Uikku

180
 After the next years experience with these new propulsion devices we
can see if we can get rid of rudders and long shaft lines and the era of
freedom In ship design, general arrangement, will start. In figure 12 there is
an example of the possibilities for the variations in general arrangements of
ships.

Figure 12, Variations in General Arrangements

181
 FULL SCALE DEFLECTION OF ICE BY AN ICEBREAKER

Robert E. Gagnon Institute for Marine Dynamics

Research Officer National Research Council of Canada

Donald Spencer Institute for Marine Dynamics

Research Officer National Research Council of Canada

ABSTRACT

Two methods have been used to measure the full scale deflection
of ice by the operation of the Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker,
Sir John Franklin. The data show consistency and indicate that
three types of disturbances were caused by the operation of the
icebreaker in water with a .5 m ice cover. One type, long period
water/ice waves (period - 5 s) caused by jamming of the ice sheet
near the ship's maximum beam, may be associated with reports of
structural damage of icebreakers that occurs in the vicinity of
the 'shoulder' of the bow. The frequency of the jamming events and
the magnitude of the ice deflection near the bow of the ship
increase with ship speed.

1. INTRODUCTION

During the period February 10-18, 1991, a team of scientists and

engineers from the Institute for Marine Dynamics eIMD), Transport
Development Canada (TDC) and Cold Stream Maritime Ltd. took part
in a program to study the operation of the Canadian icebreaker,
the Sir John Franklin. A film crew from the National Film Board of
Canada documented the entire program on film. The project was
supported by IMD, TDC and the Canadian Coast Guard. The program
was conducted in the Indian Arm, Little Burnt Bay, and Hamilton
Sound, Notre Dame Bay, regions of the North East coast of
Newfoundland.
One of the several measurements made durlng ~~e project was the
deflection of the ice sheet induced by the passage of the
icebreaker. This is an important quantity for comparison of model

182
and full scale tests and for general understanding of the
processes involved in ice breaking. These are the first reported
measurements of full scale deflections by an icebreaker.
A separate report (Williams et al., 1991) contains details of
the ship performance test program and ship specifications.

2. TECHNIQUE

Two methods were used for the full scale deflection

measurements. One was to directly measure the change in elevation
of the ice sheet relative to the ocean floor by using a wire,
attached to a weight sitting on the ocean floor, which ran
straight up through a hole in the ice. Tension was maintained on
the wire by an elastic rope
attached to a tripod (Fig. 1).
As the icebreaker approached
the setup the apparent vertical
ICE SHEET
movement of the wire, relative
I/W1RE
to a meter stick sitting on the (

I
ice sheet, gave a direct
measurement of the vertical
WEIGHT
deflection of the sheet. The OCEAN FLOOR

relative positions of the wire

and meter stick were recorded Fig. 1. Weighted wire method used
for measuring ice sheet
using -a video camera. The data deflection.
were later digitized from a
television screen. The elasticities of the wire and elastic were
taken into account when the data were converted to ice
deflections. This method is suitable when the water depth is not
too great « 100 m) and when strong currents are not present. The
estimated absolute uncertainty in the measurements, arising
primarily from the digitization of the video records, is ± 1 mm.
The other method used for the deflection measurements involved
the use of a low power (2 mW) Helium-Neon laser to measure the
angular deflections of the ice sheet as the ship approached to
determine the profile of the ice (Fig. 2). The vertical
displacement of the laser beam spot (Fig. 3) was recorded using a
video camera at a remote site where the deflection of the ice
sheet due to the operation of the icet~eaker was negligible. The
records were later digitized from a television screen. The broad
ice deflection profile is static relative to the ship if the ice

183
conditions and speed of the vessel are not changing dramatically.
The angular deviation of the laser beam (and ice sheet) from
horizontal is obtained by a simple iteration

(1)

where A(n) is the angular deviation at video frame n, L is the

distance between the laser and the detector (meter stick and video
camera) , Hn is the vertical
ICEBREAKER BOW
I
deflection of the laser spot from
the zero position at the detector
and S; is the distance that the
vessel and ice deflection profile
move between video frames (1/30 s).
LASER
The deflection of the ice sheet at
frame n is given by the summation

n-1
CENTER·UNE
TRACK
D(n) - L S"sin(AJ (2 )
"-1

DETECTOR
: -----\ This method is limited by the
: ~ 45m-- L_..--l fact that knowledge of the
horizontal velocity of the
Fig. 2. Laser method used for deflection profile is required for
measuring the ice sheet
deflection. the analysis. Hence, it yields
accurate deflection
information for the broad
deflection profile that moves
along with the ship at known
speed. However, cusping at
LASER
the bow and midships creates

---- \
\
------
disturbances that
faster, unknown, velocities
move at

and therefore the calculated

Fig. 3. Laser beam displacement amplitudes of the resulting
resulting from ice sheet
deflection. fast moving disturbances

184
will be inaccurate since S; in Eq. (2), obtained from the ship
speed, will be underestimated. The broad deflection profile
calculation is correct (absolute accuracy ± 1 mm arising from
digitization of video records) and follows the trends in the other
data records, however, the calculated amplitudes of the
undulations are less than their actual values because their
propagation speed is faster than the ship. A modification of the
technique, however, completely eliminates these restrictions. By
measuring the laser dot deflection at two distances from the
laser, say 100 m and 150 m (Fig. 4), one acquires enough

The detectors are set up at a remote SIte from the area where the lea
sheet Is being deflected by the approaching Icebreaker.

DETECTOR B DETECTOR A
BEAM FROM DISTANT LASER

The angular deviation of the laser beam from horizontal and the vertical displacement
of the IC8 sheet at the laser s4e can be obta1lled from hI' h2 and the known separations
between the detectors and the laser

Fiq. 4. Modified laser technique for measuring ice sheet

deflection.

information to separate the deflection of the laser spot arising

from angular deflection of the ice at the laser and that
attributable to pure vertical deflections. The lateral speeds of
the various components of the disturbance are not required. Future
field tests using this apparatus will incorporate this
modification. Another possible modification would be to use
vertically-oriented linear arrays of small photo-diodes to sense
and record the laser spot position. This would eliminate the
tedious task of digitizing the video records and increase the
absolute accuracy of the measurements.
For both deflection measurement techniques the sensor (i. e.
laser or weighted wire) was set up on the ice at a position 200 m
from the ice edge and 20 m to the side of the center track of the
ship. The detector for the laser beam deflection was set up 100 m
from the laser and - 45 m from the center l~~e of the ship track.
The ship's approach was normal to the ice edge and the captain
tried to maintain constant speed during the run. The speeds quoted

185
in the figures and in Table I were averaged over the whole run.
TABLE I. SUMMARY OF ICE SHEET DEFLECTION DATA.
RUN ID AVERAGE SHIP JAMMING DEFLECTION AT
SPEED INTERVAL BOW, 20m FROM
CENTER-LINE
OF SHIP TRACK

(m/s) (s) (cm)

15 2.4 5.3 0.50
6.1 3.6 7.04

§ 26*
25*
4.4
4.8
5.5
5.1 1. 70
5.0
4.5

* Tests conducted uSlng the laser beam deflectlon method.

3.05
2.85

3. DATA ANALYSIS

Fig. 5 shows the time series of the deflection records for five

l-
e- 1SHIPRUN !D #= 6161 ml',I _/
SPEED
e-
Ie- ~~
1
7
5
I:SHIPRUN !DillS ,I ILASER METHOD I
3
SPEED = 55 ml'

I - ~
I
7
5 I:SHIPRUN !D II 17 ,I
SPEED = 48 ml'
3
1 ,../"-Y
~_.,w-'-~~
I
7
5
) ~
I:SHIPRUN ID 26 II ,I
SPEED = 4.4 ml'
IL\SER METIIODI

I ~ .~
I
7~ ---------
5
3
I:SHIPRUN!D1I15 ;1
SPEED = 2.4 ml'

I
~ ~~ /\.J~
1
·50 o 50 100 150 200
DISTANCE TRA YELLED FROM ICE EDGE (m)

Fig. 5. Ice deflection time series summary.

200 m runs of the icebreaker through .5 m'ice, at average speeds

ranging from 2.4 m/s to 6.1 m/s. Two of the tests (Run ID #'s 25

186
and 26) were conducted using the laser method. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7
show the laser beam
deflection data, used as
10 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Hn in Eq. (1) to give
Runs 25 and 26 in Fig. 5

~rt~~·~~~~
5.
The r e a r e
e
~ 0
characteristics of the ~
6 ·5

I~··~I \il
data that are common to Ul
all 5 tests. In each [i
~ ·10
case there is deflection
RUN ID # 25 I'
of the ice at the sensor ·15 - SHIP SPEED = 5.5 mi. Ii
even before the ship f
.20 '---~-'-~ __L......_....!....._ __'_ __'__--.J
makes contact with the
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
sheet. This is due to TIME (5)
water waves (T - 7 s),
created by the ship's Fig. 6. Laser spot deflection time
series.
movement prior to
contacting the ice, impinging on the ice sheet. This is most
noteworthy in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 in the section of the time series
before the ship contacts the ice sheet. The time when contact
occurred was established
through radio contact 20
with the ship's bridge.
Secondly there are 15 I:SHIPRUNID 44 mi..1
#26
SPEED =
higher frequency e
(T ~ 1 s) waves, clearly ~ 10
ICONTACf wrrn ICE I Illi
~,I "~
Z
visible in Fig. 6 and
Fig. 7, caused by the
0
6
Ul
5
1, AII
~'J"Ji~t~ 'Nill ~I
creation of ice cusps at
..l ,\ I I
'Cl""
Ul 0
jl
the bow of the ship.
These propagate ·5
\ I, I \ '!
~
primarily as elastic
-10
vibrations in the solid 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ice sheet and move TIME (s)
rapidly (> 100 m/s). The
Laser spot deflectlon tlme
high speed was evident !~~ies ~.
because within a few
second~ of the ship making contact with the ice these low
amplitude vibrations were detected by the laser 200 m away.
Then there were long period water I ice waves, the dominant

187
undulations in the deflection
records, resulting from fairly
regular jamming of the ice
sheet, and subsequent creation
/'
of large cusps, near midships open channel
\ partlaJlyliUoo wrth \
where the ship has its maximum large and small Ice !
PieceS /
beam (Fig. 8). This was
evident from video records \.
taken from the ice surface
viewing the side of the
vessel. At the slow ship
speeds each jam was
characterized by an abrupt creabon of a large cusp caused by jaffifnlng
neat the vessel's maximum beam
upward movement of the ice
sheet (Fig. 9) as it buckled
upwards under the lateral
compressive force and then an smaller cusps at bow where the breaking
hquenc:y Is high«
abrupt downward movement as
the ice failed flexurally near
Fig. 8. Cusp pattern generated by
the vessel, creating a large the ship.
broken cusp. The interval
between jamming events, JAMMING SENARIO ONE
obtained by counting peaks JAMMING FORCE

in the deflection records,

correlates with the ship
speed (Fig. 10). The UP'NAAD BUCKUNG
OFtCE SHEET

greatest amplitude of the

undulations occurred at JAMMING SENARIO nNO
.JAMMING FORCE
the slowest ship speed
(Fig. 5). The nonlinear
;
character of the ,
UPWARD 8UCKUNG
OF ICE SHEET
correlation between ship
speed and jamming interval
may in part, at least, END RESULT OF EITHER SENARIO
FlEXURAl... FAJLUAE DUE TO BUCKUNG
resul t from the dependence
of cusp size on ship
speed. The video records, RElAXA TlON OF ICE SHEET
AFTER FLEXURAL FAlWAE
from a camera mounted on
the vessel on the ~ide at
Fig. 9. creation of a large cusp by
the bow, indicated that jamming.
larger cusps were
188
generated by the bow at
7
low speeds than
at
higher speeds and this
~
6 -
may also be the case at ..l
midships. The nature of « T T
,
>
the ice breaking process
~
...as
~
5 -
I 1 yI
I
T
itself may also be quite ?
different at midships at
differing speeds. For
"::eas 4

::e
high speeds the trough
«
..., 3
behind the ship's bow
wave, that occurs near 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
midships, probably plays
SHIP SPEED (m/s)
the dominant role in
fracturing the ice Fig. 10. Jamming interval versus ship
speed.
rather than jamming and
buckling of the sheet
S
~
which seems to dominate 0:: 8
at the lower speeds.
~
~
7
•
Finally there is the u
::e0 6
broad profile of the ice
0::
~ 5
I Y = .10' l.97XI
sheet that moves along )l
<:>
with the ship at the N 4

same speed as the ship, ~

~
3 •• •
resulting from the bow f-o
..:
wave. This always leads Z
0
2

1
•
to an uplifting of the 8
~
0 •
ice as the bow of the ..J
~ 1 2 6 7
~
ship approaches the Q
SHIP SPEED (m/s)
sensors. The degree of
u p 1 i f tin g i s Fig. 11. Ice deflection near bow versus
ship speed.
proportional to the ship
speed (Fig. 11).

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Two different methods have been used to measure the full scale
deflection of ice by an icebreaker for the first time and the data
show consistency. The weighted .:ire measuring method is suita,ble
when water depth is not too great and when there are not strong
currents present. The laser method, with the modification

189
described above, is not subject to any restrictions, except
perhaps dense fog which would scatter the laser beam.
The data indicates three types of disturbances caused by the
operation of the icebreaker in water with a .5 m ice cover:
1. Short period (T 5 1 s), low amplitude, elastic vibrations in
the ice sheet, resulting from cusping at the bow of the ship.
The velocity of these disturbances is ~ 100 m/s.
2. Long period water/ice waves (T - 5 s) that travel at speeds
greater than the ship speed. These are caused by jamming of the
ice sheet near the ship's maximum beam and subsequent creation
of large broken cusps. The interval between jamming events
correlates with ship speed and the highest amplitude occurred at
the lowest ship speed. These events may be associated with
reports of structural damage of icebreakers that occurs in the
vicinity of the 'shoulder' of the bow.
3. The broad deflection profile of the ice, that moves along at
the speed of the ship, resulting from the bow wave of the ship.
The magnitude of the deflection in the vicinity of the bow
increases with ship speed.
The field results suggest that in model testing the measurement of
the sideways forces that the model experiences may provide very
useful insights into the role of jamming in the icebreaking
process.

s. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like thank Transport Development Canada and

the Canadian Coast Guard for their support in this project.

6. REFERENCES

Williams, F.M., Spencer, D., Parsons, B., Hackett, P., Gagnon, B.,
Everard, J. and Butt, S. 1991. Full-Scale Ice Breaker Trials, CCGS
Sir John Franklin, Indian Arm/Little Burnt Bay 1991. Institute for
Marine Dynamics Report, TR-1991-03.

190
Hermann Herkens Thyssen Nordseewerke GmbH Germany

A steel deslgn t~am is acc~sto~ed to havlng ~ell structured gUldance

which anables ~ass definltlon wlthln ! standard tl~a range. For a na~

type of ship problams xhen deslgning often are attributable to

nconsistent parameters. GUldances by rule requlrewents may be roughly
converted for the new type of ship. But the design result may remain
unsatlsfactory. Efforts must be undertaken If the result is bayond
the usual scope of imaginatlon or aven test results.
An example for this situation are the well defined design paramaters
for lcebreakers which are not sUltable for a Thyssen/Vaas bow.
For hull-shapes like to T/V deslgns the need for better deslgn
parameters seems not to be solved even after t~o TV-designs, whare
application of a publIshed pr:ssure-area relatlon leads to confUSlon
after test experience.

1. TIme Schedule ~nd Role of Rules In Steel Design

Shipyards are bound to comparatIvely short dellv6ry timas for thair

products. It is nor~al to deliver the fIrst ShlP of a series within
about 1.5 years after contract. Usually not more than a general
descrlption In form of ! builjlng speCifIcatIon and a preliminary
general arrangement plan containlng 1emands and foreseen means to
meet tham are available at contract date, together with exact prlce,
dell.ery date and penalty for delay.

Immediately after slgnlng of contract preparations for ordering of

all types of material have to be carried out. This is most important
for steel. Steel for shipbulldlng ~ay be delivered within 2 months
after ordering. Yard's fabrlcation has to start not later than 6
months after contract.

191
Preparatlon of ste~l ordering can only be don~ by laklng drawings
WhlCh define all steel of the hull with respect t~ arrangements,
scantllDgs, 51:es and steel propertles. In ,ieN of the ,ast ,arlety
of ordering items surplus materlal 15 of no use. Subsequently these
mass drawings are the clse for the formulatlon of fabricatlon
Instructions. Consequently, for a medlum slzed ShIP, so~e 5000 ts of
steel ha,e to be defIned In the course of three to fl,e months. The
amount of work for design and deflnlng IS about one hour per ton of
steel.

Ho~ IS the Shlpbullding industry capable of carrying thlS out?

The answer lles in the rules of the classlflCation societies for
ships. The rules take advantage of the similarlty of the structural
elements in all ShlpS. Taking into account functions, loads.
materials, fabrication, Ilfetime, en, ironment ... pertinent formulas
for direct dimensioning haVe been developed. If the ShlP under deslgn
fits into the range of ships foreseen by the rules, the overall
result for the scantlings evaluated according to these rule
requlrements generally does not necessitate further strength
evaluations, i.e. steel may be ordered after approval by
clasSlfication society and by owners.

2. Rule deficit for T!W-Bow

The classes of MUDYUG and KAPIV.N SOFOKHI and th., con7erSlon of thasa
icebreakers are LL4 and LL3 respacti,ely according to RS [lJ. The
features of icebreaker shapes en,isaged by the RS rules are defined
through sloping angles of waterlines, frames and stem. Slopes are
also bound to lcebreaker catagories. Flnally design Ice pressures,
loadwldths and loads are deflned by these catagorles.

T/W-bow unfortunately, from the point of ,iew of steel designers,

lles well outside the defined range. As a result for instance, the
formula for loadwldth applied to the bottom of a T/W deSign without
adjusting pressure would lead to loads on primary structural elements
more than twice as h1gh as to be applied on similar elements of
traditional icebreakers. It must be realized that some 65 % of the
T/W-forebody steel are governed by ice loads.

192
TNSV has been faclng thIS problem since the baginnlo; of T/V-deslgns.
i.e. since the early eightles. At the beginning the ~r~biem .as even
more se,ere. because only the Canadian ASPPR [2] and derived rules
.ere to be conSIdered. In case of AS?PR shape features are not base
of a ruie. but requirem=nts of a law.
In the beginning of 1984 contacts to RUSSIan clIents .ere deepening.
The now concerned claSSIfIcation SocIety even ~ncourlged the yard to
try adjustment of rule desIgn loads to T!U-shape.

3. McdifIcatIon of DesIgn Parameters

3.1. Design Pressure

The fIrst step was to adjust design pressure pd. For rules pd IS to
be applied dIrectly on secondaries only. i.e. on shell platIng and
frames by help of design formulas WhICh account for rule requIred
bearing capacities of the elements. Loads for frames may be confined
by an acceptable loadwidth. also defIned by the rules. Together with
frame spaCIng therefore the value pd as a matter of fact repr~sents a
force to be taken into account. The true maximum actual pressure p
will be hIgher than pd. but will act on smaller areas than defined by
span and width of secondarIes. Vhen defInIng pd rules SImply account
for the need of the designer. Even distributIon of pressure is
suggested too.

MaIn functIon of ice plating is to repulse ice or to turn ice away.

This may be done In a forcefull or in a soft way. it will occur when
lcebreaking and when progressing in a broken channel. T/V is designed
to do it softly.

Highest forces on secondaries result from Impact. These forces depend

on Ice condItions. veloclties and impact angles. Impact angles for
T/v-bow differ from those suggested by rures.
Thus. based on impact angles. reductions of design pressures pd were
agreed upon at first for both conversions. MUDYUG and
KAPITAN SOROKIN. in way of the vast bow areas. In both cases rule
loadwidth was more than span of longitudinal frames.

193
In case of MUDYUG not more was undertaken. DesIgners for the
massdrawlngs now were abla to do their Job on the basIs of rule
requirements without Interruptlon. Transverse bottom girders
supportlng longitudInal frames ¥ere bandIed lIke stringers supporting
transverse slde frames as defined by the rulas.

3.1.I.Influence on Steel WeIght for MUDYUG

Deslgn pressure is also the basis for the scantlIngs of frame

supportlng members like stringers and decks. though adjusted by
factors accounting for arrangement and relatlv loadwidth. Veight of
these members is about 30 % of the ice load carrying structure and
unlike shell and frames this weight is nearly directly related to the
pressure.

Thus oWlng to an about 25 % pd reductIon with respect to basic rule

requirements some 17 % reduction of steel welght for the about 750 ~2

bow area was achleved. Reduction of shell mass was 11 %. In viaw of

the low sensivity of shell platlng to pressure changes the importance
of correct loads for primaries is ob'ious.

3.2. Tapering of Ice Loads

For secondaries deslgn ice loads proved to be ,ery close to the

highest test results obtained in 1987 near Spitzbergen (fig. 1). But
highest results were confined to the regIon next to waterline, i.e.
to the Impact region.

For the conVerSlon project KAPITAN SOROKIN thIS at first brought

about the consequence of reduced load assumption for the lower bow
region. After consulting classification society the design ice
pressure and loadwidth for the new T/V-bow in the region ahead of
deck housIng was tapered down in three steps. Tapering was agreed
upon with the owners and laid down in the building specification.
In term of forces, design loads at the lower part were defined to
a3%for the secondaries and to 63% for the primaries with respect to
the upper bow region. In view of the relatIvely high weight of
transverses this was judged to be a good result.

194
3.3. Application of Pressure-Area Relations

Yet disappointment was complete ~hen, after contract, the deep

transverse bottom glrders were under deslgn. The same evaluatlon
procedure as for ~UDYUG resulted in a 2.8 higher welght of these
~embers at equal span length in the upper region, and still 1.8
higher ln the lower reglon. The reason was not only the higher
catagory of the vessel as basis for pd, but also the larger spacings
of the transverses. But it was felt that pure tapering did not
account for spacing and span length of transverses. Therefore, an
attempt had to be undertaken to prove acceptability of lower design
pressures for larger areas to be supported by the members under
consideration. Fortunately an extended delivery schedule enabled the
yard to spend some t1me for doing this.

Different published pressure-area relatlons [3], [4], [5] were

stud1ed. F1nally it was decided to follow the relat10n publ1shed by
Ghoneim [3] (f1g.2). On2 reason for thlS choice was certalnly the
possibility to adapt the results to the loads predefined by
specification. This was done by altering the parameter "reference
area" Ar in a manner, that the force on a circle diametered equal to
spacing of transverses was about the predefined value (flg.3). The
chance to alter maximum force Fm as well, as for instance is
described in [5] for different types of forces WhlCh ~ight be
applicable ln the different laod regions was dlsregarded.

The total load area A was assumed to be a clrcle with diameter w.

Highest load on a transverse was calculated by F=w-a*p(A) , where "a"
is the spacing of transverses, fig.3. Thus gained F-w-relation is
shown in fig.4. For areas diamet2red l2s5 than about 1 m the amount
of F depends directly on presumed design forces. Maximum force that
w1ll act on one transverse will occur between w = 2 m and w = 3.5 m
and amounts to some 70 % to 40 % of the design value applied to these
lengths, depending on the position abaft forward perpendicular.

195
3.3.1. Design Shaar Forces and Deslgn Bendlng Moments

As pcsitioos of F relat:?e to supports Ji t:ans~ersas are random.

dff~ct of F on bendlng ~oment2 lnd sh2ar forces for the jl£~cr=nt

posltlons wlthln glrder length had to be found by numerlcai

evaluations. Bendlng no~ent at center of span IS shown ln fig.5 fer
flxed-flxed 3 s and ~.2 ~ girders Jf cocstan: proper:les 1n th~

foremost region of tha bottom. Slm1larly shaar forc~s at supports are

de~onstrltad in fig.G for any girder length and for the three ~ain

load reglons. The tangents at zero length daflne shear forcas ~ithout

reduction by pressure-area relation.

H1ghest shear and bend1ng now served to der17e required shear areas
and sectional moments for characteristic positions of all
transverses. Steel designers now were able to complete drawings
accordingly.

3.3.2. Comparison of Result w1th Adapted Rule Requ1reillents

Though rules do not define elements ll~e transverses on T/W-bottom,

these might be compared to stringers supporting transverse slde
frames. Here howe,er some notes have to be disregarded. like number
of stringers bet~een two decks. Consider1ng all facliitles gl~en foc
stringers and applying on the bottom transverses will r~sult 1n only
slightly d1fferent masses for short glrders. The gap lncreases for
longer items in favour of pressure area related glrders. No actual
facts w1ll be gl,en h~re. because this would lead to 1ncomplete
interpretions of assumptIons and of rules.

4. Comparison with Ice Test

One object1ve in ice was to compare the procedure describ2d above

with actual loads. It should be remarked that shear forces were the
dominant design parameters for the transverses. Measurements [6] were
done by taking bending stresses at the center of several
longitudinals crossing th2 transverse concerned at equal tlme
instances, deducing loads responslble for the stresses and addlng
them up to a total instantaneous load on the transverse.
Counter-proof was done be measuring strains on top of the transverse.
196
After an 30 hours teSt1ng a h1ghest total force ~as estlmated not to
exceede 1 MN ~hlch is to be expected for a transVerS2 covering an
area of 5 Jll. ThiS -;alue has to be confronted with 10 elN aCCOrdl:lg to
tae above procedure ani design.

5. Conclusions

Rule guided deslgns of structures which are not very well covered by
tha gUldance may be l:proved to a certain amount by adaptlon of rula
paraJlet2rs. In case of T/w-bow, adapt ion seems to be on the very safe
side even after t.o loops. Further research 1S needed with respect to
ice load distrlbution on flat areas. Publlshed pressure-area
relations for iCe going ShiPS are suggested to be based on concave
hull shapeS.

References

[1] RULES for the Classlflcation and Construction of

Sea-going ShlpS. USSR Register of Shipping 1986

[2] ASPPR Arctic Shlpping Pollution Prevention

Regulations, Canada

[3] G.A.H. GhonelJl (DRY Canada): Local and global

Strength Aspects for Icebreaklng Ships

[4] Glen, Daley, Tam (Arctec Canada): Analysls of the

Proposed Polar Class 8 Icebreaker under Extreme
Ice Loads

[5] DNY Rules Part 5 Ch. 1 Rew Icebreaker/Arctic Class

Notations (Proposal 1986)

[6] Derda, Hleronymi (GL, Hamburg)

Belastung THYSSEN-wAAS-Eisbrecher unter polaren
Eisbedingungen
BMFT - MTK 0536 1A

197
 fig 1
bottom lCngtt:dl~LS: malt f1!(ort!ed stresses, eU ce condthons

I I HUOY:;G

t--- -+- - -1----

I
r I .1-----\ I
I
---j
I ~ ~~5c
~ ~
\~ \;.\~ 1$J

!.'tte~!. ~

a.) Z:\V~lQ9. C:'::7es of I.:.gor:.aJc. .1981 i:p~c,: tes~ d.1:'~

b) A llULt.:lemat!.c3.l !:.: t.o t=-e Qata. in (al above, g!,.7et1 b!:

:lcnd:'::I.ens:.on~ ?::'!ss,J=~;

:'l.ond:.::ens:..cnal a.r~a:

G.A .."l. Cone=--

f!.g-1. Pressure - Area Relation

1-----
I

--r
I
I "
-I.
flg·.l
-- --I -- Load Areas
load area A

198
(MN 1 F

~arce f on ore rrc.:1S'Iers e

F=p(~)xaxw

(m]

----1

/ - - p= (ansI =pd

/ - - p=p(w)
1'13
~

/\
-1----1

[m]

5.g i. Evalu a lion at max field bendtng moment

! MN] Q
/~/
,i<
/
/ for? reo;:on

/~i! :/
it' ~
j ?' att ,,~on

£- r--
Q r- w- ,
S -------,

tern
F

4 [m;
.fi;l.i. Max. Sheartorc e

199
Alfred Kleemann THYSSEN NORDSEEWERKE GmbH Germany
Naval Architect Emden

7 MW Multi Purpose Heavy Duty Icebreaker

ABSTRACT

Experiences with the slightly differently shaped THYSSENIWAAS (TIW) bows on

icebreakers "Max Waldeck", "Mudyug" and "Kapitan Sorokin" have proven the bene-
fits of this novel hull form and also shown its respective limitations.

As a result of intensive research, model tests, especially with TIW-like bow forms for
shallow draught and a test series with different stern designs optimized for backing
and turning in ice, as well as practical studies on modern, recently built icebreakers,
a novel TIW-like hull form has been created which gives far more possibilities than
before.

Model tests at the HSVA supported the theoretical approach. A video film shOWing
the model and model tests In ice and open water will be shown.

The universal ability of this type of icebreaker with respect to its vanous duties and
operational area will be given in this presentation

1. INTRODUCTION

Due to the need for the replacement of Russian icebreakers of the 7 MW-Class,
there was a demand to create a modern highly efficient icebreaker according to
the present state of icebreaklng technology.

Because of the very good expenences With the TIW technology regarding effec-
tive icebreaking, proven by ice tnals with the converted icebreakers' "Max Wal-
deck", "Mudyug" and "Kapitan Sorokm", as well as by several years of duty under
severe practical conditions In the Sibenan Arctic and some voyages In the open
waters of the Kara Sea and the North Atlantic the deCISion was made by THYS-
SEN NORDSEEWERKE and HSVA to start from a baslc-TIW hull form for this
new proJect.

As with most prototypes and compromise conversions there were not only advan-
tages in different TIW development phases, but also some negative results.
These disadvantages have been studied and should be eliminated with a state of
the art hull form :

From aft to forward It IS of one mould without corners and edges and shows all
icebreaking capabilities which can be achieved with modern icebreaklng know-
how.

200
 For example, "Mudyug" In special conditions had problems with backing. The
onglnal hull had not been very good in backing and worsened after the conver-
sion with a bow wider than the mldframe Additionally, slamming occurred In
heavy seas when the bow encountered waves frontally

In converting the "Kapitan Sorokm" the above mentioned problems have been
eliminated. The aft part of the hull was modified too and widened at the
icebreaklng level to enable the wider foreshlp to pass through the broken channel
in the backing mode (see picture)

Furthermore, the wide bow was fitted with a backslope reamer at ItS rear to en-
able Ice floes In the narrow gap between the ship and the Ice edge to pass with
little resistance under the bow Into the open water during backing

With these changes the backing possibilities in Ice have been improved. Further
changes in the bowfront area were the splitting up of the bow into side reamers,
slde- and centre runners, which led to an Improvement of sea behaviour In open
waters (see picture)

This enabled the ship to maintain straight courses against headseas of abt. 3 m
height without heavy slamming impacts, and also the course-keeping ability was
Improved.

Now, the ship can stand bad weather which was impossible for the onglnal hull.
Rolling angles have been decreased from 35 to 17 degrees with same period.

2. REQUIREMENTS

From today's pOint of view the above-mentioned Improvements, especially in the

foreshlp, were expensive given the relatively complicated solution.

So the main requirements for the new design were:

- Simple but effective lines from the view of construction costs with a constant
ship's breadth at the deck level,
- Max icebreaking capability ahead and backing In closed Ice and in rubble, as
well as good ndge passing ability In deep and In shallow waters,
- Good manoeuvrability in ice with small turning circle,
- Ability to break out of channels with adequate performance of star turning
manoeuvres and to Widen channels,
- Creation of an almost Icefree channel behind the ShiP, enabling convoy ships
to follow freely, as well as seismic activities In Ice covered areas,
- Good open water behaViour Without speed loss compared to conventional
icebreakers and improved behaviour regarding slamming, pitching and rolling.
Serving as a safe and stable open water platform in heavy seas,
- Installation of an approved propulsion plant capable of repair by crew mem-
bers in case of emergency.

201
3. SPECIFICATION

3.1. Foreship

In principle a TIW forebody was chosen with a sloping angle to the baseline
in longitudinal direction of abt. 12°, but without the tYPical sharp side cutting
edges (see picture)

Instead, the side edges are replaced by softly inclined plate striPS to In-
crease the turning ability in ice and to ease the steering in eXisting chan-
nels.

To avoid slamming four pronounced grooves with straight sloping, ceilings

were cut from below the OWL up to below the fore edge of the deck into the
wide voluminous bow.

This measure delays temporarily the confrontation of the bow with heavy
seas and dampens the slamming Impact.

The max. breadth forward in the icebreaklng area remains at the aft end of
the so-called backslope reamer just at a level significantly above CWL up to
main deck and stays constant back to the aft shoulder.

Going alongside other ships as well as docking in harbours Will be easier

with a ship of constant breadth.

The transit of the max breadth above OWL to the narrower hullslde below
the Icebreaking zone is given by a 45° Inclined plate, the so-called bowl
edge running from forward to aft.

This bowl edge supports icebreaking in turning circles and manoeuvres by

prodUCing overcracks (s shallow draught Icebreaker, Jans/Rupp).

At the centre line below the bow there IS a reverse roof shaped runner fitted
to initiate a clear centre line-cut In the ice

The two outside longitudinal cracks P&S are to be created by the knuckle:
hOrizontal bottom/inclined plate strips.

The Inclined plate striPS will create overcracks as known from conventional
Icebreakers.

The total pattern of cracks beginning from centre line to outside will look
like: Two nearly rectangular ice floes P&S, neighboured by two overcrack
striPS With irregular shaped floes.

Thus, the total channel Width will be wider than the ships max. beam

Behind the hOrizontal bottom of the bow the underwater hull slowly changes
to a V-section to manage the dynamical floe clearing process which will be
supported additionally by a clearing wedge positioned deep below the bot-
tom and disappearing In the main frame bottom, which IS a typical TIW
deSign feature.

The main frame bottom sides are inclined for clearing reasons as well.

202
3.2. Aftship

The aft part of the hull is dominated by the two propeller dnves with a single
rudder on centre line (see picture), and alternatively, only on one side
behind a propeller.

According to Investigations of Mr. Hellmann, this arrangement guarantees

less resistance in the Ice backing mode.

Rudder angles will be 60 degrees each side.

The fore edge of the rudder is continued without gap by a long skeg running
forward into the sternraked hull.

The turning area of the rudder is covered on top by a horizontal plate to

avoid jamming by Ice.

At its rear the rudder is protected by a vertical ice spur which runs out
backwards into a long V-shaped wedge which destroys the ice before
reaching the rudder in the backing mode.

The shape of the aftship hull lines with its flat slope in longitudinal and
transverse direction has been chosen to keep the ice resistance to a mini-
mum with a conventional crack pattern and overcracks.

During turning manoeuvres the flat raked sternframes move first to the ice
and break it later by bending it down.

3.3. Main Dimensions

Length over all abt. 83.0 m

Length betw. pp 72.0 m
Breadth 23.0 m
Draught design 5.4 m
Draught max. 5.8 m with cargo and provisions for 30 days
Draught min 5.0 m with provIsions for 10 days
Depth 85 m
Crew members 21 men + 10 men additionally

3.4. Operation Profile

As already mentioned thiS design will allow different operations in vanous

areas

The draught ranges form 5.0 m to 5 8 m and enables the ship to operate In
shallow waters of nver estuaries and offshore areas.

The max. draught with adequate deadweight allows provisions for long
range voyages, staying at or supplying stations in polar regions.

203
 The main tasks In winter time are

- Keeping the waterways to the harbours free,

- Leading of convoys, towing of vessels,
- Freeing of beset vessels, operating as tug
- Ice clearing In front of harbour piers,
- Creation of ice piers for cargo handling.

Optional equipment and outfit:

- Diving operations up to 40 m water depth,

- Fighting of fires on other ShiPS,
- Rescue and salvage operations,
- Acting as a power station,
- Selsmologlc research with special containers on the open deck.

3.5. Propulsion and Range

In order to aVOid technical risks for an Icebreaker operating far away from
shipyards in ArctiC regions, a propulsion system well proven since decades
was chosen:

Diesel electric AC/AC dnve working on

two fixed propellers without nozzles.

The electric power for shipboard consumers and dnving motors max. 5.9
MW is generated by 4 diesel generator sets

Ship's speed In open, deep water will be 15 knots at 90 % MCR, bollard pull
Will be 80 tons

Range Will be 12,000 NM In open water and up to 30 days in Arctic opera-

tions.

3.S. Ice Breaking Capability

Ahead, according to the diagram shown, for example.

- 1.55 m at Pd 5,900 kW with 0 65 knots

- 1.1 mat Pd 5.900 kW with 5 knots
- 0.9 m at Pd 2,950 kW with 2.5 knots

of snowfree level Ice of 500 kPa bending strength (see picture).

Backing: 1.1 - 1.3 m with Pd max. and 1 knot speed

204
 3.7. Steering and Manoeuvring Aids

In view of better backing capability a large single rudder for angles of 60

degrees to both sides has been arranged behind the skeg For sufficient
transverse forces at low speeds pump jets are Integrated forward and aft
well protected from Ice contacts.

As an alternative tests with 2 nozzle-less Z-dnves turnable 360 degrees are

envisages, a comparison of results with both alternatives will be reported
lateron.

3.8. Model Tests

Vanous model Investigations are to be done by HSVA.

- Propulsion and manoeuvnng tests In open water,

- Testing of sea behaviour at different sea stages
- Propulsion and resistance tests In Ice of different thickness in forward
and backing mode,
- Manoeuvnng tests in Ice

4. SUMMARY

Based on

- experiences from icebreaker conversions "Mudyug" and Kapitan Sorokm",

- BmfT sponsored R + 0 model basin programmes for shallow draft icebreaker
and different aftbody designs,

very high sophisticated lines not only for the forebody have been developed, and
special attention has been paid to propulsion and steenng system alternatives to
fulfil all operation profiles for this kind of vessel.

205
References:

POAC 1991 In St. Johns, F Kllnge/J -H Hellmann,

Conversion and Icebreaklng Performance of the Soviet Icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin"

ICE TECH 1990, A. Kullkov

Economic Advantages of the converted Icebreaker "Mudyug"

SNAME 1990, G. Varges

Full Scale Experiences with THYSSENIWAAS Icebreakers

POAC 1993 In Hamburg, G. HeI1/M. Sterzenbach,

Seismic Survey In Arctic Regions

HSVA Report E 228/92, J.-H. Hellmann,

Aftbody Development for Icebreaking Vessels with Regard to Propulsion, Manoeuvr-
ing and Astern Performance

MSC Practical Experiences of the Shipmanagement with the converted Icebreakers

"Kapitan Sorokin", "Kapitan NikolaJev", and the original "Kapitan Dramtzyn"

German Patent: THYSSEN NORDSEEWERKE GmbH, Shallow water Icebreaker:

"Balcony Icebreaker", No. P 421 53344.4

European Patent: THYSSEN NORDSEEWERKE GmbH, Icebreaking Vessel,

"Improvement of Manoeuvnng Behaviour", No. 881 08794.4

206
 THYSSEN NORDSEEWERKE GMBH

Picture 1

-->-';~~-;;;;;::::::::;:-
7 - - - -- -- - - F - - - - - - - - - - f/'/

Picture 2

207
 Picture 3

~ng c..~1M11ly In snowf""lrI~ Ice of SOl) kPI

Bending S lr ..... qlh

Picture 6

208
 FULL-SCALE OBSERVATIONS OF SHIP PERFORMANCE IN ICE

Pentti Kujala Helsinki University of Technology Finland

Research scientist Ship Laboratory

Petri Varsta
Professor

Kaj Riska Helsinki University of Technology Finland

Director Arctic Offshore Research Center

ABSTRACT

Observations of ship performance and related ice conditions were

conducted in the northern Baltic Sea during three winters 1990,
1991 and 1992. Typical ships selected for investigation were
studied both in ice channels and in pack ice on the open sea by
observers onboard the ships. The ice conditions were visually
determined and several fast ice channels were profiled by
drilling. The observers took part in 16 voyages during winter 1991
and in 21 voyages in 1992. During winter 1990, the performance of
ship were observed by radar from Pilot stations including 21
voyages by various ships. The most pronounced feature of the
observations is the great variation of speed during a typical
voyage in ice. In fast ice, the mean speed during independent
navigation varied in the region of 4-10 knots. The fairly mild ice
condi tions outside the fast ice zone during the period studied
made somewhat higher speeds possible.

1. INTRODUCTION

Efficient shipping year round is crucial for the countries around

the Baltic Sea. For instance, the annual amount of commodities to
and from the ports of Finland is about 60 million tons, which
means between 1500 and 2700 monthly ship calls in harbours • The
winter length varies between three and six·months depending on the
severity of the winter and location of the harbour. During this
period the harbours are ice-bound. Ice strengthened cargo ships
must be designed for year around transport. During summer time,
the ice strengthened ships have to compete with normal non-ice
strengthened ships and during the winter, they have to be capable

209
of following safely the escorting ice breakers. The design of the
ice strengthening is based on the Finnish-Swedish ice rules
(1985). In addition to this type of ship, there exists also cargo
ships with independent ice navigation capability to ensure more
flexible planning of the schedule for the voyages in ice.

Several research projects have clarified the role of ice breaker

and her operability, see e.g. Soininen (1989), but less interest
is paid to the performance of an ice strengthened cargo ship. Due
to this, a research project was initiated by the Finnish Board of
Navigation to investigate the technical factors influencing the
ice performance of a ship designed on the basis of the existing
philosophy of the winter navigation in the Baltic. During the last
three winters observations of ship performance in ice have been
carried out systematically. The total number of ships included in
the program during the three first years was 38.

The problem of ship performance has been di vided into three

subproblems: identification of different basic operations in ice,
definition of ice parameters, and interaction between ice breaker
and cargo ship. The paper focuses on the results of the full-scale
observations, which, however, do not cover any severe winter. The
final aim of the project is to use the gathered data to describe
the operational characteristics of cargo ships in ice. One
application of the results will be the powering requirements in
the ice rules.

2. EFFICIENCY OF ICE-GOING CARGO SHIP

A short presentation of the factors affecting efficiency of a

cargo ship is given first. The efficiency of a cargo ship depends
upon three main factors (Stopford 1988): deadweight utilization,
mean operating speed, and days at sea. Winter in the Baltic
affects mainly the speed. Factors such as performance of the ship
in different ice conditions, ice breaker assistance and routing
have to be taken into consideration to define the mean speed, see
Fig. 1.

Figure 2 represents the effect of winter on the efficiency of

cargo ships. There the monthly average efficiency of MS. Kemira
during 1986 is given. The ice class of the ship is 1A Super and

210
she navigates frequently from Kokkola to Europe. The efficiency is
given as ton miles per day. The winter 1986 was severe and its
effect on the efficiency is clearly seen as during the winter the
efficiency is about half of the figure during the summer. The low
efficiency in winter time is partly caused by the decrease of the
mean speed in ice and partly by the increase of the harbour time
due to the ice and cold temperature.

1:ff1cienc

lIoyag•• ~

/
~rue~
r breaker asslstan

~I~\ lC8!IOlnQ capablhlil ~;:::ca:-:su::-:rv-:'.:::C";;::Ia::::ncaJ:::J

Fig. 1. Factors affecting efficiency of a cargo ship in winter

(Lehtinen, 1992).

1211OOC1OO

10000000

•~... 800000O

~
• 800000O
c:
0
~ 400000O

200000O

....i :. ::E•
A . ~. • ....•c: ....'5...
... c:a Q.
a z~ ~
~
::E ~ c cZ

Fig. 2. A typical variation of ton miles during a year for a cargo

ship navigating in the Baltic (Lehtinen, 1992).

211
3. OBSERVATION METHODS

The main aim of the project is to define the factors affecting

merchant ship ice navigation capability. Data was collected by
making observations onboard ships of ship parameters, environmen-
tal conditions and ice navigation strategy, see Fig. 3. The most
northern part of the Baltic Sea, the Bay of Bothnia, was chosen as
the geographical area to be studied because the ice conditions in
that sea area are the most demanding for a merchant ship.

Fig. 3. A summary of the factors observed during the manned

voyages.

Two basic cases of ship operations in ice were defined. The first
one was navigation in a channel made by the ice breaker and the
second was independent navigation in the pack ice, which mainly
appears in the open sea area. The ice conditions were described
using the following variables: ice concentration, ice thickness,
size of ice floes and amount of ice ridging. The ice code system
is described in Table 1 and it was used to describe the
surrounding ice field where the ship was navigating.

Table 1. Definition of the ice code used.

Categories for various variables

Concentration Ice thickness Size of floes Ridges
Height
C, c, C, C.
[%] [m] [m] [m]

1 10 0.1 - 0.2 o- 10 o- 0.5

2 20 0.2 - 0.4 10 - 30 0.5 - 1.0

3 30 0.4 - 0.6 30 - 100 1.0 - 1.5

4 40 0.6 - 0.8 100 - 300 1.5 - 2.0

5 50 0.8 - 300 - 2.0 -

6-10 60-100

212
The general ice condition in the Bay of Bothnia is described in
ice charts, but it is evident that the information in these is not
detailed enough for the ship navigating in ice. The channel made
by the assisting ice breaker was described by estimating the mean
piece size and concentration of the channel. These observations
were made visually from the bridge of the ship. In addition, some
parts of the ice channels in the fast ice zone were drilled to get
the channel geometry and internal structure.

The basic data of the observed ships was obtained from the ship
owners, but a library of the ship hull shapes was also established
using the NAPA computer program package. The observations onboard
included the following items: time, ship position, ship draughts,
power, speed, type of navigation, ice and weather conditions.
These observations were gathered in 15 minutes time intervals. In
addition, operation notes were gathered which described any
special events during the ice navigation.

4. SOME RESULTS FROM THE OBSERVATIONS

Some general data about the winters and statistics about ship
observations is gathered in Table 2. All the winters have been
mild as the typical value for the sum of freezing in the case of
a normal winter is between -1200 to -1300 Cday at the latitude of
oulu. Figure 4 illustrates the general ice conditions in February
1991.

Table 2. Some typical figures of the winters studied and

statistics of the observations.

Wlnter 1990 Winter 1991 Wlnter 1992

Sum of freez. -828

-1000 -620
1n OUlu [Cday]

Fast.lce 0.8 0.7 0.5

Thlckness [ID]

Sealee 0.5 0.6 0.35

thickness [ID]

Shl.p observat.
in channel 5/10 10/16 9/21
Sh.lpsjVoyaqes

Profiled 4 4 4
channels

Shl.p obaervat.
1n ••• ice 6/7 3/3
Ships/Voyaqea

213
Fig. 4. Ice chart of the northern Baltic Sea in February 1991
and route of MIS Envik.

An example of the measured ice channel profiles is given in Figure

5. This profile was measured outside the harbour of Kemi in AjoS.
The structure of an ice channel in fast ice can be divided into
three zones: the central channel, the frozen boundary zone and
fast level ice. The ships are normally transiting in the central
zone, in which the thickness of the brash ice layer varied
typically from 0.5 m to 1. 0 m. The thickness of the frozen
boundary zone is much bigger: from 2.0 m to 4.0 m. The
distributions of the size of ice pieces in the ice channel were
also measured (Veitch 1991, Kujala and Sundell 1992, Pontynen,
1992) .
OWJII
ICE VOID LOOSE
ICE
+--""'-'--'F'F"'F=t--jE:;==~I[:11!l:lIIW'10l11~§~==T-­
a Sm 11
OOm

~:::Ll
- 30m
CEN'ffiAL ;ROZEN
CHANNEl.. aOUNOARY
ZONE I ZONE
t IOm 2.OmJOm tOm 10.03.1991

Fig. 5. Typical channel profile measured outside Kemi.

To give a general picture about the gathered data and the results

214
of the observations during voyages, one voyage onboard MIS Envik
is described in more detail. In Fig. 4, the general description of
the prevailing ice conditions during the trip in the middle of
March 1991 and the route of the ship is illustrated. The trip
started at 7 am on the 16th of March from Culu and the ice edge
was ,reached at 9.30 am on the 17th of March. The average speed

..--
--- - --
during the voyage with some comments is given in Fig. 6 .

::~
~ L::'-=--_ _ tS,7.

~: ..
~
.~§ 70"

.~
50'"
.~

••
Z~
I

,3.7'"
..... --j ... "or
,CPO< ....
...
12 ..

a ..
I:
r
I

...
.~
50"

I
Q2,. .

117.
100" at

~::..u
~50'"

..... - ..... - 07.00 ..... ..... ....

,
Fig. 6. The average speed and main events during the voyage of
MIS Envik on the 16-17th of March 1991

The duration of the voyage was about 27 hours, 32 % of this time

the ship navigated independently with an average true speed of
11.1 knots, about 27 % of the time an ice breaker assisted her
with an average speed of 7.1 knots, and about 6% of the time she
was towed by the ice breaker with an average speed of 12.3 knots.
About 35 % of time she was stuck in ice. Fig. 7 gives an example
of the gathered operation notes. It shows how MIS Envik was stuck

215
in an ice ridge but due to the help of the ice breaking tanker
Tiira she was able to proceed after 10 minutes.

--
.....
(4ooy-
........ u_>

Fig. 7. An example of operation notes collected during the

voyage of MIS Envik.

Some qualitative conclusions can be made on the basis of these

observations. The most crucial ice parameter for a merchant ship
is the ice and ridge concentration, which varies between a % and
100 %. When the ship is navigating independently, the ice
concentration encountered by the ship is related to the natural
ice movements due to the wind and currents, but when assisted by
the ice breaker it is related to the movements of the ice due to
the ice breaker. In this case, the distance between the ship and
the ice breaker has a strong effect on the concentration,
especially in open sea and ice compression increases the effect
further. Preliminary results indicate that the decrease of ship
resistance is related the decrease of ice concentration with a
power of about 2, see references (Arikainen 1987, Kujala and
Sundell, 1992).

The observations show clearly that the ice navigation experience

has a vital influence on the average speed. For instance, with the
pusher barge system in Raahe channel on a 1.8 miles long
observation stage, the average speed was 6.7 knots. The lowest was
4.2 knots and the highest was 10.9 knots. The ship used roughly
the same amount of power during every transit. In this case, the
crucial point is how the ship is navigated in relation to the
cross section of the ice channel. The ice channel resistance
increases by 20 % to 30 % if the centerline of the ship lies two

216
meters (about 10 % of ship breadth) beside the centerline of the
ice channel ( Pontynen, 1992).

To summarize the observations, Fig. 8 is presented. It gives the

average speed and the actual engine power P [kW] divided by the
actual displacement d [tons] of the ship when navigating in the
ice channel in the fast ice zone. The inefficient time periods
such as waiting for ice-breaker are not taken into account. The
ships in these figures can be classified into four groups: barge
pusher system with wide spoon shaped bow, ice breaking tankers of
Lunni-class, new small-tonnage dry cargo ships having deadweight
of about 4000 tons, and conventional tonnage comprised of older
tankers and ro-ro ships.

..
c: o.a :1I • Pu_borge
.,
O.Tn • Lunm_ 0 Q
e I ,
j
I •
~ 0.6 -:-I o SmoII~ • .)

.
0
S
a.~ 05 - """"
g .
,.
':'Conv_lon~
.!!
e~ 04'
I I
• .~
0
•
i~ .
~ :!. 0.3
..
a.
c 0.2 I
I
~
.' I •

Cit 0.1
c
w
0
0 2 4 6 a 10 12 14
Average ship speed [1m]
Fig. 8. The observed mean speed for various ship types while
navigating independently in a channel .

The speed related to the P/d relationship is the best for the
new small-tonnage ships. These ships have ice class 1A. The
water lines of these ships are hydrodynamically good and also
good for an ice-strengthened ship. The water lines in the bow
and stern have small angles and the length of the parallel
middle body is small leading to comparatively small value for
the waterplane area cofficient. The bow is V-shaped bulbous bow
where the frame angles are larger compared those of the
conventional tonnage. The nominal value of the P/d relationship
is about 0.43 for the small tonnage ships compared to Lunni
class, which has a value of 0.52. The figure of P/d required by
the ice rules (1985) for the small tonnage is about 0.36.

This type of hull gives also good manouvering characteristics in

ice, which are needed to follow the ice breaker in sharp turns

217
to avoid the most difficult ice conditions. Another event where
good manouvering capabilities are required is the independent
navigation among ice floes. It can be shown that it is better to
go around a circular ice floe than to go straigth through it
when the speed in ice is less than 60% of the open water speed.
For a typical ice-strengthened cargo ship this means that the
break even ice thickness is about 20-25 cm (Lehtinen, 1992).

5. CONCLUSION

The observations presented in the paper give a good basis for the
future analysis of the technical requirements for a good winter
ship. Two typical requirements 'for an ice-strenghtened merchant
ship can be stated, first she has to be able to navigate indepen-
dently to the meeting point with the ice breaker, and after that
she has to have capability to follow the ice breaker in the ice
channel. The question of the ice concentration value up to which
the ship has to be able to follow the ice breaker without towing
is still open and observations during harder winters are needed.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support from the Winter Navigation Research Board is

here gratefully acknowledged.

7. REFERENCES
Arikainen, A., Tschubakow, K., 1987. ABC der Eisschiffahrt,
Verlag Transport, Moskau.
Finnish-Swedish ice class rules 1985. Board of Navigation,
Helsinki. 43 p.
Kujala, P., Sundell, T., 1992. Performance of ice-strengthened
ships in the northern Baltic Sea in winter 1991. HUT Ship
Laboratory. Research report M-117. Otaniemi.
Lehtinen, P., 1992. The factors affecting on the efficiency of a
merchant ship in the winter navigation. Msc thesis. HUT,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Otaniemi. (in Finnish)
Pontynen, H. 1992. Performance of ice-navigating vessels in the
northern Baltic in winter 1992. HUT Ship Laboratory. Research
Report M-123. otaniemi.
Soininen, H. 1989. Mission based approach in modern icebreaker
design. POAC'89, Lulea, 12-16 June, Proceedings, vol.2, pp.
764-773. Sweden.
Stopford, M. 1988. Maritime Economics. Unwin Hyman Ltd, London.
413 p.
Veitch, B. et al., 1991. Observations of the ship performance
and the structure of fast ice channels in the northern Baltic
Sea. HUT Ship Laboratory. Resarch report M-106. Otaniemi.

218
 ?RINCIPLES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTIVE
USE OF THE ICE PASSPORTS

LI khOlTBrlOV V. A. Arctlc and AntarctIc Research Russla

InstItute. St. Petersburg

Polferov S. Yu. ArctIc and AntarctIc Research RUSSIa

InstItute. St. Petersburg

Stepanov 1. V. ShIpbuIldIng UnIversIty

of St. Petersburg

Tlmofeyev o. Ya ShIpbuIldIng UnIversIty RUSSIa

of St. Petersburg

Faddeyev o. V. Arctlc and AntarctIc Research RUSSIa

InstItute, St. Petersburg

ABSTRACT

The document, containing the recommendatIOns for safe and

effective shIp operatIon In the Ice, IS proposed on the
basIS of a mathematIcal model of the ship's Interactlon wIth
the Ice and specIal calculatIon methods, analysIs of the
shIp operatIon in the Ice.

The Ice class. assIgned to the shIp by the classIfIcatIOn

sOciety governs to a great extent ItS capabIlItIes. However,
from practice of the shIp operatIon In the Ice-covered seas
and at the route of the Northern Sea Route (NSR) the ice
capabIlItIes of different vessels even wIthIn one class can
sIgnIfIcantly dIffer. Due to thIS most of the shIPPIng
companIes of RUSSIa have prOVIded theIr shIps, navIgating in
the Ice, wIth the document, contaInIng informatIon and
recommendations for the optImum chOIce of the shIp's
operatIng condItIons in the Ice (Table I). This IS about 80 %
of the types of ice class vessels, whIch have naVIgated or
navIgate along the NSR.

219
 .. -
L~<a !",,~2.S:-.:.~ ... ?:=':'J.

wr.l ·:i. . c.r~ use:

perm::.ss:tle

:-.u.l~

12.t:-:-r ....,~-,~ ..-.~+- . ::.

-'~ "" ........ '--

13 a spe~':,

of the f.ull 1. e. tf.e

construct lon compcn':O'"ts '':if the
11l11l t Ing (p 12.Stl ,::;) st.3.te.

220
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pll~tlng by the lr:~t.r~ak~es cf rjlrf-=rent :?~~S.
'3. Ann~:{es.

221
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h2.Stl rJ r::--lar'ac:':?!", depenl::i!ng en ttlf:? navlg3t!~~ ~e3.. 1r11S

tll.'~ 1S ad(j!"~S2e.j In the follc,wlng~ way:

ShIP

!n partlcul.3J',
tOS1S ct' the economlcal crl ter18 3. ccmprcmlse tletv{e~n the
mct:on spe':?d arId pC'ssli:'le loss from dB.ll18.g'':?s CB.l"l be deterll1lned;
2) rjeslgn of ~Jessels to address

223
 3) for rjetermlnlng the Insurance terms. as 1 t becomes
possIble to deter~lne dIrectly the dependence of the Insurance
contrIbutIon amount on the ex[::ec+:.ed arnount to be paId to the
ShIP owner durIng the accIdent of the ShIP takIng IntO account
the prcbablll ty of thIS accIdent;
4) fer ImprovIng the c~a.sslf lcat:cn ar.c bUlld:r.g
regulatIons of the lcebreak.ers and Ice-.3trengt-hened '/esse12.

TABLE I
Ice class vessels of RussIa, for whIch Ice passports are
developed
w-----------------=~------======~------======~------~
IINo. and name of the Ice class Year of the BuIlt
II leadIng ship In of the lee pC'.ssport
I a serles IShIPP. RegIster development
11f--------+----~-+-----_+-_____1
111. PlOneer UL Hl73 GDR,
I lP.ostok
112. Volga, 1umber Shl p UL 1974 I USSR
113. Belomorskles UL 1974 I USSR
114. Amguema ULA 1975 I USSR
115. Vytegrales UL 1976 I USSR
116. PIoneer of Moscow UL 1977 I USSR
117. Samatlor UL 1978 I
118. Dml try Donskoy UL 1979 I GDR
119. Belomorskles UL 1981 I USSR
1110. Norllsk (SA-15) ULA 1984 I
1111. Professor PashY.ov UL 1987 I USSR
1112. R/V 2119 UL 1988 I USSR
1113. Kap I tan Sakharov UL 1989 USSR
1114. VIas NIChkov UL 1990 Pol.
1115. Pavlln VInogradov UL 1992 Aus

224
 U [1m]

:: ~ ·.....J.C..\..
. , ......:. . . .\
: ::---.-"- ! \'2
:13
12 r-:"
~' ...... -. ." ..........
\ ,.•\..
19 l)~ ~. . . . . . . . . . .)~. . . .,·. ·. ~ts·
................) . :'5. . ·. . . . . ·: . . . . . . ·. . . .
: : c. .
B·:.. ·.... ·.. · ...........:..................:---...................:...... , .........:................... ,.
. B' ~
A
6

2 ~.( ..
al.: . .
I I !

8 8.5 1 1.5 z 2.5

H lid
Flg.l. The ShlP'S pilotage by the lcebreaker in the canel. plotted

in level compact ise.

1 - the curve o~ attalnable speed. : - tne curve o~ permlsslble

speed. 3 - the cut've o-f danget'oLis speec.

A the save zone,

B - the transItion =one. where operate construktlons In elastlc-

plastic stage.

c - the dangerous zone.

225
 ,.
~

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!vL Tr2Jlspcrt ~

226
 SHALLOW DRAFT THYSSEN/WAAS-ICEBREAKER

Karl-Heinz Rupp Hamburg Ship Model Basin Germany

Peter lans Thyssen Nordseewerke GmbH Germany

INTRODUCTION

The Thyssen Nordseewerke, Emden (TNSW) and the Hamburg Ship Model Basin (HSY A)
have performed a conceptual design study on a shallow draft icebreaker for Russian
waterways. This vessel should be able to operate in sheltered coastal areas and in the
estuaries of the big Russian rivers. Based on the environmental conditions in the operation
area the main design criteria were defined as follows:

Maximum beam 13.60 m

Draft CWL 2.70 m
Shaft Power abt. 2000 kW
Open propellers
Design ice breaking capability
0.50 m level ice at I kn and 4 - 5 m water depth at 1600 kW
Ability to break Ice in extreme shallow water (ice thickness plus draft > water
depth)
Turning diameter in 0.30 m thick level ice less than 3 ship length

Due to its superior icebreaking capability a Thyssen-Waas bow was chosen for this study.
It is obvious that in a case where beam and draft are restricted the required displacement
of the vessel can only be achieved by means of the length or the block coefficient. Because
of the sloped bow and stern the variation of the block coefticlent is usually limited for
icebreakers. Thus, the length was the main variable to obtain the displacement needed. The
weight estimate performed within this study led to a ship length resulting in a LIB ratio of
about 5.

227
 Beslde satisfying the above mentioned design cnteria also a good ice clearing
behavlOur was aimed at III order to keep the broken lce out of the propellers and the broken
channel. Effecuve ice cleanng is also essenual for icebreaklllg 111 extremely shallow water.
since otherwise the vessel wlll beach on the ice at least when the waterdepth becomes less
than draft plu, lce thickness.
Whlle a great ship length is favourable for the ice c1eanng process, the great BIT ratio
makes this process usually more difficult. Furthermore, a great length and a great LIB ratio
usually have an adverse effect on the turmng ablllty in lce.
To solve the above problems three unconventlOnal hull form vanants were developed. All
of them are characterized by slde walls which were strongly inclined in the vlclmty of the
icebreaking waterline but vertical above and below this zone. In thls wayan icebreaking
balcony was generated which extended in two cases from the bow to the stern.
In order to check the capability of the rather unusual icebreaking hull shapes various ice
model tests in shallow water were performed. For this purpose a special shallow water
bottom was built for the HSV A model ice basin.
For each of the design vanants the ice resistance and the power consumptlOn under
shallow water condltions were determined and compared to those in deep water.
Furthermore the turning ability in ice was investlgated. Information on ice clearing quality
and squat were gathered.
The analysis of the te,ts is not fully completed yet. Some results, which we consider as
remarkable will be presented in the following chapters.

SHALLOW WATER SIMULATION IN HSVA's ICE TANK

In order to study the (icebreakmg) performance in shallow water a suitable removable

bottom had to be installed in the lce tank. Previous lcebreakmg tests in shallow water had
shown that a removable bottom constructed from thm plates on a trestle does not fulfill the
reqUlrement for such tests. One important point for reliable shallow water tests is the correct
modelling of the pressure field around the vessel. That is, the removable bottom must be
watertight and sufficiently stiff. The chosen techmcal solution. WhlCh lay within the available
budget, consists of 25 bottom elemems (2.4 m long, 9.8 m wlde) covering the total testing
section of HSVA 's ice tank. For installation each element has 4 wheels running on rails
mounted at the sidewalls of the tank. The waterdepth above the bottom can be adjusted
gradually from 0 to 1.4 m. The fine adjustment of the waterdepth IS done by means of the

228
water level in the ice tank. There are three dIfferent types of bottom elements:

the standard element designed for a maxImum detlectlon of 0.7 mm at a load of 1200
N/m'
the reinforced element desIgned for a maxImum detlectlOn of 0.7 mm at a
load of 2000 N!mm2 (tests with grounded ndges. ice jams etc.)
the ohservation element equIpped with a 1. 8 m X 1. 8 m PLEXIGLAS window
for observation of the ice under the bottom of the model.

To make the bottom watertight rubber sealings against negative and positive pressure
gradients are mounted between the elements. The gap between the elements and the sidewall
of the tank is closed by a pressure hose adjustable in height. Model tests with and without
this pressure hose. whereby the pressure above and below the removable bottom was
measured. have proven the necessity of the watertightness.

MEASURES TO IMPROVE THE TUR:\,ING ABILITY IN ICE

The traditIOnal way to provide for a sufficient turning ability in Ice was a well rounded
waterline without parallel midbody. Such an icebreaker IS able to sway the stern to the edge
of the broken channel. After gettIng into a steady turning motion the outer edge of the
cIrcular broken channel touches the outer SIdewall over nearly the total shIp length as shown

in FIgure I.

Fig. I: Sketch of a traditional Icebreaker turmng in level Ice.

229
 Since such a lens-shaped waterline is commonly combllled with increasingly steeper flare
angles in direction to the midship sectIOn Its ahead icebreaklllg performance is compared to
modern Icebreaker forms rather poor.
Significantly reduced ahead Icebreaking resistance is obtained with more or less blunt
waterlines at the bow and low Icebreaking angles over the whole ship's width. This was
realized with the sea-going icebreakers MAX WALDECK, ROBERT LEMEUR,
MUDYUG, ODEN, KAPITAN SOROKIN, FENNICA and the inshore icebreaker ARPPE.
However, for satisfactory turning ability in ice mo;t of these Icebreakers are equipped with
reamers, that is, with a bow Wider than the malll ship's body. The effect of reamers on the
turning is descnbed in detail by Johannson and Revill (1986). Unfortunately, when backing
in ice the common reamer shape often generates additional resistance due to lifting and
jamming or squeezing of ice pieces. Thus, a new type of reamer was developed by TNSW
and HSVA and introduced with conversion of the icebreaker KAPITAN SOROKIN into a
T/W Icebreaker (Klinge and Hellmann, 1992). Meanwhile, this type of reamer was also
applied with the new tinnish icebreaker FENNICA.
Due to the limited beam of the vessel sufticlently wide reamers were not applicable to the
shallow water icebreaker study. Retractable reamer which were also developed by TNSW
and HSV A were not accepted by the potential shipowner. Thus, a completely different
solution to improve the turning ability of the relatively long vessel had to be looked for.

/; --
/
/ /
/'
/' ---
/
/
I
/
1-
Fig. 2: Constant turning in unbroken ice. Pivot point at station 8.

230
 Figure 2 illustrates the turning in level ice for a vessel having a nearly rectangular
waterline plane. In this sketch the pivot pOInt, that is, the point where the centerline of the
vessel is tangent to the turning Circle was assumed to be 20% of the ship length behind the
forward perpendicular. In Figure 2 one can see that between stations 8 and 10 the inner
ship's side and behind statlon 8 the outer ship's side have to break ice. To make this
possible even in thicker ice sufficient steering forces (transverse thrust) and a suitable hull
shape are necessary. In the case of a rectangular or nearly rectangular waterline plane
vertical or sligthly inclined sidewalls are of no help.
Two of the hull shapes which were developed to solve the design problem are presented
here. In Figure 3 a shallow water icebreaker bow IS shown which has no reamer but a side
notch immediately behind the widest point of the bow. The maximum bow width is equal to
or a marginally less than the width at the midship section. When moving ahead the ice is
broken by the icebreaking planes of the bow in a usual way and the slope behind the side
notch (second slope) only submerges the ice floes which were broken by the outer part of
the bow. In a turning circle the notch on the inner side of the circle gives space for the
unbroken ice edge to penetrate into the main ship's contour. At the second slope the
penetrating ice edge is broken whereby the breaking resistance generates an additional
steering force which supports the turning. This hull shape has demonstrated a good
icebreaking performance both, in ahead motion and during turning. However, for a good
turning ability a sufficiently long part of the stern must be able to break ice sideways.

First icebreaking area

Bottom wedge for ice clearing
Second icebreaking area
Side wedge at higher level for ice clearing

Fig. 3: Icebreaking ·bow with notch

231
 Thyssen/Waas bow for inshore vessels

Bottom wedge for ice clearing

Balcony

Fig. 4:
Icebreaking bow with rectangular waterlines and sidewalls with icebreaking "balcony"

Figure 4 shows the bow part of a simpler hull shape. This vessel has the typical waterline
shape of a WAAS-bow, that is, the maximum beam of the icebreaking waterline is situated
at the foreward perpendicular. The bow IS slightly wider than the hull at its midship section.
Within a belt reaching from below to above the icebreaking waterline the sidewalls are
strongly inclined. The strongly inclined belt (balcony) extends from the bow to the stern and
has an angle of 45 deg or more. This so-called balcony allows icebreaking by the ship's
sides wtth much less transverse (rudder) force and/or wtthm thicker ice than vertical or
sligthly flared sidewalls would do. As expected this hull shape yields the best turning
behaviour in level ice of all vanants tested. In spite of the icebreaking balkony thiS design
requires at least a narrow reamer. A reamer is necessary to give the vessel the opportunity
to change the course in very thick ice, which can no longer be broken with the balcony and
the transverse force generated by the rudder(s) or thruster(s). In this context, very thick ice
means ice thicknesses close to the maximum icebreaking capability of the vessel. But even
if balcony is no longer able to break the ice edge it still supports the turning that is by
submerging ice pieces which are trapped between sidewalls and ice edge.
It has to be noted that the balcony can only be applied to vessels which are subject to
limited draft variation.

232
 The turning capabllity m 0.3 m thick level ice is Illustrated for the second model in Figure
5. In this tigure the contour of the vt:ssel is plotted togt:tht:r with tht: unbroken ice edges of
the turning circ!t:. The outer ict: t:dgt: of tht: broken channt:l has a diameter of about :2 ship
length. WhICh i~ sigmficantly !t:ss than tht: design requirelllents given In chapter I. Based on
this result and an mitial turning te~t pt:rformed in 0.6 m (f.sc.) thick It:vel ice it was
interpolated that for about OA5 m ict: thlcknt:s5 tht: turning dIameter wlll become 3 ship
length.
Notice that this model has
a rectangular waterline similar to Figure 2
a balcony rt:aching from the bow to the stern (station 10 to station 0)
a constant beam at the CWL from statIOn 8 to statIon 0
3 opt:n propellers in tunnels
two IASTRAM-Rotor-Rudders behind the wing propellers

Beginning of 'J turning circle in level ice

10
0 Stt -meosur .d POints
-.-"-.- "'.-.-11- 'II.

8
od
.JiIr' -..
9 heel In
I ./ A O-Q.. •
Rud er Starbpard ~~1
~.~~ ~, \
.s 6
., 'jP'P'
c
Q
/~ r... ~
<5
;;
4
,.//
r\~ I" /1 -r
" I ~ 1
Cl
... /'
,.- ~

2
V
------ ~/ ./

-...
......
'b,.
r--~
p

./
.
~.
$" j""iii;-... -.-_ .• _i.-.-" I ,
0 I I I I
12 14 16 18 20 22 .24 26 28 30 32

Tankpasllian [m)
Run Na 1210 Madel 3454-0001 TN5w
Draught even keel = 2 70 m
Water depth = 4 85 m Ice thickness = 0 30 m

Fig. 5: Path of a turning circle in level Ice.

233
ICE CLEARING

Effective Ice c1eanng means less propeller-Ice interaction and consequently reduced
propulsIOn power. Thus, when designing icebreaking hull shapes one of our standard goals
IS to m1l1imize the propeller ice interaction. In extremely shallow water the ice clearing
quality also determines in which waterdepth a ship can still operate before it beaches on the
broken ice. Thus, for shallow water operation the ship's bottom should be kept free from
ice. This was strived to achieve for both of the presented designs by a well-shaped wedge,
which displaces the ice floes to the sides after they have been sufticiently submerged by the
bow.
Another kind of ice clearing is also important: Optimum turn1l1g can only be achieved if
the broken ice floes are moved out of their original pOSItIOn. It, for 1I1stance, broken ice
floes remain in the gap between the sidewalls and unbroken ice edge they more or less
hinder the turning process. This is the reason why a second so-called turning reamer as it
was realized with the Swedish icebreaker ODEN does not function well. This type of reamer
only break the ice edge but does not displace the broken ice tloes.
A well-detined clearing process during ahead and· turning motions was obtained in the
level ice tests with the hull shape shown in Figure 3.: In a tirst phase the ice, which is
broken in the center part of the bow, is only submerged. In the second phase this ice is
displaced sideways by means of the wedge.
The ice floes, which were broken by the lateral plate of the flanges of the bow are
submerged in the tirst phase just a little deeper than necessary to break them off. In the
second phase these ice pieces are completely submerged by the second slope (behind the
notch) and then displaced to the sides. The cleaflng of the later ice pieces occurs on a higher
level than the clearing of ice pieces broken in the center part of the bow, that is, the ice is
displaced sideways in two layers. The ice model tests have shown that this system functions
well.
With the hull shape shown in Figure 4 the clearing is done by means of the wedge alone.
For successful clearing even at higher speeds the entrance of the wedge and the spreading
angle must be accurately deSigned. In deep water this wedge functioned properly up to
speeds of about 9 knots. Since in shallow water the flow and pressure field below the ship's
bottom changes, there is an increasing tendency of the ice tloes to overrun the leading edge
of the wedge. However, up to speeds of about 6 knots practically no ice was pushed under
the flat ship's bottom. Photo 1 shows an underwater side view of the model advancing in

234
level ice. The waterdepth in this test run was equal to draft plus ice thickness. The photo
clearly show that except for some little ice pieces which had been crushed at the leading
edge of the wedge no ice floe was trapped between model bottom and shallow water bottom.

Even for further reduced waterdepth beaching on the own broken ice floes was not observed.

Photo I: Underwater side view of a shallow draft

Thyssen / Waas-icebreaker breaking level ice in shallow
water

SPEED LOSS DUE TO SHALLOW WATER EFFECT

In order to quantify the effect of shallow water on the icebreaking performance model
tests were carried out with one of the two models shown above. Four different waterdepths
and three ice thicknesses were investigated. Beside the breaking at" level ice the performance
in the broken channel and in broken ice tloes as well as turning, backing, breakout and the
breaking of grounded ridges was tested.
An example of the influence of waterdepth and ice thickness on the ahead speed in level
ice is shown in Figure 6. The speed which the icebreaker model achieved in restricted water
depth is given as percentage of the speed obtained in deep water for identical ice condition.
The relative velocity is plotted vs. the ratio waterdepth/(draft + ice thickness). It is worth
noticing that for the thickest ice and the lowest waterdepth tested the above mentioned ratio
fell below I, that is, the "free" space under the ship's bottom was smaller that the ice

thickness .

235
 Hamburg Ship Model Basin

-----
Ice Department
100

90 /--
./
80 ~./.
/
~G j.
f
~ 60
t
>
U
5(1
I
f
0
v
> -1(.

30

20

10 Client ThIssen i~orjseewerke Emden

Project Shallow Water Icebreaker
0 ,
00 05 10 I 5 20 25 30 35 40
Water Depth;' Oroft + Icp Thickness [- J

Fig. 6: Relative velocity vs. waterdepth ratio m level Ice at constant

propUlsion power.

CONCLUSION

The state of the art in icebreaker design has never before changed so rapidly as in the last
15 years. Significant developments regarding icebreaker hull shapes or details of it were
mainly made in Canada, Fmland, Germany, Russia and USA. In many cases clear
preferences were given to hIgher icebreaklllg capability and increased maneuverability in ice
at the expense of the qualities in Ice-free water. Solutions WhICh were OrIginally considered
to be rather unconventional became soon conventional. The process of icebreaker
development is still gOing on.
When designing the hull shapes for shallow water conciltions, TNSW and HSVA have gone
again some unconventional ways. The results of the model tests performed have
demonstrated that is possible to combme low icebreaking resistance in deep and shallow
water with optimum propulSIOn and superIor maneuvrability in ice. It turned out that a well
organized ice management (clearing) is the key not only for little propeller ice interaction
but also for low resistance in extreme shallow water and hIgh turning ability. A special tool
for improving the turning ability of an icebreaking ship with a very long parallel midship
section or a nearly rectangular waterline plane is an icebreaking balcony along the sidewalls.

236
REFERENCES
[I] Peirce, T.H. and Hart, A.L., "Icebreaker Manoeuvrability", Ice Technology for
Polar Operations, page 145 ff. (source unknown)
[2] Johansson, 8.M. and RevIll. C.R. (1986)," Future Icebreaker Design", International
Polar Transportation Conference, IPTC 1986, Vancouver, May 1986.
[3) Klinge, F. and Hellmann, I.-H. (1991), "Conversion and Icebreaking Performance
of the Soviet Icebreaker KAPITAN SOROKIN", 11 th International Conference on
Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions, POAC 1991, St. Johns,
September 1991.

237
ICE FLOW BEHIND AN ICEBREAKING VESSEL

Pekka Salmi, Kvaerner Masa-Yards, Technology Finland

PrOject Manager
Magnus Backstrom, Kvaerrer Masa-Yards
Project Engineer Arctic Research Centre Finland

Kasimir Korsstrom, Shiptech ky Finland

Project Engineer
Antti Jarvi, Antti Jarvi ky Finland

ABSTRACT

Ice flow behind an icebreaklng vessel is important in many respects. The

movements of the broken Ice has not been studied thoroughly so far. There have
been efforts to shape the hull form of vessels to plow the ice broken and
submerged by the vessel under the surrounding ice cover. However the flow tends
to drag the ice back to the channel behind the vessel within visible distance. It is
obvious that the water flow pattern surrounding the ship is the key element in the
puzzle. The paper describes the model tests carned out to study the movements of
Ice floes and the water flow in the surroundings of the model.
Some methods to affect the water lice flow are discussed. Understanding the
phenomena and the parameters of ice flow behind a vessel is very important
conSidering the design of Icebreakers assisting weaker cargo vessels, ocean going
trawlers and research vessels. The problem In question is very complex, and steps
taken so far are Just a beglnnig In the search for tecnical solutions for design criteria
to SUit different applications

238
1 INTRODUCTION

In certain Icebreaklng situations it is of great Importance to produce an ice-free

channel after the icebreaker Different types of reseach and assisting assignments
are facilitated If the channel IS as clean as possible. During ice navigation history
many different systems have been developed for cleaning the channel from ice
behind the ships.
It is well known that the velocity potential surrounding the ship stern cause an
inward flow which drags the broken ice-floes back into the channel.
Even the best invented methods of freeing the broken channel from ice can not
produce a 100 % clean channel. The flow in far wake of an icebreaker combined
with instablle ice-ridges under the channel edge tend to drag ice-floes back into the
channel long after the ship has passed. To enlighten the problem water and ice flow
tests were performed with a typical twin screw icebreaker model equipped with a
plough. The ice removal system using air-lifted propeller jets, developed by A. Jarvi,
was also tested and evaluated.

2 MODEL SCALE TESTS CONNECTED TO THE ICEFREE CHANNEL PROBLEM

2.1 Model description and tests performed

Flow tests were performed at Kvaerner Masa-Yards Arctic Reseach Center with a
conventional type of Icebreaking supply vessel. The purpose of the testseries was
to find out how the flow pattern around the model influenced the broken ice floes,
and what factors mattered In attempts to produce an ice-free channel.
The twinscrew model was built In scale 1:20 measuring 4p=5,209 m, TcwL =0,375
m and BCWL = 1,225 m.
The buttock flow stern was equipped with tWin skegs, where the propellers were
rotating in vaults . The forefoot ended in a shallow plough midships under the
model.
The propeller thrust was adjusted to correspond to fullscale circumstances, where

239
the ship would be breaking homogenous Ice of 80 cm thickness at the speed of
approximately 5-6 knots
The tests were done in three separate stages; during the first test the movements of
the broken ice floes were studied, the second test was a flow test of qualitative
nature in open water, while the purpose of the third test was to obtain velocities and
directions of the flow.
In all three tests the air-lifted propeller Jet system developed by A. Jarvi was tested
and evaluated.

2.1.1 Air-lifted propeller jets

Ice flow back into the ,channel behind a ship can be reduced by mixing air into the
propeller jet. The air lifts the jet towards the surface. At the surface, the rising jet
spreads to the sides washing floating ice aSide. When this was realized, a system
including a low pressure compressor, valves and tubing was developed, and
patented. The system is called "Ice Removal Using Air-lifted Propeller Jets" .. Untlll
now, the system it is installed on four small ships. These operate year around
without icebreaker assistance Used propulsion systems include reduction gears,
electric and hydraulic drives, fixed pitch and cpo propellers, open and nozzle
mounted propellers, with rudders and azimuthlng thrusters and a tunnel thruster.
Most experience is from single propeller ships.

2.1.2 Comparing model scale tank tests and fullscale experience

There have been some difficulties in developing model scale testing of Ice Removal
Using Air-lifted Propeller Jets. The main causes for scale-errors in an ice model test
are:
1. The bubble size does not scale correctly.
2. Individual bubble rising speed compared to surrounding water as a
function of bubble volume IS a complicated curve with change points from
laminar to turbulent, from round to calotte-formed bubbles.

240
3 Laminar flow In model scale where full scale is strongly turbulent.
4. Ice to ice friction is too high In model scale.
The most Important error is caused by the first three causes combined. The air
bubbles rise too fast out of the propeller stream In a model test. In full scale the air
bubbles are broken In turbulent propeller stream into a size of ca. 1 cm. They rise
with a speed of circa 22 cm/s. In a model scale of 1:20 the rising speed should be
ca. 5 cmis For this the bubbles should have a diameter under 0,5 mm. In the
tests, most bubbles are bigger and rise too fast. ThiS is compensated with
increased amount of air. Now the air-lift IS too strong close to the outlet, right ca.
two propeller diameters behind the outlet and Increasingly weak further away.
In full scale air is injected into the propeller slipstream. In order to produce air
bubbles small enough for model scale the air had to be injected in front of the
propeller. This caused a decrease in thrust that was compensated by increasing the
propeller rpm. Since the propeller slipstream velOCities directly depend on the mass-
flow rate, and the Increase In mass IS small when air IS Injected, the flow velocities
should not be affected by this change of propeller revolutions. The air injection
changes the total jet-volume, which however causes a flow velocity increase of one
percent.

2.2 Ice floe distribution tests

The tests were conducted In two stages

in a 40 mm thick Icefield where two four -~~--

-._' 'i"_
..
colored patterns were painted (figure 1).
The first stage of the test was conducted '---_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
Figure 1. Painted ice field.
with the air-lifted propeller jet system
developed by A. Jarvi and the second stage was conducted without air. The speed
of the model dUring the tests was 0,57 mis. The tests were documented with three
videocameras and two klnocameras. The aim was to find the painted ice pieces in
the channel and under the Ice edge behind the model.

241
2.2.1 Test results

The tested hull causes a 30 cm Wide

ridge of ice floes right under the channel ..
edge. This model does not push pieces
any further under the channel edge The
pieces found under the edge have not
moved much aft as can be seen In
figures 4 and 5. Mostly red and purple

pieces were found under the edge and Figure 2. Ice floes found in channel
very few blue and green pieces. Most of and under channel edge without air-
lifted propeller jets.
the pieces found In the channel were also
red and purple. The blue and green pieces may have partly been crushed by the
propellers. Figures 1 and 2 show how the different colors are distributed behind the
model.The pieces in the channel are found 8-11 m from the beginning of the
painting in the test without air. In the tests where air was used the pieces have
moved about 1 m further aft than without air. Difficulties in identifying the patterns of
the ice pieces makes further statistical conclutions impossible. The same amount of
ice was found under the edge in both tests. The ice floes were piled in similar
ridges under the edge in both tests. The ice pieces seem to have a higher velocity
In the wake In the tests where air was
used. The coverage was the same In
both tests, about 60-70 %. The coverage I

was difficult to compare, because part of

i.,
I ""•
I.
the broken Ice from the first test was II
I
pushed Into the trimming baSin.
Figures 4 and 5 show the positions of the
coloured ice floes found after the test.
The blue and green floes were difficult to
find, partly because the green and blue Figure 3. Ice floes found in cannel and
painting washed off and partly because under channel edge with air-lifted
propeller jets.

242
the forefoot and the propellers crushed the middle part of the field into smaller
pieces.

Figure 4. Broken channel after model Figure 5. Channel after model with air-
without air-lifted propeller jets, lifted fro peller jets, observed ice floes.
observed ice floes.

2.3 Flow tests

The purpose of the testsenes was to find out how the flow pattern around the
model influenced the broken ice floes, and what factors of the flow mattered in
attempts to produce an icefree channel. The purpose of the first test series was to
find out the extents of the flow field. The results of this senes was used when
measuring points was selected for the second test series, which included flow
measurements around the model and in model wake.

2.3.1 Surveying the extent of wake behind the model

For the purpose a grid of yarn flags was stretched across the towing tank (figure 6).
The movements of the flags were documented with a Video camera while the model
drove past the gnd. The video recording was done from a basin wall side window
with under water view. It should be mentioned that this test was done In open
water. The model was dnven with a suffiCiently small speed not to cause a large
KelVin pattern. Consequently it was decided that the influence of the ice field could
be neglected at this stage.
The flow field was mapped with approximately 9 s intervals after the propellers had
passed the grid. With the model speed being 0,57 m/s the movements of the flags

243
were studied at the actual distances 5 m, 10m, 15 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m from
the propellers to the grid. Because of turbulence and the low quality of the video
recording It proved to be impossible to detect accurate flow directions from the
videotape. The results show therefore only the extents of the flow field and the
positions of the moving flags.
The air-lifted propeller Jet system developed by A. JarVI was also tested and the flow
field was studied as previously described.

2.3.2 Results

_-..-,"-. '_'- ... .:;11 F_--=;::

The model was first driven without the air-
lifting system. The disturbances caused
by the propellers were dominating the
flow field. As the model drove past the
grid one could note that the flags clearly
followed the directions of the potential Figure 6. grid of yarn flags across the
field around the hull.Flgure 7 shows the basin.
shape and the extents of the flow field up to 30 m behind the model. The shape of
the field behind the propellers is gradually taking a half elliptic form.
The spreading of the wake field seems to r=.=.=o=·,=s=·=-=~C=.-=.=_=-.=.=o-=c;=,=,,=o=CQ=p,,=__=,,=q=.•=T=5=11
be more or less linear from 5 m '.' .. ""' ,:,~"",,, ,0 0," 0, I
, !
-- - -~ -- --- ~---r, __ ':_~_~_"-~:'?:- i
downstream to 30 m from the c"- .....-/ '
r-' : ...
propellerplane. The theory of compound ~ , '. ;0;':-" i
~ <' Om 'E~'TERL "lE !
jets suggests a nonlinear spreading. The ~~ _ ___ _-:'_ ~_~:E -~:::~-
Figure 7. Gridtest without air lifted
analysIs of the model tests was however propeller jets.
very Inaccurate, and the results should
therefore not be misinterpreted.
About 30 m from the propellers the flow field had spread 2 m sideways from the
centerline, and between 80 cm and 100cm downwards from surface.
In the second test air was injected Into the propellerstream. The results of this test
diverge radically from the earlier

244
results without air Figure 8 shows that
the propeller stream spreading sideways
at 30 m reached 3 m. But at the same the
stream was lifted up between 20 cm and :.,
-'''rn",~
~r~ <::1:::

40 cm from surface.

Figure 8. Gridtest with air lifted

propeller jets.

2.3.3 Flow measurements with a Laser-Doppler Anemometre (LOA)

A Laser Doppler Anemometre was used to study the flow direction and speed
around the model.
The transducer was attached to a rail across the basin, which made it possible to
measure in any point of the wake-cross section. The system gave a time history of
a two dimensional flow vector as the model drove past.
The field was studied In twenty points of the cross section to retrieve the x-y vectors
in these pOints. To damp the Kelvin waves the tests were performed in an icefree
channel. The correct way to perform flow tests would be in an icebreaking situation,
but the Laser-Doppler Anemometre requires clear sight to the measuring point. The
broken ice floes would make the measunng difficult.
The Influence of air Injection In the propeller stream was studied in two points, and
the y-z flow was studied in three pOints under the channel edge.

2.3.4 Results

The flow was studied first 185 mm from surface (figure 9). To achieve the vectorfield
seen in figure 9 the model was dnven four separate times past the transducer. The
potential flow IS clearly vIsible at the stern. From frame -3 backwards in wake the
propeller flow is expanding and dominating the flow.
For comparislon the model was driven with air-lifted propeller jets and the flow was

245
 ----~-.:::..~.-~--:-
'- .
------ --=--._.

23;

Figure 9. Flow 185 mm from surface at Figure 10. Flow 185 mm from surface
model stern. with air lifted propeller jets.

measured 800 mm from centerline and 185 mm from surface (figure 10). The flow
field diverges from the earlier test at frame -2, where the velocities are larger and
the flow is tending to expand sidewards more than without air injection.
The flow was also studied at model draught, 375 mm from surface. The measured
flow field is presented in figure 11. The vectors show that the propellers take water
from under the model, and therefore are the broken Ice floes not affected by the
propeller inflow. Figure 12 shows the flow 375 mm from surface and 800 mm to the
side of centerline, when the propeller jet IS lifted with air. The Influence of air can not
be discovered at this level. ThiS was expected as the air lifts the propeller flow
upwards.

=' =- I _ _ ,(','T.
-_:::=_~= I -_ f=- ",::: i
~--.:..
---
~----~ ~-;;:-----
.................. :"'.:.'_. :, . ~e?'--'.~E-I

- ,:::::
_::;
~::;c

_ _ _ ::
I _':D
_:. _ 1 ':' 1 3
I
I

Figure 11. Flow at model stern 375

mm from surface. Figure 12. Flow at model stern with air
lifted propeller jets.

3 CONCLUSIONS

The tests in level Ice show that straight behind the model the channel is fairly clean.
Due to the low speed the plough works qUite well, but there is still a large amount

246
of ice floes in the channel. Some pieces escape under the plough , but the major
part of the floes glide along the hull side , where the plough has no effect, and end
up in the broken channel. The air-lifted propeller jets did not produce a cleaner
channel in the conducted test.
The grid' test showed that the air-lifting system, as expected lifted the flow up to
surface , and spread it sideways . The increase of wake width at six shiplengths from
the stern was about 50 % compared to the version without version without air-lifting.
The LOA-tests gave some explanations to the problem with ice floes returning to the
channel after the model. The velocity potential at the stern is apparently strong
enough , inspite of the low speed of the model, to produce a relatively strong
inwards going flow. The air-lifted
propeller jet starts to show
differences from the normal jet at
frame -2 from the stern. This
explains why no difference could be
seen in the ice tests. At this point
the ice floes are already either
under the channel edge or floating
at the channel surface. The cross
flow, caused by the air, is
apparently not strong enough to
move ice floes already floating out Picture 13. Broken channel after
conventional icebreaker model.
under the channel edge. The flow
must obviously be turned outwards earlier, which can be done with air bubbling,
rudder ploughing and air-lifted propeller jets or ploughing with azimuting propulsion
units.
The test results presented in this paper was used in the design of a new
icebreaker concept. Tests performed with the new model showed remarkable
improvement compared to the model presented in this paper. Picture 13 shows the
channel after the old version, which has a cove rage of 50-70 %. Picture 14 shows
the channel made by the new concept, which in the best case had a coverage of 5-

247
10 %. The model speed was the
same in both cases.

I
L, h_ .,,~_ • _ _ _ __

Picture 14. Broken channel after new

icebreaker concept.

REFERENCES

(1) Jarvi, A. Ice Clearance Using Air-Lifted Propeller Streams , IAHR Ice Symposiu m
1990, Espoo , Finland .

(2) Korsstr6m K. Str6mningar inducerade av ett isbrytande fartyg, Un iversity of

Technology, Otaniemi , Finland 1992.

(3) Ice Model Tests With Icebreaking Supply Vessel P-1251, Wartsila Marine, April
1989. Report WARC A 192, unpublished.

(4) Ranninpuhdistuskokeet malleilla P-1251 ja P- 1361, February 1993, Report MARC

A 216, unpublished.

248
POAC '93

PROPULSION SYSTEM BASED ON AZIMUTH THRUSTERS AND ITS POSSIBIL-

ITIES IN ICEBREAKING TECHNOLOGY

Jarmo Savikurki Aquamaster-Rauma Ltd Finland

M.Sc. (Eng.) Project Manager

Pekka Koskinen Technical Research Finland

Senior Research Scientist Centre of Finland (VTT)
Ship Laboratory

ABSTRACT

Azimuth thrusters enable full thrust to all directions - ahead, astern and sideways. This
gives to the vessel excellent maneuverability which is important to all vessels. For ice
going ships the steerable thrusters give also the possibility to break ice with the propel-
ler flow and to sweep the blocks away with the stream. By using opposite steering
angles (ploughing position) the ship can make an almost ice free channel which is
wider than the breadth of the vessel.

This paper describes these features, observations and measurements in full scale
during the test trials of the new Multipurpose Icebreaker MSV Fennica.

1. INTRODUCTION

The aZimuth thruster is an over one hundred years old Invention, in which propeller
thrust force is turned to the wanted direction. The effective controllable thrust force can
be used for steering or moving the vessel In all conditions also at slow speed.

The azimuth thrusters have been used as main propulsion and as auxiliary propulsion
mainly in special applications, in which good maneuverability IS of vital importance.
The ferries, harbour tugs, stand-by vessels and offshore platforms are typical
examples of vessels equipped with azimuth thrusters. The maneuverability, however, is
not the only argument in favour of azimuth thrusters. Better efficiency, better safety or
bigger cargo space are the reasons why many passenger vessels and cargo vessels
have azimuth thrusters as their main propulsion system. The Ice going vessels and the
icebreakers are the most recent application in which maneuverability is an important
argument but not the only one.

249
2. AZIMUTH THRUSTER

The name azimuth thruster means an equipment which turns the thrust force to the
wanted direction. Other names for the same Item are compass thruster or steerable
propulsion unit. In this paper we concentrate only on that part of the aZimuth thrusters,
where the screw propeller and the propeller shaft are turned With the steering. These
equipment are also called z-drives.

The power transmission from the prime mower to the propeller can be arranged
mechanically, electrically or hydraulically. The mechanical power train is normally the
cheapest and most common. The electrical transmission is very flexible and it has
good partial load and moment-speed characteristics, and for these reasons it is often
used also in ice going vessels. The hydraulic transmission is mainly used in small craft
- with power under 200 hp.

The number of propulsion Units and unit locations in' the ship hull varies a lot from
single screw stem drive barges to offshore platforms with eight thrusters for dynamic
positioning. The thruster Units can be mounted to the hull solidly or they can be re-
tractable or tiltable. The number of different azimuth thruster manufacturers is about
40. In Figure 1 is presented a typical azimuth thruster application - a stem driven
harbour tug with a mechanical power transmission.

Main particulars'
Length 0 a 2850 m
Breath mid 900 m
Deoth mid 465 :T1
Draught 385 m
Bollard pull 40 tonnes
Free runmng speed 125 \(nots
Main engmes 2 x Ruston 6RK270
Ratmg 2x 1772 BHP at 750 rpm
Propulsion 2x AQUAMASTER
US 125112750

ClaSSification LloydS + 100 A 1 Tug Near Continental

Trading Area + LML ~~~~~~~~~

Figure 1. Typical azimuth thruster application is a stem driven harbour tug

250
The power of the azimuth thruster is tYPically from some hundreds kilowatts to some
thousands kilowatts. The new applications in offshore vessels and in Ice going vessels
together With the need for stronger and more powerful tugs have generated a tendency
to higher power ranges of aZimuth thrusters. The Aquamaster US ARC 1 thrusters in
MSV FENNICA and MSV NORDICA (see Figure 2.) are the strongest and most power-
ful thrusters in the world at the moment, but for sure we will see soon still bigger ones.
Technically there is no limit for the maximum possible power for the thruster, but some
technical designs will meet component limitations when the power is above
12MW.

3. AQUAMASTER US ARC 1 THRUSTERS IN MSV FENNICA

In MSV Fennica there is a diesel electric AC-AC transmission for propulsion. The pro-
pulsion motor is controlled by a cyclo-converter in either speed mode or in power mode
in range 0 - 338 rpm and 0 - 7.5 MW to one direction and 0 - 1.875 kW to the other di-
rection. The opposite rotational direction is needed in some dynamic positioning situa-
tions. Astern power is easier to reach by turning the thruster 180· and not by reversing
the shaft.

The power is transmitted from the motor via a short intermediate shaft and a fleXible
coupling to the Aquamaster unit. In the Aquamaster the input shaft transmits the power
via the upper gear to the vertical shaft and via the lower gear to the propeller shaft.
The propeller is FP type with Q diameter of 4.21 m in a nozzle. One thruster gives a
bollard pull of about 115 tons, which is practically the same to all directions thanks to
the good shape of the vessel's afterbody In Figure 3. is presented a diagram showing
the thrust force of a azimuth thruster to different directions in comparison with a con-
ventional single screw ship. The nozzle is Aquamaster PV type and It is specially de-
signed for the Aquamaster to give the maximum thrust in the whole speed range The
nozzle form is optimized to one flow direction and that is also a reason why reversing
the shaft is not giving as much thrust as turning the whole thruster 180· around the
vertical axis.

The Aquamaster thrusters are not in a vertical position In MSV Fennica. They both are
inclined forward and to the midship so that in normal driving modes the propeller shaft
is not horizontal Figure 4. shows how the propeller pumps water from deep ice free
zone upwards to the ice belt. ThiS small inclination together with the nozzle, which
makes the propeller stream directionally compact and powerful, enables the use of the
propeller flow actively for Ice breaking. The power of the flow is visible in the photos 1
and 2 in Appendix.

251
Figure 2. Aquamaster US ARC 1 in MSV Fennlca

THRUST CAPABILITIES OF
rn;] AQUA MASTER SHIP
Thrust %
C SINGLE SCREW SHIP

100
90
80

I
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
a
Ahead Astern

Figure 3. Propeller thrust force to different directions

AQUAMASTER

~
~

Figure 4. Inclined positioning of the thrusters together with the effect of the nozzle
utilizes the propeller flow also for icebreaking

252
4. RESULTS MEASURED IN THE ICE TESTS WITH MSV FENNICA

4.1 lcebreaking with the propeller flow

The upwards directed propeller flow has a velocity distribution under the level Ice
generating an under pressure which is big enough to break the level ice by bending.
Broken ice blocks float with the stream and are broken with their kinetic energy further
when they hit the solid ice until the distance from the propeller to the level ice is big
enough to dampen the stream.

How thick and how strong ice can be broken with the propeller stream of Fennica is
stili unknown to us. The test showed that level ice of 70 em in thickness and 530 kPa
bending stress were far from the limit and it was easy to blow away. We have neither
made nor found any theoretical approach to the phenomena and we would recommend
this as a topic for a scientific research in case somebody is interested. We have also
empirical results from other vessels and based on this information we can extrapolate
some approximations. The experience shows that when the Ice breaking capability is
near the limit, steering the azimuth back and forth will Increase the icebreaking effect
remarkably

4.2 Widening the channel

The ice breaking effect of the IJropelier flow can be used for widening the channel. By
turning the thrusters symmetrically inside in a ploughing position the propeller flow is
directed outward and it Will break the ice from the Sides of the vessel. The bigger the
ploughing angle is, the wider Will be the channel, but at the same time the longitudinal
component of the thrust force will decrease which means also decreased velocity for
the vessel In Figure 5 is shown the channel Width in relation to the ship speed in level
ice and In an old channel. The maximum width of the broken channel was about 200
meters and it was amazing how little the result was affected by the ice thickness or
whether it was level ice or an old channel. In Appendix you can find photos 3 and 4
which show how widening the channel can be done both forwards and backwards With
the speed of about 3 knots in an old channel.

253
 ~ 8 ~-----------------------------===========~
:g 7 ••,~----------------------------- _________ Old channel -
.c" 6 ---------
a. \ - -=- Level lee
~5
= \'
4 -~-,----------------------~----------------
~
~ 3 ------~---------------------------------------
:,.,
~ 2 --------~~~~-----------------------------------
~ 1 ------------'-!:-=======~..:==~=____::JI.-----••___
.---
o 0 ________________ ~ ____________________________

o 2 10 12 14 ShIp speed (knl

Figure 5. Widening the channel in level ice and in an old channel in relation to the
ship speed. Level ice thickness is 55 em ( a if = 530 kPa)

Distance from channel center line [m)

·100 ·50 50 100

Figure 6. Measured profiles of the old channel

43 Cleaning the channel

The ploughing position of the thrusters can widen the channel, but also when it is not
widening it can be useful when it will float broken ice blocks sideways far away from
the channel. The quantitative measurement of the channel clearance was possible only
in an own channel broken in level ice. Figure 6. shows the ice coverage in percents in
the channel as a function of the thruster angle. It is very interesting to note that with
the thruster angle 30· the vessel could keep still a speed of 7.5 knots and make practi-
cally an ice free channel.
Channel wIdth/shIP breadth
80
70
j" 1 0
60
'\

"
2.4
~ 50
'\ 7~ ____ ~2
40
"
:;' ,\10 / t-- ,7.5
"-
:;; 30 ......... 1.27
>
0 20
u
~<[....-
~ 10
0
o 20 40 60 80 100

Thruster angle [deg.]

Figure 7. Channel clearance in relation to the thruster angle (in level ice )

254
In an old channel we have only subjective observations and feelings that driving with
the ploughing angles the propeller stream broke the side walls of the channel and float
a lot of the blocks and speCially the big ones out of the channel making it easier to use
This was also confirmed by the other vessels.

In many narrow routes in archipelagos the old channels get very tight dUring the winter.
The side banks grow to a such extend that all the broken blocks remain in the channel
forming more and bigger blocks. If there is no possibility to open a new channel, the
conventional icebreakers can only tow other vessels one by one through the blocks.
An icebreaker with azimuth thrusters is able to blow the blocks from the channel and
decrease the ice resistance so that the other vessels can get through. Already short
tests without any exact quantitative measurement give us expectations that cleaning of
an old channel is one of the most important features which azimuth thrusters has to
offer to icebreakers. In Figure 7. is shown the profiles of the old channel, where the
tests were made. Note that one of the profiles is significantly more difficult than the
others. In that kind of places the cleaning effect or the lightening of the channel IS ex-
ceptionally effective.

4.4 " Vemputus" and other interesting observations and remarks

During the ice tests the healing tank system was not in use. Nobody even thought
about it because there was no need for it. The main reason for that was a new driving
style called vemputus. The term is Finnish and because all participants in the tests
know the term and because there is no English equivalent we use that In thiS presen-
tation.

Vemputus means periodical steering of the thrusters from one side to the other In order
to give the aftership small transverse motion and decrease resistance and to get better
speed of the vessel. It was not possible to measure the quantitative effect of vemputus,
but the effect In the ndged Ice field was obVIOUS.

When running forwards in the ridged field already small steering angles moves the
narrower aftership from the channel side to the other. This movement decreases the
ice pressure and the ice resistance at the maximum breadth of the hull. Already
stopped vessel went further or the speed increased.

However, the vemputus IS most amazing when backing into the ridges. Without any
steering actions the vessel may stop because of the ice resistance of Ice knives,
nozzles and reamers. But with vemputus the aftershlp is moving back and forth side-
ways breaking the ridge, the propeller flow is flushing one side at a time free of ice
blocks and widening the channel for the reamers, and the vessel is able to keep slow
but constant astern speed into the heavy ridges.

255
Other interesting features, which could not be measured but for sure are big benefits
for this vessel, are the ability to loose herself or other vessel or seamark from the
ridged ice or remove ridges only by using actively the propeller flow.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The propulsion system based on azimuth thrusters gives the vessel superb maneuver-
ing and assistance capabilities. This is a well-known fact from the experience of har-
bour tugs. The test trials of the MSV Fennica shows that azimuth thrusters also set
new standards for these capabilities in icebreakers.

The tests of Fennica showed also that an icebreaker equipped with aZimuth thrusters
has new capabilities like icebreaking with the propeller stream, widening and clearing
the channel and reducing hull resistance with vemputus. The demanding task of the
personnels operating F$:lnnica and Nordica is now to utilize these capabilities in the
way which will increase the assistance efficiency of the icebreakers. The learning
process will for sure take several years.

The propulsion system based on azimuth thrusters gives so many new possibilities in
icebreaking technology that it must be considered as one of the most interesting nov-
elties.

REFERENCES

Soininen H., Nyman T., Riska K, Lohi P., Harjula A. 1993 The Ice Capability of the
Multipurpose Icebreaker "Fenmca" - Full-Scale Results. POAC 1993, in this volume.

Savikurki J., Mattila M., 1993 POSSibilities to Increase Safety and Efficiency in Ice
Navigation. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference (ISOPE), Singapore June
1993.

256
APPENDIX

Photo 1. Effect of the propeller stream backwards

Photo 2. Effect of the propeller stream to the side

257
 APPENDIX

Photo 3. Widening the old channel ahead

Photo 4. Widening the old channel astem

258
 THE ICE CAPABILITY OF THE MULTIPURPOSE ICEBREAKER
"FENNICA" - FULL-SCALE RESULTS

Harri Soininen Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTI) Finland

Senior Research Scientist Ship Laboratory

Tapio Nyman Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTI) Finland

Research Scientist Ship Laboratory

Kaj Riska Helsinki University of Technology Finland

Director Arctic Offshore Research Centre
Paavo Lohi Finnyards Ltd Finland
Project Manager

Arjo HaIjula Finnish Board of Navigation Finland

Chief Naval Architect

ABSTRACT
The design requirements and resulting hull form solutions for a new multipurpose icebreaker
are described. The extensive ice model-test series concentrating especially on manoeuvring
characteristics is presented briefly. The full-scale ice test results from spring 1993 in the
northern Baltic are presented. Level ice, old channel and ridge tests were performed. The most
prominent new feature of the vessel is its manoeuvring capability. During the tests the vessel
was able to turn on the spot in level ice both with full and zero forward speed and break its way
out from an old channel at a 90° angle both ahead and astern.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Baltic Sea freezes during a normal winter and surrounds the whole coastline
of Finland with ice. That is why Finland has to maintain an icebreaker fleet to
assist merchant vessel traffic. The icebreaking season is, however, rather short
and the fleet is idle during most of the year. An effective secondary use for
icebreakers is thus needed. In 1991 the Finnish Board of Navigation ordered from
Finnyards Ltd a new multipurpose icebreaker that is leased for offshore duties in
the North Sea outside the icebreaking season. A sister ship was ordered in 1992.

The seakeeping characteristics of a traditionally shaped icebreaker are usually

inadequate. On the other hand an offshore vessel must offer a stable platform for
offshore operations. Combining the icebreaking and seakeeping requirements for
the hull proved to be demanding task. An extensive series of both seakeeping and
ice model tests was performed during the design phase of the vessel. The general
design philosophy was that the ice performance was to be at the level of the
previous Finnish icebreaker class, the Otso class, and all that could reasonably be
done to get good seakeeping qualities without sacrificing the ice performance

259
below the specified level should be done. Besides Baltic escort icebreaking the
vessel is suitable for Arctic operations as well. The ice performance of the design
of the multipurpose icebreaker Fennica was tested last spring in northern Baltic
conditions. This paper concentrates on the results of the ice tests.

2. THE DESIG:\"

2.1 THE HULL FORM

The basic object in the design was to combine the breadth requirement for
icebreaking, 25 m, with moderate GM-value and accordingly good seakeeping
characteristics. A requirement was set by the offshore operator of acceptable
acceleration figures at various locations of the vessel at zero speed. The vessel
should be able to operate 80% of the time in the North Sea in the summer and
autumn season plus have a roll period longer than 10 seconds, see Lohi &
Karppinen 1993. The result was a design with reamers, the maximum breadth in
the foreship and narrower hull at midships and aftship. In addition to this there are
at the midship and aft ship area exceptionally wide bilge shelves as an integral
part of the hull. The hull form is shown in Fig. I.

The required icebreaking capability in level ice was to be 8 kn in 0.8 m thick ice
and continuous speed in 1.8 m thick ice. This resulted in a close to spoon-shaped
bow though with a clear stem and giving maximum attention to seakeeping
characteristics. The dynamic positioning requirement was solved in foreship by
three big bow thrusters placed into a fairly high forefoot design that is used also
to plough ice floes aside the bottom. Special attention was paid to the reamer
design so that it creates minimum additional resistance in the astern mode by
breaking the ice downwards.
The requirements for manoeuvring and turning abilities called for turning on the
spot at 0.7 m thick level ice. In hull design this led to as narrow an aftship and
rounded waterlines as the machinery lay-out of the vessel allowed.

Figure 1. The hull form

2.2 PROPULSION, MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Perhaps the most exceptional feature of the vessel is its main propulsion. The
requirements of extreme manoeuvrability were fulfilled by azimuth thrusters, two
260
nozzled fixed pitch 7.5 MW units. This is the first time azimuth thrusters have
been used as main propulsors in full icebreakers. The propellers are driven by
electric propeller motors.The side view of the ship is shown in Fig.2. The ship
does have a heeling system but no water jet or air bubbling systems to reduce the
friction between hull and ice. The foreship has a stainless steel belt in the
waterline area.
The principal particulars of the vessel are listed below.

Length,oa 116.0m
Breadth, max. 26.0m
Depth 12.5m
Draught/deadweight
Baltic icebreaker 7.0 m /1650 dwt
Arctic icebreaker 8.0 m / 3900 dwt
Offshore operations 8.4 m / 4800 dwt
Propulsion power 2x7500kW
Speed, open water 16 kn
Bollard pull 2.30 MN
Bunker capacity 2500m 3

Classification Det Norske Veritas +lAl,

Icebreaker Polar 10

Figure 2. The side view of FENNICA

3. THE ICE MODEL TESTS

The ice model test series for the icebreaker Fennica was extensive. Three models
were made; first a series was run with a small model in scale about 1 :32 and then
a series with a bigger model in scale 1:21 and after modifications a third series
with the bigger model. The aim of the first three sets of model tests was to
finalize the shape of the stern, bilges and reamers.

The initial design of the Fennica included an idea to use removable side sections
so that the breadth would be bigger in icebreaking and smaller in offshore
261
operations. The ice model tests quickly indicated that a version without side
sections functions well in icebreaking provided that the bilge shelves are shaped
correctly. The shapes of the stem waterlines were at first quite full but turning and
backing tests in ice indicated that the waterlines should be rounded in order to
bend not crush the ice in turning. The first set of model tests with the small model
largely finalized the main characteristics of the hull shape.
A larger model was required for proper resistance and propulsion tests. Before
these, however, the reamer shape was tested in backing tests in level ice and
ridges. Two reamer versions were tested, one breaking ice up and and the other
down when going astern. The tests indicated that the version which breaks ice
down has the best operational characteristics. Thus it was selected for the final ice
tests in which the ice resistance, propulsion and manoeuvring capabilities were
determined. Altogether 146 tests were done as Fig.3. shows. Some of the results
from the model tests are presented in this paper together with full-scale results.

------ -----
MCdet

Scale:
Vel'Slons:
M-263
1:32

,
AlBIC r
II
M-265
1:21
11213
I
!

!
M-269
1:21

Final moael
ve~lon
I
DIE L-~======~.~4~-l~
Ice tfudcness: O.3m 0.3 m O.8m O.3m

Test types: Bad<Jnq 1ests Res1Stance Turning Qrdes ResIStance

Alrtlubbllng Propulsion Breaking out Prcoulslon
Turnmg aides Bac"lOg of ctIannel Manoeuvnng
Srealung out 7umlng tests Turning on the
of channel CJmoresslve spot
Ice and ndge
tests
Numoer of tests' 21 33 16 36

Ice th,dtness 1.8 m

Test types: ResIStance

P'"'OPulslon
Manoeuvnng

Number af tests: 38

Total number of tests: 146

Figure 3. Ice model test programme

4. THE FULL-SCALE ICE TESTS PERFORMED

Owing to to the novel design an extensive full-scale test series was planned.
Besides the normal propulsion tests in level ice and channels, emphasis was put on
the manoeuvring characteristics and operational aspects. Thus the benefits of the
new propulsion system could be shown and possible new assistance tactics in
escort duties learnt. Besides performance tests the loads on the propulsion system,
both on propeller shafts and the thruster as whole were monitored. Statistical data
was obtained throughout the testing period. Also some dedicated load tests
especially while ramming in ridges both ahead and astern were performed. The
results and conclusions of these measurements are not ready yet and will not be
262
presented in this paper. The behaviour of the hull regarding ice block flow in
various operative situations was studied by strain gauge instrumentation at some
of the most interesting locations. Simultaneous video observations above the
waterline were made. The tests took place from March 22nd until March 30th
1993 in the northern Baltic off the cities of Oulu and Kemi. Altogether 82
individual tests were run. The winter was milder than normal but still a level ice
thickness of some 65 cm with a snow cover of 5 - 20 cm was experienced. The old
channels were heavy and some extensive ridging was found. The ridge thickness
of individual ridges was however less than average and a ridge profile thicker
than 10m was difficult to find. The temperature during the tests was on average
approx. -5 °C and the weather mostly fine, so that the tests were able to be
performed in good conditions. The draught of the vessel was in average 7.4 m.
Heavy winds were not experienced and thus no observations of the behaviour of
the vessel were obtained in compressive ice conditions.
4.1 LEVEL ICE PERFORMANCE
Tests were run in two ice thicknesses, an average 65 cm plus snow 14 cm and an
average 31 em plus snow 6 cm. The available thinner ice field is of course a little
too thin to give a good basis for the general ice resistance dependence of ice
thickness for this vessel. Different opinions of the proper way to consider the
effect of snow for ice resistance exist. Snow cover changes the frictional
properties of ice and if the cover is hard and thick, breaking it causes some
additional resistance. The most simple way is just to add to the ice thickness half
or one third of the snow cover thickness. Here one third has been used. The
draught of the vessel was during the tests 7.4 m even keel in both ice thicknesses.
The hull was in good condition, painted with INERTA 160, and the tests took
place 6 months after the launching of the vessel. The water depth in the test area is
relatively shallow, 15-20 m. Thus some shallow water effect is included in the
results. The ice strength measurements at the test area of the thicker ice gave the
average result 530 kPa obtained from four in-situ cantilever beam tests, and 3.3
MPa, standard deviation 0.52 MPa, for uniaxial compressive crushing tests along
the grain direction. For the thinner ice field the uniaxial compressive crushing
tests gave the result 3.7 MPa, standard deviation 0.54 MPa. The water salinity in
the Northern Baltic is very low. The average density of the ice was 0.91. The
power-speed results are presented in Fig.4. The calculated total resistance values
ahead, based on the assumption of no ice contact in the propeller in level ice ahead
(supported by the full-scale and model test observations), the thrust deduction
coefficient obtained from the model scale measurements and the total
longitudinal force measurements in full scale of one thruster unit are presented in
Fig.5. The full-scale prediction of the model tests is also shown in the same figure.

It can be seen from the results that the vessel did reach a fairly high speed also in
the astern mode, 7.7 kn in 65 cm level ice. There are two explanations for this.
Since the propulsor is turned 1800 for the astern operation the propeller needs to
be optimized only for ahead thrust and no compromises are needed between ahead
and astern thrust. Secondly, the reamers, which are in some respect an obstacle in
the astern mode, are designed to bend ice downwards when experiencing intact ice
263
when backing. This was also observed to happen, Fig. 6. The ice was usually,
however, already bent by the aftship into broken Hows beyond the maximum
breadth of the vessel. On the other hand, the thruster units are not protected by
rudders and get ice contacts in the astern mode, which increases the ice resistance
astern and decreases the thrust. The exposure of the thrusters to ice contacts and
subsequence decrease in astern performance was deliberately considered to have a
minor importance when designing the vessel. It is mainly designed for the ahead
mode since thrusters provide a fast turning capability.

16 ~------------------~--------r------------ I.e\ el ice• .thead •

....
. .~j I
• • I
I

!
Hice~Z- i2cm.
Hsnmr---l.-20cm

- - - Lc"eilce• .lhead.
~12+----------;----.'---'--+-------'-r-'--------j Hice=62-72cm.

;;;: cr
.<:J II /' /' I Hsnow-l-20cm

~ ..• 1<./' I...e\-ellce. ahead.

Hice=J1cm. HSDowa:6cm
6 ///
:- 8 +-------'-'---+--,------r'-=-"----------i - - - Level Ice. olbcad.

~ .' ~ //.~/ / •I
Hice=Jtcm. Hsnow=ocm

~
= ,. /
." / / Q Lel el ice. astern.
HieRS- nem.
~ 4 +-_-._---,~L--~~~_·~v~---------~ H!>now-8-IJcm

.
I
,/ I ... ---- Le"ellce • .utern.
I RicF65-12cm•
~-; I Hsno1\'=!'f-l"cm

i
o+---------~-------+--------~------~
Old channel • .thead

o 4 6 g I - -- . - Old channel. Ahead

Speed [m/s]

Figure 4. Power-speed relation in two ice thicknesses forward and one ice
thickness astern plus in old channel ahead.

2500

2000
.I,0 Level ice. Hi=80cm

o 0 f 0 0

o
I !-- Level lee. Hi=80cm
Z I OJ 0 a Level ice. Hl=3Jcm
=-" 1500 - - - Level lee. Hi=J3cm
'"=
~... 1 - - - -. Level ice. Hi:z:::80cm.
I from model tests
"
;; 1000
"0 ~-" .. +
Old cbannel

f- - . - - Old channel

500 - .. - .. :"<let thrust

0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Speed [m/s]

Figure 5. Total resistance asfunction of speed,

264
 _oo:,) /V'I,
. ,c " . !ID!ual speed 0 m / s
S5 -' hrust.angle - 90 deg
BE -thrust.angle -60 de,.
Ti:~1e to 90deg 98 s
Time to 180deg 129 ~
\.~dvance 8 m )
ITrilnsie r 6 m )
1( -:' dCclcal diameter 10 m )
' Imtial heading 64 deg
Wind di r ectIon 200 deg
Wind speed :; m / s
Ice thIckness 70 Cr:1
:0 >0 , 00
Snow thIckness 5 cm

Figure 8. Turning at zero forward speed. I

Ship symbol lnterv<.~ 10 s

Turning around by using a 90° thruster angle is a relatively violent operation. The
ice is piled against the vertical side after the reamers . This is analogous to the
behaviour in a heavily compressive ice field. The big bilge "shelves" form a
support for this ice mass. After relatively smooth beginning the operation slows
down while the ice piles up . After some moments the propulsion suction releases
the pressure, especially if also a small thrust component forward exists, and the
turning goes on. The water pool that forms in this operation can be seen in Fig. 9.
The turning can be made in a more gentle way, which will in fact be used in
practice, by blowing ice away from the outer side with the outer thruster before
the ice crushes against the side and piles up. The actual turning moment is
generated by the imler thruster. In this way the required time increases up to 2 min
50 s and space up to 145 m, 1.25 L.

Figure 9. The open water poolformedfrom turning around at zero forward speed.

4.3.2 Turning tests with forward speed

The tests were performed in two modes. Use of the full transversal capacity of the
thrusters and thus big angles (60°/90°) gave a similar result as the zero forward
speed tests, turning practically around on the spot. The measured turning diameter
266
 Figure 6. The aft end of reamers in astern mode.

4.2 RESISTANCE IN OLD CHANNELS

Tests were performed in an old channel that was not relatively heavy, the average
thickness in the middle being 1.3 m. The measured profile is given in Fig.7. The
average block size at the middle of the channel was some 0.5 x 0.5m. The
channel was not consolidated. The results of power vs speed are given in FigA.

Bn:adth Imi
o :!o J,() f'lO so 100 120 I..l() 160 I~\l :!uo
~ 0.0

ia~~~~/"';\~'~;~~~~~
~ ~~ T'~
e
- I!
. \ ' -' / \ -

5.0 : Cc:ntrc: ----.

Figure 7. The measured profiles of the old channel.

4.3 TURNL"'G ABILITY

Of the basic performance characteristics, turning is the one that is most

exceptional in this design. Turning tests were performed both at zero speed, ie.
turning around on the spot, replacing the traditional star manoeuvre, and at full
speed. In both cases the vessel was able more or less to tum around on the spot in
the level ice thickness of 65 cm.

4.3.1 Zero speed tests

The average time required for a full tum at zero forward speed was 2 minutes. The
same angles of the thrusters were used as in the ice model tests, ie. 60° and 90°.
The tactical diameter was 10 m and the path of the extreme points of the vessel
during the turning was a circle of 130 m diameter, 1.12 L . The track of the vessel
during one tum is shown in Fig.8. The required time and area can be compared
with some known escort icebreaker designs. The starmanoeuvre requires 1,2 - 1,3
min and a space of 1.3 - 1.4 L for IB Otso, Lindroos 1990. A 180° tum requires 2
minutes and 2.5 L space for IE Oden with heel, Johansson and Liljestrom 1989.
All these tests are run in 65-70 cm thick ice.
265
during one of the tests, Fig.lO., 35m tactical diameter calls for another measure of
turning ability efficiency than the traditional turning diameter divided by ship
length . The obvious one would be the requi ;ed diameter for the path of the
extreme points of the vessel divided by length.
i InItial speed 5.3 rn /s
: so
1";[, .:u) ~ iI SB-lhr·lst.angie 50 deg
, . SB -lhr"J.st. angie 91 deg
i I I Tirr:e :0 90deg 79 s
I i
I -~I--~~--~--~~~~-+---+~Iw Time to IBCdeg 125

~i I~
II
Time to 2 7 0deg 155 s
Time to 350deg 179 s
~f---I.,...-----'--~~ , "::~
Adva nce 139 m
'1A'tAii~~>.. i
I~
Transier 33 rn
I
I TactIca l diame t e r 35 m
Ie I I
In lllai hea d in g 27 deg
I I Wind direction 139 deg
Wind s~e e d 3 m / s
- ~o 10C 150 200 I Ic e thic kness 55 cm
Snow thickn es s 2l cm
·
F tgure 10 . Th e trac k' OJ.F th e vesse l at 103
. kn a h ead turn. ShID. svrnbol
. mte rval 10 s

The other turning mode involved using moderate thruster angles, 30°/60° or 30°
for both thrusters, in a similar way to using rudders. Owing to limits on available
level ice, only the beginning of the turning diameters up to 90° were tested. The
turning diameter for a 30°/30° tum was 430 m, or the OIL value was 3.7.
This result gives an opportunity to separate the turning ability of the hull form
itself from the effect of the thrusters and to compare the hull behaviour with some
other recent escort icebreaker designs. The transversal force when the thusters are
operating at a 30° angle at a speed of 11.7 - 7.8 len (the speed during the actual
tum) is calculated as an average 715 kN based on bollard pull te sts and model
te sts. In case of IB Otso the rudder force is 600 kN for 300 rudder angle and 5.4
len speed, calculated from PMM model tests performed for this ship, Salo and
Heikkila 1990. Based on the Fennica tests and Lindroos 1990, the OIL ratio in 0.7
m ice is for Fennica 3.7 and for Otso 4.2. On the other hand the relative rudder
forces are 1,0 and 0,84 respectively. This rough comparison shows that the turning
characteristics in ice of Fennica's hull are in spite of the length of vertical sides
behind the reamer close to the "smoother" hull of Otso. It is not possible to
compare the Fennica data to the curve OIL vs. ratio of reamer width / parallel
middle body length, published by Keinonen 1991, since the data in the curve is
normalized to correspond to an ice thickness of 0.6 times the maximum
icebreaking capacity.
4.4 RIDGE TESTS

A total of 4 ridges, from which the profiles had been measured, were penetrated in
the tests. One of the profiles was measured by drilling holes into the ice mass, 3
only by levelling machine.The profile of the most thoroughly measured ridge is
267
shown together with the speed during the pass in Fig.ll. The ridges were of fairly
moderate size. The ridge dimensions, time used for passage and average speeds
are presented in Table 1. The results suffer from the fact that the torque
characteristics of the propeller motors had not yet been adjusted to the design
value. In addition to the se four ridges, the propulsion loads were me:J.sured in a
large ridge (average thickness 11 m, length 150 m). To pass this ridge the vessel
needed a few rams, but the vessel was not operated to achieve a minimum
penetration time.

- - ~<.ige S:lJl -:- -:":le ce~[;"e

~rorile

: 00 :50 :00
Horizon",1 di.<r.ance [m j

?.igbt s:de .•. .-r .. L~:'t SIde

pro(Lie. pro(:le.
25m ::rom :'5m trOlll
the ce~tre lhe .;e~tre

Figure 11. Ridge profile and speed of the vessel

Ridge No length/m total maximum total average pass time/s average

thickne ss/m thickness/m speed/kn
1 162 NA 6.3 330 (incl. 1 stop) 1.5
2 164 9.0 4.2 252 (no stops) 2.0
3 62 NA 4.4 223 (no stops) 1.4
4 74 NA 6.0 58 (no stops) 5.8

Table 1. Ridge dimensions and pass times (A verage thickness of ridge nos. 1,3
and 4 obtainedfrom the measurements of the sail heights using the ratios of ridge
2J. Pass means that the vessel is fully clear of the ridge.

During the tests it was found that a continuous slight changing of the thruster
angles did increase the speed and prevent the vessel from stopping. This
corresponds with the traditional icebreaker heeling system use. It appeared also
that learning skilful use of the propulsion units did improve the performance of
the ship greatly. This was more clear than the usual performance progress owing
to the learning process in traditional ships.

In ridge operations the nozzles are more exposed to ice interaction than in level
ice. Especially in the astern mode this is the case, since the nozzles are not
268
protected by traditional rudders. Propeller-ice interaction was accordingly
observed during the ridge tests. In astern tests the nozzles were also sometimes
observed to be clogged for a few moments. An indication of the propeller-ice
interaction is the effect of propeller torque vs. RPM characteristics in ridge field
performance. The average speed was tested running a leg in a ridged field. The
ridges were not measured but no extreme ridges were experienced during these
tests. The average distance between individual ridges was some 50-100 m. The
length of the test leg was 3.3 nm and the first test gave an average speed of 2.7 kn.
Three days later the same leg was tested a few hundred metres from the channel of
the first test. The average speed was now 4.0 kn. The weather conditions had
remained stable between these two tests. The propeller motor torque/RPM curve
had on the other hand been adjusted to the design value, allowing a 30% higher
maximum torque. The test was repeated one day later once more with the average
draught increased from 7.3 m to 7.9 m, giving a 12% increase in the kinetic
energy. The average speed was now 5.8 kn.
4.5 OPERATIVE TESTS

4.5.1 Breaking out of channel

A series of tests of breaking out of an old channel was performed both ahead and
astern. The channel profile was close to the measured one, Fig. 7. It turned out
that the vessel was able to break out in all tests at about a 90° angle from the
channel regardless of speed. The tracks of some of the tests are shown in Fig.12.

! I

Figure 12. Breaking out of an old channel (scale in metres, ship position in 15 s
intervals, tests 1 and 3 ahead, 2 and 4 astern).

4.5.2 Clearance and widening of channel

The effect of the thruster angle on the clearance of. the channel broken by the
icebreaker was tested in the level ice field of 55cm thickness. The thruster angle
here means the angle outwards on both sides. Angles of 15°-90° were used and
the coverage recorded from helicopter videoshots varied from 10-80 %, the
optimum angle being approx. 30°. A more remarkable effect was found to be that
the channel was widening up to 7.5 times the maximum beam of the vessel owing
to the water stream from the thusters when big thuster angles were used. The
channel width and coverage as a function of thruster angle has been analyzed by
Savikurki and Koskinen, 1993. A photograph of these tests is shown in Fig.13.
Even more important than the icebreaker's ability to produce a wide new channel
is its ability to widen an old channel. The tests were run in the same channel as the
269
channel res istance tests so that the profiles of Fig.7 are valid also here. The ship
was able to completely clear off the side banks of the old channel, thus widening it
by usi ng big thruster angle s. Simultaneously some speed forward could be
maintained. This means that this operation mode has important practical
app licati ons. If during the winter some parts of old channels become too heavy for
the traffic they can be cleared by this ship. The thruster angles, channel widths and
ve loc ity of the ship are analyzed by Savikurki and Koskinen. 1993. A photograph
or the wide ning operation is shown in Fig.14.

Figure 13. Result of channel width tests Figure 14. Widening the old channel

4.S.3 Assistance simulation tests

In assistance simulations a ship was assumed to have been stuck in an old

channel. The methods to "cut it off' were tested. The icebreaker returned behind
the ship and back to its original position both by turning around and proceeding
astern and ahead. A comparison was made with the four-screw 16 MW icebreaker
Urho, both vessels simulating assistance of each other. The two ways of
performing the assistance operation with the time elapsing for these operations are
shown in Fig.lS.

2. 1.
2. l. fc;:----- <~"'..,..I
b----~

'----7 1".-">~
3. 4.
IE erho 13 min : 0 sec ill Urho 17 min 37 sec
MSV Fennic~ 8 min 55 sec MSV Fennica 11 min 19 sec

Figure 15. The two methods for cut off operation

270
5. CONCLUSION

The ice tests proved that the level ice perfonnance in the nonnal Baltic ice
thicknesses, 11.1 kn in 65 cm ice, is of the standard of the latest Baltic escort
icebreaker designs. The result is within 7 % of the model scale prediction. The
astern perfonnance is also at the level of good Baltic practice in spite of the design
with reamers. The ratio ahead speed / astern speed is 1.4. A prediction of
maximum icebreaking capability is not given based on these tests perfonned in a
thickness of 40 % of the maximum capacity according to model tests.

The ridge perfonnance is considered to be of nonnal Baltic standard, though more

testing is still needed in heavier ridges as well as fmal machinery adjustment.

The manoeuvring perfonnance and consequently assistance capability are

exceptional owing to the new propulsion design. The turning capability on the
spot at full speed calls for new measures other than the traditional turning
diameter to ship length ratio. The space needed for these tests was within 1.12 L.
The vessel is able to break out of an old channel at a 90° angle at full speed both
ahead and astern. The ship is able to produce a channel of 5.2 times its breadth at
a speed of 3.3 knots at a level ice of 55 cm thickness and widen an old channel by
clearing off the side banks. In assistance tests the ship was able to cut another ship
loose in a manoeuvre around the ship in 9 minutes.

It can be concluded that the design criteria have been achieved in icebreaking and
ridge penetration capability ahead and astern, whereas the assistance and
manoeuvring capability in ice exceeds expectations.

REFERENCES
Johansson, B.M., Liljestr6m, G. 1989. Oden - Icebreaker Technology for the year 2000.
SNAME, Annual Meeting 1989.

Keinonen &al, 1991. Icebreaker Performance Prediction. SNAME, Annual Meeting 1991.

Lindroos H. 1990. Operational Requirements and experience of the Baltic escort icebreaker
class "Otso". Fourth International Conference on Ships and Marine Systems in Cold Regions
(ICE1ECH) SNAME, Proceedings, Calgary March 1990.

Lohi P. and Karppinen T., 1993. Multipurpose icebreaker for the Finnish National Board of
Navigation. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference (ISOPE), Proceedings, Singapore June
1993.

Salo M. and Heikkila M. 1990. On the modelling of hull-propeller-rudder interactions in

manoeuvring of twin screw ships. MARSIM &ICSM90, Proceedings, Tokyo June 1990.

Savikurki J. and Koskinen P., 1993. Propulsion system based on azimuth thrusters and its
possibilities in icebreaking technology. POAC 1993, in this volume.

271
 Effect of Lateral Ice Pressure on Ship Resistance

Don Spencer
Institute for Marine Dynamics, National Research Council of Canada,
P.O. Box 12093, Station A, St. John's Newfoundland, Canada, A1B 3T5

Ken Hardiman
FLEET Technology (Newfoundland) Limited,
P.O. Box 5040, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

ABSTRACT

The effect of lateral ice pressure on the level ice resistance of a 1/30 scale model
of an aBO is examined experimentally. The model was equipped with an instrumented
side panel. The apparatus for producing lateral pressure is described, as well as the
model tests themselves. Ice pressures were recorded using extensimeters mounted in
the ice. The results indicate that the compreflsive pre-stress in the ice had little or no
effect on the breaking' resistance. However, as the model moved well into the
pressurized region ice was forced against the hull and very high lateral loads were
generated giving rise to frictional resistance. The test results indicate that bow reamers
may be beneficial when operating in pressurized conditions.

1_0 INTRODUCTION

Compressive pack ice is a severe impediment to safe and effective navigation.

Pack ice forces can hinder ability of a ship to effectively transit and manoeuvre in the ice
field [1]. In extreme conditions, pack ice forces have caused structural damage and loss.
Ice pressure in pack ice appears to be often caused by wind acting upon the ice surface
although in one reported case water current appeared to be the driving force.
Observations by Bradford [2,3) aboard CCGS John A. MacDonald and Louis Sf. Laurent
show a strong correlation between wind speed and the occurrence of pressured ice and
the probability was greatest with onshore winds. He also observed that the ice
concentration was always >9/101hs and the pressure appeared to intensify as the vessels
moved closer to shore.
Analytical studies [4,5) that account for the effect of ice pressure on ship resistance
assume that there are two possible effects. First, the pressure may act as a compressive
pre-stress which must be over come before tensile flexural failure can occur. The second
effect may be the closing of the channel around the hull and the frictional resistance
resulting from ice forces along the sides. During the second voyage of the S.S.
Manhattan, Bradford reported that the channel behind the ship could close within one mile
behind[6). He estimated channel closure rates up to 0.1 mls.

Physical modelling of this phenomena has had limited success partially due to the
limited size of the ice basins. In one of the more recent studies reported by Kujala et al.
the relatively large ice basin at Helsinki University of Technology was utilized [7]. The
main towing carriage was used to laterally push a large floe against one side of the model
while it was towed at constant speed in a direction perpendicular to the pressure force.
These tests simulated the passage of a ship in a lead that wa:s closing under pressure,
similar to a vessel following an escort. A significant increase in resistance was seen
when the pressure was applied and a further increase was observed as the lead closed
ahead of the bow. In this current study the model is inside a floe which is subject to

272
external pressure. thus simulating passage of an independent ship.
In another test program[81. a model of a LNG carrier was towed through an ice floe
under pressure. Pressure was applied on one side by six 0.9 m long pusher bars.
Lateral pressure was generated by deadweights acting through a pulley system. As the
model passed each segment a shear line formed in the ice sheet and a piece of ice was
driven into the model at relatively high speed. When this occurred over an extended area
of the hull the resistance almost doubled over that in un pressured ice.

2.0 DESCRIPTION of APPARATUS

The apparatus was

designed to model the
passage of a ship through
a large floe which is under
external pressure [91. as
depicted in Figure 1.
Pressure was applied to
the ice sheet via two
pneumatic hoses installed
in each side of the tank. 4
metres from the
centreline. The hoses
were 10 cm in diameter
and were 12 m long.
A I u min urn g u ide s Pig. 1 Schematic of Ship and Model in Pressured Ice.
restricted vertical
movement of the hoses as they filled with air and each pressure tube could extend 70
mm. The apparatus. Figure 2. was in essence a pressure amplifier with the pressure in
the ice related to the tube pressure by;

Pice = P cube [-#;] (1)

where PICe and Ptube are the pressures in the ice and tubes respectively. D is the height
of the pressure face (114 mm) and hi is the ice thickness. At the fullest extension full
pressure could not be maintained because the tube could not keep in full contact with the
pressure face.
The tubes were installed immediately after the ice sheet was seeded so the
growing ice sheet would bond well to the apparatus. Pressure was controlled by
manually operating a ball valve while observing the tube pressure via a manometer.
Tube pressure was recorded using an electrical pressure transducer. Both tubes were
connected together by a hose so pressure was equalized between them. A displacement
transducer was installed to record the displacement of the pressure bar on the port side
of the model.
Two sensitive extensimeters were frozen into the ice sheet to measure in-plane
compression when the pressure was applied. Attempts were made to calibrate these by
mounting them on a 0.6 m wide by 0.4 m long in-situ beam which was compressively
loaded using a hydraulic actuator. The load and strain from the extensimeter was then
used to calculate an effective elastic modulus
E = P L (2)
ett TEL
where P was the applied force. A was the area (0.6 x hi)' L is the gage length (0.34 m)

273
and AL was the strain. The results indicate that the extensimeters gave reasonable
indications of ice pressure but were not sufficiently accurate. The mean of the measured
moduli were about 40% higher than that determined by loading the ice plate in its centre.
However, the mean deviation of the results was almost 50% making the technique
quantitatively unreliable.
The line load required to cause the buckling of a semi-infinite beam [10] on an
elastic foundation is given by

q = Pw g E h' [1 + 3 • 32 1 (3)
12 (1 - y l ) -::2:-:('"':'b"'l/'":;1')'""7+-(;-;b~7r;1;-;')~2

where Pw is the density of water(1 000 kg/m· 3), g is the gravitational constant (9.806 m/s2),
E is the elastic modulus of the ice and y is Poisson ratio (0.3).
The ratio of pressure length to ice r - - - - - ' - - - ' ' - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Mode pI QcplRymem
sheet characteristic length, b/I, is
approximately 20 so the term inside the
square brackets is essentially one. For the
EGADS model ice used at IMD the
characteristic length is about 11 times the ice
thickness so that;
E = 12 (1 - y2) P v g 114 hi (4)

Substituting (4) into (3) we get an in-plane

compressive stress, O'b' above which the ice
sheet will buckle
0' = q = 112 P g h (5)
b 11; v;

For the 50 mm thick ice sheets used in these

experiments the buckling stress is about 60
kPa, and our target pressure was
approximately 50% of this. From (1) the
required hose pressure was about 12 kPa.
An ice pressure of 30 kPa was a substantial
pre-stress considering the target flexural Fig. 2 Pressured Ice Actuator.
strength was only 40 kPa.
The model used in this program MOOEL 36tA
was 1/30 scale model of the M. V. BODY PLAN
Arctic with its original bow form, see
Figure 3. This vessel has a high
length/beam ratio of 8.6 and over 50%
of its length is vertical parallel middle
body (from station 4 to 16.5). The hull
had an ice-hull dynamic friction
coefficient of 0.1. The model was
outfitted to measure side loads via a
panel located on the starboard side,
Figure 4. The panel was 750 mm long
and 330 mm deep and was fitted so
that its centre 3.55 "1 fore of the aft
perpendicular and 0.370 m above the
keel. Fig. 3 Body Plan of H.V. Arctic

274
 1s of Instrumen Pressure Panel.

Four submersible load cell were located in each corner of the panel 550mm apart
horizontally and 230 mm apart vertically. These were used to measure the normal force
acting on the panel. The model was free to pitch, roll and heave. A rigid towing system
restrained surge and measured resistance.

3.0 DESCRIPTION of TESTS

Typically, in each ice

sheet, four different tests were
conducted, see Figure 5. The

I~ :~
first 15 metres was pre-swan to
remove the strength dependent
resistance, leaving only an ice
clearing component. In the next
15 m section, 0.5 m wide strips
of ice were removed from along
each tank wall. This was to see
if the confinement of the ice
sheet by the walls had an effect
on resistance. The next section
was normal level ice to provide
a base case for the other tests.
The final section consisted of
pressurized ice. The pressure
apparatus was located between
50 metres and 62 metres. Saw
cuts were made from the ends
Poey matlc Control
of the tubes towards the centre
of the tank Simulating a large
ice floe. The model was towed
up the tank at a constant speed Fig 5. Schematic of Tank showing Tests and Pressure
of 0.282 mls corresponding to a Control System.
ship speed of 3 knots. When
the model approached the 40 m mark the apparatus was slowly pressurized so that it
reached target pressure when the bow of the model a~proached the 50 m mark. When
the bow penetrated about 6 m into the pressure zone the pressurized ice began to move
against the hull sides and the system pressure would begin to fall. The air supply valve
was then opened to maintain the pressure.

275
4.0 RESULTS ~ 200
z
~
The first step in the analysis was to u
remove the measured pre-sawn resistance ~ ISO ~
from the total resistance measured in the
+
remainder of the tank. To do this, the pre- +
sawn resistance from several tests was iJ4
1 2
plotted against a term representing the
buoyancy of the ice, and a least squares line
was fitted, Figure 6. Thus, the pre-sawn
resistance can be represented as;
Rps = 4. 0 .6.p i g hi B T + 21 (6)
10 20 30 40
where .6.p is the density difference between Ice Buoyancy (N)
water and ice, 8 is the model beam, and T is Fig 6. Presawn Ice Resistance vs Ice
its draft. Using (6) the presawn resistance Buoyancy.
was subtracted from the total resistance
during the remainder of the run. What remains is assumed to be a component of
resistance that is primarily due to the flexural failure of the ice sheet and linearly
dependent on ice strength. Figure 7 shows the mean resistance in level ice plotted
against that where th'e ice had been sawn away from the walls to remove any possible
confinement. It appears that the tank walls do not confine the ice in any way.
In total, eight tests were conducted with pressure, however, it was only during the
last couple when it became clear what the
actual process was. The final test was by far
the most successful qualitatively as well as 500 I
quantitatively due to more extensive
instrumentation and better test procedures. ~

::: ~
We will focus our attention on the results of
this test, but all of the tests except one ~
revealed a substantial increase in resistance '0

as the model passed through the pressured ~

region. Typically, the increase in resistance ... 200
was about 50%. Interestingly, in one test ~
where no increase in resistance was recorded U 100
it was found subsequently that ice had formed
in the main air supply line restricting flow to
the apparatus. This meant the ice sheet, 100 200 300 400 500
although initially pressurized, lost pressure Unconflned Rt(N)

during expansion due to the restricted air Fig. 7 Results for Tests in Confined
flow. This was significant in that it and Unconfined Level Ice.
demonstrated that the compressive pre-stress
had little or no effect on the breaking resistance. The initial lateral pressure in this ice
sheet was about 15 kPa while the flexural strength of the ice was 60 kPa. Thus, if the
pre-stress had an effect we should have seen about a 25% (15/60) increase in the
breaking resistance, but none was observed. Since the ice had not moved into the
channel during this experiment it was possible to back up the model in its own channel
and test it moving in a existing channel under pressure similar to the tests of Kujala. As
the ice moved against the model a substantial increase in resistance was observed.
~n Figure 8, the breaking component of resistance is plotted against bow position.
On this same graph the sum of the four side panel load cells is also plotted, along with
apparatus pressure and apparatus displacement. During tests in unpressurized ice the
model appears to provide itself a channel of sufficient width so that there is little ice

276
 300 12
~
x
Z Legend
II "
~

'C
250
+ Break Resistance
10 "
~

x S~de Force
0"
-' ,..
200 ."

..."
Q>
'C
....
III
/"
150
,...'"
"u
'"
.."
...,.
c 100 4
&
B

. 50
I"'" ,"
\ x'" ~"")f""x",
"
0: tJ. -~-&""-G Q:l
0
~ -1700 -1000 C/O

...c: rt'
~

Q>

..".
~

0-1750
Legend
-1050 ~.

~ + Ext. 1 (51m)
-1l00~
...,u x Ext. 2 (56m) x
I
B
,...
• n

. -1800
-1l50 ~

...c -1200
~

,...
Q>

.."
~

III
-1850 -1250
=
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

P 0 sit 1 0 n o f F P ( m )
Fig. 8 Graphs of Breaking Resistance. Side Panel Load, Apparatus Pressure and
Displacement, and Ice Strains with respect to Bow Position

pressure on the sides of the hull. This can be seen by examining the side panel load in
Figure 8. The load is essentially zero for the unpressured part of the test. However,
when the model penetrates deeply into the floe some cracks form in the floe and the ice
begins to close on the model sides. When the bow reached 56 m, or 6 metres into the
pressurized area, we can see from the apparatus displacement that the ice is beginning
to move into the channel. When this happens the side loads rise sharply and the
resistance correspondingly so. The maximum apparatus pressure during this test was
about 8.4 kPa, corresponding to 19 kPa of lateral pressure, from (1). Even though this
pressure represents about 50% of the 40 kPa flexural strength no increase in resistance
was observed while the bow initially penetrated into the pressure region. Certainly, the
ice was under pressure because both extensimeters recorded strains between 100 and
150 /lE. USing an effective elastic modulus of 100 MPa these would translate into normal
stresses of 10-15 KPa which are reasonable. The resistance begins to increase when
the bow is at 56 m. Also at this point the ice apparatus pressure begins to drop as the
ice sheet begins to constrict the channel. When this happens the side panel force rises
from near zero when the bow was at 56 m to 280 N at 61 m. The 100 N jump in
resistance exactly corresponds to the increase in side panel load. The maximum in
pressure on the panel is 280N/(0.75m x 0.05m) or about 7.5 KPa which is approximately
equal to the ice pressure at this point. The ::side panel only represents about one-quarter
of the parallel middle body on one side or one-eight of the total. If the 7.5 KPa pressure
was seen uniformly over the entire middle body, and the friction coefficient was 0.1, then
the expected increase in resistance would be about 225 N (ie. 7.5KPa x .05m x 0.75m

277
x 8 x 0.1). In fact, the actual resistance increase, or load transmission factor, was only
45% of this. In the other tests load transmission factor varied from 60-100%. The rate
of channel closure was found to be 3.8 mm/s(one side) which corresponds to .04 mls full-
scale. This value is quite reasonable when compared with the reported value of 0.1 m/s.
Using the concept of a transmission factor, C1, the incremental resistance due to
an inplane pressure, CJ, is
(7)

where L., is the effective length under pressure, hi is the ice thickness and I.! is hUll-ice
friction coefficient. If the in-plane pressure is taken as some percentage of the buckling
pressure, say CoCJ b, then from (5)
tlR =2 Co CE2 C, I.! P v L. h/ (8)
note C E equals 11 the constant found in (5). (8) has the same basic form as the
formulation presented in [8). Putting in typical values from these experiments CE = 11,
Co = 0.30, and C1 = 0.5 then 2 C e2 Co C1 = 36 compares favourably with the value of 45
given in [8).

5.0 CONCLUSIONS

In summary, in pressure free ice the hull provides for itself a channel of sufficient
width so that lateral ice loads acting on the hull are generally small. The ice tank walls
do not appear to confine the ice sheet suffiCiently to affect the resistance. The primary
source of resistance in pressurized pack ice appears to be due to the clOSing of the
channel, leading to frictional resistance on the sides of the hUll.
This study saw no evidence that the compressive pre-stress in the ice increased
the force required to fail the ice sheet. This is probably because at the stem the tensile
failure stress is more-or-Iess orthogonal to the compressive pre-stress. Once the channel
begins to form the compressive stress are relieved because of the proximity of the free
edge. Thus, in general, it maybe possible to mitigate the effect of lateral ice pressure on
vessel resistance by application and maintenance of a low friction coating on the sides.
Also, use of bow reamers would create a wider channel allowing the vessel to proceed
before the ice pressure could fully develop.
It appears that the entire floe pressure can be concentrated on a relatively small
area of the hull resulting in high local loads which may damage the hull. This problem
seems to be most acute when the hull is exiting from a floe and there is no ice ahead of
the model to withstand the pressure. This gives the resistance a cyclic nature; it is
relatively low as the model enters the floe and reaches its maximum as the model exits.
If a vessel is experiencing difficulty and required to stop in pressured ice it may be
prudent for it to just enter a large floe before stopping. The floe may be able to shield
the vessel from pressure while stopped and facilitate subsequent breakout.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was funded, in part, by the Canadian Coast Guard through the Panel
on Energy Research and Development(PERD) project 66602.4 "Modelling Realistic Ice".

278
REFERENCES
1. Barr, W., Wilson, E., et aI., "The Shipping Crisis in the Soviet Eastem Arctic at the
Close of the 1983 Navigation Season", Arctic, Vol. 38 No.1, 1985, pp. 1-17.

2. Bradford, J.D., "A preliminary Report on the Observation of Sea Ice Pressure and
its Effect on Merchant Vessels under Icebreaker Escort", Sea Ice Conference,
Reykjevik, 1972, pp. 154-158.

3. Bradford, J.,D., "Sea-ice Pressure Generation and its Effect on Navigation in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence Area", Joumal of Institute of Navigation, 24(4), October 1971,
pp. 512-520.

4. "Lateral Ice Pressure Icebreaker Resistance", by F.G. Bercha and Associates

Limited for Melville Shipping Limited, March 1979.

5. Carter, D.S., "Ship Resistance to Continous Motion in Level Ice", Transport

Canada Report TP-3679E, March 1983.

6. Bradford, J.D., "Sea Ice Pressures Observed on the Second Manhattan Voayage",
Arctic, March 1972, pp. 34-39

7. Kujala, P., Goldstein, R., Osipenko, N., and Danilenko, V., "A Ship in Compressive
Ice - Preliminary model test results and analysis of process", Helsinki University
of Technology Report M-111, 1991.

8. "Testing Program for Developing Hull Shapes for Icebreaking LNG Ships", by
ARCTEC Canada Limited for Melville Shipping Limited, Report FR 340C-6,
October 1978.

9. ftA Report on Futher Investigations of Lateral Ice Pressure Techniques in Model

Ice at the Institute for MArine Dynamics", by Fleet Technology(Newfoundland)
Limited for the Institute for Marine Dynamics, report N4114C, March 1993.

10. Sohdi, D.S., and Hamza, H.E., "Buckling Analysis of a Semi-Infinite Ice Sheet", 4th
Intemational Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering Under Arctic Conditions,
September, 1977. pp. 593-604.

279
 DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIPURPOSE ICEBREAKER
AND OFFSHORE CONSTRUCTION VESSEL

Terje P. Tellefsen Ugland Offshore AS NORWAY

Senior Vice President

Lennart Hagelstam Finnish National FINLAND

Maritime Counsellor Board of Navigation

ABSTRACT

The MSV Fennica which was delivered early 1993 and her sister-
vessel, MSV Nordica to be delivered early 1994, are the worlds
first mUltipurpose icebreakers and offshore construction vessels.
The concept was developed in cooperation between the Finnish
National Board of Navigation and Ugland Offshore AS, where Ugland
Offshore in particular has brough in the offshore requirements
to the mUltipurpose design.

The vessels will during the winter-half year operate as tradi-

tional icebreakers in Finnish waters, and during the summer
season be operated by Ugland Offshore for offshore construction
work, particularly with interest to the Northern and Arctic
areas.

BACKGROUND

The Finnish National Board of Navigation

Since 1971, Finland has had 22 ports that are classified as

winter ports and are kept open for traffic the year round. During
the winter 1991 to 1992 about 19.000 ships visited Finnish ports
counting arrivals and departures.
The total volume of cargo carried by these vessels was 24.3 mill
tonnes representing around 41 % of the total annual sea born
transport.

The Finnish National Board of Navigation operates an icebreaker

fleet totalling 9 vessels. These vessels are special purpose
icebreakers and are only used during the winter season in
Finland.

In connection with the oldest icebreakers in the fleet were

reaching the end of their economic lifetime, The Finnish National
Board of Navigation started a project to find a multipurpose
application of a new generation icebreakers, thus giving an
allround utilization and improved economics.

280
Ugland Offshore AS

The Ugland companies have been involved in the design and

operation of offshore dynamically positioned vessels since 1976.
This includes specialized offshore installation vessels, as well
as shuttle tankers. Considerable experience has been gained in
the intervening years, all of which have been put to good effect
in the development of the multipurpose icebreaker.
Typical tasks that the mUltipurpose icebreaker will be employed
in are laying of flexible pipe and cable, trenching and ploughing
of cables and pipelines beneath the sea bottom, support vessel
for off-shore operations in general.

OFFSHORE REQUIREMENTS TO THE MULTIPURPOSE ICEBREAKER

The main features in being able to utilize an icebreaker for

offshore construction operations would be to re-design the vessel
to give a large open deck area, have the vessel equipped with a
full dynamic positioning system, living quarters for minimum 80
people and a helicopter deck. The largest challange was to
improve the vessel's stability and make a design giving accept-
able accelleration forces when subject to North Sea conditions.

A typical icebreaker is due to its broad beam and relatively

shallow hull with typically no imparts for dampening vessel role
effect, subject to suffer from a very short period that makes
working on board the vessel extremely difficult due to its
violent motion.

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES.

To the design of the vessel and which naval architecht

consultancy company ILS played a major role, a number of alterna-
tive hull designs were evaluated.
From an initial idea of removeable side sections to be taken off
during summer period, the design has ended up with a vessel being
narrow at mid-ships and stern compared to the above.

H:\JHA\WPS1\RAPPORT\P0AC93.TPT~hrl24l.6.B312

281
The narrow bredth of the vessel has reduced the stability and
created a long overall period. Comparison tests have been run in
laboratories with a model of a conventional large supply ship and
the result show that the new icebreaker hull design will function
better than a typical large supply vessel under normal operating
conditions. Additional improvements have been made by inclusion
of a U-shaped semi active anti rolling tank, across the widest
point of the bow section.

From tank tests performed by the technical research centre of

Finland, the result show that the vessel will be operatable in
the summer and autumn seasons of the north sea more than 90 % of
the time. The role stabilization system not considered.

The vessel is able to keep the speed of 15 knots in head seas in

the North Sea, also more than 90 % of the time in the summer and
autumn seasons.

Initially the parties were willing to accept a compromise in so

far as due to its dual function, one would accept a vessel with
less favorable motion characteristics for offshore work, as well
as one for the icebreaking season would accept a vessel with less
favourable icebreaking capacity than a conventional icebreaker.
The results of the model test showed that the motion characteris-
tics of the vessel with the chosen hull form, was better then a
conventional comparable offshore vessel, and likewise, ice per-
formance is also superior to existing comparable conventional
icebreakers.
ROLL
AMPLITUOE

CRITICAL
ROLL
LEVEL
Q

/
o
'/
y
SIGN WAVE HEIGHT

The vessel is able to maintain 8 knots in 80 cm of first year

arctic ice, as well as to maintain continous speed ahead in ice-
thicknesses of 1,8 metres. At the same conditions the vessel will
maintain continuous speed astern at an icethick-ness of 1,7
metres. The vessel is built to the Norske Veritas polar 10 ice
class.

H \JHA\WP51 \RAPPORT\POAC93 TPT/ihrI24 e 93/3

282
DYNAMIC POSITIONING OF OFFSHORE VESSELS

The use of dynamically positioned vessels and their application

has increased tremendeously during the last 10 years. The
flexibility of this type of vessel is substantial and is the
benefit to the user. The standard decomplexity of the system
available has improved, and redundancy has been become a key
issue. Systems today have a high level of safety, and from a
technical point of view reliable operations are to be expected.

Consequential analysis performed on-line computer and based upon

worst cased failure is now a standard requirement during
operations. This provides a good operational guide line for the
operator.

The basic design philosophy for a dynamically positioned vessel

is to achieve reliable and accurate positioning and working.

When developing this project it was seen that the basic ice-
breaker with its high propulsion power I diesel electric pro-
pulsion system and proposed thrusters as main propulsion units
provided an excellent basis for introducting a dynamic position-
ing system on board this vessel. The dynamic position control
computer system is fully redundant. The power management system
used in the DP system is part of a total vessel integrated
management system which improves the speed of the response to a
power demand from the DP system. The DP system provides, under
loss of one computer an automatic transfer to the other, which
does not effect the vessel's position or operation .
..... e

AVU. ALBATROSS VESSEl. p,\'ANAGEUENT

H'\JHR\ WP51 \RAPPORT\POAC'93. TPT/lhrl24 6 9314

"' .....
ATC· ALBATROSS THRUSTER CONTROL
-
283
CONTROL SYSTEM

The vessel is equipped with a redundant power management system

as part of the integrated vessel management system. The system
lay-out for the integrated vessel management system is displayed
in fig 4.

The internal communication system is a redundant internet system,

with a redundant control system, thruster control system and
vessel management system are interconnected.

GBREAV

Maritime Information Technology Program

The vessel has been agreed to be the "Pilot vessel" under the
Maritime Information Technology program operated by the Royal
Norwegian Council for Scientific Research and Development. The
basis for this integrated system is the redundant data network
on board, with the connection and integration of various part
functions.

Integration of Electronic Charts, Thruster Control, Auto Pilot,

and Dynamic Positioning.

Electronic charts are integrated with radar picture and naviga-

tion sensors, including digital GPS (DGPS in the same screen
picture). Route planning is done on the electronic chart system
and cause data transferred automatically through the net work to
the auto pilot. Thruster outtake is transmitted from the auto
pilot to each individual thruster via the network, and the auto
pilot gives a continuous status back to the electronic chart
displacement system that will set an alarm if fault shoud occur.

During DP operations the DP system will report estimated and

required position together with current and wind data to the
electronic chart display system for graphical presentation
together with navigation data and charts.

H \JHR\WP51\RAPPORT\POAC'93 TPTJjhr124 6.9315

284
Integration of Fire Alarm and Automated Vessel Management System

The fire alarm system is integrated in the vessel management

system for graphical and display ~nto the overall vessel
management system.

MITS I TIMIS

The system installed in Fennica is called TIMIS - Total Inte-

grated Maritime Information System. TIMID is a realisation of
MITS - Maritime Information Technology Standard, which has been
an ongoing program in an attempt to standardize communication
protocols between various subsystems. The results of the
development work undertaken as part of this Norwegian research
program, has led for the first time to the installation of a
total integrated network as done on board this vessel with
communication between the various sub systems.

User Support

The system offers users support and suggestive action to the

operator in charge. The user support is the defined through five
different main modes.

Mode no. lo - Harbour mode

Mode no. 2. - Mode for manouvering in

ports and congested areas.

Mode no. 3. - Transit mode.

Mode no. 4. - Dynamic positioning mode.

Mode no. 5. - Icebreaker mode.

The mode is selected by the vessel operator, and the system will
in term automatically initiate stand-by and start-up of necessary
machinery etc. to support the selected mode. Utility system and
main functions are controlled and necessary safety factors are
included in the system. When faults occur in a sequence the
operator can interim, and if necessary complete the sequence
manually.
Functional graphic giving status on the various modes, both
principle diagram and detailed sequence is available on all AVM
operator stations.

H:\JHR\WP51\ RAPPORT\POAC93.TPTJJhr/24.8.Q:318

285
 Watch and Engineer Call

A totally new generation watch call system is installed. The

system is developed to simplify both response time and fault
detection.

Watch Call System Configuration

LOCAL MAIN
WATCH CALL PANELS WATCH CALL PANELS

RS232/R$422

CURRENT LOOP

MESS BRIDGE

AVM PROCESS
STATION

DAY·ROOM
ENGINEER CABIN 4

ENGINEER CABIN 1

ENGINEER CABIN 3

ENGINEER CABIN 2
12C·BUS

ECR OPERATOR
STATION

AVM LAN
(ETHERNET)
H'\JHR\WPSt\RAPPORT\POAC'93 TFT/ihrl24 6 93fT

286
MAIN VESSEL FEATURES

Particular intention was during the design given to enable a

largest possible open deck area. The resulting deck area is
1050 m2 with a deck load capacity of 10 tonnes pro m2 • Total dead
weight capacity 4870.

The vessel has a 120 ton A-frame and smaller crane support.

A special innovation on this vessel is the use of two large

azimuth thrusters, each of 7500 KW as main propulsion units to-
gether with three bow thrusters each of 1100 KW. This ensures
that the icebreaker has excellent manouverability also during DP
performance offshore. The propulsion system in term enables the
vessel to turn around its own axes in Baltic ice conditions while
today's conventional icebreakers need minimu five ship lengths
to turn.

The drawing oftheAQUAMASTER USARS 1

illustrates clearly the size of the unit.
AQUAMASTER USARS I
lnpw ~ 7500 kW
Wetghl obI. 200 I
Prope[[erd~ter 4.2 m"""§~~9.
TOlai hetghl obI. 10 mt-

----- \

H \JHR\ WP51 \RAPPORT\POAC'93 TPTljhr124 6.9318

287
Total installed engine power 21.000 KW
This plentiful propulsion system has resulted in the vessel
obtaining bollard pull result of 234 tons continuous pull. This
result has made the vessel the most powerful offshore construc-
tion vessel in the world. This power together with a 300 ton
double towing anchor handling winch allows the ship to tow the
largest seabed ploughs available single-handed for offshore pipe-
line burying operations.

High Lights

Four independent main engines with diesel electric propul-

sion. Two independent main propulsion units and three
independent bow thrusters gives the vessel a very high
degree of redundancy and reliability. Despite its high
horse power with 30.000 BHP totally installed, the diesel
electric propulsion system ensures optimal power out-take
for any operation, and as all engines use medium fuel 180
Cst, the vessel has a very economic performance.

World's most powerful offshore support vessel with 234

tonnes continueos bollard pull.

Even when operated on maximum bollard pull, the vessel

still has surplus power available for 100 % out-take of
side power to ensure position keeping during such pulling
operation.

Four independent radars integrated with electronic charts,

and differential DPS.

Fully integrated vessel management and control system.

300 tonnes towing winch interfaced to DP system for dynamic

towing operation.

Full weather station and satellite receiver for producing

own weather forecasts.

Fully redundant DP system

Accommoda tion for 82 persons, together with good recre-

ational areas including gymnasium, two saunas and swimming
pool.

For clients, the vessel offers offices, conference room and

operation centre for their usage.

Helicopter landing facilities for Super Puma type helicop-

ter. Helicopter scissor lift for indoor parking of smaller
sized helicopter, typical Bell Jet Ranger.

120 tonnes A-frame for up to 350 metres of water.

Deck area 1050 m2 with a strength of 10 tonnes per m2 •

Total deadweight capacity 4870 tonnes.

H \JHR\WP51\RAPPORT\POAC'93 TP'Tljhr/24 693/9

288
CONCLUSION

Through this development board the Finnish National Board of

Navigation has received a vessel that as an icebreaking tool will
be superiour to its conventional icebreakers, as well as through
the summer occupations through Ugland Offshore has improved the
overall economy of its icebreaking services tremendeously
compared to a conventional icebreaker that has no alternative
summer occupation.

REFERENCES

R. Lindqvist - Multipurpose icebreaker, Finnish shipbuild-

ing know-how at its best. Navigator 1992.
I. L0vdal, Simrad Albatross AS. Integrated system for
operation of mUlti-purpose icebreaker / Offshore Special
Vessel. Information technology in maritime businesses 7th
October 1992.
V. Reinertsen, C.P. Halvorsen, N. Alvheim Ugland
Offshore, Norway.
Operation of a dynamic positioning offshore vessel
offshore technology conference, Houston - Texas, 4th - 7th
May 1992.
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. Ship Laboratory-
Sea keeping performance assessment of the Finnyards
multipurpose icebreaker by model tests and operatability
predictions LAI-l2l0/92.

289
 ICE PROPULSION OF THE ICEBREAKER "KAPITAN
SOROKIN" WITH CONVENT IONAL FOREBODY

Loly G. Tsoy CNIIMF Russia

Head of LLT Laboratory of St. Petersburg
Icebreaking
Technology (LLT)

ABSTRACT

Submitted are the results of full-scale ice tr1als of the

shallow-draught arctic icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin" designed and
built by Wartsila company specially for work in shallow coastal
areas of the Arctic and in particular to provide for all the
year round navigat10n on the Yen1se1 section of the route
Murmansk-Dudinka The report contains data on the icebreaking
capab1lity of the icebreaker with original conventional shape of
the forebody prior to its conversion by the "Thyssen
Nordseewerke". The effect of the icebreaker hull air bubbling
system on the propulsion in compact level and brash ice of the
canal is also studied. Evaluated 1S the eff1ciency of the air
bubbling system depending on the depth of snow cover.

The icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin" w1th restr1cted draft and

total shaft power of 22000 H. P. (16200 KW) was delivered in 1977.
To 1mprove 1tS ice performance an a1r bubbl1ng system (ABS) with
rated power of 2200 H. P. (1620 KW) was fitted to the ship.
The ice performance trials of the icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin"
were run on the Yenisei river in the autumn and winter
navigational season, 1977-1978, and in spring, 1979. The trials
were run both in compact ice and in shiP'S own channel.
The obta1ned icebreaker's speed versus power in compact ice of
90 to 105 cm thick at snow cover height from 20 to 40 cm with or
without the use of the ABS is shown in Fig. 1. It is seen from
290
Flg.1 that owing to the ASS operatIon the absolute speed of the
Icebreaker increases by 0.5-1.0 knot. It should be noted,
however, that as was shown by the analysIs, the same increase In
speed can be attaIned when the power of the icebreaker's main
engInes is increased by a portion equal to the ABS's power.
Moreover, the increase In the icebreaker's speed In compact Ice
owing to the ASS operation occurs only at relatively low speeds
of the ShIp. At speeds exceeding 5-6 knots the ASS's effect
disappears completely. These results corroborated the
conclusions obtained formerly when the ASS was tested aboard the
icebreaker "Yermak". At that time it was found that the ASS's
effect shows up only in snow covered ice.
NotIng the effICiency of the ASS operatIon in snow covered ice
it should be emphasized that this efficIency is signlficanty
dependent on the heIght of snow cover. Using of the air bubbling
in close pack ice has proven, accordIng to the icebreaker
"Kapi tan Sorokin'" s experience, to be practically useless. The
limiting thIckness of snow is abt. 50-60 c~ As the observations
have shown, when the height of snow cover exceeded 50 cm the
pattern of interactIon between the Icebreaker hull and ice was
drastically chang mg. In deeper snow the Icebreaker hull IS
tightly covered WIth snow so that the air bubbling is unable to
produce a washing-away effect upon the ice and snow.
Fig.2 shows trial data on ice performance of icebreaker
"KapItan Sorokin" in level shore ice on the Yenisel river, of
dIfferent thIckness and snow cover at maximum power developed
by the propulsion plant of the icebreaker. Shown on the figure
are the Ice performance curves of the icebreaker with and
WIthout aIr bubbling system at the snow cover thIckness of 30-40
c~ Plotted here is also a curve corresponding to the total
thickness of the ice and snow. The trials supported the
conclUSIon previously drawn that at low temperatures of ambient
air the compact snow exhIbIts the same reSistance to shiP'S
motIon as the Ice. Thus, for example, the icebreaker advanced

291
in continuous mode with the same speed of abt. 1.0 knot both in
ice of 140 cm thIck and In Ice of 120-130 cm thIck when the
heIght of snow cover Increase from 30 cm (at Ice thIckness of
140 cm) up to 50-40 cm respectIvely. In other words, the speed
of the Icebreaker's movement in shore Ice depends equally on the
thIckness of Ice and snow. Marked in Flg.2 are also pOInts based
on tnal data of the icebreaker "KapItan Dranl tsyn" obtained in
Yenlsel bay In February, 1981. At that time one of two aIr
bubblIng compressors was In operatIon in the Icebreaker. The ice
thickness was abt. 120 cm, heIght of snow cover was of 15-25 c~
As may be seen from the figure, the icebreaker "Kapitan
Dranitsyn" has ice performance whIch is essentlally the same as
that of the icebreaker "KapItan Sorokin", considering lack of
effect of the air bubbling system under such condItions at its
50% power.
Study of Ice performance of the icebreaker "KapItan Sorokln"
showed that thIS icebreaker without use of air bubbling system
has essentially the same ice performance as the "MJscow" type
icebreaker. At a continuous speed of 2 knots it is capable to
break a compact wInter ice 130 cm thick at a heIght of snow
cover of 20 c~ Use of the air bibbling system fitted on the
icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin" results in improvement of the Ice
performance at 1-2 knots approxImately by 10 c~
In contrast to the compact Ice, the effect of aIr bubbling
system in the broken ice of the newly-made channel proved to be
sIgnificant even at hIgh speeds of movement up to a maxImum
speed (12-15 knots) attainable by the icebreaker In the channel
at full power whIch is illustrated in Fig. 3. ObvIously thIS can
be attributed to the fact that when the ShIP moves In the broken
ice of the channel the friction component plays the domInant
role in the total ice resistance. That is thIS component that is
reduced by the air bubbling syste~
As was noted above, to determIne the absolute effect
attainable wIth the use of the ASS It is necessary to compare

292
speeds obtaIned wIth the ABS in operatIon, WIth speeds which
could be attaIned by the Icebreaker if power of Its maIn engInes
would be accordingly increased by a portIon equal to the ASS'
power. An analYSIS shows that for the case of the Icebreaker's
movement in the channel the ABS produces 1.0 - 1.5 knot Increase
of the speed over the full range of speeds. Such an Increase In
the Icebreaker's speed would requIre in some cases an extra
power In excess of that consumed by the air bubbling system to
be delIvered to propeller. ThIS circumstance is indIcative of
usefulness of the ABS fitted In ice-goIng cargo ShipS operating
mostly in the channel behind the icebreaker.
In addItion to the determInatIon of the ASS' effect at
constant air flow (and accordingly, constant power of the prIme
mover) trIals permIttIng assessment of the air bubbling
efficiency depending on air flow (ABS'power) were performed. The
trIals showed that there was an optImum value of the ASS'power
at whioh the maximum efficiency was attained. When the power was
further Increased this efficienoy remained much at the same
level. There is also a crItical value of the ASS's power below
which the ASS does not increase the ioebreaker's speed at all.
In oonsolidated channel and compact ice thIS value may reach
1000 H.P. (750 KW).
Comparison of the efficinly of different systems to be used to
prevent jammIng of the Icebreaker, performed at the time when
the Ioebreaker "Kapitan Sorokin" made a channel in shore ice of
the beyond-limIt thIckness, has shown that the most efficient
system to prevent Jamming was the heeling system operating in
automatic mode. Use of the ABS as a means to free a jammed
icebreaker will be ineffective. At the same tIme, considering
that the ASS makes it pOSSIble to increase the speed of channel
making when the icebreaker operates in ramming mode, With no
janunings avaIlable, the follOWing conclusion may be drawn:
Simultaneous operation of the ASS and heeling system Will be
useful they as supplement well each other.

293
 25UUU - - - - - - -

75DO ~ ____~______~____~____~____~
o f Z 3 4- 5
Sf1-EC-d I kn
Fl.:; I. Jce Pcz/:'nllu::uu:e TuaL .lJaLa An. tlu:
J~="I(u;uf;an So-u:;kin."ul. £vvet Jce.
~ [::, [::, - wiLAouL IIBS.
o 00 - willI- IIBS.
In ruunv-z.a.Lcn.: ice. tlUck.~ at,' .
JIL wWIn.i.n.aio"L: SnoW" COve/l lui!Jld.

294
 ,, : 11
n
i
7

oI I I I I I
W m M ro ~ w w m ~ ~ m m ~ m
Jce thickness, em
Fi~ Z. Jce p~cvue 0/ the Jceh£cuez,)<apilan SQWkin"in ~vvel Co.'7'IP Clcl :Ie.!-.
l:. - wilh /18S
(;) - without IIBS
J
1978
0- u.etuaket" Kapitan Ihan.iMyn "lvith f/z 118S, 19B(.

N
I,Q
'-"
 96Z

Sf/II 17707/P/l1 - VI
S8t' 7ft7 h1 - 0
J-;n;zn:nlJ 'dpVW llm2N ZJ? ",lI?>(O'W;; Ur.Jrdn)/"
7a>;nJ?1P:JC 7Zf71o Cl:JUl:mrJ.o/Zdd d:JC .C- g,!.:J

1.1>;

'-+---1 170001

I7noo~
 PROPOSAL ON THE DRAFT OF A NEW ICE CLASSIFICATION OF
SHIPS USING ICEBREAKING CAPABILITY AS THE BASIC CRITERION

Loly G.Tsoy CNIIMF RusSIa

Head of LLT Laboratory of St. Petersburg
Icebreaklng
Technology (LLT)

ABSTRACT

Outlooks of the development and the gained experIence of

shipping in the Arctic make it necessary to further improve the
ice classIfication of ShIPS and requirements to the structural
provision of safety of their navigation under ice conditions.
This report describes one of the possible princIples of the
formation of the joint ice classification of icebreakers and ice
transport ships. ThiS princIple is based on the already
tradItIonal among classification societies use of the division
of ShIPS Into classes depending on the icebreaking capabilIty as
a maIn crIterIon. The approach set forth for new ice
classification based on the experience of the constructIon and
operation of the home arctic fleet is suggested for the
realization In the RegulatIons of the RussIan Sea RegIster.

As an approach tYPIcal for most foreign classifications of ice

shiPS, icebreaking capabilIty is suggested to be used as the
basiC criterion in the Rules of the Russian Shipping Register In
the development of a new ice classification system for
icebreaking cargo ships, icebreakers and other special purpose
ice going ships. Ice breaking Capability is the critical
thickness of level compact ice crossed by a Ship continuously

297
running at a mInImum stable speed of approx. 2 knots (1 mls). It
should be noted that In some national rules (USA, Canada,
Sweden, Norway) ice performance of ships IS estImated by their
Icebreaking capabIlIty in a level floe at a speed of 3 knots. In
thIS draft of an ice classification the icebreaking capability
at a speed of 2 knots is assumed based on the domestic
icebreaker bUilding practice.
In the icebreaker classificatIon under eXisting Rules of the
USSR Register, critIcal ice thickness for each icebreaker class
is specified. On the other hand, the speed of their gOing
through such ice and ice strength are not specified. It also
does not result from the text of the Rules that it is necessary
for a floe to be level and have a natural snow cover.
Considering possible updating of icebreaker hull lines and
application of new technologies improving shipS' ice breaking
capability, It IS dIffIcult to agree that the Rules
simultaneously include icebreaking capability and boundary power
values for each icebreaker category. Thus, it seems advIsable to
further correct the ice classification of shipS and arctic ships
in particular.
WIth regard to the above, a version of ice classification of
ShIPS and icebreakers based on variation of their icebreaking
capability IS proposed. In thIS case the icebreaking capability
IS assumed at a speed of 2 knots, ice bending strength is at
le8st 500 kPa, snow cover height conforming to the statistical
mean 1 s approx. 25 cm.
As shown in the table below, all arctic ships can be diVided
into 5 main classes depending on their icebreaking capability.
ShIPS sailing in the Arctic occasionally (during the
summer-autumn naVigation) fall into categories y~ and J[ as
before. Their icebreaking Capability lies within 0.3 - 0.7 ~ As
It was shown by the analysis and the accumulated operation
experience, ships of categories ]2, ]3 and ~4 intended for
arctiC seas also need no alteration of their ice classes and the

298
1990 USSR Register Rules' requirements for Ice strengthenIng are
applicable as before.
DesIgn and operatIon experience, as well as evaluatIon of
arctic icebreaker development prospects show that icebreakers of
all purposes: leaders, line icebreakers (route-goIng and
shallow-draft), auxiliary and harbour shIps and others can be
divided into 5 classes depending on their accessible ice-
breaking capability and safe thickness for whIch ice strength of
an icebreaker hull is desIgned. As the safety of Ice navigation
(from the standpoint of hull damage by ice) is determined not by
minimum continuous speed which can be achieved by an Icebreaker
in compact ice, but by higher speeds in a lead, in broken, open
pack ice and during the ramming, actual ice thIckness (obViously
exceeding the icebreaking capability) is taken as the design
value whIch can be encountered wIth sufficient probabIlIty
during the ship operation in a partIcular season withIn an
assumed Arctic area (depending on its icebreaking features and
purpose). Navigation is assumed to be in multi-year, first-year
and second-year ice. As a result, the following Icebreaker
classes are proposed:
]Jtl - icebreakers - leaders of the first (hIghest) Arctic
class with an icebreaking capabIlity of 3.0 to 3.5 m intended
for the year-round naVIgation in the ArCtIC includIng high
latitudes and near-Pole areas and capable of operatIng WIthout
any restrictIons in multi-year thIck Ice haVIng an estImated
thickness of 4.5 m;
]]2 - lIne icebreakers of the second Arctic class WIth an lce-

breaking capability of 2.3 to 3.0 m intended for the year-round

naVIgation on ArCtIC routes and capable of operatIng without any
restriction in multi-year ice having an estimated thIckness of
a5~

~ - icebreakers of the third Arctic clas? with an ice-

breaking capability of 1.7 to 2.3 m intended for the year-round
operation in the Arctic as line icebreakers on coastal routes

2~
and in the mouths of Siberian rivers and as auxiliary
Icebreakers being a part of combIned convoy on the Arctic routes
and capable of operating without any restrIctIons In multl-year
ice having an estimated thickness of 3.5 ~ In the non-arctlc
freezing seas these icebreakers can be used as leaders;
An4 - icebreakers of the fourth ArctIC class with an ice-
breaking capability of 1.2 to 1.7 m intended for the operation
mainly in shallow waters of the Arctic routes and deSIgned for
safe navigation in second-year and multi-year ice having an
estimated thlckness of 3.0 ~ Under freezing (non-arctic) sea
conditions these icebreakers can be used as line icebreakers;
]]5 - auxiliary and harbour icebreakers of the fifth Arctic
class with an icebreaking capability of 0.7 to 1.2 m capable of
operating without any restrictions in thlck first-year ice and
second-year ice having an estimated thickness of 2.3 ~
The scheme is supposed to be also acceptable for arctic
icebreaking and cargo ships. Considering future development of
shIpping in the Arctic basin it is proposed to dlstlngulsh 4
basic classes of cargo shipS and 3 additional subclasses which
allow to vary the category of ice strengthening wIthin the
class. In other words, this implies the pOSSIbility to develop a
cargo shlp with a preset icebreaking Capability which could
independently operate in the Arctic (as an icebreaker of the
given class) or Intended for the navigatlon mainly under convoy
of icebreakers (see the table) as havlng lighter Ice
strengthenings designed for lower Ice thlcknesses compared to an
icebreaker.
It is obvious that a category of icebreaker cannot be assigned
to a cargo Ship even with the same ice hull strength as that of
an icebreaker of the same class. For instance, a cargo ship
cannot in prinCiple have the same maneuverability. When
selecting its hull lines, in addition to reqUirements for ice
performance, need for maximum cargo capaclty lS to be considered
which results in prOVision of a parallel body and increasing

300
block coefficlent. Additionally, considering regular runnlng
astern and operatlon In shallow waters slgnlficant extra
strengthenlngs of hull's stern and bottom etc. are required.
Therefore, thIS draft ice classlfication provIdes for the
respective mark: ]H for icebreakers and ]1 for icebreaking
cargo ships.
Listed below are the lce classes as proposed for arctic cargo
ShIPS based on the results of technical and economic
investIgations performed at CNIIMF which has shown that there is
no future in the Arctic for superpowered large tonnage
lcebreaking cargo ships for year-round active navigation
complYlng with the ~ highest Ice class.
]12/1 - ArCtlC Class 3 icebreaking cargo ships with an lce-
breaklng capablllty of 2.3 to 3.0 m sUitable for actlve
navigatlon without icebreakers in multi-year ice with an
estlmated thickness of 3.5 m and wlthout any restrictlons after
Class 1 icebreaker;
]13/1 - Arctic Class 3 lcebreaking cargo ships with an ice-
breakIng capability of 1.7 to 2.3 m for active navigation In
multl-year ice wlth an estlmated thickness of 3.5 m capable of
navlgatlon wlthout any restrictions as a part of convoys after
Class 1 icebreakers;
]13/2 - Arctlc Class 3 icebreaking cargo ships with an lce-
breaklng capabllity of 1.7 to 2.3 m maInly intended to operate
with icebreaker assistance and capable of independent operation
In thlck second-year ice and multI-year lce WIth an estimated
thickness up to 3.0 m;
]14/2 - Arctic Class 4 lcebreaklng cargo shlps with an ice-
breaking capability of 1.2 to 1.7 m for active navigation in
thick second-year ice and multi-year ice With an estimated
thickness of 3.0 m and capable of navigation after Class 2
icebreakers;
]1413 - Arctic Class 4 icebreaking cargo ShipS With an ice-
breaking capability of 1.2 to 1.7 m mainly intended to operate

301
wIth Class 3 icebreaker assIstance and capable of independent
navigatIon in thIck first-year Ice and second-year ice with an
estImated thickness of 2.3 m;
]T5/3 - Arctic Class 5 icebreaking cargo ShipS With an lce-
breakIng capabllity of 0.7 to 1.2 m for active navigation in
thlck first-year ice and second-year ice WIth an estimated
thickness of 2.3 m and capable of navigation after Class 3
icebreakers;
]T5/4 - Arctic Class 5 icebreakers cargo ships with an ice-
breaking capability of 0.7 to 1.2 m mainly intended to operate
with Class 4 icebreakers and capable of casual independent
navigation in thick first-year ice with an estimated thickness
of 1. 7 m.
The above version of ice classification based on the
categorization of acceptable icebreaking capabillty and limiting
safe ice thlckness seems to be rather easy and universal. The
number of classes accepted and the variation limits for
icebreaking capabi Ii ty wi thin each class are based on the
domestic icebreaker bUilding practice as illustrated by the
examples in the table.

302
 Table
Proposal on new ice classification for ShIPS and
Icebreakers using lcebreaking capability as the
basiC cri terlOn

i !Ice- IAbbrevutei i Uftmlmtel lehss 'Dllhon Illb ,e-i £1110111 of tbl dOllstlC
I IlmklDQ Ildrnhfm- I AiYlaal!ol II I!lfd 10 slID I DlfODle I mllc mbmkm 11BI
I !CiDill- !hon of sill ! m of 1111 lee \lId !stml!! ICI IbIC-'1 ifti CIflO shus (eSl
I Ice illIY I i Irshilledl I,n,ss (or IClb,uklll
i I
I - !- - - - -_ _- - - '

cli11 ilit I IIce- IIce- IhICkness or elDiillllY of IClbrn-! iealUDfY i

I !surd Ilm- lim- I Ifter mbr!lker /kif fa, IIICI mllill-I Illi!; thl/
II lOT 2 knl'lker I',m I of corm,ondlnq i
Ic' Ihe shl, II lolradeo) !USSR i
I I I I Imao I ICebruklnQ Hill ,AlII SIlf i
I iI I IShID i clJlullty Icebmkerl ICebmklftQi IRal,s I
I i
,I I I i I mao SillI I !
,
' - 3.11I II I - IIIIhICk 4.1IIlh-ym
I 13.0
I
ll1 -
I Project, po,,,
110 ft_. mlm ra I
III
,I

I ! I (Ill I I ml II
I
,
I
,I
,
I
,I
,
3.1 I 1i:1
1 11.3 - 3.0 II III
I (ll)
! (nlh-ym
ICI)
III
I lIZ/l
l'Arkhki' ,mlm
I
!
PrOJlct, 60 ft_, 111 I,
,
A
I (U) Ileim It I
,
I,
II: I I Ju
I lUI
II ,I
(Ill I
3.l1
(1I11l-yeu
ICII
I
I
I
llJ I
I

I
lTlil
I',ruk', Ii;
I'Tm y,' ,naclm IS:
ProJecl, II ft_, II
I
Im
I
j
,I
Ic 3 ju - 1.3 , , , ,
I
I I 3.0 I
II l(thICk
I
mone-mr ml, lTJlZ
I 1 (Il) I and lulh-m, m) I
,
!s I i 'I
I II LT
IIIthICk ItCnd-mr
3.0 I i
m! ll4 LT4/2
I'",sku', 18; ,
j'h,llio Sonklo', lSI m
Is I I and IIlh-lm m) I
,IU) I Ill) !! II
I e I 4 !1.Z - 1 . / 1 ' I , ,
l
I
SI 'j - II LT I' (lhICk fmH!!r
I I
I.J I m I'
I (AT)! 101 mond-ym m),
lT4/l
I'S"loroll', RlCll1' I
Illrll u,ner I UA
I ~,J- __+-~~________+-__- L____L -_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _
I
I !I I I II
1' I II
l T (thICk ft;;t-ym IC! III
I
lTIi3
I'~IIY''', Ii;
I PreJlet, ) ft_, Ii: , m
II I I
II I (U)
I lIT) lind second-ym l'Autoty 10hmclI-_ i
I
I I I I I m I I !co', es, Iype SA- 11 1m Sop"
I !0.7 - 1.Z1--!-----l,------..J......---+---+------+---i

I I I
I-
i
I I
LI 1(lhICk ftrsl-ym
1.71 I -
I
I lTI/4
1"Monlsk' ISA-III,es;I'
'VltlS Irm!', e5; m
I I, j I (m I ml ,I'lm rapml', cs
I ' II ,.
II Ul Ships caplblt of Inieplnlflt RlVlgihol II frmln! seas bit Ihe
11 10.l -0.11 A,ehc - 'aru! Siller III IItUI IIYltlhol only 'lit He.rubr J1
IImluce 11 clase ,lCk iCI

!I l2
II 0.3 1
SliPS llteald for IOllrehe sus ani u,lbh of IIjep"jelt UYI!lhol
II opeo flOihR! m uke IIi 'ItllcI.relklA! ISSlstim II elm pICk Ice
I 12
13 ,I
l4
I 14

303
ICE IMPACT
 ICE IMPACT ON SHIP HULLS

E. Hieronymi Germanischer Lloyd Hamburg, Germany

ABSTRACT

In the folloWing paper the results of full scale tests of a conventional Ice breaker (Po/arstern 1984/85) and
two Waas pnnclpallcebreakers (Mudyug 1987 and Kapitan Sorokm 1991) are compared.

The companson of the measurement results obtained from the three ships offers a comprehensive Idea of
the magnitude of the Ice loads actually occumng. Also, the complex measurement data are examined
under probability theory aspects and assessment as to their significance for the fatigue strength of the hull
structures.

Nevertheless, the results and expenences gained from these Investigations are being used for updallng
rules and regulallons for the construction of ships for navigation In Ice, such as to ensure more economi-
cal solutions for modem ship shapes.

1. Introduction

There are several problems In naval architecture which are very hard or Impossible to descnbe exactly
and solve mathematically. Propeller excitation IS one such example and Ice impact on the ship hull cer-
tainly also belongs to this group.

Recent years have seen conSiderable research activities resulting In an extensive output of relevant litera-
ture.

Rules regarding Ice loads are generally based on emplncal or seml-emplncal data denved from the
analYSIS of damages observed Most such Informallon was gained from shipping in the Baltic. ThiS pro-
cedure has several drawbacks First. the Ice conditions In the Baltic can not be generalised for other
areas. Extrapolations to such severe environments as the ArctiC \\Illters on the baSIS of data from the
Baltic are problematical. Second. damage observed can seldom be related to Single events, making a
correlation between environmental conditions present, and damage caused, difficult or Impossible. Finally,
the assumption that Ice loads are confined to the shell area about the waterline. which may be valid for
conditions such as In the BaltiC does not apply to shipping In the ArctiC, as several damages have shown.
Particularly the forward shoulder, the bilge area and the ship's bottom are vulnerable to Ice Impacts even
on ships speCifically designed for navigation In Ice.

Ice loads contained In the present rules were denved as Uniformly distnbuted deSign loads. which IS being
strongly questioned on the baSIS of more recent results.

307
The validity of a design philosophy for safe shipping In the Arclic can be truly tested only by full-scale
measurements In representative enVIronmental condllions Model tests pose the difficulty of scaling, which
IS particularly trying regarding Ice Impacts Full-scale experiments on the other hand are obviously very
expensive and frequently results are kept proprietary by the compames financing the research. Thus only
a limited amount of data from full-scale measurements IS published

DUring the year 1987 Germamscher Lloyd completed two large-scale research projects on Ice gOing
vessels Both projects were promoted by the Federal Mlmstry of Research and Technology One was the
polar research vessel Po/arstern, the other the Soviet Ice-breaker Mudyug, which was converted accord-
Ing to the Waas principle at Thyssen Nordseewerke In 1991 GL completed two other research projects
on Ice gOing vessels. One was the soviet Icebreaker Kapitan Sorokm also converted to the Waas principle
by Thyssen Nordseewerke. The other program was the comparison of the results of the Investigation on
these vessels.

DUring four measuring triPS In ArctiC waters and long-term Investigations performed dunng supply triPS of
the Po/arstern to the Alfred Neumeier Station In the Antarctic, Germamscher Lloyd was able to collect
Important data and experience for the dlmenslomng of future ships for polar service.

2. Polarstern, Mudyug and Kapitan Sorokin

In order to faCilitate the generallsalion of results from measurements, the main dimenSions of the vessels
have to be briefly deSCribed.

The principal dimenSions of Po/arstern are'

Length over all 1180 m
Length between perpendiculars 102.2 m
Breadth 25.0 m
Draught 10.5 m
Displacement 15,690
Engine Output 14.120 kW

Classification GL I±l A4 Arc 3. hull strengthened for an Ice pressure of 6 MPa for Sides and stern and
9 5 MPa for the bow
cs:::3 Instrumented area '985
~ Instrumented area '984

~-
.
=m.£._ _ _ JI ~--,,-,,:,--.:.-.

Fig. 1:
i"-r
~
----- - ... _-_._-_... /

Instrumented areas for local Ice pressure onboard Po/arstern (MOiler et al. 1986 & 1988)

308
The first full-scale test was performed off the coast of Labrador, Canada In May 1984, the second one In
the waters around Spitsbergen In May 1985

DUring both expeditions the follOWing Investlgallons were performed regarding Ice loads and structural
response'

determination of loads acting on the hull different Ice conditions

analysIs of stresses acllng on the propeller nozzles In Ice
determlnallon of stresses acting on deck and superstructure taking ambient temperatures Into account
examination of the behaViour of the propulSion system under stationary and non stationary conditions
In Ice.

In autumn 1985 the SOVIet icebreaker Mudyug was converted at Thyssen Nordseewerke In Emden,
Germany, Into a novel Icebreaker In accordance With the Waas prinCiple The eXisting conventional ice-
breaker bow with ItS sharp waterline entries was replaced by an extreme flat bow With nearly rectangular
waterlines. With thiS new bow shape the level Ice IS broken by the sharp edges of the reamers at the
ship's Side mainly due to shear failure On account of an increasingly ra,sed bilge the broken floes are
pushed aSide below the rigid Ice, so that the channel behind the vessel is almost free of ice. ThiS IS par-
ticularly advantageous for ships follOWing the Icebreaker

The principal dimenSions of the Mudyug after conversion are:

Length over all 11136 m

Length between perpendiculars 8980 m
Breadth of CWL 22.20 m
Draught 650 m
Displacement 7,744 t
Engine Output 7,000 kW
ClaSSification RS LL 4

~ instrumented area

Fig. 2: Instrumented areas for local Ice pressure onboard Mudyug (Muller, 1987)

The full-scale test was performed In the Spitsbergen waters In May 1987.

309
In 1990 the Soviet Icebreaker Kapitan Sorokm was converted from a conventional Iceoreaker Into a
Thyssen-Waas-Icebreaker at Thyssen Nordseewerke. Emden

Following main dimensions are obtained for the Kapitan Sorokm after converSion

Length over all 141.25 m

Length between pp 121.38 m
Breadth moulded (max.) 30.50 m
Draught 8.50 m
Displacement 17.147
Engine output 16.200 kW

Classification RS KM o LL32A2

Fig. 3: Instrumented area for local Ice pressure onboard Kapitan Sorokm

In order to evaluate the actual stresses In the bow structure full scale measurements were carned out dur-
Ing the Ice breaking tests In Arctic waters These trials were performed from April 30th till May 20th In the
mouth of JemseJ river and the south of Kara Sea.

3. Plan of transducer locations

DUring all expeditions a large amount of strain gauges were applied with regard to the full scale meas-
urements of Ice loads

All signals from ship's hull were recorded simultaneously at a central registration station. which facilitated
the correlation of the signals from the strain gauges with those from the accelerometers for outstanding
events. As this requirement resulted In extensive simultaneous data. It was recorded In digital form Up to
64 channels can be recorded simultaneously.

In 1984 on board Po/arstem only two parts of a longitudinal frame was Instnumented With many strain
gauges In order to simulate the exact stress distribution within the computer for estimation of the exact
loads (Fig. 4).

310
 Fig. 4: Longitudinal frame 9350 mm above BL and FE model

In 1985 an area of about 16 m2 was fitted With strain gauges on the longitudinal frames (Fig. 5). This
eqUipment facilitated the estimatIOn of not only the local load but also 0 the global load and the contact
area of the Ice

iII
~
IIII !I I illl i! I I I
~ !,
I I I I

1 2 3 11 12 13 21 22 23 31 3Z 33 41 4,' 43

4 14 24 34 44

5 6 7 15 16 17 25 26' 27 35 36 37 I '5 46 47 I Lvs -SoOf 1o~I.Q

8 18 28 38 '8 I
9 19 29 39 49 I
10 20 10 40 < I Lgs -Sp! ",,"0

J D~cJc
100 '10 ll/ '" 5pt -Nr ", "t
Schotl Sc.lootf

Fig. 5: Instrumented area on port side Tank 4

In 1987 on Mudyug most of the strain gauges were located on longitudinal frames on the ship's bottom as
well as on selected plate panels for the measurement of global and local stresses, respectively (Fig. 6)

311
 \~
Icr 1_

:~ ~~
l~

I~
I';
~
if
:~

: 1

Fig. 6: Arrangement of strain gauges In the bottom structure of Mudyug

In 1991 on Kapitan Sorokm the arrangement of strain gauges was almost equal to that on Mudyug In
1987 Additional five strain gauges were located at the transverse web frame 145 to evaluate the actual

load width at Ice Impacts (Fig. 7)

Fig. 7: Arrangement of strain gauges In the bottom structure of Kapitan Sorokm

312
4. Ice Conditions

Dunng the full scale measurements on Po/arstern In 1984 at Labrador the Ice thickness amounts to 0 7 m
and 14m. The temperature was above 0 'C and. consequently. the Ice had only half the strength of Win-
ter-Ice.

In 1985 the Ice thickness In Spitsbergen waters was the same but the strength of the Ice was much
higher The Ice conditions found by Mudyug also In the Spitsbergen waters were almost equal regarding
Ice thickness and the Ice strength was higher than In Apnl/May 1985

In 1991 the Ice thickness In the Kara Sea and the estuary of Jenlsel river vary between 0 8 and more than
2m.

The Ice In the mouth of Jenlsel nver IS like freshwater Ice. With high strength of Ice In the follOWing table
some results are summarised:

~
Polarstem Polarstem Mudyug Kapitan Sorokin
19Q14' I 1985
bending strength
200 - 255 kPa 290 - 420 kPa 355 - 541 kPa 620 - 1250 kPa
(cantilever beam)

Young's modules 48 - 6.5 MPa 4.7 -71 MPa 3.25 -7 5 MPa

bending strength
265 - 390 kPa 378 - 433 kPa 610 - 1260 kPa
(average bnne voL)

Young's modulus 6.95 -7 8 MPa 6.2 - 10 MPa

I
crushing strength
19 - 27 MPa
(borehole lack)

bending strength
2 - 4 8 MPa
(unl-dlrectlonal)
I
Ice thickness 07-14m 07-14 m 0.85 - 1 25 m 0.5 - 220 m

5. Comparison of the Results

For comparison of the results of different constructions It IS helpful to define the eqUivalent Ice-pressure
P eq

The equivalent Ice-pressure IS a fictitiOUs Uniform pressure which results In stresses at the support pOints
of a frame of equal magnitude as the actual load cases near the centre of the frame. Hence, Peq corre-
sponds to the deSign load of the rules.

The Ice loads measured under different Ice conditions like breaking of level ice continuously or by ram-
ming mode, ridge ramming or salling In pack-Ice are relatively low.

313
The highest local loads were expected on all tnps when the ships were salhng In dnft Ice or In broken
channel, especially with high speed.

In the following examination only the results of Po/arstern In Spitsbergen waters In 1985 are represented
because of the higher Ice strength and peak levels. The following table shows the maximum measured
equivalent pressures of the three ships.

Maximum Measured Equivalent Pressures

Polarstern Mudyug Kapitan Sorokin

Ice Condition
[MPal I [MPal [MPal
level Ice 10 14 I 0.8

dnft Ice LT 50 %
42 23 2.80
concentration

dnft Ice GT 50 %
4.3 2.6 2.00
concentration

broken channel 06 2.5 4.7

design pressure 95 3.2 5-6

The design load for the bow construction of Po/arstern corresponds to Ice class Arc 7 and for the rest
Arc 3. In expectation of lower loads the design load for the construction of Mudyug was reduced to 75 %
of the normal design load for ice class RS LL4. The design load for the construction of Kapitan Sorokm
was reduced to 75 % In the bow area decreasing to 63 % afterwards of the design load corresponding to
RS LL3. The measured eqUivalent Ice pressure of three vessels in broken channel are not representative
because the condition of the channels was not comparable

Polarstern was only salling In her own fresh broken channel In relatively soft level Ice of a thickness In
maximum of 1 m.

Mudyug had the same condilions but In Ice of a higher strength ness. Kapitan Sorokm salls In channels of
different age In fresh water Ice with thicknesses up to 2 m

Another Interesting aspect IS the load distnbutlon on the shiPs. In Fig. 8 an example of the dlstnbutlon of
the maximum measured equivalent pressures of Mudyug and Kapitan Soroktn are compared.

r.uO'l'uC

Fig, 8: Load dlstnbutlons

---
314
The distribution of loads while sailing In broken channel shows the highest magnitude In the area of the
actual waterline The high loads on KapItan Sorokm far behind Fpp result from the beaching of KapItan
Sorokm on a large floe (500 m 3 estimated) which was pressed onto the ground (water depth about 15 m)
The load distribution In transverse direction IS even

In broken channel, the area at F,p prinCipally has the highest load, too, and the distribution In transverse
direction IS also even. High loads far behind Fpp are pOSSible because the transport of Ice along the shell IS
disturbed by the Ice condition and roiling floes can cause higher local loads.

In level Ice the highest pressures are measured at the waterline, decreaSing to stem and evenly distrib-
uted In transverse direction.

Due to the relatively small Instrumented area on Po/arstem no trend In the distribution of loads IS recog-
nised.

The companson of the results shows that the loads acting on the Thyssen Waas bows are much lower
than those on Po/arstern

ThiS results mainly from the very flat bow shape of the Thyssen-Waas-Bow. ThiS type of bow breaks the
ice mainly by shear failure mode on the Sides and by bending failure mode In front of the ship.

DUring Ice breaking at the Thyssen-Waas-Bow the resulting vertical pressure component IS relatively
larger than at a conventional bow and can reach a maximum up to the bending strength of the Ice. The
hOrizontal force component IS much lower than thiS component at a conventional bow The honzontal
component can be Increased up to crushing strength of the ice

Remark. O'crush.ng IS 10 times O'benOlng

Ice cover

Fig. 9: Force components at different bow shapes

Theoretically, the loads of a bow shape like Po/arstem are 30 % higher than the loads acting on the
Mudyug bow The result of thiS IS that the spatial angle of the shell to the Ice cover has to be conSidered
by calculation of deSign roads

315
6. Theoretical Investigations

An addilional aim of the tests was the investigation of the global Ice loads acting simultaneously. For this
reason five strain gauges were applied at the transverse web frame no 145

The Ice loads and their dlstnbutlon are calculated via the finite element method (FEM), where the trans-
verse frame 145 was Idealised as a computer model

The strain signals of thiS frame are only used as reference for the computallon, the stress dlstnbullon IS
found theoretically USing the above mentioned computation model Results are the stress level In the
structure as well as the load dlstnbutlon for the encountered Ice condilions for Interesting events.

The aim of the Invesllgatlon IS the companson of the deSign load with the actual loads found.

An important result from the analysIs of the measurements IS the fact that the Ice loads act as locally con-
fined Impact loads. Fig. 9 shows the calculated stress dlstnbutlon on the frame as a result of the Uniform
loads used for the dimenSIoning of the structure, I e. 6 MPa for the bottom and 3.5 MPa for the sides.

r {KN/ "'I

Fig. 10: Frame 145 under deSign load

The highest total load was esllmated to 1000 kN ThiS value was calculated for an impact event dunng
measurement 537 at 10'2847 The stress dlstnbutlon IS shown In Fig. 10. The load Width was about 3 m,
which IS only about 1/10 of the total span of the frame

r aNI ""I

Fig.11: Frame 145 load at time 1028:47

316
7. Loads with regard to fatigue aspect

The loads measured onboard of the three ships were addItionally mvestlgated with regard to the fatigue
aspect

For this a service profile for Mudyug and Kapitan Sorokm was set up, and the loads were added by the
"Ramflow-Count-Method" and projected for 20 years. Smce the damage sum was very low, the result of
the damage calculation was that fatigue IS no design criterion for these Icebreakers.

8. Conclusion

The comparison of the results of the three vessels gives a comprehensive view about the actual Ice loads
The results can be summansed as follows.

1. The stress level dUring salling In homogeneous level Ice IS comparatively low.

2. Higher loads than those obtained In level Ice conaltions were recorded dunng the voyage In the
broken channel and In drift Ice conditions, especially at higher speeds up to 15 knots.

3 Regarding local Ice flow Impact forces, measurements mdlcate smaller values than would be
obtamed from the assumption of uniformly distributed design Ice pressures from the rules. ThiS
results from the non-simultaneous failure phenomenon of the Ice, which IS particularly true for ShiPS,
where large areas are simultaneously exposed to the Ice loads, such as the Waas bow. A more
realistiC approach would specify locallv acting Ice pressures combined With an analYSIS of the plated
structure taking account of actual contact areas, In a way similar to the dimensIoning of decks of car
carners exposed to wheel loads The supporting structure such as web frames and stringers
presently appear somewhat over-dimensioned

4 The shape of the bow has a Significant Influence on the Ice loads acting on ships' hulls. The eXisting
design loads are valid for conventional Ice breakers so that the design loads for Icebreakers With a
flat bow shape can be reduced In dependency on the spatial angle of the shell to the Ice cover

5. The damage sum of the high loads IS larger than the sum of the frequent small loads. The summa-
rising of all parts of damage shows that the aspect of fatigue has not to be considered by the design
of Icebreaker bows

9. Literature

111 Muller. L. Flehmke, A, Gotze, J , and Sasse, I , 1986 "R V Polarstem, First Ice breaking Expedi-
tion," Volume II. German Ministry for Research and Technology Report No. MTK 312/313

121 Mliller, L, Hleronyml, E. and Conradi, C., 1988. "R V Polarstern, Second Ice breaking Expedition,"
Volume II, German MInistry for Research and Technology Report No MTK 352

131 Muller. L., 1987 "Full scale tests of the ThyssenlWaas Icebreaker System under ArctiC condition,
Phase III, Measurements of Hull Stresses," German Ministry for Research and Technology, Report
No MTK406

317
141 Derda. T , Hleronyml, E., 1992. "8elastung Thyssen Waas Eisbrecher unter polaren 8edlngungen",
German MInistry for Research and Technology, Report No MTK 0536 1A and 8

151 Hleronyml, E., Menzel, W .. 1992. "Stol1belastungen der Schlffsverbande Infolge Els", German MInis-
try for Research and Technology, Report No MTK 0440 E8

161 MLiller, L, 1986' "Report on Strain and Acceleration Measurements DUring Seakeeping Tests of Con-
verted Icebreaker "Mudyug" Thyssen Nordseellverke, Emden, Report no ST8-1501-1986

171 Hieronyml, E, 1991 "Report on Strain and Acceleration Measurements DUring Seakeeping Tests of
Converted Icebreaker "Kapitan Sorokln" Thyssen Nordseewerke, Emden, Report S-1926-1991

20.07.1993 - Hle/Rob

318
 ANALYSIS OF PARTICULAR FEATURES OF ICE DAMAGES TO THE
STRUCTURES OF ICEBREAKING SHIPS AND THE RECOMMENDATIONS
ON THE INCREASE OF THE RELIABILITY

Stanlslav B.Karavanov eNI IMF RUSSIa

SenIor Researcher Laboratory of St. Petersburg
Icebreaklng
Technology (LLT)

ABSTRACT

As a rule the Ice damages of arctic ships occur In a bow third

and in the middle part of the hull being located near the
forepeak and bIlge strakes. The extension of areas of navIgatIon
and the prolongation of periods of operatIon of ShIPS In the
SovIet ArctiC led to the increase both In number and sizes as
well as to the change of longItudinal distribution of ice
damages of arctic cargo ShIpS.
In thIS respect of special interest are ice damages of hull
structures of new icebreaking ShIPS of "Norllsk" (SA-15) type,
because these ShIPS were designed for the ULA RegIster class
specially intended for year round operatIon in the arctic area
The extent of ice damages of hull structures conSIderably differ
for ships operating In Eastern and Western regions of the SovIet
ArctIc. The most serIOUS Ice damages were regIstered on shIps
workIng at eastern tracks of the Northern Sea Route where Ice
conditions are more severe than in the West. So, for ships of
"Norilsk" type WhICh were operating in the East of thIS Route,
there are extenSIve ice damages within the ice belt In mIddle
and bow portions of ship. At the same tIme ShIPS of the simIlar
type operating In the Western arctIc area suffered only
insignIficant ice damages of bIlge and bottom shell platIng
strakes.

319
 The analysIs carrled out on the basIS of informatIon about the
permanent set of structural elements has shown that actual Ice
loads on the parts of hull below the Ice belt and near the
mIddle may be equal to or exceed the designed loads specIfied by
Rules for the ice belt. It was shown that mal n reasons of such
features are the following: deviatIon from the Rules
requIrements, imperfection of the Rules and heaVIer ice
condItIons In the Eastern ArCtIC. These results were used in the
course of the development of proposals for the correction of
corresponding sectIons of the Register Rules for the Ice
strengthening.

In the Sixties and seventies oWIng to more active exploration

of the Extreme North the intensIty of cargo transportation along
the Northern Sea Route largely Increased. As a consequence of
these processes during the above period a sharp growth and
qualitatIve renewal of the ice fleet composItion was observed,
more ShIPS beIng drawn to arctIc cargo transportation. Just
durIng these years the fleet of northern shiPPIng companies was
enlarged by ShIPS intended for mass transportation of class UL
cargo: bulk carrIers of "Dmltry Donskoy" type (UL; L x B x d
154.9 x 22.9 x 9.9 m;D = 19000 t; N = 11200 H.P.) and tankers of
"Samotlor" type (UL; L x B x d = 148 x 23 x 8.5 m; 0 22520 t;
N = 11300 H.P.) as well as large serIes of supply vessels
of "Pioner" type (L1; L x B x d = 96 x 15.6 x 6.9 m; 0 = 7220 t;
N = 3250 H.P.). These ShIPS constructed by German ("Dmitry
Donskoy", "PlOner") and Finmsh shipbuIlding companies together
WIth domestic ships of "Amguema" type transported for many years
a major part of cargo in the ArctIC. The increase in number and
the intensifIcation of the utilization of ships in ice
conditIons was accompanied by the larger quantity of ice damages
durIng arctic navIgations. In the mid-70s due to the advent of
new nuclear icebreakers JOIning the ArctiC fleet the naVigation

320
perIod of cargo ShIPS was considerably extended. ThIs resulted
In the Increased ice loads on vessels and hence In the hIgher
rates of Ice damages to the hulls wIth underwater parts havIng
no strengthenings to cope wIth the aggravated condItIons.
Further Increase In number of powerful Icebreakers operatIng on
the ArCtIC routes and the resultIng extension of navIgation
periods and areas of navIgatIon In heavy ice Induced still
further the increase of the rates of damages to ships of the
ArctIC fleet. So, for example, the average level of relatIve
damage rate in ice in the early'80 s exceeded by 2 and 2.5 tImes
that of the early'70 s.
Despite the continuous improvement of regulatory documents
(Register Rules) and tactics of the escorting of ShIPS in ice
the relatIve level and extent of ice damages keep increasIng
year after year. More severe condItions of operating ShipS on
all routes of the Arctic basIn resulted not only in the Increase
of hull damage rates of old worn out ShIPS, but also in the
conSiderable increase of the number of heavy hull Ice damages of
modern shipS built according to the RegIster Rules at shIpyards
of leadIng foreIgn companies (Valmet, Warts 1 la, Rauma-Repola
ets.) for hIghest ice categorIes UL, ULA.
The analysis of the character of ice damages and qualItatIve
composItion of the arctIc cargo shIP groups most susceptIble to
damages shows that prIncIpal reasons of Ice hull damages are as
follows:
- utIlizatIon of ShIPS wIth an Ice class not suffIcient for
certaIn areas and seasons;
- conSiderable age wear out of structural hull members In the
zone beIng under the effect of ice loadings;
- insufficient bUIlding structural strength in more severe
conditIons of the operatIon of ShIPS in ice;
- errors of navigators while makIng maneuvering.
DistributIon of Ice damages to hulls in the classes (Ice
categorIes) of the vessels reflects composition of the fleets

321
used In the ArCtIC navIgatIon. However the frequent damages were
recorded withIn the most numerous group of vessels Involved In
the Arctic traffIc: vessels of ice category UL and L1 ice
strengthenings of which were Inadequate for intensIve operation
in the ArctIc, in partIcular, in Its Eastern sector. HeavIly
deterIorated vessels (older than 15 years) suffered ice damages
practically on every voyage in ice (maInly the vessels of Ice
category L1). Notwlthstandig the measures taken to reduce the
accident rate, technIcal losses entailed by ice damages still
remain to be high both in magnItude and in relative numbers per
vessel. AccordIng to data of last years the ShIPS WIth
particularly strong hulls are often damaged: ice category ULA
shipS and icebreakers account for 25 to 30% of the total number
of ice damages, thiS being associated with their use in severe
ice cond i t lOns.
The operatIng experience of the transport fleet in the Arctic
shows that the majOrity (70-80%) of ice damages are caused to
vessels when proceeding through a lead in the wake of Icebreaker
(including escorting in "short" and close tow). Not more that 10
to 12% of ice damages occur during independent sailings and
contractions. ThIS relationship is also in agreement with the
distribution of ice damage number between the speCIfic hull
parts over the length of the vessel: from 60 to 80% of Ice
damages are concentrated in the fore third of the vessel and 10
to 20% fall WIthIn the middle part, Flg.1. Only on vessels of
ice category ULA which are very much lIke the icebreakers in
their service conditions the most damaged regIon IS somewhat
shifted aft and covers the midship area The bottom grIllages of
vessels whIch are the first to follow in the wake of icebreaker
in close tow are exposed to elevated ice loads being hIt by ice
blocks thrown off from under the icebreaker propellers.
The dominant proportion of ice damages to grillages (up to
90%) is of local nature consistIng in local dents,that IS
restricted damages of framing members (indiVidual stiffeners,

322
brackets, web plates) . On vessels of the hlghest lce
categories(UL, ULA) no loss of the bearing capac 1 ty of ( the
entire) grlllage lS generally observed. Cracks ln the shell
platmg on vessels of these ice categorles are of secondary
nature and are observed only wlthin the area of deep dents
(excluslve of cracks in way of alr bubbllng scuttles on the
"Nori lsk" type vessels).
On the average, the proportion of damages (bulges,
corrugations and dents) followed by leakages is variable from 25
to 40% of the total number of ice damages to hull.
Vessels of lce category Ll and below have numerous damages to
framework lncluding holes over the entlre slde and bllge area,
the extent of damages to the structural elements (for example,
maximum deflections) exceeding by more than 2 to 3 times that of
the ice damages.
On vessels of the highest ice categories (UL, ULA) holes are
of a rather rare occurence and are generally entailed by
navlgator's errors when the vessels are escorted by lcebreakers
in close tow (damages to forecastle platlng ln way of hawsers
and stem) or by movement under particularly compllcated ice
condltlons (peculiar to the Eastern Area of the Northern Sea
Route) .
As a rule, the most damageable hull portions on all Arctlc
vessels are fore peak area, bilge strakes and abutting bottom
strakes in the fore and mlddle parts of the vessel. Hlgh damage
rate of the bottom strakes is attributed both to the commonly
used way of escortlng ShlPS (In close tow) and to shallows along
whole length of the Northern Sea Route. It should be noted that
for Sister ShlP operating ln the Western and Eastern Arctlc,
along With common features there are differences in the location
of the numerous ice damage areas and especially considerable
difference exists between their values.
Numerous damages to the shell plating and framework were
recorded on the "Sanotlor" type tankers built to the lce
category UL since 1975.
323
 They were malnly located in the framlng and shell platlng in
the fore end and also in the bilge area and abuttlng on the
bottom strakes In the mldshlp sectlon. The maXlmum permanent
deflectlons of the framlng on these vessels were as great as 200
mm, the bulges reached 70 to 80 mm.
In general, Slmllar mode of ice damages lS observed on the new
generatlon of lndependent ice-goIng vessels (ULA) of SA-15 type
close In dllnenSlOn to the "Samotlor" type tankers. However,
attentlon lS attracted by an extremely large amount of ice
damages to the new vessels deSigned for all-the-year-round
operation In the Western Arctic based on the draft requirements
of the Reglster, 1981.
The extent of Ice damages occured in the East of the Northern
Sea Route is corsiderably higher than that In the West-for ships
of "Norilsk" type, for example, the damaged area reaches on the
average 100-300 m~2 per one shiP, maximum permanent sets reached
200 mm for framIng whlle In the West this value IS 50-60 mA2 and
permanent set for framing reached 40-50 mm,for plates - 20-25 mm.
Practlcally all the ShIPS of SA-15 type which regularly made
voyages in the Eastern region of the Northern Sea Route
"Bratsk", "Igarka","Monchegorsk", "Okha", "Nikel", "Nizhneyansk" ,
"Kola" a o. suffered from numerous heavy damages. After
navlgatlons In the East, in the process of expenSlve repalrs,
hundreds of square meters of the underwater plating and framing
are replaced mainly in almost inaccessible regIons of bIlge and
second bottom, whlle operatlng In the Western Part of ArCtIC
only lnslgnlficant damages of shell plating took place.
Shlps of the arctlc navigation, especially modern ones, fairly
good sustaln the loadings ariSing as a result of the ice
pressure. The portion of structural damages caused by the ice
pressure does not exceed 5-67. of the whole number of damages.
Ice pressure accompanied often by the shearing of floes along
the pressure front is of serious danger principally for old
ships with conSiderable age wear of members (such as category L1
shlps of "Pioner" and "Volgoles" type). Hull damages of these
324
ShipS caused by the Ice pressure are excessively large and even
may result In their loss (timber carrier "Vitimles", 1964, mls
"Kolya Myagotin", "Nina Sagaidak" , 1983, the East Siberian Sea,
Fig. 2. ). It should be noted that ice strengthemngs of L1
category do not provide safety of the ship while working in ice
In the Eastern Region of the Northern Sea Route.
The analysis carried out on the basis of Information about the
permanent set of structural elements has shown that:
- one of the reasons of ice damages IS also unfounded
deviation from the requirement imposed for hull structures by
the Register Rules. These deviations are encountered almost in
all designs and frequently lead to mass hull ice damages (as,
for example, It took place on ship of "Norilsk" type);
- principal structural reason of ice damage of the framing is
the insufficient stability of its plate elements (webs,
brackets, diaphragms ets.) abutting upon the shell plating In
the zone of action of ice loading, because it is necessary to
take for these elements certain constructive measures Including
the installation of additional stiffeneres and the increase of
plate thickness;
- to improve the reliability of the hull of cargo ShipS
operating In the Eastern Part of the Northern Sea Route it is
necessary to introduce special requirement into Register Rules
including addItional hIghest ice class of the cargo shipS
ULA-Super.
In the 1990 Rules correspondIng correctIon of Ice loadIng was
already made for the eXIsting ice classes of ships on the basIS
of the analysis of ice damages of ships naVIgating along the
Northern Sea Route. In particular, ice loading on bilge and
bottom strakes of the hull were increased. Bilge areas of the
floor, bIlge brackets and diaphragms in the double ships side
should be strengthened by striffeners to make the ratiO of a
strengthened plate thickness to a distance between these
stiffeners not less than 0.025 in mIdshIp part, and 0.03 in the
bow part of the hull.
325
Vol
~

l~l'EE· '\ \ \
---+-
5 Til i I

t~
f(li" .
60 ):
J 1,,\4 I ' ,
60 - ---;- . \ \ '

~~ _ I
--r-- _,
T _____ 4 '\"<-,' i - ..I -._-i
-~. - ~~,,,,"""',~-.......,f
'l-C::·J
1-
~~
i------. ,~.,...~ ~.~J7.i~~~j-------- --
_
:-' . . ....,.~~--..-:
----..::=..... .:L"- ~=
----
--
I~
h@···-·l. . ,. .,.·. -:FI
1-
-to· • '¥' ~.
- - - --...=-=-
-- 20

0
-
~_J
'I
~I
~, ,--~
"~-':::~
--J '\.

0.01 0.12 D,O} 0,0 4 0.5':; 0_"-'(

'

~ tip fO A0~ lIu\\ ICO d""QPI

Flg.1. DIstrIbutIon of permanent Ice deflectIons oVer ti'!E- under-

water hull portIon of 10e shIps 1 - ICt? belt, 2 - slliG
dalll,:'lges (East of the NSfU; 3, <1, 5 - probabi II t Y of re la-
b ve permanent ice d&flections of shell platIng for ULA
clx::s (3 - bd t!8 stral:es in Ule bo\'{ and stern parts;
4, 5 - bottolrl and bllge st.ral<es In tile nuddle part)
MEASUREMENT OF ICE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON AN ICEBREAKER BOW MODEL
COMPOSED BY LOAD PANELS

Yoshio Kayo Nagasaki Experimental Tank Japan

Mitsublshi Heavy Ind., Ltd.

ABSTRACT

For a better understanding of resistance in ice, an attempt was made to compare

breaking events of the ice sheet, floe movement over the hull surface and corresponding
load distribution on the hull. The ship model used was segmented and was specially
instrumented. The fore body hull surface was divided into 21 panels, which were
connected with two-component load cells, in order to measure load distribution over the
hull.
It was found that individual ice breaking events observed were fairly related to the load
p~aks appeared on the corresponding load panels around the stem and shoulders. The
results also showed that the total ice load measured by a dynamometer and the sum of X-
component loads of whole panels coincide well to each other.
This kind of information on the load distribution over the hull surface may offer new
experimental support for the improvement of ice going ships.

1. INTRODUCTION

For the improvement of performance of ice going ships, it is important to understand the
resistance components and their relations to the hull geometry. Toward this end many
investigations have been made theoretically and experimentally, but more efforts may
seem necessary for the effiCient improvement of hull forms. Experimental works such as
full scale measurements and model tests in ice tank have provided the way to improve the
ships through the investigation on the separation of resistance components.
Pre-sawn ice sheet is one of the tecthniques to separate breaking component from total
resistance. At the same time efforts have been paid for the direct measurement of ice
load on the hull. Strain gauges or pressure gauges are commonly used to measure load

328
on the hull surface. But these measurements give discrete Information on load and have
difficulty to get the relationship between load on the hull surface and resulting total
resistance in ice. Therefore the present author think it necessary to develop more direct
way to measure load distnbution on the surface. An attempt was made to measure the
load distribution on the hull by using the specially instrumented ship model in an ice tank.

2. MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR SEPARATION OF RESISTANCE COMPONENT

Before a trial of the direct measurement of the load distribution over the hull surface, a
reference data for checking the validity of the measurement was made in the following
way. An Icebreaker model was used to study its resistance characteristics in ice and the
separation of resistance was made by pre-sawn ice sheets and also by changing friction
coefficient of the surfaces. The principal dimensions of the model are as follows and
figures in brackets show the corresponding full scale data.
Lpp = 4.09 m (102.2m)
Bmax = 0.96 m (24.1m)
draft = 0.42 m (10.5m)
The body plan is shown in Fig.1. Test conditions are as follows.
ice thickness hi = 36 mm (0.9m)
hi = 48 mm (1.2m)
flexural strength a f = 25kPa (625kPa)
model speed 0.1 mls ~ 0.9 mls (1 kt ~ 9kt )

~~~~~1
--~--j>---7--+~""""'7-~ Bmax + 2 hi

~--T---7'~r----r.~1

Fig.2 Pre·:-,awn Partern

Fig.l Body Plan of the Model

The friction coefficient was adjusted to the target values of J.1 =0.1 and J.1 =0.2 by changing
the compound of surface coatings.
Pre-sawn ice sheets were used to separate the breaking component from the total ice
loads. Based on the observation of breaking pattern of ice floe around the bow, cut
pattern of ice sheet was decided as shown in Fig.2. A small portion of each cut line was
left un-sawn in order to avoid unfavorable movement of these artificially prepared floe.

329
 The test resu Its of the
model under the conditions
____ hi=48mm J.L =0.20 above are summarized in
=
hi=48mm J.L=O.II
___ hi=36mm J.L =0.20 ---'"'-- Pre-,awn hi=48mm J.L =0 ~()
Fig.3. The resistance test
-8-- hi=36mm J.L=O.II -+- Pre-"awn hi=36mm J.L=O.20
results in ice were plotted
and each data group was
200r-----r-----r-----~~~r_--~
fitted with curves. Consider-
able amount of difference in
ISO resistance was observed
between the model tests of
~
friction coefficient j.1. =0.1 and
'"
u
§ lOa the ones of j.1.=0.2. The
.~
difference of drag due to
'"'"
~

50 the difference of friction

coefficients is larger in
a ~ ____L __ _ _ _L __ _ ~~ __ ~ _ _ _ __ J
thicker ice condition. The
pre-sawn ice test were made
a 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Model Speed Vm (m/s) only for the surface coating
Fig.3 Summary of Resistance Test in Ice with friction coefficient of j.1.
=0.2.

3. ICE LOAD MEASUREMENT ON THE HULL

For the further decomposition of resistance components, the present anthor thought it
necessary to evaluate the relation between ice floe movement and resultant resistance. It
is worthwhile to get information on the distribution of ice load over the hull surface,
because the ice load distribution and the associate ice floe movement may provide the
rational procedure to get better hull geometry to reduce ice resistance.
It was then attempted to do a direct measurement of ice load distribution and the
simultaneous observation of ice sheet events such as breaking, submersion and
movement along the hull surface by two TV cameras, one from above and the other from
the tank bottom.

3.1 SEGMENTED PARTIAL MODEL

Instead of strain gauges on the shell plate, load panels were adopted to measure ice
load directly. Then it was needed to compose the three-dimensional fair hull surface by
segmented small patches of sensing panels. The fore body of the model was reproduced
and finished acc'urately, then the shell was cut into 21 pieces. Each piece of shell was
coated by FRP and was instrumented with two-component load cell. These load panels

330
 were assembled again to form the
original fore body as shown in Figs.
Trim GUide iCramp L0l Dynamomeler 4 and 5.
~

g
A preliminal investigation by a
wedge like bow part model, similar
to the original bow, made it clear
i that the major portion of the

Li;&J
"11 "I! ~.

! -',nO'l ·0>12 ,.., resistance in ice is due to the fore

I t"J,,, I"U
body. For the convenience of
I ; !
F.P. SS.7 SSA handling the model in the test, the
reproduction was then limited from
FigA Test Arrangement of the Pantal Model the bow to SS4. Thus this model
may be called the segmented partial
model while the original model can be named as the solid full model.
The stem and shoulders play important roles in ice breaking and the hull near load
water line usually experiences higher ice resistance than the hull close to the bottom. The
arrangement of load panels then decided are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Each load panel
was named in such a way that P and S stands for the port side and the starboard side
respectively, the first figure shows
the depth wise location of the panel
and the second one represents the
longitudinal position from the fore
end, and ST stands for the stem.
The depth wise division was made
into three parts in order to trace the
loads and its change caused due to
the submergence of floe. The
friction coefficient of the hull was
adjusted to ,u=O.1. The ice
thickness and the flexural strength
, ,
FP SS9 SS8 S5i were the same as the case of the
Fig.S Top View of Load Panel Arrangement solid full. model.

3.2 TIME HISTORY OF THE LOAD RECORD

The measurement was made on the resistance in ice, pitch and roll motion of the model
and X,Y component of the load on each load panels. Fig.6 is an example of the records
which shows only X-component out put of port side load panels.
The model was towed by a carriage with a cramp until it reached the constant velocity
in an ice sheet and then the cramp was released to start measurement. The model was

331
 Exp.767 Ihi=48mm : Vm=O.270 m/sl

27'
1 I~e. ISle) '"

Fig. 6 Time H;";lory of Measured Dala

again fixed with the cramp before the end of the test rum. From this figure, the following
observations can be made:
(1) The total resistance in ice, Rit, and the pitch motion of the model are seemed correlate
well.
(2) The loads observed in the first two layers, namely P1 sand P2s, are higher than those
of P3s in the deepest layer.
(3) The fore end panel, the stem panel ST10, experiences almost the same magnitude of
loads as those of P1 s except P11 X. The P11 X has a few and only small peaks in
both ends of the record and no considerable load appeares during the most
recording period. This fact may have a relation with the typical breaking pattern and

332
 size of floe created by the model which has an almost straight load water line toward
the fore end.
(4) The appearance of typical peak loads on the record of P1s and ST1Q are found in
good coincidence with the breaking events of the ice sheet along the hull observed
by TV cameras.

3.3 SUM OF X-COMPONENT

The time history records of the load were averaged to get time mean values. Two
examples thus obtained X-component mean load of the load panels are shown in Figs.?
and 8 . The test results of the full model shown in FigA are drawn by two solid lines for
reference. The total resistance of the segmented partial model measured by the

200~-----------------------r----------~------------.

180 -'0 ~~~ !~~;:c;anels ..... ··f· ... . . . ................... t··· ........................ .
160 -~ Sum of !\.fiddle Panels adds above I' ~
140 _.0. Sum ot Lower Panels adds above ---1--_____. _ _
- I I ----------1
6 120 _ ............................. ·1 ........· ..· ........... L.......... .... . ..... ...... .. ............... .

i ': ---~--~-----~~:;:---::
60-...... · · .. · · ,
~
..... ,
:...±..--
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
+
:~ r'"
o L -_________
~~.
~
1· . ------+1·----·--·-------1
__________L __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~

0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8

hi=36rnm
Model sp"ed Vm (mls)

Fig.7 d Total Rcsi>tance .md its Components

200
180
D Total Rc!)~tance
160 .. + STtOX
0 ST20X
~ 140 ~ STJOX

a'"
u 120
.~ 100
:>
0::
80

40

20
0
~
0 0.6 0.8
hi=36rnm
Model speed Vm (mls)

Fig.7b Total Resistance and Ice Loads on the Stem

333
 200

180 o
+
Total Resistance
Sum of t.: pper Panels
-J,----.
,
I

160 o Sum of ~ld{Ue Panels adds above .. ~ . ,-

Sum of Lower Paneis adds above
g 140
I:!.
_______.__ _.__ ._._____._.L~.--::-.---.g _._______._
CJ
u
o
c 120
'"
v;
'(;;
CJ
100
..:
80

60
I
~----.++~------+--..·-..-....-·+r-..·-
.. ·-..·-·-..-..-..-.. -+-..-·_:_.. _..._... _..._.. _ ..._.._._...._._..j
40
1+
••••• -, •••••••••••••t•••••••••••••••
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
hi=48mm
Model speed Vm (m/s)
Fig.8 a Total Resistance and its Components

200

180 o
: !
Total ResIstance' r" ... ,............................. ~ ............... .... .................~..... ····~o·.iO ..··· .......-........
+ STlOX, . I J.L
160 o ST20X
g 140 /:. ST30X o
<l.l
u 120
c
'"
.~ 100
..:'" 80

60 ,
............................;.................................................................. ................................. .
40 '0
o
20 ............ ~ ....... .. ............ ,-, t·· ....... .;-

-t;:!
o
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 1u=48rnm 0.8
Model speed Vm (mls)
Fig.S b Total Resistance and Ice Loads on the Stem

dynamometers, marked as 0, coincide well with that of the solid full model. Therefore the
segmented partial model can be regarded as practically equivalent to the solid full model
as far as the resistance characteristics in ice is concerned.
The total sum of X-component load of the whole load panels expressed by D. also
agrees well with total resistance above (Figs.7a and 8a). The measurement system was
therefore found valid for the direct measurement of load distribution over the hull. The
total sum was subdivided into three groups such as the upper row of panels around the
load water line, the middle row of panels and the lower row panels near the bottom.
It is clear that the upper and middle row of the load panels contribute considerably to the

334
total resistance and the lower row panels play minor role in ice resistance. The relative
portion of the load from the upper row to the total resistance is very large in low speeds.
As the test speed increases the load of the middle row panels increases more rapidly than
those of the upper row panels. This tendency may be understood that the upper row
panels mainly break the adjacent ice sheet and the middle row panels make the floe
submerged.

3.4 ICE LOAD ON THE STEM

For more detailed decomposition of the breaking component, ice load on the stem was
analyzed as shown in Figs 7b and 8b. The load on the fore end of the model, ST10X,
seems almost constant with model speed tested, while the load on the middle part of the
stem, ST20X, has some dependency with the speed. The middle part of the stem,
encountered higher ice load than ST10X in the higher speed range and in thicker ice
condition. In these test cases, the total resistance are higher than the full model results of
J.1. =0.1. This discrepancy or the augment in the resistance mainly came from the heavier
ice load on ST20X than expected. The time history of ST20X in Fig.6 has an indication of
this augment because the record shows different behaviour from ST10X and others. The
load on ST20 fluctuates but has an amount of base load. This may be caused due to
trapping and scratching on floe by a narrow gap between ST10 and ST20.

3.5 ICE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ALONG WATER LINE

The ice load distribution along water lines for both sides of the fore body are plotted in
Figs.9 to 10. The distribution of X-component shown in Fig.9 are rather uniform and
symmetry with respect to the model center line. The load on the stem is higher than
others. The loads in the shoulder part, P14X and S14X, are higher than other P1 sand
S1 s in the upper row panels while in the middle row panels P2s and S2s are almost the
same.
In the case of the V-component the distributions are also symmetry and the load
becomes higher towards the shoulder parts in the upper row. In the figure the sign or the
direction of the force to the hull is reversed in the port side for the convenience of
comparison.

335
 30r------,----------~--~--, 30r---~------~--------.---~

_ '5 • ..,

""~20~.--.---...- ....,-.-····-..-··--········-··,-----·--...j
§ 15
'-'
><
10

Pl..tX PlJX Pl2."X PllX STIOX SllX Sl2..X SUX S14X

Upper Load Panels V~~~~.Q3m/s Upper Load Panels m=36mm

Vm=O,423mJs

30r-----__~~----~------~, 30r---____- , - -____ ~--------_,

•••••••• " y o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • y
,
•••••••••• .,. • _ 25
25
~
~
~ '0 ]20r---~~~------_1---4--~~
..J

§
U
15 !15r-~-·'~-··~---~----f--~·--·~~
~
:<: 10 .. "...
10

P23X P22.X P21X ST20X S21X S22.X S23X P23Y P22Y P21Y Sf20Y S21Y S22Y S23Y
Middle Load Panels hi=36mm Middle Load Panels hi-36mm
Vm=0.423m1s Vma(),423mJs

Fig.9 X-Camp. Load DlSlnbuuon along Water Lmes Fig.!O Y·Comp. Load Distnbution along Water Lutes

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

For a better understandings of ice breaking phenomena and resulting ice resistance to
a given hull surface, comparative model experiments were made. An icebreaker model
was first tested to get a base data for the comparison. It was then tried to obtain the
relation between the breaking phenomena of the ice sheets, floe movement and
corresponding ice load over the hull surface. The fore body of the icebreaker model was
reproduced which was composed of 21 load panels to get load distribution due to ice.
Observation of breaking ice sheets and floe movement was made by a surface and a
under water TV camera. From the test results above, the following observations can be
made:
- The total resistance in ice of the two models, the original full model and the partial
fore body model, coincide well. It is then concluded that the fore body represents the
major ice breaking performance of the icebreaker.
- It was found that individual ice breaking events observed were fairly related to the

336
load peaks appeared on the load panels which were In contact with Ice sheets around
stem and shoulders.
- The results then showed that the total ice loads and the sum of X-component loads of
the whole load panels coincide well to each other.
Based on these results, the load distribution measurement by a segmented model may
provide an experimental tool for the improvement of the performance of ice going ships.
For more detail discussions, it is necessary to develop a kind of image processing
techniques to evaluate the motion of floe and associate resistance to the hull. Further
investigation will be made in the future.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to express his sincere thanks to all members of the Nagasaki
Experimental Tank for their cooperation in carrying out the model experiments.

6. REFERENCES

Schwarz, J. (1984), Advancements in Icebreaker Technology, IAHR. Ice Symposium,

Hamburg.
Edward, R.Y. et al. (1981), Results of Full Scale Trials in Ice of CCGS Pierre Radison,
SNAME, Star Symposium, Ottawa.
Enkvist, E. and Mustamaki, E. (1972), Model-and Full Scale tests with an Innovative
Icebreaker Bow, SNAME, vol.94
ITIC (1984), Report of the Committee for Performance in Ice Covered Waters. vol.1,
17th ITIC, Gdteborg
ITIC (1987), Report of the Committee for Performance in Ice Covered Waters. vol. 1,
18th ITIC, Kobe

337
LONG-TERM ICE LOAD MEASUREMENTS WITH AN ICE LOAD
PANEL ON BOARD THE CUTTER M.S. UISKO

Seppo Kivimaa Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) Finland

Research Scientist Ship Laboratory

ABSTRACT

The long-term measurements on ship hull ice loads in full-scale are presented.
The measurements were conducted over two winter seasons 1988-1989 in the
Baltic Sea in various ice conditions. A special ice load panel of 0,9 m x 1,35 m
was developed and installed to the bow structure of a cutter M.S. Uisko. Both
the normal and tangential ice forces acting on the panel were measured. The
instrumentation and calibration of the ice load panel are presented. The ice
conditions, ice flexural strength and uniaxial compressive strength are
illustrated. Ice load results from dedicated trials in level ice are presented.
Sample time signals of the measured ice loads are shown. The extreme values
and long-term distributions of the ice loads are given.

1. INTRODUCTION

The long-term ice load measurements were conducted during the years 1988-
1989 in the Baltic Sea on board a coast guard cutter M.S. Uisko. The aim of the
long-term measurements was to set ligth to the parametres influencing ship hull
ice forces in various ice conditions and to gather statistical data on ice load
distributions over winter seasons. Dedicated trials were made in level ice in
addition to the long-term measurements. The ship ice resistance results from the
dedicated trials were described in detail in [1]. This study concentrates to the ice
forces at bow waterline area close to the stem, where crushing, shearing and
breaking of the ice edge occure. The hull ice forces at the waterline were
measured by using an ice load panel installed to the bow shell structure of M.S.
Uisko.

338
2. THE MAIN CHARACfERISTICS OF THE SHIP

M.S. Uisko was delivered to the owner in January 1987 by Rauma-Repola Oy,
Uusikaupunki Shipyard. The main patrol areas of M.S. Uisko are the western
archipelago of the Gulf of Finland and the Bothnian Sea. The ship operates
independently in ice. She was designed according to class IA of the Baltic ice
rules [2] although she does not strictly belong to the scope of the ice rules.

In Fig. I can be seen a schematic picture of the ship and the location of the ice
load panel in the bow structure. The length of the ship at design waterline is 45,4
metres, draught 4,1 metres and breadth ~0,2 metres. The total displacement is
850 tons. The ship has a four bladed controllable pitch propeller with diameter
of 2,8 metres. The propeller shaft is rotated by two Wartsila diesel main engines
which total nominal power is 2360 kW.

<0

900

1350

Fig. 1 M.S. Uisko and the location of the ice load panel.

3. THE HULL ICE LOAD PANEL AND ITS CALIBRATIONS

The hull ice load panel was installed to the waterline of the bow shell structure,
see Fig. 1. The panel was designed to be large enough in oder to capture the
whole effective contact area of wide bow ice loads. Panel heigth and length were
set to be 0,9 m and 1,35 m corresponding roughly the ship stringer and
webframe spacings. The panel structure consisted of a stiffened rectangular plate

339
which overall flexibility was approximately the same as the flexibility of the
original ship shell structure. A rigid pocket with heavy framing behind was
constructed for the installation of the panel between webframes in the bow
ballast tank. The panel was supported to the bottom plate of the pocket by four
force transducers. The strain gauges, which measured the normal force in each
transducer, were installed and connected so that the possible signal due bending
of the transducer was compensated. The friction force components were
measured both in horizontal and vertical directions by shear strain gauges.

The physical static calibrations of the ice load panel were performed in two
phases. First the normal direction of each force transducer was calibrated
separately in compression test. Then the complete panel including the force
transducers was fixed to the backround plate which was bolted to the testing
floor of the laboratory. The same backround plate was also used in the pocket
structure of the ship. The complete panel was loaded both in normal and friction
force directions. The force was increased stepwise up to 100 kN. In all 76
different loading configurations were applied including point and distributed
calibration forces. The measured force signals were linearly dependent on the
calibration forces and independent on the loading position up to highest test
forces in each direction.

MGDE 1 313.5 HERTZ

I y

Fig. 2 FE-model and the first natural mode of the ice load panel.
340
The dynamic calibration of the panel was made by using a numerical FE-model.
The plating and the stiffeners were modelled with 9-noded thin shell elements.
The force transducers were modelled with wedge brick elements. The
calculations were conducted by ABAQUS-code in CRA Y-XPM computer. Fig. 2
shows the FE-model and the lowest natural mode of the panel. The first natural
frequency was 313,5 Hz, which is at the same level as that of a typical ship side
structure. This was so high frequency that it was not noticed any dynamic
amplification in the measured force signals under ice loading.

4. DATA COLLECTION

The signals were collected and processed with a Micro Vax based data collection
and analysing system developed in the VTI Ship Laboratory. The system allows
direct digitization of time histories from 64 channels. The signals were measured
with the sampling rate of 200 Hz. During the level ice tests a continuous time
history of each signal was recorded with the data collection computer. In the
long-term measurement the data was gathered as peak and level value
distributions for measuring periods of 4 hours. In addition the program collected
time history samples of the extreme ice loads of each measuring period. The
main registered parameters were in the long-term measurement:

-normal ice force on the ice load panel

-horizontal and vertical friction forces on the ice load panel
-ship speed with Ylinen doppler speed radar

5. HULL ICE LOADS AND FRICTION IN LEVEL ICE

The level ice trials were conducted on the 23rd - 27th of February, 1988 in the
archipelago of Vaasa and on the 19th - 20th of March, 1989 close to Kokkola in
the Bothnian Bay. Altogether 28 ice tests were conducted in 4 level ice fields.
The ice fields were characterized by thickness and ice strength measurements.
The ice thickness in different tests varied from 16 cm to 55 cm. The ice flexural
strength was tested in-situ by using cantilever ice beams. The beams were sawed
by a chainsaw and loaded by a hydraulic loading equipment attached to ice cover
341
 at the free end of the ice beam. In all 12 ice beams were tested. The flexural
strengths of the ice beams varied between 225 kPa and 398 kPa.

The unconfined uniaxial compressive strength was tested with prismatic samples
("" 9cm x 9cm x 20 cm), which were cut of ice fields with chainsaw and finalized
with bandsaw. The samples were loaded in a hydraulic testing machine using
strain rate of approximately 10-3. Ice compressive strengths were in 1988 quite
typical for the Baltic Sea. In all 22 prismatic samples were tested. The highest
-vertical strength was 4,7 MPa and the average vertical strengths were in
different fields 3,0 - 4,2 MPa. In horizontal direction the average strengths of
the same fields were 1,9 - 3,2 MPa. In 1989 the highest strength of 3 vertical
samples in the level ice was 2,5 MPa and the average strength was 2,0 MPa.

Fig. 3 illustrates a typical normal force time signal of the ice load panel in level
ice. The ice thickness was in this test 51 cm and the average ship speed 1,9 rn/s.
The panel encountered ice impacts with the frequency of 0,6 Hz.

VTT LAI VL UISI\O 24 FEB 1988

Page 1/15 KOE 9 13155582 - 13173752
Average-1SB D 241 V 241
10

11~11 I ~j I
V>
"- 8
E 6 I
u 4
i
<V

'"'-"
'-,-I
0

'J
L3~:.S~E. lb f, 1630
I I
1645 170G
i
171: 1730
I
AveroqF-~~:' 0 [;, 2344 V 2344
JOO

Ijl!t!!! III !ll~ ,,1·ll '~I I.I ~,jj!i! jill ,I I I~ III Ii~,I IJI
z 200
~

E 100
0c
'-'- 0 I
-50
1315558 161') 1630 1645 1700 171S 1730

Fig. 3 A sample time history of panel normal ice force Fnorm in level ice.

The speed dependency of the hull ice forces was studied in the thin ice fields,
because in thick ice only a limited speed range could be used. In Fig. 4 are
presented the measured maximum and average panel normal ice forces Fn max
and Fn av as function of ship speed. The measured average flexural strengths in
the ice fields were 270 kPa and 350 kPa. The maximum and average forces show

342
linear dependency on the ship speed in the speed range 1 m/s - 4 m/s. The
measured maximum panel ice load was 190 kN in the 20 cm ice field. A clear
decrease in maximum ice force can be seen at high speeds over 5 m/s. This
indicates that the panel area of the bow has not crushed and broken undamaged
level ice at high speeds. At high speed a rather significant bow wave was formed
which broke the ice edge before it had contact with the panel.

Fig. 5 shows the maximum and average panel normal ice forces as function of
ice thickness. The included tests have been made in speed range 1-3 m/s. Same
values corrected to speed 2 m/s by using linear speed dependency are also
presented. The measured maximum ice load in thick level ice fields was 272 kN.

200

c
• • Fnl av
150
.....0'0
Fn [kN] 100 CI •
u
• c Fnl max

50
0
•• ... ~
o Fn2 av

• Fn2 max
o "t) o· ~ <X)o" o. O>~
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Vs [m/s]

Fig. 4 The maximum and average panel normal ice force in two level ice fields,
Fn1 (Hi=17cm,Sf=350kPa) and Fn2 (Hi=20cm, Sf=270kPa).

350
300 n
~
250 " 1-3 m/s
Fn max,av 200 d •
[kN] 150
" c 2 m/s
"
~
100
50
;; "" • 1-3 m/s

0
o 10
~ .
20 30
8"
40 50
I)Y
02 m/s
60 '--_ _ _--'

Hi [em]

Fig. 5 The maximum and average panel normal ice forces Fn max (squares)
and Fn av (diamonds) versus ice thickness.
343
The friction coefficient was obtained by dividing the resultant friction force
signal by the nonnal force signal. The friction coefficient was detennined only,
when the nonnal force of the panel exceeded 25 kN. With small nonna1 force
values the signal noise ratio in friction force was poor. The ice load panel was
coated with Inerta 160. On the surface of the thin ice fields (= 20 cm) there was
dry 0-5 cm snow cover. In these fields the average friction coefficients varied
from 0,061 to 0,075 at speed range 1 mls - 4 mls. The thick ice fields (= 50 cm)
had dry snow cover of 7 -13 cm and the average friction coefficients were 0,072 -
0,149. The measured values were rather similar as those reported previously
from full-scale friction panel measurements [3] .

6. EXTREME ICE LOADS AND DISTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LONG-

TERM MEASUREMENTS

The long-tenn measurement of 1988 was made from the 17th of February to the
18th of April during which M.S. Uisko navigated in ice in 33 days. Significant
ice loads were recorded in 81 measuring periods of 4 hours. The ship operated
most of the time in ice in the archipelago near Turku and Hanko, where the
maximum ice thickness was reached late March. The ice thickness varied then
from 20 cm to 40 cm. On the 23rd - 27th of February the ship operated in the
archipelago of Vaasa, where ice thickness was from 15 cm to 55 cm. In Fig. 6 is
presented the distribution of the encountered ice impacts in the winter 1988. The
maximum ice load of 694 kN was measured on the 1st of March.

The winter 1989 was exceptionally mild in the Baltic Sea. The nonnal operation
area of M.S. Uisko was practically free of ice. The maximum level ice thickness
in the Turku archipelago was only 20 cm at the coastline. On the 17th -21st of
March the ship operated in the Bothnian Bay close to Kokkola and Raahe. All
significant ice loads of the season were recorded there. The ice thickness varied
from 40 cm to 60 cm during the operation in the Bothnian Bay. Fig. 7 shows
the distribution of ice impacts in the winter 1989.

In Fig. 8 is presented the time history of the extreme ice load 647 kN of the long-
tenn measurement in 1989. The maximum ice load was measured on the 19th of
344
March in a broken ice field. Fig. 8 shows also the tangential force and the
friction coeffiecient.

VTT LAI VL UISKO Measuring period' 1832 17 FEB - 2147 18 ,~PR 1988 (GMT)
1987-1988 FN [kN]
Pea, distribution

,000 oooL

100 ooo~
.g
'"
Q. 10000 ~
0
;;; I 000
.D
E
::J
:z:
100

10

O. 100 100 800 900 1000

FN [kN]

Fig. 6 The long-tenn distribution of ice impacts in the winter 1988.

VTT LAI VL UISKO Measuring period. 1857 17 MAR - 19 22 21 MAR 1989 (GMT)
1988-1989 FN [kN]

Peak distribution

1 000 000

100 000

""'"0
'"
CL 10 000
0
;;; I 000
.D
E
::J
:z:
100

10

00 100.0 700 0 800 0 900 0 1000 0

FN [kN]

Fig. 7 The long-tenn distribution of ice impacts in the winter 1989.

345
 VTT LAI VL UISr<O Measuflng pefloc 1509 19 MAR - 1909 19 MAR 1989 (GMT)
Page ill 1988-1989 Tflggeflng signal Fnorm
/':, 776 \} 796
20
I
~
15 I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I Ii
] I I i I I I i II
I I II
10 L I
I I i . , I
I
I I I ,:
1;c. 5 1 I I I I I , I I I II
uO
I I I I II I
o ! I
I ! ! I I , I ,! I
160247 -4 476 478 450 482 '84
6

;t fA,)} ct
6470 \} 647 G

sLJ
3:
E
g
u.
-
O.
1602474 476 47.8
I 480
I
482
I II
484
/':, 212 \} '03

~12·J~Jtl J
3:
0-
c
0
;:;:

1602474 476 478 480

: I
482
I II 48.4
/':, 0032 \} 0197
05

~ ~,=I· I •• J\~I
.,
0
v
co

~ i
..::
00 ,
I
16'02474 476 478
I
480
I
48.2
II
484

Fig. 8 The time history of the extreme ice load in the winter 1989.

8. CONCLUSIONS

In the full-scale measurements of M.S. Uisko hull ice loads were studied in level
ice and by long-term measurements with an ice load panel ( 0,9 m x 1,35 m )
installed to the bow. The measured results represent hull ice loads on the bow
area between stem and shoulder. The speed dependency of the maximum ice
impacts was linear in the ship speed range 1 mls - 4 mls in thin level ice. At high
speeds over 5 mls the panel lost contact with unbroken ice due to bow wave and
the loads decreased. The highest measured ice load was in thin level ice (= 20
cm) 190 kN and in thick level ice (= 50 cm) 272 kN. The measured average
friction coefficients by the panel (Inerta 160 coating) were 0,06 - 0,15 in the
tested level ice fields.
346
The long-tenn extreme ice loads were recorded in broken ice fields which
thickness was approximately the same as the tested thick level ice fields. The
maximum measured ice load of the long-tenn measurements was 694 kN being
2,5 times the maximum load of the tests in unbroken level ice. Typically the ship
speed was 3-5 m/s during the highest impacts in the broken ice fields. The
measured extreme ice loads were clearly higher than the calculated ice loads
according to class 1A for the contact length of the panel. This is mainly due to
the fact that the operation mode of M.S. Uisko differs in many respects from
ordinary cargo vessels designed to class 1A. Also this type of special vessel has
much higher shaft power/displacement ratio compared to cargo vessels with
large displacements, which partly explains the possibility to generate high loads.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wish to thank Mr. Panu Korri from Finnyards Ltd and Mr. Jouni
Arjava from the Finnish Coast Guard, who made the full-scale trials with M.S.
Uisko possible. The captain of M.S. Uisko Mr. Olli Kunnala and ship's crew are
greatly acknowledged for their help during the trials. I like to thank all my
colleagues in the VTT Ship Laboratory who took part in the project, especially
Mr. Jukka Vuorio and Mr. Tapio Nyman. The Technology Development Centre
of Finland (TEKES) is thanked for the financial support for the project.

REFERENCES

1. Kivimaa, S. Full-Scale Trials on Hull Resistance and Bow Ice Load in Level
Ice on Board the Cutter M.S. Uisko. Third International Conference on Ice
Technology, Cambridge, M.A., USA, 11-l3 August, 1992. Advances in Ice
Technology. Computational Mechanics Publications. Boston 1992. pp. 169-180.

2. Finnish-Swedish ice class rules 1985. Board of Navigation, Helsinki, 1985.

3. Liukkonen, S. About Physical Modelling of Kinetic Friction between Ice and

Ship. The Tenth International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under
Arctic Conditions. Vol. 2, LuleA, Sweden 1989. pp. 736-749.
347
PROPELLER IN ICE
HYDRODYNAMIC PROBLEMS OF PROPELLERS FOR ICEBREAKING SHIPS

Y.N.Alekseev Krylov Shipbuilding st.petersburg

V.A.Beljashov Research Institute Russia
K.E.Sazonov
ABSTRACT
In the paper the results of model and full-scale investi-
gations of icebreaker's screw propeller hydrodynamic and cavi-
tation characteristics are presented. As the study of hull-
propulsor interaction permits to reveal new interesting ef-
fects, some of them, as examples, are also discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Navigation in ice is one of the most difficult modes of
ship motion definitely different from sailing in open waters.
The ice increases ship resistance and puts propulsors to a
disadvantage because of the contacts with submerged ice frag-
ments. Various aspects of propeller/ice interaction have been
studied and described in published references over the recent
years [1,2,3], so there is no need to deliberate on them in
this paper.
The hydrodynamic effects caused by the changes in propel-
ler operation conditions because of the ice are yet much less
known. Thus, the present paper is intended to discuss some
hydrodynamic effects typical for icebreakers and other vessels
designed for active ice navigation.
PROPELLER INTERRACTION WITH ICEBREAKER HULL
Propeller/hull interaction is basically described by in-
teraction coefficients which are necessary for icebreaker
performance calculations, as well as for finding the depen-
dence of the propulsive system thrust upon the ship speed.
These coefficients are obtained from self-propelled model
tests.
AS a rule, icebreaker models are tested is an overloa-
ding set-up which permits to get experimental data for a wide
range of propeller advance ratios which is especially essen-
tial for the ice-going vessels. self-propelled tests with
single- and twin-screw icebreaker models revealed unsteady
flow around the afterbody. The same phenomenon has been ear-
lier observed on models of single-shaft large cargo ships
with high block coefficients [4,5]. A specific feature of
this phenomenon is that it manifests itself on ships having
block coefficients of 0.45 to 0.55 and only within a certain
range of propeller advance ratios. such data from icebreaker
model tests are shown in Fig.1. When analysed, these data
indicate a that thrust drop occures within a narrow range of
values close to Jv=0.1-0.2.
Investigations into this effect by means of flow visua-
lisation have permitted to formulate a qualitative picture
of the process. with high propeller advance ratios of
JV>0.1-0.2. the induced velocities are I ow compared to the
inflow velocity (Fig.2a) and virtually do not anyhow affect
the velocity field around the propeller. Under bollard pull
conditions (Jv=O) the propeller-induced velocities are the
351
only source for the velocity field (fig.2b). At advance
ratios of Jv=O.1-0.2 the induced and the inflow velocities
become nearly equal. The flow in the propeller vicinity
turns very unsteady. The water jet cast away by the propul-
sor starts fluctuating, deviates from the propeller axis and
clings to the ship stern forming a stagnant pocket (Fig.2C).
Any theoretical approach to this problem turns out to
pose rather significant complications, and therefore, the
usual practice is to perfect the stern lines through model
testing. In full-scale conditions the effect manifests it-
self in vibration and noise radiation.
PROPELLER CAVTATION
unlike with most other ship types, icebreaker propellers
start cavitating not in the clear waters but when struggling
across heavy ice. Fig.3 demonstrates experimental hydrodyna-
mic propeller characteristics of an icebreaker running over
pressure ridge. The Figure shows the second stage of cavita-
tion calling for a drop in the propeller efficiency. For ice-
breaker propellers, the cavitation inception is facilitated
by their high power-to-weight ratios and relatively small
diameters, the latter being restricted by the need to save
the propulsor from interacting with the ice fragments submer-
ged by ship hull.
under the bollard pull-like conditions, propeller cavita-
tion tests can be staged only in a pressurised tank, and all
icebreaker propellers designed at Krylov Institute are manda-
tory checked in such a model tank.
During initial phases of designing icebreakers and other
ice-going vessels it is necessary to possess data on the se-
cond stage cavitation inception in order to select the ship's
power-weight ratio, distribute the power among the shafts and
to evolve the propulsor system configuration. To this aim,
several series of model icebreaker propelers have been tested
in the Institute's pressurised tank. Figs.4 and 5 contain ty-
pical results from one of those propellers and finally deri-
ved dependence. In Fig.5 the area to the right of plotted
curves represents the domain of the discussed form of cavita-
tion.
Nowdays icebreakers are often fitted with combined pro-
pulsion arrangements: propeller+duct. Therefore, the cavita-
tion characteristics of such configurations in bollard pull
are of a practical interest. Fig.6 gives results from ducted
propeller bollard pull model tests in the pressurised tank.
It may be observed that the plots show a delay in the second
stage of cavitation as compared to open propellers. Neverthe-
less, the overall system efficiency starts dropping even ear-
lier than propeller hydrodynamic characteristics. This is
explained by the duct's cavitation. It was found that the
duct cavitation is caused by cavitating vortices shedded from
the blade tips and hampering the flow through the duct. Based
on the cavitating tip vortex model, an approximate formula
was derived to compute the critical cavitation number [6]:
!'! _ [j:le KT 1 ]2
'O/(- 7('" [i-(Ri/R)2J AR/~

ler speed; 'e

where ~'" is the cavitation number as computed from the propel-
is the advance ratio of the propeller/duct
arrangement; J is the advance ratio of the propeller in the
duct which is approximately J ~ 0,2 (l.r - KclK) + 0,21

352
 ~ is the duct thrust deduction coefficient; KdK is a va-
lue opposite to the combined arrangement load coefficient for
the total thrust; Kcir is the duct thrust coefficient; R is
the propeller radius; Ri is the hub radius;4R is the clearan-
ce between the blade tips and the duct.
Checked against model test data, the prediction computed
with the above formula have shown errors in critical cavita-
tion number within only 7% at maximum.
SCALE EFFECTS
Performance preductions for ice breaking and ice-going
vessels require considering the scale effects arising from the
inability to simulate the Reynolds number. propellers for the-
se ship types are designed to thrust regimes typical for low
ship speed in ice. Therefore, when entering open waters they
get into conditions of low slip rations and, consequently, of
high scale effects in hydrodynamic parametrs.
The scale effects are evaluated using a modification of
the ITTC [5) procedure. The difference is that the magnitude
of the scale effect in propeller hydrodynamic characteristics
is found not by Lerbs representative section method but by
vortex theory check calculations [7). This enables to take
into account the dependence of the lift and the section drag
coefficients on both the Reynolds number, and the type and si-
ze of the blade surface roughness.
Fig.7 shows propeller efficiency curves for a 'vitus Be-
ring·-type ice-going transport from check calculations with
model Rn=5 10 and full-scale Rn=5,4 10. The same Figure con-
tains the curves which correspond to ship sea trial conditions
when the propeller blades are covered with cathodic deposits
of Ra=3 m thickness. These results permit to conclude that:
1. While the ship runs in open waters, the propellers designed
to thrust regime and having a low pitch ratio get into the
domain of advance ratios close to that of the zero thrust.
within this range, even minor changes in thrust and torque
coefficients result in sizeable (UP to 18% for hydrodynami-
cally smooth blades) scale effects.
2. Unlike in the ITTC concept, a rise in the Reynolds number
causes a change not only in the torque coefficient but as
well in the thrust one. This is a result of the viscosity
affecting both the drag, and the lift of the propeller pro-
files.
3. cathodic deposits on the blades can partially compensate
for the scale effects. coming from the model to an actual
rough blade, this means an 8% increase in the propeller ef-
ficiency for a ship sailing in open waters. However, it
should be remembered that while operating in ice the depo-
sits will be removed from the blades due to the contacts
with the ice.
Figs.8 and 9 demonstrate some predicted and measured open
water trial data for 'Mudjug' and "Kapitan Evdokimov' 7 MW
harbour icebreakers. It may by observed that a satisfactory
agreement between predictions and full-scale measurement can
be achieved only taking into account the lift coefficient sca-
le effect. unless so, the correlation between computed and ac-
tual power versus propeller speed curves is lost.
FINAL REMARKS
The above review of some hydrodynamic problems encounte-
red in design of propulsive systems for icebreakers and other
353
ise-going vessels shows that their specific service condi-
tions force to investigate and resolve a number of untradi-
tional tasks. A failure to consider these aspects in desing
efforts may lead to a sizeable loss in ship performance and
thrust characteristics. The discussed problems are most im-
portant for those ice-goins ships which are intended as well
to make long runs across open waters.
REFERENCES
1. Airaksinen K., Marttila M. On propulsion of icebreakers. -
International Shipbuilding Progress, 1976, vol.23, No.262.
2. Edwards R. Methods for predicting forces encountered by
propellers during interactions with ice. -3 rd Lips propel-
ler symposium, proceeding, 1976.
3. Jussila M. Ice loads on the propulsion system of an ice-
breaking tug.- POAC-83. proceedings, Iowa, 1983, p.575-590.
4. Taniguchi K., Tamira K. study of the flow pattern around
stern of large full ship. -Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Tech-
nical Review, 1971, vol.8, No.1, pp.71-79.
5. 14 th ITTC Proceedings, ottawa, 1975.
6. wietendorf E.A. Der mittlere Rorins eines Kavitierenden
spitzenwirbels bei propellern. - schrift NO.2214, Institut
fur schiffbau der Universitat Hamburg, 1974.
7. Turbal V.K., shpakov V.S., Shtumpf V.M. Desing of merchant
ships forms and propulsors. -Leningrad, sudostroenie, 1983,
304 p. (in Russian).

354
 QIlJUIP 1OKq} behind the
~ Kt model hull
10Kq,Kt,Ke/2 Q.U.U Ke/2
. - - - 1Okq open water
0.50 - - Kt

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10 n - 22 1/sec

0.00 JV,J
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Fig. 1 Hydrodynamic characteristics of a prapeller
operating behind a twin-screw icebreaker model.

=s== =s) ~
'\\\'\\'\\'\ \\\\\\\\

l )-:-

a) 'J v > O,l g) ~,,: a c) ~v =0,1-:-0,2

Fig. 2 Physical pattern of the flow around

propeller at the ship hull.

355
 yI I I
rj'.,::~ l------
""'4 I

I
OJmrilT~

az I !r/ll
.. I I
i I I
I
II! I I I
~LI
I
I ,
0.: i

Fig.3 Full-scale d~ta on a propeller

obtained with three propellers
oI
[{CffC""' I Ilm.i"' I
I I
running allead in bollard pull.

Fi.g.4 Pressl.rised tank mo-

del r:sults for a
?ropeller with
A/A,=O.S anJ P/d=O.7
in ahead ballard
pull at different
cavitati.on numbers.
ali!bient air
pressure.

Fig.s critical thrust coefficient

K =f(~~' ,AlA) for ahead and
astern ballard pull.
1 - ahead running,
2 - astern runnlng,
3 - blade tip cavitation
inception.

356
 ~ 10Kq
10Kq,Ke,Kt,Ktd ~ Ke
t..!..!..U Kt
~ Ktd
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 -1---..------.---.----.---...----.
o 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 6 Pressurised tank model ducted propeller
results for ahead boiiard pull.

10Kq,Kt
I!..!!..!..!JI 10kq
_.... Kt
'3~3' tt,
0.2
~0.5

"' \
0.4

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.0 +---.------,.----.----r---+ 0.0

0.0 0.1 D.2 D.3 0.4 IU
J
Fig.7 Scale effects on hydrodynamic characteristics
for Vttul Bering - type ice-going ship ~prap#lIer
- - - - - - computation with model Rn- 5 '10-,
- - - computation with fu II-sea Ie Rn - 5,4' 10',
smooth propeUer,
computation with full-scale Rn - 5,4 'I 0'
propeller with cathodic deposiots Ra - 3 }"'".

357
 v. (knots)

7 ../
~
V
,/
V
V
/"
/
t

- .... IODD
p. (kW)
Fig.8 Computed and full-scale open water ship speeds
tor "t.4udjug· -type icebreaker.
_ _ -computation
.... t....

acaao -full-scale measurements

..... P.(kW)

-
JODO
//
I

/' ~
2IXIO
,.A
/:/
toao --/-'
,......
V
t ,; It;o "~:;
t "
t ....
V. (knots)
Fig.9 Computed and full-scale open water consumed
power for • Kapitan Evdokimov' icebreaker.

:..=..:: ::lg:a~e a~~~l!.n~'f?..1: the scale effects

DDDDD -full-scale data

358
 METHOD FOR CALCULATI NG ICE LOADS ENCOUNTERED BY
PROPELLER BLADES
valery Beljashov Krylov Shipbuilding Russia
Head of ice laboratory Research Institute
INTRODUCTION.
propulsor design for ice breaking vessels requires to know
all components of ice loads arising on the propeller blades
since they dictate the strength and the size of the
propulsor-shaft-engine train components. Under the presently
available design procedures, propeller ice loads are normally
considered through:
- requirements set out by Classification Societies;
- ice force analytical evaluations;
- ice focre model test evaluations; or
- ice service experience and sea trial data from ships closely
resembling the designed ones.
such information applied for selecting propulsor elements
gets validation only from the much later actual ship operation
or full-scale trials sometimes arranged for certain specific
ice condition. All the above-listed propeller ice load
assessment techniques are essentialLY imperfect for the lack of
proper understanding of the very co~icated processes of ice
fracture due to interactions with the blades.
A critical review of the relevant regulations formulated by
different Classification Societies would easily reveal
significant disagreement in their recommendations ( wind 1983,
Noble et al 1981).
In Russia, numerical methods for propeller blade ice load
evaluations were developed during 1960ies based either on
propeller ice milling studies ( Ignatiev 1966, Jagodkin 1963 )
or on investigations on blade impacts against small ice pieces
( Jakonovski et al 1968 ). More recently, a number of
researchers ( chernuka et al)1989, Kotras et al,1985, Sasajima
et al 1981 ) have proposed a method under which the blade is
split into several sections which are analysed individualy and
the results are consequently summed up. Since neither the
classification rules, nor the above-mentioned theoretical
models based mostly on general considerations ( and sometimes
hypothetic ideas ) of their authors about the nature of the
subject processes, have managed to explain certain critical
(including for ship serviceability) phenomena observed on
icebreaking vessels, a number of research projects were carried
out in Finland, Japan, canada and Russia during 1980ies aimed
at detailed physical evaluations of the propeller/ice
interations.
The projects involved both full-scale, and model exercises.
It may be interesting to note that practically at the same time
( in 1977 ) full-scale stress measurements were staged on the
world's two largest icebreakers: "Arctica"( Russia) ( Alekseev
et al 1980 ) and the US icebreaker fleet flagship' polar Star'
( Antonides et al 1981). Similar studies were then conducted
by , Rauma-Repola ' ( Jussila 1989 a,b) and wartsila
( Kannari 1988 ) of Finland, and by canadian experts ( Kirby et
al,1985, Laskow et al,1986 ). These projects have yielded
valuable scientific data permitting to establish ice loads
actind on propellers ( both open and ducted ) and to markedly
improve knowledge of the ice/blade interaction mechanism. The
studies have revealed that the ice loads are sizeably dependent
on the kinematic conditions of propeller/ice interaction and on
the propeller geometry. Therefore, it was made obvious that the
359
ice load levels may be reduced by a proper choice of the blade
geometry.
At Krylov Institute, such work was commenced in 1977 based
on the " Arctica" voyage propeller blade stress measuremants
and on numerous other full-scale data about shafting loads due
to the ice which have been never truly explained by the then
available computation methods. The first phase of work was
dedicated mostly to finding physical regularities of ice
fcacture under fast milling tests with indenters simulating
propeller blades. when analysed, the obtained results have
permitted to outline grounds for a new model of the
propeller/ice interaction process.

1. SPECIFIC FEATURES INHERENT IN THE MECHANICS OF ICE FRACTURE

BY PROPELLER BLADES
strain-gauging data from the "Arctica" propeller blade,
numerous records of inspections of the actual ice pieces milled
by icebreaker propulsors in service, and indenter
blade-simulation experimental results indicated that the
involved processes were quite complicated. The new detailed
studies have allowed to draw the following propeller/ice
interaction pattern (Fig.1). The interaction with blades
fractures a layer of ice which has the thickness of
h0 = s· cos fJ = 211 r sin ~ / z = hi + m ( 1 )

within the A,C, ( Fig.l ) zone of the leading edge at the face
side of the blade, a layer of ice of m thickness is spalled
into fine powder which is then pressed away towards the
trailing edge. High pressures and friction force at the
blade/ice contact margin cause a phase transfer. The' powder"
melts changing into a fluid lubricant. The contact stersses
in this zone are the most high ones because the ice is broken
under conditions close to confined compression at plate
deformation. The A,C,zone size depends on the blade geometry
and on the interaction kinematics. The zone area changes when
the blade enters or leaves the floe.
Two definitly different areas may be identified on the blade
back side, showing different ice fracture mechanisms. At the
cutting edge, small chips A,B,O,D,are separated step-by-step.
The process takes the form of brittle fracture and, therefore,
the ice contact load level drops. The A,B,contact area here can
be found with a rather simple analytical-and-experimental model
for ice cutting ( Beljashov 1993 ).
starting from a certain radius r, the chipping at blade
tips becomes more difficult because of the growing effect of
solid ice mass. The contact zone area and the stresses acting
there increase. Ice fracture in the blade tip area resembles
the act of cutting by highly swept vertical shears.
The pressure side contact with the ice is maintained along
the whole length of intrusion A,E,( Fig.l). When the tip are
small and the h thickness is sufficiently large, the contact
zone becomes as long as the whole chord, while intact ice horns
are left in-between the adjacent paths. The butt surface at the
tip radius r = R spalls the ice under conditions close to those
of smashing on the face side. Therefore, it is seesential to
carefully select the blade tip geometry.

360
2. BASIC DEPENDENCES USED IN THE PROPELLER ICE MILLING LOAD
EVALUATION METHOD
While a ship advances through the ice, pieces of floes or
ridge features broken by the hull approach the propulsor.
Reaching the afterbody area, the ice fragments surface up due
to their buoyancy, get caught in the propeller-induced velocity
field and are sucked towards contacting the blades. In a
general case the floe/propeller interaction velocicy vector is:

..
where Y.f is the ship speed vector;
( 2 )

w~ is the ice piece velocity vector in propeller-induced

~ velocity field;
~ is the ice piece surfacing speed vector due to
_ buoyancy;
., is the propeller circumferential velocity vector;
r is the radius of the considered point of the blade.
shapes and sizes of the ice pieces reachning the propeller
vicinity, same as their physical and mechnical properties, vary
greatly depending on environmental conditions and on the
icebreaker's mode of operation. Therefore, the ice load values
are random. This paper covers the deterministic problem
associated with milling of those ice blocks which are too large
for the blades to split them.
Each blade interactions with ice pieces ( both small and
large) result in the blade's intrusion into the ice bringing
about several types of fracture mechanisms:
- local fracture into fine powder within the area directly
adjacent to the blade surface;
- overall failures due to chipping of large ice blocks along
the propeller cutting edge, to global splitting of the floes If
their thickness is small.
In all cases, there always forms a certain contact
surface S<; which covers both the face ( SCI)' and the back ( Scz)
sides in the leading edge area. When the vectors of the ice
surface force p in any point of the contact zone s~with the
external normal If'are known, it is possible to formulate the
resulting force it and moment M of the ice forces acting on the
propeller blade as:
R=jfpdS
_ S IC
3

M = jj;;'x P.. dS 4

were t - radl~s-vector of considered point.

Thus, the problem of finding propeller blade ice forces is
reduced to establishing the surface stress r~ and the contact
zone area Sc' The surface stress vector ~ can be split into its
normal and tangential components: IC

p = ( 5 )
"
The ice load tangential component should be directed along
the flow line' of the ice powder along the blade surfuce.
Since at present there is no solution available for the
above-mentioned paths, it is necessary to introduce an
assumption that the tangential contact stress vector directed
along the propeller blade cylinder sections:

361
 ...... .~ -:IJt
'tIC -~",t~ fo!.p,,·"t"~ (6)
Further-on, the integral ice forces and moments may be
determined utilising a blade surface mathematical description
method ( Bavin et al,1983 ). Taking the expression for
ds = a (rr). dF·dr ( 7

were a (t,r) - Jacobi's matrix and the above formulae ( 2-6 ),

one can d~rive
-; = Jf -P., ( lie + fi .) ~a(J/') J''fdr 8

M= if -p~ ( tA-;r.diC.~)/a(f,l·} did'/' 9 )

The ice f~rce and moment expressions may be as mell written

-
in a dimensionless format:
R I O"R: 10

MI 6QR~ 11

where Ro is the propeller radius; 6. is the ice basic strength.

To establish dependences for ice force and moment
projections in different coordinate systems, it is necessary to
use basic vectors for the systems: rectangular (D), cylinder
(E), and local (F) (Fig.t(a),(b». After projecting, the
elementary ace force may be written as:
- for the rectangular coordinate system D:
..... --. ~ -Jo .... "
dRX dR·i = -P" ( n•. i - ("rii ) ds ( 12 )

-P., ( cos (n., i) + f. sin Cf + C£) ) ds

-+ .... ~ ~
dRy = dR j = (n,,..
(-COS+ t:.. sine· cosyu-tlf» P., ds
J) 13

dRz =
...dR· k = (-cos(n.,k)
~ ...,,'"
+ ( case cos Cf+f) ) P" ds 14

- for the cylinder coordinate system E:

dRr = dR'-«Z:=
... ~

(-n~cose - sine ne) • p.. dS 15

~ -l>
dRre = dR' (fA>= ( n sine - case n~ - f,; cos 0u+'f» p~ dS 16
J

dRj' = dR'~=
..
- for the local coordinate system F:
(-sin~ n)C- cosf.n ZP- f<· COSP) p"dS 17
~~
dR = dR'~'l= (-cos,£,· n.. + sinl£'.n~ (.SiIjU) Ph ds 18
'Z
dR~ = (- n.,. case - n. sine ) p.. ds 19
The elementary ice moment eJtessions will have the form of:
- moment of the ice resistance to propeller rotation:
-# ~
dMX = dM·i = r· dR Z & ( 20

- propeller shaft flexural moments:

dMy = dM'j - ... = r sine,dR x - (x-I) dR~ 21
-lP ...
dMz = dM·k = (x-I) dR~ - r·cose dRx 22

362
where 1 is the tailshaft length from the stern tube end to the
propeller disk;
- the blade bending moment in respect of the blade section
minimum stiffness line at r~ radius:
( 23 )
dM ,,= dRt. (COs~ x-xl!o.) - resin~) - (r-r~ (dR.. cos~ - dVinl',,)
F
- bending moment in respect of the maximum stiffness line:
( 24 )_
dM[...= (r-~)(dR .. sintf1 + dVos~) - dR"e(reCOs~- c~O<.+ (x-x~"sinlfl<.)
- spindle ice moment on the propeller blade in respect of the
radial axis drawn through the root section centre:
( 2S )

The values of the above-listed ice force on the propeller as a

whole can be found by integrating these expressions for the
contact zone S~. Keeping in mind the earlier explanations, the
integral ice forces can be found by approximate computation of
the surface integrals:
if F(J,r) d~ dr ( 26 )
S"
3. BLADE/ICE CONTACT ZONE ESTIMATIONS
For the sake of numerical representation and establishing
techniques for the size of blade/ice contact zones during ice
milling, this area may·be expressed as:
27 )

where s~,is the face side contact area;

S~lis the back side contact area.
Both sides can be described as curvilinear rectangles:
[r~,r:tl"[~f= f,(r)'~z.=f:t(r)l (28)

To establish the shape of functions f1(r) and f2(r) for the

face and the back sides respectively, is it necessary to
consider ice interaction at a blade element located on the r
radius ( Fig.1). The physical pattern of the interaction is
drawn here under the following assumptions: (1) the floe mass
is infinite and its motions during milling
may be neglected;
(2) propeller blades are absolutely rigid;
(3) for all radii inside the contact zone, mutual effeats of
the elements from the adjacent cylinder sections can be
accounted for by the section cascade theory.

3.1 Face side contact zone

On the face side, the contact zone boundary may be
approximately defined by a line connecting the points at which
the tangents to the relevant section radii are parallel to the
blade relative motion vectors W, i.e.:
Cdp _ ....
?if ~c)
(r, = tg (J(r) -if(r) ) 29 )

363
 ej",1J "'"'
Therefore.'I is a length of contact along the variablefon the
blade face side. The removed ice thickness m can be found
from:

3.2 Back side contact zone

On the back side. the contact area has be divided into two
sub-zones; S~ and S~'. since the involved interaction processes
are different~ within sub-zone SI ( chipping). the chips are
separarted one after another; in sUbzone S~' ( tip) located at
the blade tip. the ice is scratched-off. L
The s'Lzone positioned in the leading edge area can be found
form the~A,~ O(D, chip element ultimate equilibrium ( Fig.1 ).
Based on experimental data, it is assumed that the ice is
fractured at an arbitrary plane A.D,which is inclined to the
blade element path though an angle of el.~ 30·. Since in real
life the chips separate not simultaneously but step by step, it
is necessary to consider mean maximum loads applied time-wise
uniformly along the whole contact area on the back side.
T~e equilibrium condition is defined by:

J { Ph(l)cosd. - tp,,(I)sincL} dl
oa{
lfi.'t~j, 31

f p~ (I)sin d. + (:,p. (I)COS Gl} dl IJi°<' 32

Based on experimental results ( Beljashov, 1993 ) , the
mechanics of ice fracturing under combination load may be
expressed as:
'l:'Sh = c" + 6".; tg P 33

substituding (31,3~ into (33) and solving this equation for a. ,

we shall find the contact length along the variable in the S;'z
zone It=~'JftThe equation does not always need to have a
root witHin [-1,1 1 length. Its absence means that the chip
separation force at point Bf is insufficient. Then _we may
compute Fl'which is the point of encounter of the W vector
with the blade back side, from
~i- - ~
;=jF (r;,!) = tg ( j - If ) ( 34 )

and assume that the ice is chipped there.

However, to achieve chlpping, it is required to satisfy r~3)
and, therefore, it is necessary to change the normal conEacf
pressure Pn_ at the given radius. The new value for p,,_ is found
from (31,J~ when substituding~. The sought pressure P .. _ has an
upper limit ( P._E; P.. ) where} pft( is the normal face side
pressure. Upon reaching this limlt, the chipping will be ceased
and the blade will be pressing a tunnel through the ice block.
Beyondfj towards the trailing edge ) the blade/ice interaction
is impossible. Therefore, the contact lenth within s' along is:
"2
[ max (~1'~}' 1 1 ( 35 )

CONCLUSIONS
The above-derived dependences were utilised in generating a
'propeller-ice' programme for computing ice loads on
propellers. A comparison of computed propeller blade ice moment
364
to the results of model tests on saline fine-grain ice milling
with the ice strength 10 times reduced from the full-scale
value is shown in Fig. 3,4 .
The good qualitative and quantitative agreement between the
numerical and the test data, together with the results of
numerous checks of the computed values against full-scale
loads, confirm that the offered method is applicable for
icebreaker propeller design purposes.

REFERENCES.
1. Alekseev Y.N., Beljashov V.A., shpakov v.s.
"Full scale stress Tests of a propeller blade of an
Icebreaker". Leningrad, Klylov Shipbuilding Research Institu-
te, pp. 69-76. 1980. ( In Russian.)
2. Antonides G., Hagen A., Langrock D.
" Full scale ice breaking stresses on the propellers of the
polay star". propellers 81 symposium. virginia Beach,
virginia, 26-27 May 1981. New York 1981, SNAME.p.93-110,1981
3. Bavin Y.F., Zawadowski N.Y., Levkowski Y.L., Mishkevich Y.G.
'Propellers Modern design methods".In Russian. Leningrad,
Sudostroenie, pp.7-48, 1983.
4. Chernuka M.W., Jategaonkar R.P., Norwood M.E. & warner,J.L.
'Development of a procedure for predicting propeller-ice
interaction forces". Final Report, prepared for the
Transportation Development. CentreHalifax, Nova scotia.
Martec Ltd. Report TP 9850.178 p.
5. Ignatiev M.A.
, Screw propellers of ice navigating vessels". Leningrad,
sudostroenie, 1966. ( In Russia.)
6. Jagodkin V.J.
'Analytical deternination the resistance moment of a
propeller during its interaction with ice". Leningrad,
Problemy Arktikii and Antarktikii, VOl.13, Morskoi
Transport, pp.79-88, 1963. ( In Russain.)
7. Jakonovskii s.V., Smirnov A.N.
"Effect of geometrik and kinematic parameters of a propeller
on the magnitude of exterior forces acting on the ice
breaker propeller when colliding with ice". Leningrad,
Tsentralnyi nauchno-issledovatelskii institut morskogo
flota. Trudy, vol.93, pp.38-55, 1968. ( In Russian.)
8. Jussila M. & Koskinen P.
'The loads on cP-propeller and propeller shaft of small
ferry and their statistical distributions during winter'87".
Proc. of OMAE'89, ASME. The Hague, 19-23 March 1989, New
York. vol.4, pp.351-358, 1989.
9. Jussila M. & Koskinen P.
"Ice loads on propeller blade of small car ferry'. Proc.
POAC'89, Lulea, Sweden, 12-16 June 1989, vol.2, pp. 862-872,
1989b.
10. Kannari P.
"Full scale and model tests performed with a nozzle and on
open propeller simultaneously". Proc. IAHR, Sapporo, Japan,
23-27 August, vol.l, pp.772-781, 1988
11.Kirby K, Laskow V. & Spencer P.
'Measurement of ice/propeller interaction parameters - MV
Robert Lemeur Engineering & field tests.' Report prepared
for the Transportation Development centre. calgary, Alberta,
Canadian Marine Drilling Ltd. Report TP 6842. 261 p. 1985.
12.Kotras T. ,Humphreys D., Baird A., Morris G. & Morley G.
"Determination of propeller-ice milling loads'. Proc. of the
365
 4th OMAE symposium, New York, ASME, vol.2, pp.336-343, 1985.
13.Laskow V., Spencer P.A. & Bayly I.M.
"The Robert LeMeur ice/propeller interaction project:
full-scale data'. Marine Technology 23, 4, p.301-319. 1986.
14.Noble P. & Bulat V.
'A study of ice class rules for propellers'.
Propellers 81 symposium. virginia Beach, virginia, 26-27
May 1981. New York. SNAME, pp 49-65, 1981.
15.Sasajima T. & Mustamaki E.
'The ice milling load encountered by a controllable pitch
propeller". Proc. of 7th IAHR symposium, Hamburg, 27-31
August 1984, pp.281-295.
16. Wind J.
"The dimensioning of thr high power propeller system for
Arctic icebreaks and icebreaking vessels'. Proc. of the 5
LIPS Propeller sumposium, Drunen, the Netherlands,19-20 May
1983. LipSB.V., paper 9, 32p, 1983.

366
 Fig. 1. Propeller/ice interaction model.

ef

k
Basis D. E

Ba.is F
Fig. 2 Vector reference chart.

c
.t ,
f-~
f-o- Iculati n I
" .-
- t •• t
calc loticn
/
3.0 '.0
'" ~
\
.........
( .,"7"
It \

"
3.0
'~ f,'
1.0
/
I
I
.~
1.0

1// ~
e 1.0
2'- ~ "'d)

"
~ 0 Cl I I I
-1.0
0.0 0.4 o.a 1.0

Fig. 3 Ice bending moment at the blade root

Fig. 4 Ice spindle moment at the blade
versus intrusion ongle.
vel'3Us intrusion angle.

367
 APPLICATTON OF THF.: RF.:GRESSION ANALYSIS AND OF THE THEORY
OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN TO THE STUDY OF PROFELLER THRUST
AND TORQUE TN ICE MILLING MODE

Alexander Bitsula Krylov Ship Research Russia

Research Scientist Institute

Valery Byelashov Krylov Ship Research RUSSIa

Head of Department Institute

Eugene Karulin St. Petersburg Uni versi ty Russia

Research Scientist of Marine Technology

Serge Sutulo St.Petersburg UniverSity Russia

Associate Professor of Marine Technology

ABSTRACT

In ice milling tests it is practIcally i mpossibl e to

adjust properly millIng depths and to stabilize ice strength
which is inevitably drifting in the course of experiment. This
makes extremely difficult the use of orthodox classlcal
experimental designs with factors being varied independently of
each other. The danger also arises to obtaIn biased and
difficult to analyze experimental data.
To overcome these troubles, the technique of multiple
regression analysIs was used succeSSIvely to bUIld mathematical
models descrIbIng propeller thrust and torque curves in ice
mIlling mode. The fitting properties of the mathematical models
have been thoroughl y anal yzed wi th a hel p of vari ous
statIstIcal criteria. The selection procedure resulted in third
degree polynomials with respect to advance ratiO.
To minimize the number of experimental runs, optimized
experimental designs for best estimation of the parameters of
the mathematIcal models have been obtained as cartesian
products of analytical D-optimal designs known for each
variable separately.

368
I. TNTROOIJCTT ON

Sal j .. nt features of experi ments WI th screw propel I ers

workIng In Ice mIllIng mode are: relatIvely small amount of
avaIlable experimental data whIch could serve as a priori
information; hIgh cost of each test run; poor reproducibility
of experimental specifications and very moderate accuracy of
measurement srI].
All this makes extremely important the problem of
extraction of maximum possible information from the given
volume of experimental data. This can be achieved only by
optimal planning of experimental activities [2] and through
rafinated statistical analysis of measured values.
Earlier, the authors have had an experience in application
of the regression analysis and of the theory of experimental
design to the problems of ship manoeuvring [3]. They succeeded
in channeling this experience towards the needs of
experimentation in a refrigerating tank. The main difficulty of
the new problrm was that the structure response models for
thrust and torque coefficients in ice milling mode was not yet
been established and just the construction, analysis and
testing of such models took a greate deal of authors' efforts.
As the authors failed to find some suitable statistical
package (the well known Statgraphics did not meet the
requi rements).. all the al gori thms menti oned below have been
coded on a PC in C language.

2. GENERAL DEFINITIONS

The total time-averaged thrust T and torque Q on a

propeller in ice milling mode can be represented as follows

(1)

where subscripts refer to: L total; H hydrodynalllical;

I of purely ice origin (milling in the air);
interference between H- and 1- components.
All the cOlllponents depend on: n propeller rotating
frequency (rps); VA - axial propeller velocity relative to ice
plate, m/s; a lIIilling depth, m; 0 - ice ultimate strength,
Pa; p - water density, kg/.'.

369
 The following eVldent dimensionless parameters are
convenient for analysis: aID relative millIng
depth; .1 V Inn advance rat i 0; j( T/pn2D4 and
A T
2
= QI pn n'" - thrust and torque
j(
Q
coefficients. The mll1 i ng
induced thrust and torque can also be described by the
so-called relative thrust and reI ati va torque
C Q/<:"D3.
Q

There can be some addit.ional factors ifluencing thrust and

torque during the experiment: shearing stresses caused by the
friction of metal upon ice; Young's modulus of elasticity for
ice; ice modulus of rigidity; ice plasticity and creep indices
related to its structure [4]. All these factors are treated
here as unsignificant or uncontrolled though resulting in the
variances of measured values.
The hydrodynamic components of thrust and torque have been
studied in detail by many investigators and it was demonstrated
that functions K (J) and KQH(J) can for any given screw be
TH
perfectly fitted by simple third-order polynomials [5J.
Moreover, second-order polynomials still give quiet
satisfactory approxImation.
On the contrary, at the beginning of the present study
there were no commonly accepted regression models for the
remaining components in relations (1) and the authors have
faced the necessity to construct them on the basis of a number
of ice milling tests carried out in the refrigerating tank of
Krylov Ship Research Institute with four screw models having
different geometry. All the numerical results shown in the
paper refer to I-components but all the conclusions are
applicable also to A-components as their dependence on the
advance ratio is of the same character.

3. STRUCTURE OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR THRUST AND TORQUE

As major part of the subsequent analysis is equally valid

for both thrust and torque, we shall use a generalized notation
K for each coefficient. Let us assume that the mathematical
model for thrust (torque) can be represented as linear
regression medel

Pa
I< 1: K,f.(J, a, "') (2)
1. = J. 1. 1.

where K are constant parameters of the model (regression

370
coeffi ci entsl; f, are pre-defined regressors; is a
nllmber of parameters of the m-factor model.
To apply the principle of successIve constructIon of
regression model, the factor J was declared maln and (2) was
rewrItten as
p.
K E K, (a, 0') f (J) (3)
1. =1

Note that sense of K, of f i. has changed.

The preliminary analysis of experimental data showed that
K-curves contained not more than three local extrema each. The
polynomIal regression model

K = K + K J + ••• + K .IN, (4)

o. N

where N S 5, was then expected to fit. t.he measured data well

enough.
The obtained estimates of parameters K, can be treated
as some experimental after-material K f(a, 0'), i = O, ••• ,N
and to conti nlle the constructi on of the full three-factor
regression model. The study of the existing a priori
information allowed us to adopt the following structure for
every coefficient K :
i.

K c
\.0
+ C
i..
a + C
"J.t.
a 2
+ C
1.2
0' + C
\,21
O'a + C,
1.2.1.1
O'a 2 (5)

let us introdllce coded factors [2] and x i nst.ead

:a
of J. a and 0' respectively. For example,

2J (J + J
menc M"n
x (6)
• J
max
- ,1
ml.n

and similar relations are valid for X and x :a • Further,

vector x
.
('X ,x ,x ) T
2
represents a
• 2 :a
point in the
three-dimensional factor space (i n ope-dimensional space
x = x. = x ) and the regressIon models (2) and (5) can be
represented in the following generalized form

y/ = Ife + I> (7)

where Y/ (y.. y2'···· is vector of general i zed

responses corresponding n test runs;
If = (fT (XlV) ••••• f
T (;(In'» is design matrix, f being vector
of regressors; e (e • , ... ,e)T
p
is vector of regression
coefficients; & '" (0, 0'2 1 n ) is vector of normally distributed
centred uncorrel ated random errors havi ng equal vari ance 0'2;

371
 1S unity vector.
The "accurate" re>sponse surface> 1')(;' 1 1s

(8)

and its est1mate 1')(;'1 WIll be the>n

(9)

whe>re> e IS estImate> of e.

4. STATISTICS AND CRITERIA OF ADEQUACY

According to Gauss - Mar~ov theorem [2] the best unbiased

linear estimate e of regression paramete>rs e should be
found by least-square procedure which can be written as

(10)

where ID = ~-1 is variance matrix, Fi sher' s

lnformatlon matrix. The varlances of regression parameter
estimates e are Just equal to diagonal elements of the
following matrix:

( 11>

The variance of response surface estimate is

(12)

As we were> not able to get any reliable a pri ori

estimate of varIance ~a of measured values, the latter was to
be estimated by use of the same experimental materlal as that
used for the regressIon analysls.
...... ... .......... T
Let ~ = (1')(x.), ... ,1')lx
n
) 1 be a vector of values of
estimated responses. The so-called sum of squares SS then can
be calculated by [6J

SS C13)

The mean residual square S2 which can serve as estimate

of ~2 is then

(14)

where p i s the number of regressi on parameters.

The goodness-of-fit analySiS was complicated in the

372
pr~s~nt case by an jn~vIt:ably small number of measured values.
The adequacy hypothesIS then could not be assumed or rejected
on the basIs of only one even the most sophisticated criterIon.
That is why just a package of different adequacy criterIa was
used by the authors and only their JOInt application made the
analysis pOSSIble. The analysIs was carrIed out as follows.
First, the coefficient of multIple correlation

(15)

is calculated and regression models with greatest values of

2
R -crlterlon are selected for further analysis.
2
If s is value of s2 for lth model with P
P' 2 2
parameters and S is s at p P max ' one can calculate
pmax
2
the average value of S for every p :

-2
S (J6)
P

-2
The plot S f{P) usuall y eY-hI bi 1:s tendency to
saturation beginning from some value of p , WhICh can be taken
as candidate to optimal.
After that, the Mallows' Cp -criterion

c,t" Cn-pl - Cn-2p), i=l, •• ,n (J7)

p p
p=I, •• , Pm"~

can be calculated and plotted on the Cp - P plane together

with the straIght line Cp p.
Such plots are shown on Fig. la,b. The closer is current
C'L'
p
to the i ncl i ned I j ne, the better is the fl t.

Cp Cp
10.0
+.U

2.0 ••• 5.0

• • .---e--
0.0 0.0 I
[} 'l .~ 4 p 5 Il 2 4 P 5

Fig. 10. Uallows' criterion val lies riq. 1b. Uallows' criterion values
for thrust models for torque models

373
 Very useful arf? <lIsa t.he plot.s of resIduals
E? = y ~ (;r ( 1. ) ) vs X <lnd ry • An additIonal informat.lon
, J
2
is obtained from the following graphs: S and vs current
model ordinal number: vs number of parameters and last
but not least - straIghtforward plottIng of togeother
with y"'(iil (see example on FIg. 2).
All theo mentIoned criterIa are eovaluat.eod and plotteod by
the computer program creat.ed by t.he authors.

5. EXAMPLES OF REGRESSION MODELS FOR SCREW PROPELLERS

IN ICE MILLING MODE

A thorough analysis incorporating the use of all the

criteria outlined in the previous section has been carried out.
Shown is in Table 1 a list of regression models left after
rejection of explicitly bad ones. It appeared that while full
third-order polynomials were neccessary for description of
KT-curves, simpler quadratic polynomials have been good enough
for approximation of KQ •
Table
Regression models for thrust coefficients

Model Number Powers

number of pa- of J
ramtrs in effect R2 s 2 xI02 C
P
N P

3 2 2 4 0.9467 1.735 693.0

4 2 23 0.9541 1.492 595.0
5 3 34 6 0.9921 0.283 97.0
6 3 3 56 0.9956 0.158 51.1
7 4 1 345 0.9990 0.040 8.2
8 4 2345 0.9992 0.033 5.7
9 5 12345 0.9993 0.033 6.6
10 5 23456 0.9995 0.023 3.8
11 fj o 23456 0.9995 0.025 5.5
12 6 123456 0.9995 0.023 5.0
13 7 0123456 0.9995 0.027 7.0

It became then possible to construct three-dimensional

regression models (2l. Unfortunately, the volume of
experi mental data available at the moment could hardly be
considered as sufficient and all the results related to
multiple regression analysis should be regarded as
preliminary. Nevertheless, the required estimates for the
models of type (2) and (3) with rejected regressors of orders
4-6 have been obtained (see Fig. 3) thus confirming the

374
usefulness of 1:he present approach.

6. OPTIMIZED EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The O-optimal design [~J was constructed succeSSl '/ely,

l.e. it was obtalned as carteslan product of one-factor deslgn

f£I/'~
0.8
Cq
0.6 / ~ "-
/ $
04 ~
02

0.0
I
-0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
J
Fig. 2. Relative torque vs pitch ratio: fitting display

Kt
0.:;:5

0'20
Ci
a=
0.10.
0.125
•
0.15 a 0.14-
"/

~
/).10
a 0.145
0.05
0.15 / \
0.00 0.165

-005
0.0 0.2 0.4 O.S
J
Fill. 3. Ice Induced thrust coerficieut vs pitch rotio ot vorious
vnhJ/!'~ nt milling d"'l'th' mp.oslIr"'o volues ano ~ech/)ns ot
re~pon!!e ~urfoce

with respect to J and of two-factor design with respect to

a and u. It can be shown [21 that an exact D-optimal design
for anyone-dimensional polynomial of degree N has exactly
p =N + points being zeros of (l_x Z ) P' (x). where
p
P Ix I
p
is
L60gendre polynoaial. It has been also proved that a

375
fllll-f"ctorl,,1 2},3 r':ll was a O-optimal deslgn for a two-factor
model

y so + e2 H 2 + e 22 Y,22 + e 3 M 3 + e 23 Y, 2 Y, 3 + e 223 M 22 X 3 (18)

representlng the dependence on a and o.

The resultlng deslgn is presented on Flg. 4 together

0.20
• • x
• •
Ci
x
0.16
o o
•+ •
+
0 x
o 12

• • + • •
0.08
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Fig. 4. E.(perimentol design t:'hort:

crrm- Ice ultimote st":lnqth 248 kPo.

xxxxx - ~90 kPo;
+t+H-- 42:? kPa;
[]]]I) - H9 "PlI.
450 kPa;

E= 558 kPo:
optimized design (at 21\-8 kPa and 558 kPa).

with t.he unordered des1gn held in fact. The estlmates have

revealed the drastlc loss 1n deslgn quallty: quality index
det ~ O.7xIO- 5 for t.he actual des1gn compared with
det ~
3
= 1.2xIO· for the optimized one.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Tn t.he present papaer the structure of mathematical

models for representation of dynamIc characteristics of screw
propellers in ice milling mode was established after detailed
statistical analysis of experimental data. It has been shown
that these characteristics can be always approximated by
second- or third-degree polynomials.

376
 FnrthF.!r 1lo;;F.! of mult1-factor rF.!grF.!o;;o;;ion modelo;; together
w1th the proposed experImental deSIgns WIll deflnitely help to
ellmlnate difficlJltieo;; connected wlth instabllit.y of milling
depth and of lce mechanIcal propertIes.

8. REFERENCES

1. Wi nd ,J. ThF.! Di menSl Ont ng of Hi gh Power Propel 1 er Syo;;temo;;

for Arctic Tcebreakero;; and Jcebreaking Vessels (Parts 1-4)
IlInt. Shlpbllld. Progr. 1984. V.31. #356. P.l05-117, #357.
P.131-148.
2. EpMaKoB C.M., IRrn~BcKRA A.A. MaTeMaTR~ecKa~ TeopR~
onTRManbHoro 3KcnepRMeHTa (MathematIcal Theory of Optimal
Experiments). - M.: HaYKa, 1987.
3. Karulin E.B., Sutul0 S.V. Optimized experImental designs
for estimating ship hydrodynamic derIvatives// "Proceedings
of SMSSH·90. 1-6 October 1990. Varna, Bulgaria. V.2".
P.5.1-5.11.
4. Michel B. Tce pressure on engineering structures
(translation into RUSSIan). M.: TpaHcnopT, 1978.
5. Oosterveld M.W.C., Oossanen P., van. Further
computer-analyzed data of the Wageningen B-screw series//
Intern. Shipbllld. Progr. 1975. V.22. #251. P. 251-262.
6. Draper N.R., Smith H. Applied RegreSSion Analysis
(translation into Russian).-M.: ~RHaHc~ R CTaTRCTRKa. 1987.

377
 THE PROPELLER-ICE IMPACT PROCESS

Brian Veitch Ship Laboratory Finland

Graduate Student Helsinki University of Technology

Kari Laukia Kvremer Masa-Yards Inc. Finland

Project Manager Helsinki New Shipyard

ABSTRACf

In this paper, the physical background of the propeller-ice impact process is analyzed and
observations of full scale propeller-ice interaction on the Finnish ice breaker liB Karhu are
described. The process is divided into three stages beginning with the approach of an ice
fragment to the propeller. This stage is followed by blockage of the flow to the propeller disk.
The process ends with contact between the propeller blades and ice and the subsequent ice
destruction. A simple treatment of the main physical issues in each stage of the process is
proposed. The relative importance of these issues is illustrated with examples. Contact forces
are shown to be more important than hydrodynamic forces. A model for predicting blade forces
due to steady-state ice cutting is presented and the predictions are compared to several other
prediction models, design calculations, and regulatory body rules.

1. INTRODUCfION

1.1 Background
In the past, Baltic icebreakers have had four propellers: two at the bow and two at the stem.
Only the Gtso class, built in 1986 and 1987, and the recently delivered Fennica have twin screw
propulsion. Four propellers have been used because of the excellent manoeuvrability they afford.
Arctic icebreakers typically have only two propellers. One reason for excluding bow propellers
on Arctic icebreakers is that propeller strength requirements would lead to excessively heavy
propellers.

378
 Recently, new concepts have been introduced. Kvrerner Masa-Yards and ASS Stromberg
Drives have developed a 360· azimuthing Azipod propulsion drive, where an AC synchronous
motor. located inside the pod, directly drives a fixed-pitch propeller. The Azipod is especially
suitable for vessels needing high manoeuvrability, such as icebreakers. lcebreaking operation
modes such as driving astern in heavy ice ridges will bring new strength requirements for the
propellers resembling the design requirements of bow propellers. This has caused the need to
improve the understanding of the phenomena of propeller loading.
A research project initiated in 1991 by Kvrerner Masa-Yards and involving the participation of
the Ship Laboratory at Helsinki lJniversity of Technology addresses propeller loading phenomena.
This paper provides a summary of the work to date.

1.2 Aims and Scope

The final aim of the research is to develop a theoretical model which simulates propeller-ice
impact events. Such a model would effectively meet the goal of predicting the forces acting on
the propeller: both the peaks for propeller strength criteria and the histories for propulsion system
design considerations. It is also a way by which observations of apparently anomalous motions
of ice pieces at a propeller disk might be explained.
This paper presents the main results of the first phase of the research and relates them to
current work. A critical literature review on this subject indicated that no comprehensive
treatment of the propeller-ice interaction process has yet been published. Notably, no method
accounts for ice motions, ice mechanics is generally over-simplified, and hydrodynamic issues
tend to be ignored. Furthermore, a clear description of the important physical issues involved
in the interaction was lacking. As a consequence, the first aim of this paper is to present a
simple physical description of the entire propeller-ice impact process. This is done by treating
the process as being comprised of three stages. To complement this description, observations of
several propeller-ice impact events recorded on the Finnish icebreaker Karhu are presented.
The second aim of the paper is to identify the most important aspects of the impact process.
A simple model of each of the three stages is proposed and the relative importance illustrated
by example. The most important issues in the process are thus identified for more detailed
investigation.
A simple model is presented for predicting blade forces due to steady-state ice cutting, that is,
cutting in which motion induced in the ice block is ignored. Using an example case for the
Karhu, the predictions are compared to several other prediction models, design calculations, and
regulatory body rules. The paper ends by relating the findings outlined here to ongoing work.

379
2. PHYSICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 The Propeller-Ice Impact Process

To begin, it is useful to descnbe in simple
physical terms the most important features of the
propeller-ice impact process. It can be described
qualitatively in terms of three stages: an approach
stage in which an ice piece approaches the
propeller disk; a blockage stage in which the flow
Figure 1. Three Stage Impact Process
to the propeller disk is relatively highly disrupted;
and a contact stage which begins when a propeller blade and ice piece come into contact.
Typically during ice navigation, ice pieces are broken by the hull from a floating ice feature
and submerged as the hull progresses. The approach stage begins as the propeller moves toward
the submerged ice piece. As the ice piece enters the propeller race where the fluid is accelerated,
the relative motion between the fluid and ice piece will increase and the disturbance of the fluid
around the ice, which can be thought of as an ice piece wake, will increase. The main issue
during the approach stage is the effect of the ice wake on propeller hydrodynamic performance,
rather than strength. Figure 1 shows an ice piece at each stage and an idealization of the
development of the ice wake.
The end of the approach stage coincides with the start of the blockage stage, which again is
concerned with the ice wake and hydrodynamic loads on the propeller. The blockage stage
occurs when the ice piece is immediately in front of the propeller and the relative velocity
between the propeller and ice is very small or zero so that the effect of the ice wake on the flow
to the propeller disk is at its maximum.
The third stage of the process begins when the propeller blade comes into direct contact with
the ice piece in an impact event. Here the term contact refers to any collision between a
propeller blade and ice. The forces on the propeller during the contact stage will have a
hydrodynamic component, due to regular loads as well as loads due to ice wake effects, and a
contact component. The hydrodynamic situation will have an added dimension because some
portion of a given blade will be in direct contact with ice and another portion will be following
in a newly created groove. Under these conditions, it is not clear how, or even if, hydrodynamic
and contact loads can be treated separately and then added by superposition. The motion induced
in the ice piece due to contact with a propeller blade is influenced by the ice contact forces, the
effects of added mass, drag forces, as well as weight and buoyancy and the effects of constraints
imposed by the hull, nozzles, or other ice pieces. So the contact component of the forces on the
propeller includes hydrodynamic effects on the ice, but excludes the other hydrodynamic forces.

380
1.4 Observations of Apparently Anomalous Ice Motions
ObservatIons of propdler-ice Impacts have been recorded by underwater video camera on the
icebreaker Karhu (Kannari, 1988). Ice block motion from the Karhu video was examined by
Veitch (1992).
The most significant observation was that ice blocks tended not to be imparted with motion in
a direction tangential to the propeller rotational mOllon. This lack of tangential motion was quite
common for all but the smallest ice fragments. Instead of being deflected away from the
propeller disk, some ice blocks seemed to be brought to a virtual stop just forward of the disk
from which position they were progressively destroyed by consecutive passes of the propeller
blades. In events which exhibited this type of motion, the ice block was large enough to cover
a significant portion of the propeller disk area.
CENTER L:!(
Contact between the ice and propeller blades under

~
these conditions extended over a considerable
length of the leading edge, but did not necessarily
include the blade tip. The ice block in this type of
event was almost completely destroyed and the ~,Aff 'J? \
product of the destruction was small ice particles. QJ 1I.l(E 'ASSES I 1JJ 7 bl i!)JI PASS 8 PATH \

'~~~~
This type of impact event, referred to here as a
frontal impact, was not rare, but it was less
common than another type of event which is
described following.
A second type of event was marked by several claAr;:'ASS 9 dl BlAff ?ASS 10
INSET \I{)'jS 1lJT80AR0 I\!FILE
differentiating characteristics. A substantial I VIlEl CAlm (VJElItii AFTI

portion of the ice block was outside the propeller FCRVA>IlIl'ERATiIlNS

f!!!J'S.UR- ICE mmcT
disk area. The portion of the ice block outside the !Ii 10 ClmilJlIVE iUII PASSES

disk area was not always destroyed (the remainder

Figure 2. Frontal Impact
being a piece of gouged ice, examples of which
have been seen in the tracks of ice-going ships).
l.Pf'<OX!ltATE RAIl SECiI~
More tangential motion than seen in frontal Ar~,OISI:

L~ IE;un: IESWllf3J
impacts was apparent Notably, the ice in this AGAINST ~IP HlL
type of event was not stopped at the disk relative
to the propeller's axial advance. Contact between II.Af£ '!lSJTIIll i'JI B
ClJNSE(Ull'IE iUIE PASSES
the ice block and propeller blade under these
conditions extended over the leading edge from msE Cl'EXAfJOO
PIlffilfHCE ffi/UCT III B
about 1h to ¥.. of the blade span out to and COOIUllVE :un: 'ASSES

including the blade tip. This type of event is Figure 3. Milling Impact

381
referred to as mIlling impact. The constraints on ice block motion imposed by other ice blocks
and the ship hull are another aspect of these events. Events which involve the ice block being
wedged between the hull and propeller have been described III the literature as critically
important milling cases.
Sketches of two propeller-ice interaction events at the stem starboard propeller of Karhu are
shown in figures 2 and 3. These represent the frontal and milling impact cases respectively.
These sketches were made by tracing directly from the video screen and show the interaction of
consecutive blade passes with an ice block. It should be emphasized that the sketches shown are
perspectives from the point of view of the video camera and they do not show only the ice in
the plane of the propeller disk. The ship hull frame section in the plane of the propeller disk is
shown for one blade pass in each of the sketches. Where the frame section and ice block appear
to overlap, it is due to the camera perspective, not hull damage!

3. SIMPLE MODELS OF THE THREE STAGE PROCESS

In this section, a simple model of each stage is proposed. The approach phase is considered
by looking at the effect of the ice wake on propeller performance. The blockage stage is treated
using a stall formulation. The contact stage is approximated by assuming steady-state ice cutting.
The relative importance of the three stages is discussed.

3.1 Approach Stage: Multiple Streamtube Model

The effects of the disrupted flow due to ice wakes on propeller performance can be examined
by considering the propeller race to be made up of a series of n stream tubes which have cross
sections 1iA, at the propeller disk such that !1iA, for i=l to n equals the disk area. In figure 4,
two stream tubes are shown: one illustrating the effects of the presence of ice and the other
showing the unobstructed flow. At a position x from the propeller disk, the fluid particle at point
C in the open stream tube has a velocity relative to the disk Vc=V A+uA, where VA is the propeller
advance velocity, and the induced velocity uA is dependent on the position x. The fluid particle
at B in the other streamtube has a velocity relative
to the disk VS=VA+UA-Vw, where Vw is the ice PI![ffLLER RACE
wake. Propeller performance can be evaluated if
the incidence velocities at each stream tube are -IC-E----
PROPELLER DISK
known. The velocities induced in the flow due
'-'---;;UC~ED STIi'EAMTLII \.
to propeller action are generally small compared to VlltJl-V, r----____
the speed VA' By extension, the difference
between the induced velocities of an ice block at Figure 4. Streamtube Model

382
any position x and a fluid particle at the same x generally will be small and hence the iee wake
will be small. This discussion indicates the relatively minor importance of the approach stage
of the propeller.ice impact process.

3.2 Propeller Blockage Stage: Stall

As the ice moves very close to the propeller disk, the effect of the ice wake on performance
may not be negligible. Based on the Kilrhu video, the flow on the downstream side of a disk
blocked by ice can be described as turbulent and as having a substantially reduced axial velocity
component. This situation can be simplified by assuming that the flow on the downstream side
of the ice block where the propeller blades operate is stopped relative to the ice block, and by

To illustrate this simplified situation, consider an,

ice block which is located upstream of a propeller
disk such that one quadrant of the disk area is
completely blocked as shown in figure 5. The
fluid velocity distribution along an annular strip at
any radius r will be a rapid drop from VA in the
unblocked region to zero behind the ice. Under Figure 5. Blockage & Stall
these conditions, consider the action of a propeller blade over one revolution. At normal rates
of revolution, an annular blade section at r will have a small positive angle of attack, a, in the
undisturbed flow region and a much greater angle of attack, probably beyond the stall angle, in
the stagnated flow region. No contact is made between the blade and ice.
An estimate of the magnitude of the loads that would be encountered under these changing
conditions can be made for the present example of Karhu using blade element theory. Lift and
drag coefficients, CL and CD' for this example can be estimated for the unstalled range of angle
of attack from equations (1) (eg. Milne-Thompson, 1973, p.203), and for the stalled region
according to equations (2) (Hoerner and Borst, 1975, p.4-23). The stall angle was estimated to
be 200 for the Karhu blade aspect ratio, A, of 1.47. An elliptical spanwise lift distribution in
both the unstalled and stalled conditions was assumed.
dCL lt2 A
da; " 90 (A + 2)
(1) CL " 2 sina, cosa;
c2 (2)
CD'''CD +_L CD" 2 sin 2a;
ltA

The predicted thrust, shaft torque, and blade bending moment per blade, for both open water
and stalled conditions are summarized in table 1 for a single operating case. The ratio of
blockage to open water loads, per blade, is less than 2. These and other results have been

383
compared by Veitch (1992) to the results of cavitation tunnel propeller blockage tests reported
by Lindroos and BJorkestam (1986), and to the full scale data from Karhu given by Kannari
(1988). The comparisons are fairly good and lend some support to the calculation method. One
weakness of the method is related to the use of estimated lift and drag coefficients. Of more
fundamental importance is the validity of the assumption that the blade stalls in the flow
immediately behmd an Ice block. The effect of the heavy turbulence observed in this flow might
be to suppress stall.
The approach to the blockage problem outlined above is not without problems nor potential,
but its solution requires that more detaIls of the flow at lhe propeller be known. Nevertheless,
it provides an example of the magnitudes of the hydrodynamic forces due to propeller blockage.
These can be compared with the direct contact forces presented following.

3.3 Contact Stage: Steady-State Interaction

In section 2.1, the contact stage was described as having hydrodynamic and contact
components. Only the contact component is discussed here. The propeller-ice contact forces
from steady-state ice catting, that is milling which ignores ice motion. have been given much
attention in the literature on this subject. One approach to dealing with the complex blade shapes
is to treat the blade as a series of expanded two dimensional sections which can be examined
separately. Further, in order to facilitate discussion of the ice failure. It is convenient to consider
separately the suction and pressure sides of the sections. Consider the contact zone between a
blade section and an ice fragment for a typical
case in which the angle of attack is such that
parts of both the press ure and suction side of
the blade are in contact with the ice as shown
in figure 6. As a working hypothesis, the ice
failure on the pressure and suction sides of the
section are assumed to be due to different
processes. On the pressure side, a spalling, or
Figure 6. Blade Section Contact
flaking process occurs. This has been described
by Belyashov and Shpakov (1983) and applied to a partial model of propeller-ice impact. The
Belyashov and Shpakov model has been adopted here with some modification to estimate the
pressure side forces for the example case of the Karhu propeller.
The ice failure on the suction side of the section has not been described in the same detail as
the pressure side, but may be categorized broadly as a zone of brittle compressive fracture.
Modelling of the ice ccntact and failure forms a major part of the ongoing research. However,
a simpler approach can be used for now in which the contact between the suction side and ice

384
is assumed to be continuous and the contact pressure IS assumed to be constant and equal to a
compressive strength of ice. These forces are assumed to be constant for the duration of the
interaction event. The present method accounts carefully for the interacllon geometry.
The total ice contact force. FleE in equation (3), on a blade can be written as the sum of the
blade section forces per unit length, ~ICE" acting on n sections which are separated by a radial
distance M. Each blade section contact force can be expressed as the sum of the forces on the
suction and pressure sides, denoted by subscripts Sand P 10 equation (4) .

FICE '"
.
! Il FICE , Il" (3)
;-1

Both of the blade section force components on the right hand side of equation (4) consist of two
subcomponents: one normal to the segment and a friction component tangent to the segment.
The normal components are written as in equations (5) where Pc is the contact pressure, Ilsc is
the length of the contact zone, and the subscript N denotes the normal component. The terms
,.,., 6 r , and ~p in the second part of equations (5) represent the friction angle, flaking angle, and
local cutting tool angle respectively. hs is the ice path thickness to be sheared off, and S, is the
shear strength of ice. The friction components of
the blade section forces are simply taken as the
Il FlCE(S)N '" Pc Il sC(S)
normal components multiplied by the friction IlF '" cosf.l ~S (5)
factor f. ICE(P)N sine 9, .. ~p .. f.l) sin 6, '

The most important issue that is ignored by this method is the ice block motion. By ignoring
these motions, the present predictions, like the milling methods described in section 4 following,
are for steady-state interaction. While neglecting ice motions should generally yield conservative
results, thus providing some justification of the considerable simplification of the problem, it is
too restrictive an assumption for a simulation model. A second weakness of this method is the
simplification of ice failure.
The predictions made for the same example case as used for blockage are shown in table 1.
The ice parameters used in the calculation are shown in table 2. The predicted contact loads are
in good agreement with the measured results reported by Kannari (1988).

3.4 Comparison of Hydrodynamic and Contact Forces

A general indication of the relative importance of the contact and blockage stages can be given
by comparing the forces calculated in sections 3.2 and 3.3 and summarized in table 1. These
predictions suggest that the ice contact forces are of considerably higher magnitude than any
hydrodynamic forces due to blockage, at least for open screws. The effects of a nozzle, which
have not been given much consideration in this work, might tend to increase the importance of
blockage forces and decrease the importance of contact forces as larger ice fragments would be

385
stopped by the nozzle. rather than cut by the blades. However, the contact phase of the
propeller-ice impact process appears to be more important than the earlier stages.

Table 1. Summary and Comparison of Open Water, Blockage, and Contact Load Predictions

Predicted loads per blade for the case: Vs=2 mls ; n=100 rpm ; (J=0.31)
Open water Blockage Contact Ratio Ratio

Load I II III 11:1 III:II

T [k."1] 78 90 150 1.2 1.7

Q [k."1m] 34 51 380 1.5 7.4

M [kNm] 68 86 225 1.3 2.6

4. COMPARISON OF PREDICTIONS FOR STEADY-STATE ICE CUTTING

In the previous section, the contact stage of the propeller-ice impact process was shown to be
the most important. In this section, several models of steady-state interaction are compared to
the method described in section 3.3, together with some design guidelines, by predicting the shaft
torque at the hub due to the contact forces on a single blade of the Karhu propeller. A range of
operating conditions is considered.

4.1 Prediction Methods

The simplest approach to the design of propellers for Arctic and sub-Arctic shipping was
formulated in the rules of the classification societies. These rules proceeded from being based
on a percentage increase in the shaft diameter and blade section thickness over that determined
for open water, to a shaft diameter and blade section dimensions based on a design ice torque.
The first attempt to develop a more rational approach was made by Jagodkin (1963). He
presented a method to evaluate the shaft torque due to ice milling which uses ice shearing and
crushing failure criteria. Ignatjev (1964,1966) and Wind (1983) both presented a simple method
to calculate a design blade bending moment which could be used to dimension ice-going
propeller blades. Kotras et al. (1988) gave a method to determine ice loads based on milling
interaction. More attention was given to the detailed interaction geometry, for example by
accounting for blade pass interference, than previous methods. The work done by Belyashov and
Shpakov (1983) represents a departure from the more design oriented approaches described
above. Indeed, Belyashov and Shpakov did not present a complete method for evaluating ice
loads on propellers, but rather investigated experimentally the mechanics of ice destruction by

386
using sImple cuttIng tools to machint: ice blocks. The results were used as the basis for
evaluatIng the loads on the pressure sIde of a propeller blade.

4.2 PrediclIons of Steady-State lee Cutting Forces

In order to compare the predicted results, it is Table 2. Prediction E.xample Conditions
necessary to establish some common conditions. Ship Speed 2 mls
The ship and ice conditions which comprise the
Propeller Speed 10<n<180 rpm
standard example in the following section are
Advance Coeff. 0.2<J<3.2
summarized in table 2. The 3.7 meter diameter
Depth of Cut 2/3 blade span
Karhu propeller geometry has been used in the
Shear Strength 0.6 MPa
calculations and it has been assumed that only a
Compress. Strength 2.4 MPa
single blade is in contact with the ice at a time.
Friction Coeff. 0.15
The ice strengths are similar to those used by
Flaking Angle 29°
Jagodkin. The predictions are presented in
figure 7. The requirements of Canadian and Finnish regulations for classes Arctic Class 4 and
lA Super, respectively, are also shown.
Figure 7 shows that the current prediction for ice torque is similar to Kotras' method at low
propeller speeds and Belyashov and Shpakov's method at higher speeds, although the current
method generally predicts higher magnitudes than the other two. At high speeds, the blade-ice
contact is mostly on the blade pressure side and ice failure by flaking dominates. As the
propeller speed decreases, contact on the suction side increases gradually until a peak torque is
reached at about 40 rpm. At lower speeds still, the
contact is primarily on the suction side and compressive Table 3. Predictions at 100 rpm
fracture dominates. At very low speeds, the contact
Prediction Q [kNm]
becomes an indentation problem. A comparison of the
Ignatjev 725
relative magnitudes of the shaft torque predictions at a
Jagodkin 507
specific propeller speed - 100 rpm is used for
Current 380
convenience - can be made with reference to table 3.
Arctic Class 4 329
Ignatjev's design value is significantly higher than the
Belyashov 302
other predictions. Jagodkin and the current predictions
1A Super 289
are higher than the rules' approach, while Belyashov
Kotras 276
and Shpakov, and Kotras are comparable to the rules.

387
 1000 T Depth of cut : 2/3 blade span
800
... IGNATJEV
600 1 / JAGODKIN
400
I
200 -
E I' ASPPR (CA4)
~ 0 ~-----r--~-----------------------------------------------
o -200 J 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
TKOTRAS PROPELLER SPEED (rpm)

:::: 1- CURRENT PREDICTIONS

FOR STEADY·STATE INTERACTION
-800

-1000 1
Figure 7. Shaft Torque -vs- Propeller Speed for Steady-State Ice Cutting

5. CONCLUSION

The propeller-ice impact process has been described for the purpose of identifying the important
physical issues involved. The process was divided into three stages, beginning with the approach
of the propeller to a submerged ice piece. In the approach and blockage stages, the main
physical feature is the development of an ice wake. The effect of the ice wake reaches its
maximum at the blockage stage. In the third and final stage, ice contact and failure are of
primary importance. Ice failure mechanisms on the pressure and suction sides of the blade are
different, being characterized by spalling and compressive fracture, respectively. Ice motions
induced by the contact and affected by gravity, buoyancy, added mass, drag, and constraint forces
are an important aspect of the process and should be included in a simulation model.
A simple but comprehensive treatment of the process indicated that hydrodynamic forces due
to propeller blockage, and contact forces due to direct impacts with ice lead to higher than
nonnal open water propeller loading. Of the two, contact forces were shown to be significantly
more important than hydrodynamic forces.
The present phase of the research project concentrates on the contact stage of the process and
in particular on ice motions and ice failure. By accounting for ice motions, the ongoing work
attempts to give a more accurate picture of the physical process. The blade-ice contact and ice
failure problem has been the subject of a recently concluded program of experiments done at
Helsinki University of Technology by one of the authors. Further development of this work will
lead to improved modelling of the propeller-ice impact process, and thus to better design and
regulatory methods.

388
REFERENCES

ArCtiC Shipping Pollution Prevention RegulatIOns (1972), in Arcllc Waters Pollution Preventwn
Ac~ Canada Gazelle, Part J/, VaLl 06, No.2o.
Belyashov, V.A., and Shpakov, V.S. (1983). 'On Mechanics of Ice Crushmg by Propeller
Blades,' Ice Mechanics and Physics, Nauka. Academy of SCiences of the USSR, Moscow.
(Translation by the ECI'C, No.T-830-03, New York), 10 pages.
Finnish Board of Navigation (1971). Rules for Assigning Ships Separate Ice-Due Classes, (trans.),
Board of Navigation, Helsinki.
Hoerner, S.F., and Borst, H.V. (1975). Fluid Dynamic Lift, Liselotte A. Hoerner, 516 pages.
Ignatjev, M.A. (1966). Screw Propellers for Ships Navigating in Ice, (trans.), Sudostroenie.
Ignatjev, M.A. (1964). 'Determination of Ice Loads Encountered by Ship Propeller Blades,'
(trans.), Problems of the Arctic and Antarctic, No.15, pp.41-51.
Jagodkin, V.Ya. (1963). 'Analyllcal Determination of the Resistance Moment of a Propeller
During Its Interaction with Ice,' (trans.), Problems of the Arctic and Antarctic, vol. 13,
pp.79-88.
Kannari, P. (1988). 'Full Scale and Model Tests Performed with a Nozzle and Open Propeller
Simultaneously,' lAHR Symposium, Sapporo, pp.772-781.
Kotras, T., Humphreys, D., Baird, A., Morris, G., and Morley, G. (1985). 'Determination of
Propeller-Ice Milling Loads,' OMAE '85, Dallas, Vol.2, pp.336-343.
Lindroos, H., and Bjorkestam, H. (1986). 'Hydrodynamic Loads Developed During Ice-Clogging
of a Propeller Nozzle and Means to Prevent the Clogging,' PolarTech '86, Espoo, Vol.2,
pp.l061-1092.
Milne-Thomson, LM. (1973). Theoretical Aerodynamics, Dover Publications Inc., New York,
430 pages.
Veitch, B. (1992). 'Propeller-Ice Interaction,' Licentiate of Technology Thesis, Helsinki
University of Technology, Espoo, 92 pages.
Wind, J. (1983). 'The Dimensioning of High Power Propeller System for Arctic Icebreaking
Vessels,' Proceedings, The 5th Lips Propeller Symposium, Drunen, 31 pages.

389
NORTHERN SEA ROUTE /
BARENTS SEA
 DIVISION INTO ZONES OF THE NORTHERN SEA ROUTE
BY DIFFICULTY AND SAFETY OF NAVIGATION

Hrct1.C and Hntarc"tlc /i'esearch F:USS1Ci

Instltute. St.PetersbLlrg

V.L1J.;.homancn,· Arctlc and Antarctlc Research RUSS1Ci

ABSTRACT

General principles o~ dlvlslon lnto zones o~ NSf" bv

di-f~iculty and sa~ety a-f navlgation based o~ Integt-ated method

joining results o-f study o-f the Ice cover. interactive processes

between ship and Ice. and e~perience a-f organi:atlon o~ marine

operations and theit- hydt-omete~t-ological prOVIsIon are stated

here. The preliminary results o-f division are discussed.

Since 1991 the Northern Sea Route (NSR) was o~-flclally opened

-for international navigation. However. the intensive navigation o-f

-foreign ships along the brle~est route connecting Atlantic with

Paci-flc still does not per-formed. ThIS could be e~-<pected as thet-e

is uncertainty among the ~orelgn specialists In the range o~

principal problems SUCh as economic. provision o~ security and

sa~ety. legal. ecological, etc.

Among many -factors to be taken Into account solving these

problems. the true conslderation o-f natural condItions on the NSR

is the key ~actot-.

393
 The problem IS. how to JOint the results o~ studv o~ the Ice

coven-. hydt-ologlcal. meteorological and othet- elements re-fiectlng

natural condltlons with ones o~ lnteractlve processes between ship

and lce. and also the generall::ed e':pet-I ence o~

exploitation In Ice o-f NSR. For each of' these -fIelds aUl~e

conSiderable material has been obtained. nevertheless diSCUSSing

probable In-fluence o-f natural conditions to the e$~ectlveness and

sa-fetv o-f di-ff'erent kinds of' navigation. the ambiguous. sometimes

contradictory assessments exist. The diVision into ::ones of' NSR by

dlf'f'lculty and saf'ety of' navlgation represents the important step

on the way of' integratlon of' achievements in the above-mentioned

f'ields. Such studies have long been per~ormed in our country. Due

to some reasons the results obtained In these studies an~ quite

bad known abroad. In any event. in works dedicated to the division

lnto ::ones of' Canadian Arctic (ll and NOt-th-Westet-n Sea Route

along Alaska <:2) theu- own method is used.

In this presentation the princlples of' diVision into zones.

developed In AARI are dlscussed. pecullarlties of' navigation in

some regions are lilustrated with real eHamples. First of' all, it

IS necessary to underline that the base of' dlvlsion consists of'

results of' study of' the ice cover as navigational environment (3),

and. on the other hand. ones o-f intet-active processes between the

ship and ice cover(4).

JOlnlng ot' ef'f'orts of' specialists In di-f-fet-ent -fIelds allowed

them to develop the classl-fication o-f ice cover as navigational

environment (5) and to de-fine the method of' consideration of'

uneven spatial distt-ibution of' ice-cover characteristics

calculating its resistance to the ship"s motion (6).

394
 Fut-ther development o-f SUCh cooperal:ion tut-ned -fruit-ful

al~o -for solution o-f thIs problem.

As the maIn IndIcators o-f natural conditIons of' navlgatlon In

each region. the systematical data on Ice dIstrIbutIon on

navigatIonal routes. and. on the other hand. - performance In Ice

o-f Icebreakers and ships. have been used.

The calculatlvE valLIE;; 0';: lce e~:ploit3.tlon speed (V are

used as quantl~a~l~e Ind:cators o-f Ice conditIons and navIgational

di-ff'iculties. Its essence. methods o-f calculatIons. tests o-f thelr-

security on natural materials are covered In re-ferences (3) quite

in detaIls.

As an additional characteristic the data on sa-fe speed (V

-for ships o-f di-f-ferent class, chosen -from ice passports (7) at-e

used. On the base o-f these data the recommendations for provisIon

o-f saf'ety o-f ice navigation are stated.

One more principle used in dIvIsIon into zones Includes usage

o-f the experIence o-f organi~ation o-f navigatIon along the NSR and

its hydrometeorological provision. This allowed us to mark zones

o-f marine operations having the biggest scale in the Seas of'

Siberian shelves (FIg.!).

Finally. developing division into zones. the prlnclple o-f

climatic description o-f natural conditIons o-f navigation. using

the data -for long period statistically handled, has been used.

The -final results of' division are expected to be presented

in the -form o-f Atlas with the -following content:

1. GeographIcal position o-f the most -favorable by Ice

conditions versions o-f navigation in di-f-ferent seasons and

di-f-ferent types o-f natUt-al conditions in each region (see Fig.ll.

395
 The da~3 on true routes c~ navlgatlon. -fOt- e:-~ample.

t;;e ,-eglon II (Flg.2). Indicate the neces3lty of' such in-i'onnation.

~. The dIstinctIve characterIstIc of' ice-cover dlstrlbutlon

along the na~lgatlonal route f'or easv. mIddle and dlf'f'lcult types

and e::treme lee conoltlons In dl~~erent sea~ons (e~amole - Flg.~).

The calculatl/e data on average decade and monthly

e::ploltatlon ~peeds o~ motlon In lea o~ modern Icebreakers and

shIps of' dlf'f'erent IC~ class (e::amole Table 1).

4. Systematized on the base 0';: Ice passoorts data on saf'e

speed of' motIon in ice 0';: shIps 0';: dlf'f'erent Ice class (taking

into account tIme of' tneir exploitation). Example - Table 2.

Table 2

Range 0+ saf'e soeeds (khots) +ew shies of' dif'f'eront type

ill dr!-Ftlncl lC~ 1N1tn 1':,0 em thickness without compactlna

Ice class Ice concentration. X

exploitatIon

In ice" yeat~S 10-:::::0 40-60 70-80 90-100

ULA new stup 15-16 1::-15 10-11 8-9

UL 1 new ShIP 10-14.5 7-12.5 7- 9,~ 5-8

5. Results of' statIstical handling and analysis of' the data

on natural conditIons:

al f'requency of' each possible main versIon of' navigation In

dif'f'en~nt seasons;

396
 n ,i '" 1 '3 a --: 1 c r,

,-

o of

1 nc :i. '_' j ..I. IIg

lC9 WIll be

T3cle _,

ShIP '.
Mldcq,? " t4mguema II -:,5

~t~-lS ,.-5 .. ,
L'1+:f3 c'_tl "': Ilrimguema ll ,- . .~s
(,- -C"
S~-lS -' _, ..J

Ed:; " ,:':'mgue rn21 " s-:: ..:'

3':'-1 S Q-q

-, h,? E-:.1.:51e::="': II HiTIgLlema II c: 5

SA-15 9 .-,
L '_

Th·? mos:t dl+f'lc:ul ~ II AmqLlema II ':' 15

SA-l:; I) it)

397
 Fig.1. Actlve shlpping dlstricts under homogeneous environmental condltions ot
shipping (8,9,10 - active shipplng dlstricts in the Alaska part ot the
Arctlc Reglon [2])

rI
I ,

I /'

~/
I /
I /

L-------L--- 1_
- - - main recommended Shipping routes
I-VI distrlcts ot actlve shipplng along the NSR
----- boundarles ot the dlstrlcts under homogeneous lce condltlons at sh1pping
 60

"b

Fig. 2 . The actual routes or shipping

)
in the district II

(July-August
 In conclusion we should onC9 more unaerllne that the wor~

undeF dlVISlon Into zones o~ the NSR l~ gOlng on and the main

purpose of our presentatlon IS to inspect specialists In dl~ferent

~lelds wIth prlnClples a~ dIvision and prel~mlna~v results.

L [!lIiles]
481! _.......

~
368] .... · ...

Yllne Juie August IIonth

FIg.3. Monthey variability of extension of the route in drifing

ise with 90-100"1. concentration (1970-198 0 ).

A - the most difficult

B - middle

c - the easlest Ise conditions.

400
 -- - . - ~-- :-'::~-=-:-::-=.-=-=-:.:=-...:-==~.===--=::=.:::="--==-:::::.--~::--===~

: I~- ; :'-'I:j --,;;

, TI'-':'~:-\: ';
'I'
[ -:,£. .f} '::J~"t; ():-":
;~ '---~~f,~ :--;-1: -:--~ -- I,:,---.:--r- ~_:-!--;-~- ~~_- :,,-~-;: ~-~ I,!
-I i

'r==-~:-=~--::---==~.:::~':.:::.=-::.-=---=--=-=:::.=----=-.--====: :-=-==--I--==::::;===':-=::::'=~":' :~===---=---=--

. ::''::·_~-·=C,nl:all,ec.,l. 'i ' j I 1

,! ,!, I

Conventional 51ans: r flO t

401
 REF ERE NeE S
1. Zai-:on o predotvras=henli zagrya=nenla At-ktikl

obespechenia be=ODasnOS~1 plavania sudov v arktlchesklh vodah ••

kanada, 197~. (Law on Prevention o~ the Arctic Pollution and

Sa~etv a~ NavIgation In the ArctIc Waters. Canada. 1972).

:. BrIgham L.W. Development o~ an Ice PIlotIng Handbook.

RePt-Inted Ice Technology (International Con-fet-ence.

CambrIdge. Mass .• USA. June 10-1~. 1986. pp.447-456).

3. Bu=uyev A.Va. 1 dr. Sovremennoe sostoyanie zarubezhnih i

otechestvennih lssledovanll ledlanogo po~rova kak st-edy

sudohodstva (Modern state o~ -Fot-eign and RussIan studies of' the

ice caver as navigational environment) VNIIGMI-MZD. Obzornaya

in-Formatsia. seria Okeanologia, vyp.2, Obninsk, 1982, 50 s.

4. Kashtelan V.I •• Pazdnak 1.1., Ryvlin A.Va. Saprotlvlenie

Ida dvizheniu sudna (Ice Resistance to Ship's Motion) L ••

Sudastroenie. 1968. 2::8 s.

5. Bu=uyev A.Ya .• Ryvlin A.Va. 0 raschetah soprotivlenia Ida

dvizheniu ledokola pri razlichnyh ledovyh usloviah (About

Calculations of' Ice ResIstance to Icebreaket- '5 Motion -for

DI-f~erent Ice Conditions) Problemy Arktiki i Antarktiki. 1969,

vyp.3. 5.69-73.

6. Buzuyev A.Va.. Ryvlin A.Va. Uchet net-avnomernost I

t-aspredelenia hat-acterlstic ledianog pokrova pt-l ozenke

ledopt-ohodimosti sudov (Account o-F Uneven DIstrIbution o~

Ice-caver CharacteristIcs Estimating Ship's Per~ormance in Icel

Meteorologla i gidralogia, 1976. N 4. 5.68-73.

7. Maksutav D. D. Popov Vu. N. Opyt ra=rabotk i i vnedt-enia

ledovyh pasportov (Experience o-f Development and Use o~ Ice

Passports) Trudy AANII. 1967, t.257. s.34-92).

402
 TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES FOR HYDROCARBON
PRODUCTION IN THE BARENTS SEA

Ove T. Gudmestad and Per Strass

Statoil, Stavanger, Norway

ABSTRACT
Technological challenges for hydrocarbon production in the Barents Sea relates mainly to the
climatic conditions (ice and icebergs), to the relatively deep water of the area and to the distance
to the marked for transportation of gas. It is suggested that environmental conditions must be
carefully mapped· over a sufficiantly long period to get reliable statistics for the area.
Production concepts involve floating platforms in the icefree parts of the Barents Sea, fixed
platforms (most probably in concrete) and subsea templates. Multiphase flow technology should
be carefully assessed and could give substantial benefits.

1 INTRODUCTION
The Barents Sea has always been a challenge to the people in the North. Fishing and hunting
resources have been, and are still abundant, but the arctic climate, polar lows, ice and icebergs,
as well as the dark winter months have all provided a special challenge to working in the
Barents Sea. This means that we are faced with exciting technical challenges when exploring
for oil and gas in this area.
When sufficient resources are found and field development is economical, it will represent a
challenge to extend today's technology to the conditions in the Barents Sea. So far, only small
oil finds have been made. Some medium size gas fields have however, been found in the ice-
free Norwegian sector of the Barents Sea, and Statoil has been working actively to fmd
development solutions which give an acceptable economy. Significant gas fields are, however,
necessary in order to support development of the field and transport systems to the market. Such
gas fields may be located on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, and major gas fields have already
been found in the Russian sector. LNG installations will most probably be necessary to handle
gas from smaller fields.
In order to develop fields in the Barents Sea, close cooperation will be necessary between
Norway and Russia in much of the region as regards to technical solutions and contingency
plans. This applies ego to climate research and environmental aspects, field development
consequence reports, preparation of development solutions, supply services and oil spill
contingency plan (Gudmestad et al., 1990).

2 CONDITIONS IN THE AREA

2.1 Geography
The Barents Sea covers an area comparable to 7-8 times the size of the North Sea (Fig. 1). The
area is characterized by the fact that it lies to the far north and that areas are covered by ice for
parts of the year.

2.2 Geology
The southern part of the Barents Sea is structurally complex with tectonic formations which
extend from the Devonian up to the Tertiary period. The region therefore comprises several large

403
basins, elevations and plateaus.
Since the start of drilling in 1980, about 50 exploration wells have been drilled in the
Norwegian sector of the southern Barents Sea. During the period 1980-85, considerable volumes
of gas were found in the Hammerfest basin. in sandstone from the mid and lower Jurassic
period. (Larsen et al .. 1990). As the market is a large distance away. no gas field has. however.
yet been developed, but Statoil has been carrying out studies on development solutions for the
Sn0hvit field in which an LNG installation on S0niya is a central aspect. Furthermore. in 1985
some oil was tested in the Sn0hvit field. In 1989, oil was also found in the lower chalk
sandstone formations south of the Loppa ridge. but no commercial oil fmds have yet been made.

In the Russian sector of the Barents Sea. oil production has started on Kolguyev Island. In
1990 production was expected to reach 3.5 million barrels. A major gas fmd has also been made
in the Russian sector (Sthokmanskaya) at 73°N. 45°E.

2.3 Climate
Due to the warm ocean currents. the Barents Sea has a climate which is much milder than
comparable areas at the same latitude.
This applies particularly to the sea and air temperature. but in the winters the conditions are
more hostile than at other parts of the Norwegian Continental Shelf. The working conditions will
be difficult under such temperatures. and equipment and materials must be adapted to these
conditions. In order to obtain acceptable working conditions, it may be necessary to protect
modules and work areas against the weather. This will require ventilation in order to prevent the
build up of gases. Use of a warm air system may be necessary in order to create the desired
temperature.
Concerning the wind and waves. the conditions are,on the other hand, more favourable than
further south on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. (Fig. 2).
Two weather phenomena will, however, make operations particularly problematic: polar lows
and icing.
A polar low is a small. often intense low pressure which occurs when cold Arctic air flows out
over a relatively warm sea. Due to their size, they often pass between the existing observation
network and are therefore difficult to forecast.
When a polar low passes. the weather can change drastically in a short period of time, with
considerable snowfall and rapid and strong increases in winds.
In recent years, the numerical forecast model at the Norwegian Meteorological Institute has
been considerably improved and this model can now forecast both the formation and movements
of the polar lows. but it remains to predict the intensity better. Figure 3 shows a polar low which
has developed all the way from the ice down to the south-west coast of Norway.
Icing has long been known as a dangerous phenomenon for fishermen and seal hunters who
have operated in Arctic waters. During strong wind and low temperatures sea spray freezes
when hitting the superstructure of a ship. The amount of ice can be so great that the boat loses
stability and turns over. Figure 4 shows how the temperature decreases, east- and northward in
the Barents Sea.
In recent years. the oil companies operating north of 62°N (OKN) have carried out a research
project at the Norwegian Hydrotechnical Laboratory in Trondheim to develop models for
calculation of the distribution and weight of ice on drilling platforms which will operate under
icing conditions. A weight of more than 500 tons has been estimated. Icing will therefore be a
major problem for standby and supply vessels, as well as for the platform, both due to the
increased weight and reduced stability/safety, blocked escape routes, lifeboats unfit for use, etc.
Equipment which can remove large quantities of ice efficiently, is necessary.
In the spring and summer months when warm air from the south flows over the cold sea and
ice-covered areas, the conditions for fog formation is favourable. These conditions may persist

404
for long time, and may lead to transport problems. It will be essential to the flight safety that
platforms in the area are operated together, and that there are alternative landing options. The
flight distance may be so long that the helicopter passes the "point of no return".
The greatest challenges for operating in the Barents Sea will be sea ice and icebergs. The
northern and eastern Barents Sea is covered by sea ice for much of the year, but the extent
varies a lot from year to year. Figure 5 shows the ice edge zone during the years 1979-85. The
extreme distribution, estimated with the help of statistical models, is shown in Figure 6. For
large parts of the Barents Sea, contact with ice may therefore be from a yearly phenomenon to
a risk factor of every 10-20 year. The thickness of the ice varies from less than 0.5 m in the
area near the edge to 2-3 m towards the north. Some years, the ice remains in the Barents Sea
during the summer. Multi-year ice may also drift into the Barents Sea trough the straits in the
north. This ice is harder than the first year ice and can have a thickness of 3-6 m. The thickness
of old pack ice, that has survived the summer, can be even larger. In open waters, the
combination of ice and waves will cause large forces on any structure.
The occurrence of icebergs in the Barents Sea has been a fairly unknown up to recent years.
Observations have been made by whaling vessels, reconnaissance flights, and occasional
expeditions. In some years (1884 and 1929) the conditions were such that icebergs grounded on
the coast of Finnmark.
Icebergs are formed when glaciers on islands in the northern Barents Sea (Le. on Franz Josef s
Land) slide out over the sea and break off into large pieces, and are carried away by the wind
and the ocean sea currents. A typical trajectory for icebergs is shown in Fig. 7. Radiotransmitters
have been placed on some of the icebergs so that they can be monitored by satellite for a long
period.
These icebergs are typically 100-300 m long and 50-150 m wide (Fig. 8). They are normally
tabular with a freeboard of 10-15 m, which corresponds to a subsea depth of 80-100 m. Icebergs
with a mass of 9x106 tonnes have been observed. When they float southwards into warmer
waters, they melt relatively quickly and they are very rare to be found in the south-west Barents
Sea. The latest analyses indicate that in some years there is a large number of icebergs in the
very north of the Barents Sea and that the current and wind conditions determine the drift.
Figure 9 shows observations of icebergs in the 20th century, as well as the mean maximum
southern limit for iceberg occurrence.
In the area between Bj~rn~ya and Hopen, there are shallow locations such as
Spitsbergenbanken. Many icebergs are grounded in this area. The sea ice moves with the tide
and the underlying currents. Therefore, elliptically shaped "wakes" appear as shown in Figure
10. These "wakes" correspond well with estimated tidal ellipses.
Summarizing; operations in the areas N and E in the Barents Sea must be able to handle sea
ice which can be several meters thick. and where large icebergs (5-9x106 tonnes) may occur.

2.4 Ecology
Before the oil activity starts in a new area, knowledge about the ecological conditions is
required. In order to obtain the basic data for use in an impact analysis in connection with oil
spill contingency plans, a major mapping project has been carried out under the direction of oil
companies and the autorities. In the project period, the number of sea birds has been mapped
from M~re og Romsdal to Finnmark and the Barents Sea. Areas for nesting, moulting, over-
wintering and migration patterns at sea have been mapped. The polar bears' movements on
Svalbard and in the western Barents Sea have been monitored and mapped with the help of
satellites. Small radio transmitters have been fixed to the bears' neck.

2.5 Risk of pollution

The low temperature in the northern regions means that the means pollution of an oil spill will
very slowly disperse. The effect on the animal and marine life is very undesirable. Operations

405
in the Barents Sea must therefore be carried out even more safely than in the North Sea. The
oil spill contingency must be increased compared to other areas.
As a part of the oil spill contingency planning, OKN carried out a project which simulated a
spill of 100 tons of oil per hour at seven locations in the Norwegian and Barents Sea. The
simulation has been based on weather conditions mapped over a period of 30 years. The
oilspills' drift-trajectory, spreading, evaporation, drift time and degradation have been simulated.
Biological degradation and damage to eggs, larves and young fish have also been studied as a
part of the project.
In spring 1993, 30 tonnes of oil was released in the ice to study the drift and disperse in the
ice. The knowledge will help to develop oil drift models and methods to combat oil spill in ice
covered areas.
The risk of pollution lead to the requirement that the technical solutions shall be especially
reliable so that oil spills do not occur. The requirement regarding cleaning of produced and
ballast water will therefore be more stringent than in the North Sea. Use of oil-based drilling
mud must be avoided. The general trend to reduce turbine exhaust gases applies also to the
northern region.

2.6 Infrastructure
At present there is little infrastructure in this area for oil and gas production. There is a
possibility of repairing ships and rigs in Kirkenes (Kimek) and there is mechanical industry in
Murmansk. The question may be raised whether new industry for short-term contracts should
be established. The existing supply bases in Harstad and Hammerfest should however, be
expanded, and cooperation with the Russians should be developed. It will also be necessary to
establish oil and gas landing sites, possibly with an LNG installation, power station and local
distribution network for gas, e.g. in the Murmansk area, and with shipment terminals for
stabilised crude oil.

2.7 Distance to the market

The long distance to the market makes production of gas in the Barents Sea challenging. At
present, there is no spot market for LNG and long-term contracts must be signed before an LNG
installation is built. Even greater gas volumes and contracts will be needed before building of
a gas pipeline from the north to the European market can be considered. The distance from
Murmansk to The Bay of Bothnia and down through the Baltic to Poland is for example 2,500
km.
As regards the transport of oil from Northern Norway or from the Kola peninSUla to refineries
in Western Europe, the distance is not particularly problematic. The most modern refinery
(Mongstad) lies 4-5 days sailing from a possible onshore terminal in the north.

3 THE STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES

3.1 Division of the Barents Sea into zones

As regards environmental and climatic factors, the Barents Sea may be roughly divided into
three essentially different zones:
A zone which is ice-free all year in the south-west part where ice-floes may
occur, but where icebergs are rare. In this normally ice-free zone, there will be
a risk of drift ice and smaller icebergs from time to time. Precautions must be
taken to handle such situations. Otherwise, the conditions in this zone resemble
the conditions in other parts on the Norwegian Continental Shelf.
A zone where sea ice occurs in some years, but where the probability of icebergs
is small. In the part of the Barents Sea, the installations must be designed so that
they can withstand the forces from the surrounding, moving ice cover.

406
 The rest of the Barents Sea, which is covered with ice every winter. The ice-
period will be longer, the ice will be thicker and the probability of icebergs will
increase towards north. In this area of the conditions will more resemble those
found in Alaska and offshore the Canadian East Coast, than offshore Norway.

3.2 Drilling
Through two winter seasons, from October 1987 to May 1988 and from November 1988 to
March 1989, Statoil carried out an extensive project regarding drilling in the Barents Sea
through the winter months.
The experience with "Ross Rig" in the season 1987/88 showed that, 22 hours (0.5%) of
shutdown in operations were registered. Only 6 hours of this was due to the cold weather. In
the season 1988/89, there were no shutdowns due to environmental factors. In fact these
numbers are lower than for the North Sea.

3.3 Platform structures and subsea installations

3.3.1 Ice-free areas

It may be assumed that the same type of installations as utilized on the rest of the Norwegian
Continental Shelf may be used. However, some additional requirements must be noted:
Mobile installations must be able to withstand the forces from occasional drift ice, and it
should be possible to move them if particularly dangerous situations occur. It may be necessary
to have monitoring systems for warning and forecasting of sea ice and icebergs.
Fixed installations must be able to withstand forces which may occur in the event of drift ice
and icebergs.
Subsea installations may be used as otherwise on the Norwegian Continental Shelf.

3.3.2 Areas with winter ice

In areas where winter ice occurs, the movement of the ice with the tide in certain areas is so
large that mobile installations may only be used if production occurs during the ice-free periods.
Where there is possibility for ice, fixed platforms seem to be the most likely alternative.
Fixed installations in this area must be able to withstand the forces that may arise due to large
ice floes moving with the tide and the wind. It will be necessary to map forces which occur due
to such movements. It is assumed that it will be possible to forecast the movements of any
icebergs in this area and establish means to avoid that they collide with the platforms.
While cone-shaped structures (Fig. 11) are considered best for use in shallow waters to break
up the ice around the platform, it may be possible to consider use of a cone-shaped ring which
is to be placed around the platform shafts in the water line when the weather conditions are such
that winter ice is expected (Fig. 12).
This ring does not need to be installed at times when the waves are high, since it will increase
the wave forces on the platform. It may be possible to have the ring installed on the platform's
base and to lift it into place in the event of winter-ice.
Alternatively, it may be possible to design the platform-shafts against forces which occur in
ice which moves with the tide (Sanderson, 1988). It is assumed that it will be necessary to use
concrete in order to achieve sufficient strength. Should there be a need for a platform with
several shafts, it must be noted that an ice ridges can form between the shafts and that forces
from the moving ice may increase greatly if the distance between the shafts is less than approx.
6 shaft diameters (Sanderson, 1988).
Concrete platforms can be constructed in the north. Efficiency decreases, however, when the
temperature falls, and it is expensive to establish new construction docks. It may therefore be
necessary to use already existing building sites. The transport for example from
Hinnavagen/Gandsfjorden is regarded as being unproblematic. As regards development in the

407
Russian sector of the Barents Sea, cooperation between Norway and Russia seems possible
(Boconor seminar, 1990).

3.3.3 Areas with winter ice and icebergs

In areas near permanent sea ice and icebergs,jixed installations must be designed to withstand
the force of the ice. The base must be secured against horizontal sliding due to the enormous
horizontal forces of the ice. The installations must furthennore be secured against icebergs
possibly colliding with the deck. It is assumed that the type of platform which is being built for
Hibernia in 80 m water depth (Fig. 13) represents an interesting solution. Further development
of this platform is required if it is to be used in deeper waters. The volume of concrete may be
very large.
In shallower waters, cone-shaped platforms or re-claimed islands may be used. There is
experience with work in such areas from Canada and Alaska.
Subsea installations may only be used if the risk of a collision with deep-floating icebergs is
very small. Alternatively, such installations must be buried. In some cases where the icebergs
are particularly large, we cannot exclude that it will be impossible to plan acceptable platfonn
solutions and that all production must be carried out with the use of subsea installations which
will not be accessible in the winter months.
Mobile platforms may be used for a short period during the summer months. It is assumed that
they could be moved if any icebergs drift within range.

3.4 Pipelines/two-phase flow

It is difficult to establish routes for pipelines in the Barents Sea since the seabed has
depressions after grounded icebergs in all directions (Rekdal, 1988). It will therefore be
necessary to place support elements, e.g. rock fills where the pipelines cross these depressions.
The seabed in the Barents Sea has mostly a thin layer of cover material on top of very hard
layers. It may be very difficult to bury pipelines, and these must be designed with a weight so
that they withstand contact with trawlboards without being displaced.
In shallower water (100-200 meters and shallower) where there is a possibility that icebergs
may scrape the seabed, the pipelines must be buried. This may require blasting work on the
seabed, something which is technically complicated and very expensive.
In pipe landing areas pipelines should be buried so that they are not exposed to ice and wave
action. In several cases it will be advantageous to use tunnels for landing the pipelines.
In the past few years, two-phase flow technology has developed rapidly and a mixture of oil
and gas can be transported over long distances (70 km or more), if the mixture does not contain
much wax (Englemann and Torp, 1990). In some cases it is also possible to transport untreated
well stream. Since it is expensive to operate offshore process installations, and particularly
expensive in the north, two-phase or multi-phase flow must be considered. It may also be
necessary to heat the pipelines with induced alternating current in order to prevent build-up of
wax in two-phase pipelines. In the past few years, subsea pumps have been developed and it is
expected that these will be qualified for use during the next few years.

3.5 Manufacture and transport of equipment

The low temperatures in the north means that construction should be carried out inside covered
workshops, in order to be able to compete with companies in other parts of Norway and on the
Continent The size of available halls will limit the technology. Transport from yards in the
south is however time-consuming and expensive so that repairs should be carried out locally.
The size of units which may be repaired locally must be assessed.
It is assumed that supply bases will be located in ice-free harbours and that transport of heavy
equipment will take place during periods when the sea is ice-free. This applies also to
installation of platforms and modules. Note that this does not restrict the technology which is

408
used. but the schedule for the work must be adapted to ice-free periods. Transport of
equipment to platform's which are surrounded by sea ice will require the help of ice-breakers.
[t is assumed that production platforms, which require an ice-breaker assisted supply service.
need to have particularly large storage of drilling equipment. etc., so that supply from the
onshore base can be reduced to a minimum .
As regards the transport of oil products, reinforced ship hulls must be used so that oil
pollution is avoided if ships have to pass through ice. It is assumed that pipeline transport to ice-
free areas is most likely.

3.6 Contingency plans

In the case of operations in the north. a good contingency plan against pollution and other
emergency situations will be necessary. This contingency plan will involve helicopters, supply
vessels and rescue service, as well as warning against icebergs.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The Barents Sea is a hostile and vulnerable environment that represents great challenges to the
oil industry. The risk and the cost will be high. Large reservoirs have to be found before
development can take place.

5 REFERENCES

Boconor Seminar arranged for Russian business interests by the company Boconor. The
Norwegian Embassy in Moscow, lO September 1990.
E. Englemann and T.A. Torp: "The Poseidon project and the future of multi-phase production" .
Offshore North Sea, Stavanger, August 1990.
O.T. Gudmestad, P. Strass, I. Satre and G. Svensen: "The need for technological cooperation
in the Barents Sea" . Talk at seminar on "Norwegian-Russian cooperation in the North", Narvik,
September 1990.
R.M. Larsen, T. Fjaran, O. Skarpnes; "Hydrocarbon potential of the Norwegian Barents Sea
based on recent well results" . Presented at conference arranged by the Norwegian Petroleum
Society in TromS!/l in August 1990.
The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate: "Regulations for the petroleum activity", Stavanger
1993.
O. Rekdal; "Petroleum development in the Barents Sea (North of 70°N)". Proc. World
Petroleum Congress, 1988.
T.J.O. Sanderson; "Ice Mechanics, Risk to Offshore Structures". Graham and Trotman, London
1988.

6 FIGURES

Figure 11 Breaking up of sea ice with cone-shaped constructions. Nott:: that the ice
builds up around the platform
409
 Figure I Water depths In the Barents Sea

Figure 2
Significant wave height ~ and associated peak period T p with annual
probability or exceedance or lO'l, The iso-curves for the wave heights
have been shown in full lines, For the wave periods a dashed line has
been usod INFO. 1993)

Figure 3
Polar depreSSion (polar low pressure), satellite photO
Figure 4
Highest and lowest air temperaru.res with annual probability of
exceedance of 10'1, The tigures are given in degrees Celsius (NPD.
1993)

410
 !lD !JI

Figure 6 Annual extreme limit ot sea Ice

Figure 5 Extreme limit of sc:l.-ice dunng 1979-1985

Figure 1 Drift of icebergs in the BarentS Sea (Norwegian Polar Resean:h

Figure 8
lnstltu~)

Typical iceberg north of Bj0moY3 (PhotO P. Str:I.!S. Statal!)

411
 Figure 9

Observauon of iceberg in the period 1899· 1928.llx = aver:lge h!vel of

ma.ximum southern limit o r iceberp in Apnl (from OSA Defence
Mapping Agency. Pilot ch:ll1S. 1983 ) Figure 10

Satellite photo of ice conditions nonh .....est of Bj0m0Ya. Note the ellipse
shaped traces which show the icebe~s and the ice's movementS with
the tide -

Figure 12

Breaking up of sea ice with a cone-shaped ring in the water line

(possible u::chnologicaJ solution for areas with sea icc)

Platfol1TI for :l.reas with icebergs, ref. Hibernia in Canadian waters.

41 2
ICEBERG AND GLACIER MAPPING USING SATELLITE OPTICAL IMAGERY
DURING THE BARENTS SEA ICE DATA ACQUISITION PROGRAM (IDAP)

Kjell Kloster Nansen Environmental and Norway

Senior Scientist Remote Sensing center

Walter spring Mobil Research and USA

Ph. D. Development Corporation

ABSTRACT

During 1988 - 1992, the Operator Committee North of 62 0 N (OKN)

carried out a program to obtain sea ice and iceberg data in the
Barents Sea called the "Ice Data Acquisition Program (IDAP)". In
March 1988, many icebergs were found, grounded on the shallows
called the Spitsbergenbanken, between Hopen and Bj~rn~ya. Many
of these icebergs were suspected to originate from the Franz
Joseph Land Archipelago and mapping of glacier fronts, and nearby
icebergs, by the use of SPOT and Landsat imagery was performed.

The results showed that several glaciers were active producers

of icebergs. In particular, the "Renown Glacier" on Wilczek Land
was identified as a major producer of icebergs. Icebergs greater
than 1 km in length were observed in most years studied. The
frontal position of glaciers was measured in order to detect
signs of rapid advance or retreat. Movements of up to 600 m were
observed.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the late 1970 's, oil company operators, in the Norwegian

offshore region north of 62 0
N, formed an organization called
Operator Committee North (OKN) to obtain environmental data

413
required by all operators. The following companies are presently
members of the OKN: BP, Conoco, Elf, Esso, Hydro, Mobil,
Phillips, Saga, Shell, Statoil and Total. Under the OKN R&D
Committee, several programs were established to obtain physical
environmental data required by all operators for exploration
purposes. The Ice Data Acquisition Program (IDAP) was formed in
late 1987 to obtain data on the sea ice and iceberg environment
of the Barents Sea. Companion papers, presented in this
conference, by spring and Sangolt, by Spring, Vinje and Jensen
and by L(I)vcis, Spring and Holm, provide a description of the 5
year IDAP program, detailed results of annual field expeditions
and stereographic analysis of aerial photography of icebergs and
sea ice respectively.

Early in the IDAP program, it was found that icebergs are

present in large numbers. In March 1988, 207 were found on the
spitsbergenbanken by the field expedition performed that year
(Spring, et.al, 1993). The presence of these icebergs was also
confirmed in an airborne SAR project performed in March (Bercha
et.al. 1989) and in a satellite imagery analysis project (Kloster
and Flesche, 1989). In both of these studies, the detection of
icebergs was made easier by the wake created when sea ice
traveled past the grounded icebergs. Free floating icebergs were
not positively identified in either of these two stUdies. Data
from the meteorological stations at Hopen and Bj(l)rn(l)ya, reviewed
in Vinje 1985, suggested that less than 50 icebergs would be
present at anyone time. A study of SPOT images (Vinje, 1989)
found 54 possible icebergs in April 1987, most near Kong Karls
Land, and many possible icebergs in March 1988 southwest of
Hopen.

The unexpected presence of this large number of icebergs lead

to a search of possible glacial calving sources on the Svalbard
and Franz Joseph Land (FJL) Archipelagos. This search was
carried out visually on the glaciers of the Svalbard Archipelago,
but had to be performed by analysis of satellite imagery for the

414
glaciers on FJL. Kloster and Flesche, 1989, investigated the
western FJL islands using a Landsat image and found several
icebergs frozen in the sea ice off Georga Land. In Kloster 1991,
Landsat imagery from 1983, 1985 and 1986-89 were investigated,
along with SPOT imagery from 1986. In Kloster 1992, Landsat
imagery from 1991 were investigated.

2. LANDSAT AND SPOT IMAGERY

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Multispectral Scanner (MSS)

and SPOT High Resolution Visual (HRV) imagery were used in both
studies. These satellites are in polar orbits with good coverage
of the areas around 80 N. Landsat coverage repeats every 16
0

days and data is acquired regularly in Kiruna between spring

(April-May) and fall (September-October). SPOT's exact coverage
is not only orbit dependent, but also dependent upon the actual
acquisition plan and the sideways steering capability of the
instrument. The mapping of large areas such as the FJL
Archipelago benefits from the use of the larger Landsat scenes of
190 km size, as compared to the smaller SPOT scene of 60 km size.

The Landsat TM-sensor was found to be best suited to the

project. It has several channels in the visual/near-IR part of
the spectrum and its resolution is 30m. Channel 4 (0.8 JJ.
wavelength) was found to be the best choice for ice imagery. The
MSS-sensor, with an 80 m resolution, and channel 7 (also at
approximately 0.8 JJ.) were used if TM was not available. The
availability of SPOT HRV images was more limited than Landsat
imagery and it was only used for smaller-area high-resolution
mapping. The HRV-sensor yields imagery with either 3
multispectral (XS) channels, each with 20 m resolution, or one
broad "panchromatic" channel (0.5 JJ. 0.7 JJ.) with 10 m
resolution. Depending upon image availability, both imagery
types were used in the project.

Iceberg detection is obviously dependent upon size since

415
smaller icebergs with dimensions approaching the instrument
resolution are difficult to detect. Icebergs, with the smallest
linear dimension at least 2-3 pixels in size, can be detected
based on one or more of the following signatures:
1) the detection of a shadow,
2) the reflection of the bright sun-facing part of the
iceberg,
3) the texture or albedo characteristics of large, tabular
icebergs, and
4) the detection of a lead or wake created by the
differential movement of sea ice and icebergs.

Several environmental parameters also strongly affect iceberg

detection capability. These include, sun height which determines
the length of a shadow and also the contrast between a sun-facing
iceberg side and surroundings. The type of surroundings (smooth
ice, rough ice or water) determines the shadow visibility.
Icebergs, surrounded by smooth ice, are most easily detected,
based upon signatures 1 to 3 above.

The accuracy of the iceberg dimensions measured is on the same

order as the instrument resolution. Most of the measurements
were made on the Nansen image system using CCT data, with high
magnification and contrast. Thus the accuracy varied from 80 m
with Landsat MSS data to 30 m with Landsat TM and down to 10 m
with SPOT HRV-panchromatic imagery.

Glacier fronts can be traced along their length since most

fronts are clearly defined. When compared with the front
position from another image, the front I s variation in position
can be used as an indicator of glacier activity. Most of the
work on glacier activity was performed using Landsat TM prints
with a scale 1:250 000 which provides an accuracy of
approximately 0.3 mm. This corresponds to 75 m accuracy in
glacier front position and the front variations are expected to
be within about plus or minus 100 m.

416
 Accurate ice mapping by optical imagery requires clear weather.
At FJL, only a very limited number of all available scenes can
actually be used since most days have heavy clouds or fog. From
all available scenes, 23 scenes, from the years 1983-90 covering
as much of the islands as possible, were selected for analysis in
the first project (Kloster, 1991). The scenes were not evenly
spaced in time. For 1983, only one MSS scene was available,
while in 1984 no clear scene was found. The years 1985 and 1990
also had a very limited choice of scenes. Only two HRV-XS SPOT
scenes, from 1986, were used, all other imagery analyzed were TM
scenes.

After the results of the first project, the mapping was

continued with a second project (Kloster 1992) with special
attention to the "Renown or Famous Glacier" (80.48 0 N, 61.6 0 E)
on the east coast of Wilczek Land. Two Landsat TM scenes and two
SPOT-panchromatic scenes for 1991 were used in this study.

3. STUDY RESULTS AT FJL

FJL consists of a large number of islands. The largest is

Prince George Land with a
length of about 100 km. About 55 60 65

15 islands are longer than 30

km and about 20 are longer than
20 km. A map of the major
islands is shown in Fig. 1.
The positions of the 12 largest
valley glaciers, all with snow
accumulation areas more than
100 sq km, are shown in Fig. 1.
The three largest are on
Figure of Franz Joseph Land.
Wilczek Land, the largest is
The 12 largest glaciers are numbered
the "Renown Glacier" on the after size. Duplicate numbers imply
glaciers are similar in size.
east coast with an area of
about 380 sq km' In the vicinity of this island an unusually

417
large number of large tabular icebergs were found.

Late summer images, with open water in front of the glacial ice
providing a large contrast in the image, were found to be best
for glacier front mapping. Glacier activity was measured as the
average advance/retreat of the front during two time periods: 1)
July 1986 - Aug. 1987, and 2) Aug. 1987 - Aug. 1988. About 25
glaciers showed a motion of 200 m or more in one or both periods.
the largest motion was 600 m. Glaciers in the eastern part
showed more activity than glaciers in the western part of FJL.

It was found that an iceberg is best detected and measured in

early spring, when it is surrounded by smooth sea ice and has a
long shadow caused by a low sun. Large icebergs were generally
tabular, with a height above sea level (freeboard) varying from 5
m to 20 m as measured from shadows on the Wilczek Island SPOT HRV
imagery from 1991.

Icebergs were usually found concentrated in front of large

glaciers and also in some shallow areas where many were assumed
grounded. contrary to the situation on shallow banks far from
land, such as on spitsbergenbanken in the Barents Sea where long
tidal/current-generated loops of crushed ice were seen trailing
after grounded icebergs, no
such wakes have been seen in 80 85
the FJL imagery. Fig. 2 shows
the main locations of larger
icebergs, from spring 1987 and
1988 when most of FJL was )~' 81
mapped by cloud free imagery,
and also from early summer of
1991 when only the eastern
\;-C5:"..o;:.....,~_ _ _t180
part was analyzed.

Fiqure 2. Filled circles are

In 1987, approximately 90 areas of icebergs, May 1987 and
icebergs with their largest April 1988. Crosses are large
icebergs in boundary (dashed
line), June 1991.

418
 ~""'I,.
-~...~

,
I (i

,..:

a ) MSS 15.May 1983. c) TM 2.May 1989.

b) TM 9.April 1988. d ) HRV 22.Apri11991

Fig.3. Satellite images of Renown Glacier front and icebergs.

419
dimension (length) of more than 100 m were measured, of these 17
icebergs had a length over 400 m and the largest was 1260 m long.
In 1988 the corresponding numbers were 120 icebergs longer than
100 m, 24 icebergs longer than 400 m and 1110 m for the longest.
The total area of these icebergs was found to be approximately 7
sq km in 1987 and 9 sq km in 1988. The fact that a larger
number of icebergs were detected in 1988 than in 1987 could have
been caused by a lower sun altitude in 1988.

In 1991, only the eastern part of FJL, about 65% of the

archipelago, was mapped in late spring. The total area of
icebergs more than 100 m long within this area was estimated to
be roughly 4 sq km in early June 1991. Since large areas of
water, with the associated difficulty of detecting icebergs, were
present, the above estimate is probably conservative. compared
with the areas found in 1987 and 1988, it was concluded that the
number of icebergs and their size distribution do not change
greatly from year to year within the analyzed time period of the
two studies.

The majority of the larger icebergs were found on the east

coast of Wilczek Land, not far from the
largest glacier on FJL, marked 1. in Fig.
1, called the "Renown Glacier".
This
glacier is also one of the most active on
FJL. Figure 3 provides examples of
satellite imagery showing the glacier and
icebergs. The front has an overall
length of about 7 km, its middle portion,
of 4 km length, showed a retreat of 600 m
between 1986 and 1989. In 1991 it had
advanced 500 m from the position in 1989;
see Fig. 4.

The area of the icebergs observed in

5km
I

front of the glacier has been estimated

Figure 4. Glacier front
1986-91, from Landsat TM
prints.

420
to 3 sq km in 1987, to 5 sq km in 1988, to 4 sq km in 1989, and
to at least 3 sq km in 1991. This is almost half of the total
iceberg area measured in the FJL area, showing that this glacier
must be a major source of large icebergs. Many of the icebergs
observed here were also very large, up to 0.5 sq km. Table 1
shows the number of icebergs detected as a function of length.

'l'able 1. Number of 'bergs with given length at Renown Glacier.

Year 100 m 400 m 700 m >1000 m Sum Max

-400 m -400 m -1000 m length
May 83 20 2 2 2 26 1200 m

May 87 5 4 I 4 14 1260 m

Apr. 88 5 9 4 4 11 1140 m

May 89 7 8 8 3 26 1410 m

June 91 5* 5* 3 13* 1350 m

* uncertain measurements due to open water in early summer.

As shown by the images in Fig. 3, many large icebergs were

situated along a SW-NE line that was assumed to be an underwater
moraine. In each of the years with imagery, the largest icebergs
had a length between 1140 m and 1410 m. Many of the icebergs
looked very similar from one year to the other. However, in most
cases it is not possible to tell with certainty if they were
actually the same icebergs.

The maximum change in the Renown Glacier front from 1986 to

1989 amounted to 2.4 sq km of ice and this is estimated to be the
minimum area of ice calved into the water. A reliable estimate
of mass balance however is not possible based on satellite
imagery alone. The glacier movement, the amount of glacier ice
that calved off in small pieces and the melted ice are unknown
quantities.

421
 The glacier marked "8" in Fig. 1, on the west coast of Wilczek
Land, is formed as a tongue that has advanced almost 3 sq km into
the sea between 1986 and 1991. Only medium sized icebergs have
been observed in its neighborhood. This glacier will probably
produce a large number of icebergs when it starts to decrease.

The glacier marked "5" on the Wilczek Island south coast has
produced a large number of small and medium sized icebergs, under
400 m in length, that were scattered in the bay in front of the
glacier. The total area of these icebergs was 0.5 sq km. The
front is probably active but very difficult to measure since it
is not clearly defined due to the large amount of rubble present.

The second and the third largest of the FJL glaciers, marked
"2" and "3" in Fig. 1 are both on the north coast of Wilczek
Land. They were found to be active, with a moderate number of
medium to small icebergs seen near their fronts, and also in the
channel between Wilczek and La Ronciere Islands. On the SPOT HRV
image in 1991, a large number of icebergs, up to 580 m in length
were observed in this channel. Many of the largest were close to
the shore of La Ronciere. since this island has a dome type
glacier that has showed no sign of activity, it was assumed that
a majority of the icebergs detected originated from the two
Wilczek Island glaciers and were carried out into the channel.
It is also possible that some had come from the Renown Glacier.
The total iceberg area in the channel was found to be 1.2 sq km.

Other large and active glaciers were also found on the east coast
of Prince George Land and on Hall Island. Their production of
large icebergs however, appeared to be much less than from the
glaciers on Wilczek Land.

4. SUMMARY

The use of satellite imagery has proven to be an effective tool

in the mapping of glacier fronts and icebergs in a remote or

422
inaccessible environment. Landsat imagery, because of its larger
format, was effective in providing an overview of the region and
in detecting icebergs whose smallest dimension was about 80 m.
SPOT imagery, because of its greater resolution, was able to
provide very detailed information about selected regions.

In the two studies reported upon in this paper, the use of

satellite imagery was able to confirm that FJL was the major
source of icebergs in the Barents Sea. In particular, the Renown
Glacier, on Wilczek Land, was shown to be one of the major, if
not the main, source of icebergs. In each of the years
investigated, at least one iceberg over 1 kID in length was
observed near the glacier.

The confirmed presence of FJL as a large source of icebergs

lead to a field expedition in September 1992 to this region.
Details of this project are provided in spring et al 1993.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is based upon studies carried out for the IDAP
effort. The technical and financial support of the members and
of the Operator committee North of 62° N is acknowledged.

6. REFERENCES

Bercha International, Inc., 1989: "Final Report on SAR Imagery

Analysis". Report to IDAP Members, 95 pp + 4 appendices.

Kloster, K., 1991: "Satellite Analysis of Glaciers on Zemlya

Franca Iosifa". NERSC Technical Report No. 42 to IDAP Members. 21
pp + 4 appendices.

Kloster, K., 1992: "Satellite Analysis of Icebergs and Glaciers

on Zemlya Franca Iosifa in 1991". NERSC Technical Report No. 57

423
to IDAP Members. 22 pp.

Kloster, K. and H. Flesche, 1989: "Satellite Imagery, Summary

Report". NERSC Technical Report No. 21 to IDAP Committee, 6 pp.

Spring, w., T. vinje, H, Jensen, 1993: "Iceberg and Sea Ice data
Obtained in the Annual Expeditions of the Barents Sea Ice Data
Acquisition Program (IDAP)". Paper being presented at POAC '93,
Hamburg Germany, August 1993.

Vinje, T., 1985: "Drift, Composition, Morphology and Distribution

of Sea Ice Fields in the Barents Sea", Norske Polarinstitutt
Skrifter, Nr. 179C, 26 pp.

Vinje, T., 1989: "Icebergs in the Barents Sea". Proceedings of

the 8th International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
(OMAE) Conference, March 19-23, The Hague, Netherlands.

424
 PRODUCTION OF ICEBERGS AND OBSERVED EXTRE:VIE DRIFT SPEEDS IN
THE BARENTS SEA

Sveinung Li/lset SINTEF NOIwegian Hydro- Norway

Dr.ing.lResearch Manager technical Laboratory

Torkild Carstens SINTEF Norweegian Hydro- Nlllway

Professor/Head of Research technical Laboratory

ABSTRACT

The amount of calving from an ice margin is determined by the rate of glacier advance. The
launching of an iceberg requires a glacier terminating in the sea. The size of the berg is deter-
mined by the thickness of the glacier and the water depth at the sea face. Large glaciers produce
large icebergs only if they flow into deep water, becoming floating ice shelfs before calving. If
the glacier is grounded at its front, the calving results in advanced fragmentation to smaller bergs
and bergy bits.
The circulation in the northern Barents Sea carries the icebergs in a south-westerly direction past
Hopen, to decay in the Bj0rn0ya waters, where they encounter the North-Atlantic Current.
ARGOS satellite transmitters deployed on icebergs provided tracking. The drift paths yield aver-
age drift speeds between satellite passes, which in these high latitudes is every hour. Dynamic
ice drift models require input of iceberg shape, ocean currents etc that is unavailable. Statistics
of iceberg drift speeds is readily obtru.ned from the ARGOS data.
The paper discusses the production of icebergs in the Barents Sea and highlights drift and ob-
served extreme drift speeds of two icebergs which were tagged with satellite positioning buoys
in 1987. Drift speeds exceeding I m/s are often reported for short periods, but we logged a maxi-
mum speed of 1.38 m1s and an unprecedented average speed of 1.13 m1s during a 31 hour period
with strong tailwind.

425
 1. INTRODUCTION

Exploitation of ot! and gas involve a number of activities in the different phases of the develop-
ment of an oiVgas field. Normally 11 starts with coarse seismic surveying to map the geology of
the sea bed. [t may continue with analysis of the seismic data to identify possible promising geo-
11lgll:a1 layers which later are more thoroughly investigated by fine-gridded seismic shooting and
refined analysis.
[f the seismic is promising the development may continue with exploration drilling. All these
phases require the physical environment to be quantified in order to ensure safe operations related
to human safety, regularity and safety of the vesseVstructure and protection of the environment.
For instance, to assess the nature loads on structures we must have a substantial knowledge of
the seasonal intrusion of icebergs.
Only glaciers with a floating terminus (ice shelf) may produce large icebergs. The production
rate of icebergs, size distribution, drift velocities and tracks, and statistics on such data are of
particular interest to planners of marine operations and logistics in the Barents Sea. Except for
sporadic observations by early explorers and scientists such data did not exist for these waters
until 1987. The number of icebergs produced from glaciers that terminate in the Barents Sea
could only be loosely estimated by studying historical data. To augment these scanty data for the
western Barents Sea. the multi-sensor ice data acquisition programme ICEBASE was camed out
during three field campaigns in the mid winter and fall of 1987. The programme was funded by
BP Petroleum Development, Esso Norge a.s and Mobil Exploration Norway Inc.

2. SOURCES OF ICEBERGS IN THE BARENTS SEA

2.1. Icebergs from Svalbard

It is easy to predict which glaciers can produce large icebergs. and it is also easy. at least in
principle. to trace the origin by means of ice temperature measurements. As demonstrated by
L0set (l993a: 1993b), the temperature of the parent glacier is preserved in the Interior of
icebergs.
To predict the source strength, say, in annual calved volume of ice (V) is much more difficult.
The amount of calving from an ice margin is influenced by crevassing within the glacier and by
the rate of glacier flow. The iceberg yield must be a certain fraction Pb of the net annual precipi-

tation P of the glacier catchment At. The calved iceberg volume may be estimated by the simple

relation

426
 (1)

Present estimates for the 1.7 million km 3 Greenland Ice Sheet are, in terms of water equiva-
lents, given in Table I (Weidick, 1984). Here the accumulation corresponds to a net precipitation
per year of 0.29 rnJyear and Ph equals 0.4.

Table I. Balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Process Fraction of total

Accumulation 500 ± 100

Melting 300 ± 100 0.6
Calving 0.4
200 ± 100

Carstens et al. (1989a) made the experiment of transferring the calf-ice percentages of the
accumulation from Greenland to Svalbard. By applying Eq. (1) and assuming the following
parameter values for eastern Svalbard:

Ai =12700 kml

P =0.3 m/year
Ph=OA

they derived a calved iceberg volume of 1.5 km 3/year .

When studying sources and production of icebergs, it is important to bear in mind the thickness
of the glacier and the water depth at the sea face. The size of the calved ice is determined by
whether the glacier terminus is grounded or afloat. In principle tabular and pinnacled icebergs
are produced in addition to fragmented ice (bergy bits and growlers). Figure I illustrates the
calving of tabular icebergs from a glacier terminating in an ice shelf.

427
Figure l. Schematic of ice shelf.

Icebergs originating from glaciers terminating in Storfjorden do not contribute to the iceberg
hazard we are presently concerned with. The reason is that the bathymetry prevents all but small
pieces of ice to enter the Barents Sea. Thus excluding Storfjorden the Svalbard archipelago con-
tains about 350 Ian of tidewater ice cliffs that terminate in the Barents Sea (Figure 2). Ice caps
and large outlet glaciers predominate in eastern Svalbard, and these ice cliffs produce both tabu-
lar and irregular icebergs.

SVALBARD

I' I
"... J

Figure 2. Glaciers on Svalbard.

428
 Stonebreen and the eastern Austfonna tenninate in long sections of shelf ice. Both these glaciers
produce tabular icebergs which are usually rectangular In plane due to the presence of large cre-
vasses trending parallel to the tenninal ice shelf (Dowdeswell, 1989).
There are no data which can give a reliable estimate of the yearly production of iceberg mass
In eastern Svalbard. However, on the basis of measurements of glacier surface velocities of about
38 m/year on Nordaustlandet, Dowdeswell and Drewry (1989) offer an estimate of the annual
rate of iceberg production of 0.1 km 3 for the 20 km interface with marine waters of Austfonna.
The average tenninus thickness is approximately 130 m. Assuming a similar average movement
of the remaining tidewater ice cliffs on eastern Svalbard and an average thickness of 100 m, the
first approximation for the annual production rate of iceberg mass (bergy bits and icebergs) is
in the order of 1.3 km 3• Large fluctuations of this figure can be expected, since the Svalbard
glaciers are known to surge (Liest¢l, 1969). During surges the velocities can be several km/year.
The frequency of surges is decades, so in most years the calving rate is low.

2.2. Icebergs from Franz Josef Land and other eastern sources

It is evident that the big source of glacier ice in the Barents Sea is the archipelago Franz Josef
Land. This archipelago consists of about 40 islands (most of them ice-capped) which include
approximately 2600 km of tidewater ice cliffs. Many of the islands are surrounded by deep water
so there must be substantial areas of floating ice shelves and a correspondingly high production
of large tabular icebergs.
We have no infonnation on the surging of these glaciers. Assuming it to be similar to the surg-
ing on Svalbard, swarms of icebergs to be shed with long intervals from each island, followed
by long periods (decades) with low iceberg production, can be expected.
By examining precipitation and catchments, Eq. (I), Carstens et al. (l989a) assessed the calved
iceberg volume to 3.0 km3/year for the Franz losef Land archipelago. The current pattern and
circulation in these waters argue for half of this iceberg production to go directly mto the Barents
Sea (1.5 km 3/ year).
By contrast the large glacier along the spine Novaya Zemlya has relatively few kilometres of
ocean front. These fronts tenninate mostly in shallow waters and cannot produce large icebergs.
Sandford (1955) summarizes observations of icebergs in the Barents Sea and adjacent waters
made by explorers and scientists from 1861 onwards. Based on notes from the sporadic surveys,
he concludes that the glaciers on Franz losef Land periodically have produced streams of
icebergs floating with the Polar drift. Based on observations he also regards Severnaya Zemlya
as a possible long distance supply of tabular icebergs.
Finally icebergs in the Barents Sea may descend from the advection of ice masses from ice

429
islands dnfting in the Arctic Gyre. Calved Ice masses form icebergs which may dnft into the
Barents Sea between Nordaustlandet and Franz Josef Land.

2.3. Drift governing equations of icebergs

The drift of an iceberg is governed by the pressure distribution acting on its sUli"ace (Carsten~

et al., 1989b). Hence the momentum equation for the iceberg may be written as

du '
m __ = -mofkxu + ~p C A lu -u I(u -u)
, dt , /2oaaOlal
(2)
+ ~p C A lu
-u I(u -u) + F g + F r + F ,
2WWWWIWI

where", is the iceberg drift velocity, m, = mo,(l +Cm ) and rna, is the mass of iceberg, and C m

is added mass coefficient. ". and "w represent wind and current velocities respectively. Pw'P'

are the densities of water and air. Cw ' C, are water- and air-drag coefficients and A w ' A, are the

iceberg's current- and wind-exposed areas. f is the Coriolis parameter and k the unit vector in

the vertical. F g is gravity force due to surface tilt , F, radiation stress due to the reflection of

surface gravity waves and F, is the forces exerted on the iceberg by adjacent sea ice.
Extensive data on population and movement of icebergs have been collected for the last two
decades off the Canadian East Coast (Cheema and Ahuja. 1978; Robe et al .. 1980; Ball et al..
1981). Some of these data are compared with environmental factors that affect iceberg drift and
several quantitauve assessments of the iceberg forcing are given. These models assume that the
current is the primary driving force (Venkatesh et al., 1990).
The iceberg is here treated as a vertical current integrator due to its draft. Assume that the total
current field v is composed of a slowly varymg residual current Vo and a sum of components

derived from the deterministic tidal potential

(3)

where An is the amplitude on the nth udal component. (On represents frequency and an the phase

of the fl th component. Integrated over an area at sea where the tidal com ponents can be assumed
constant, it is seen that the average current-driven iceberg drift is mamly governed by the
pressure of the residual current acting on the iceberg. If we assume stochastic wind the average
trajectories and movements in open water and in pack ice may be derived approximately from
the residual surface current Vo when this current is integrated over the iceberg draft. Typically

430
this would be the Ekman layer.
The wind speed only has a significant effect on iceberg drift for wind speeds above about 10
m/s. Excluding possible grounding or interlocking by landfast ice, the numerical integratIon llf
Eg. (I) should apply to give a rough estimate of the drift and hence tranMtion time of an iceberg
from the calving ice shelves of Franz Josef Land to the waters of interest in the western Barents
Sea.
Figure 3 shows a simplified picture of the surface current system in the Barents Sea. The map
indicates two main current directions. In the southern part, the currents are towards the east,
while the current direction in the north is westwards and southwards. The influx of Arctic water
to the Barents Sea takes place along two main routes: between Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land
and through the channel between Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya.

Figure 3. SUlt'ace currents in the Barents Sea, Tantsiura (1959).

According to Tantsiura (1959) and Novitskiy (1961) the main part of the Persey Current goes
southwestwards along the eastern slope of Spitsbergenbanken as the Bj~m~ya Current. Their
circulatIon maps show a mean southbound current between Kvit~ya and Franz Josef Land.

431
 The only longtenn measurement reported is for a station west of Kvit0ya (Aagaard et al., 19!G).
A one-year average gave a surface current of 0.02 mls to the north-east. This would suggest a
clockwIse circulation around Kvitl'lya. intensifying the southbound current east of Kvit0ya and
thereby contributing to the possible import of icebergs from the Franz Josef Land waters into the
we~tem Barents Sea.

3. DRIFT

The total number of iceberg sightings of the three field campaigns of ICEBASE was 180. The
highest Iceberg in Stortjorden was 37 m high and had a volume above water line of about
420000 m'. A tabular iceberg south of Svensk¢ya had a sail height of 12 m and the volume
above water line was 872000 m 3• The volumes are estimates from stereo photos.
Two icebergs were equipped with ARGOS positioning buoys. Figure 4 shows photos of both
bergs (Iceberg #3057 and Iceberg #3056). Iceberg #3057 (the first tagged iceberg in the Barents
Sea) was pinnacled with length and width respectively 95 m x 80 m and with a mean height of
II m. The maximum height was 15 m, and based on the actual dimension above the sea surface,
it is reasonable to believe that the maximum draft of the iceberg was 60-90 m. Thus the current
of the water column down to these depths should be considered when interpreting the drift
speeds.
Iceberg #3056 was a tabular berg with a tilt of about 20° . The berg was 100 m x 75 m with
a height of 12 ± 2 m. The original positions and drift tracks of the bergs are shown in Figure 5.

432
Figure 4a. Iceberg #3057 in position 78 a N 13' 31 a E 51 ' , 20 October 1987.

Figure 4b. Iceberg #3056 in position 79 a N 54' 31 a E 18' , 22 October 1987.

433
 !f \.:-- --. .~
s"~"~",,~_~...~.~~
.,.".r

/
I
I
I ../
'" f

I
EJa ~JJ

Figure 5. Drift trajectories of Icebergs #3057 and #3056. Grounded periods are encircled.

Figure 6 shows the time history of the mean drift speed derived from the hourly ARGOS
positions for Julian days 293-335 (20.10.1987 -01.12.1987) for the rwo icebergs. The average drift
speed of the pinnacled iceberg (Iceberg #3057) was 0.25 m/s with a standard deviation (STD )

of ± 0. 22 m/s. For the same period the average drift speed of the tabular berg (Iceberg #305fJ )

was 0.2R m/s (STD of ± 0.20 m/s ).

A special event in the drifting of the two bergs took place during the 4th to the 7th November.
Julian days 308 to 311. 1987. From Figure 6. showing the drift speed of the two iceberg,. it is
seen that there was a sudden increase in the speed for both bergs. From 3 a.m. on the 5th (If

November. Iceberg #3057 drifted with an average speed of 1.13 m/s (STD of ± 0.12 m/s ) for 31

hours. A maximum speed of 1.38 m/s was achieved towards the end of this period (8 a.m. on the
6th of November).
After examining the weather maps (Berliner Wetterkarte. 1987) it is obvious that the drift was
affected by the passing of an atmospheric low. On the 4th of November at 7 p.m. the low was

in position 76 0 N 12 0 E south-west of the southern tip of Spitsbergen. and was moving eastwards.
As the low was moving eastwards it set up a strong northeasterly wind field in the area around
the northern iceberg (Iceberg #3056) from the evening of the 4th of November. After passing
south of the southern iceberg. setting up a northerly wind field also around this icebe rg from the

434
5th, the low moved southwards and became stationary for the next 48 hours. This gave a
stationary northerly wind field for the whole area around the two Icebergs for the next two days.

,
, I--'- I
! ~-r"~~~'-

I I ,I
_. i ! i -L-~-
I I

I r;
-~-.
I
I' I : !
Ii i
I II ! I a)
i I~In I
, I "il I
'" I I I
J ~ I II Il !
~I I!I!I.I r·il II IH, ~MJ ',IUI I
'L "j'IIII' 1.\ ,I I '~11 I~!IU~\, •I JI~ I I

11 '1/1 \
I 'I I I V~ !
Doy

I
I
1
! !
: !
I i
i , i
I , i b)
I I
I , I
N I
,
I 1
I
1.1 i ,iii I II
1-11 W I I lijij' Jih.i 1m it
I .lljl,j' 'IIi-' ~~"'IJI i
Doy

Figure 6. Drift speeds of a) Iceberg #3057, and b) Iceberg #3056.

Figure 7 shows the hindcast geostrophic wind and the observed wind at the meteorological
station on Hopen. If the geostrophic wind is reduced by 1/3 (logarithmic profIle and using von
Kannan's constant) we find a fair agreement between the deduced 10 m surface wind (14 mls)
and the observed wind on Hopen. The wind measurements on Hopen shows a constant wmd
speed of 13-16 mls from the 5th of November to the 7th, with gusts of hurricane strength of up
to 32 mls.

435
 25

• Observe", dt Hopen

20
o Hlndcasl geostrophlC wind

~ 15
.s
"0

'"
~
[/)
10

17/10 22/10 27/10 1111 6/11 11/11 16/11 21/11 26111

Date (1987)

Figure 7. Observed wind on Hopen and hindcast geostrophic wind during the extreme drift
period of Iceberg #3057.

Figure 6 shows that the two icebergs had a different maximum drift speed. This is caused by
the different shape of the two icebergs which gives them different wind drag coefficients.
Another reason for the great maximum speed of the southern iceberg (Iceberg #3057) is that It

is located in the southwesterly Bj0rn0ya Current.

By studying Eqs. (1)-(2) and the current map shown in Figure 3, it is evident that several of
the forcing terms must have acted in the same direction to obtain the extreme drift speed of the
berg. First of all, the extreme drift of Iceberg #3057 is parallel with the southwesterly Bj0rn0ya
Current. This current has a maximum speed of about 0.2 mJs and if we suggest the wind-induced
surface current to be 2 % of the wind speed, we would expect the drift speed of the iceberg to
be about 0.5 mJs.
At the time of buoy deployment Iceberg #3057 was surrounded by consolidated first-year ice.
The first-year ice surface was ridged and a wind factor well above 2 % can be expected.
However. we cannot expect a current above 0.7-0.8 mJs and the extreme drift speed of the berg
can only be explained by a pressure drag force due to high wind pressure on the 10 SIde of the
berg and suction on the lee side.
It is possible that we have underestimated the wind speed. The topography on Hopen shelters
the meteorological station (especially towards southwest and northwest). Thus we can expect a
somewhat higher wind speed at sea. On the other hand, the good agreement between the
geostrophic wind (reduced to sea level) and the observations on Hopen argues for a rather correct
value for the wind speed. However, substantial spatial variations in the wind speed can be
expected (the average distance between Hopen and the drift trajectory of Iceberg #3057 was 130
km during this period).

436
6. CONCLUSIONS

A coarse estimate of the production of icebergs in the Barents Sea based on available precipita-
tion data from the area and the only available melt data, which are from Greenland. Our estI-
mates are that 1.3 km 3/year of icebergs calve into the Barents Sea from Spitsbergen and
1.5 km'/year enters the Barents Sea from Franz Josef Land. The total number of iceberg sight-
mgs of the three field campaigns of ICEBASE was 180. A tabular iceberg south of Svenskj1lya

had a sail height of 12 m and the volume above water line was 872000 m 3 •
The major conclusions of the' two tagged icebergs are as follows:
• The average drift speed of the pinnacled iceberg (Iceberg #3057) was 0.25 mls (STD
of ± 0.22 mls). For the same period the average drift speed of the tabular berg (Iceberg

#3056) was 0.28 mls (SID of ±0.20 mls).

• The drift of an iceberg is governed by the pressure distribution acting on its surface.
Strong wind speeds may have a significant effect on iceberg drift.
• From 3 a.m. on the 5th of November, Iceberg #3057 drifted with an average speed of
1.13 mls (STD of ± 0.12 mls) for 31 hours. A maximum speed of 1.38 mls was
achieved towards the end of this period. A strong tailwind acted on the iceberg during
this extreme drift.
• The wind measurements on Hopen showed a persistent wind speed of 13-16 mls from
the 5th of November to the 7th, with gusts of wind up to 32 m/s.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to extend their appreciation to BP Petroleum Development, Esso Norge a.s
and Mobil Exploration Norway Inc. for their funding of the ICEBASE research programme which
gave us a tirst insight into sources of icebergs, size distributIOn, drift speeds and tracks in the
Barents Sea.

REFERENCES

Ball, P., H.S. Gaskill and R.J. Lopez (1980): Environmental Data Requirements for a Real Time
Iceberg Motion Model. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Port and Ocean
Engineering Under Arctic Conditions, Vol. 3, pp. 1369-1378, Quebec City.

Berliner Wetterkarte (1987): Berliner Wetterkarte A 1950 A, Freitag 6.11.1987 und Sonnabend
7.11.1987, Amtsblatt des Instituts fur Meteoro10gie, Universitet Berlin, ISSN 0177-3984.

437
Carstens. T., S. Vefsnmo, S.M. LlilViis and G. Eidnes (l989a): Ice Drift - Preliminary Model
Development. ESARC Report No. 16, SFT60 F89004, SINTEF NHL, Trondheim.
Carstens, Too S. Vefsnmo and S.M. L0Viis (l989b): Development of Ice Drift Models for the
Barents Sea, Proceedings POAC 89, Luld. Vol. I, pp. 31-43.
Cheema. P.S. and H.N. Ahuja (1978): Dnft of Icebergs in the Grand Banks. Ocean Engineenng,
Vol. 5, No.2, pp. 95-103.

Dowdeswell, J.A. and OJ. Drewry (1989): The Dynamics of Austfonna, Nordaustlandet,
Svalbard: Surface Velocities, Mass Balance and Subglacial Meltwater Icebergs. Ann. Glaciology,
Vol. 12, pp. 37-45.

Dowdeswell, J.A. (1989): On the Nature of Svalbard Icebergs. Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 35,
pp. 224-234.
Liest01, O. (1969): Glacier Surges in West Spitsbergen. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences,
Vol. 6. No.4, pp. 895-897.
L0set, S. (1993a): Numencal Modelling of the Temperature DIstribution in Icebergs, Cold
Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 21, No.2, pp. 103-115.
L0set, S. (1993): Discrete Element Modelling of a Broken Ice Field - Part I: Model Develop-
ment, Cold Regions Science and Technology (in press).

Novitskiy, V. P. (1961): Penn anent Currents of the Northern Barents Sea, Trudy Gosudarst-
vennogo Okeanograflcheskogo Instituta, Vol. 64, pp. 1-32, Leningrad.
Robe, R.Q., D.C. Maier and W.E. Russell (1980): Longtenn Drift of Icebergs in Baffin Bay and
the Labrador Sea, Cold Regions Science and Technology. Vol. I, Nos. 3 and 4.
Sandford, K.S. (1955): Tabular Icebergs Between Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land, Geographi-
cal Journal, V. 121, pp. 164-170.
Tantsiura, A.I. (1959): About the Currents in the Barents Sea. Trudy PINRO. Vol. II, pp. 35-53.
Venkatesh. S., B. Sanderson and M. EI-Tahan (1990): OptImum Deployment of Satellite-Tracked
Drifters to Support Iceberg Drift ForecastIng, Cold Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 18.
pp. 117-131.

Aagaard, K. et al. (1983): One Year Records of Current and Bottom Pressure in the Strait
between Nordaustlandet and Kvit0ya, Svalbard, 1980-81, Polar Research I n.s .• pp. 107-113.

438
STEREO PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ICEBERGS A~D SEA ICE FROM
THE BARE~TS SEA ICE DATA ACQt;ISITIO~ PROGRAM (IDAP)

Stig Magnar Lvwas SINTEF ~ur.vegJan Hydw- Nurway

Research SCientist technIcal Laboratory

Walter Spring Mobil Research and USA

Ph.D. Development Corporatilln

Arild Holm Fjellanger Wideri<1e NS Norway

Manager of Depanment of
Aenal Photography and Remme Sensing

ABSTRACT

Dunng 1995-1992, the Operator CommItte North (OKN) carned llut a program. called the "Ice
Data Acquisition Program (IDAP)", to obtain sea Ice and iceberg data in the Barent~ Sea. As pan
of this program. aerial photogrJphy was obtJined in the Norwegian sector of the Barent' Sea
during dedicJted mis~ll1n~ each ~pring. AnJ1Y'ls of the iceberg photographs. using stereo
photogrammetric methods. ha.~ prOVided data on Iceberg sIze and shJpe. Using An:himeLle,
Pnnciple anLl assumed ~ea water and Ice densities. the total mass l,f the icebergs wa~ obtained.
ThiS data was analyzeLl to obtain frequency of occurrence anLl probability of exceeLlam;e ,tau,tic.'.
Strip photography, northwarLls from the Ice eLlge. wa, analyzeLl for ice concenu'ation and ice tlue:
length. wiLlth and area and their variauon with di~tance from the ice edge. Beyond the outer edge:
the ice conditions change rapidly 111to a tranSition zone with mixeLl floe Lliameters up to severJl
kilometers acn'ss.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the late 1970' s. oil company operators in the Nor.vegian l,ffshore region north of ('2"N.
formed an organization called Operator Committee North (OKN) to proviLle common services
and to obtain environmental data required by all operJtors. The following companies are
presently members of OKN: BP, Conocn, Elf. Esso, HyLlro, Mobil. Phillips, Saga, Shell, Statoil
and Total. Under the OKN R&D Committee, several progrJms were established to obtain

439
phY'lcJ.i ~n\ Ironm~nwi J~t.J reljlllr~d by all op~r.Jtor, for expillratwn purpose,. Th~ It:e O.Jt.J
Acqul.'ltion Pn1gr.Jm (I0AP) W.J' f(llmed In late I'JX7 to obWII1 data on the ,ea Ice anJ Iceberg
~nVIr(lnment of the B.Jrent'> Sea Comp •.lI1!(1n p.Jpers, presenteJ in thl' conference by Spnng .JnJ
Sangolr. by Spnng. Vinje .JnJ Jen,~n .JnJ by Kloster and Spnng. present a general descnptI<ln
ot the 5 ye.Jr !DAP pr<lgram. lkt.JlleJ re'>ult'> ot .Jnnual field expedition,. and all.Jly,i, of '>.Jt~liIt~

Im.Jgery re'pectI\el)
In IllSS. It \\'.J' found th.Jt Il~b~rg' C(luIJ be pre,ent In large numb~ls wh~n 207 Icebergs \\Clc
found on the Splt,bergenbani-.en It wa, therefore deCided to build up a data ba,e on icebcrg
locatIon. '>Ize and m~" through 'tereographlc analy,is of aerial photography. Sea ice tl"e
infonnatwn W.J' llbWIneJ at the '.Jme tlme. but wlth a lower priority. Except for 1992. the .Jell.Ii

N80·

~79'

QJ~
o'~

, N76'
i Hopen~

01
I
f
Splubergen- o
:>anl<en
.: .
0

E25 E30 E351

Flgure I LOc:luon of analyzed Icebergs from 1988 ("'),
1989 (0), 1990 (0), 1991 (v) and 1992 (Ol.

440
phlltography sur\'ey~ were cOllnlinated with the IDAP field expeditions described 10 Spnng. Vinje
and Jen~en. The result~ of the 19XX-92 photography project, are presented in this paper.
The pruject, were carried out accordmg to gUideline, from the OKl\-IDAP committee through
M"btl Expillraulln Nllrway Inc. Fjell,mger Wider0e AlS (F\V) was responsibk for obtamlIlg
aenal photography and the ,tereo photogrammetric analysis of Iceberg photos. whIle SINTEF
Nllrweglan Hydrotechntcal Labllr..ltury (SI:\'TEF NHLl was responsible forthe repllrtlng and ana-
Iy~i~ of ICebergs and Ice floes.

2. DATA ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS

Aenal photographic surveys were carried out in either March or April and in 1990 an additional
survey were carried out in June. Prior to the surveys a reconnaissance flight provided guidam;e
to both the photography miSSIOns and the field expeditions. During each survey. photography
missions were carried out while the aircraft was based at the Longyearbyen airport or while it
was mobilizing or de-mobilizing. Figure I shows the location of each analyzed iceberg.
In 19X9 and the first survey in 1999 a Turbo Commander 690A eqUIpped with .J Omega
Ontrack III worldwide navigation system was used. In 1990. 1991. and the second ~urvey in
1989. a Merlin III B equipped with Loran C and Omega worldwide navigation sy,tem wa, used.
In 1992 the aircraft was a Turbo Commander 690 B. also equipped with Loran C and Omega
worldwide navigation system. The crews consisted of one pilot. one navigator and one camera
operator. The cameras used were Wild RC-IO (l9Xg. 1999. 1990). Carl ZeiSS RMK-A (1991) and
Carl Zeis~ RMK-TOP (l9Y2) aerial precision mapping cameras with 15.3 cm focal length and
23 cm x 23 cm negative size. The film type used was Kodak Aerocolor negative tilm and Agfa
PAN 200 (BIW).

-
Tahle 1 OvervIew of aenal sierco pholoeraphv mIssIons.

Numher of
Ycar Penod Areas covered Iceherg ...
:u"~yzetl

19XX 22 • 27 \I,,,. Spllsbt.-rgenbanken. Ho~n. Slon~breen. Kong Karls Land. Ne,gnoceen 101.)

1989 10 . 15 April SpIL<:ht!rgenl)''lnken. Hopen. Stonehreen. Kong Karl .. Land, Negnhreen 'R

I~ June Stonebreen. Kong Karls Land 'I'

1990 25 • 26 Apnl SpaL<:hergenhanken. Enk Enksenstretet. Kong Karls Land. KVI\{i~ya 19

24· 26 \lay TusemlJyane. Hopen. Stonebreen. Hmlopenstretet. Kong Karls Land. KVlt~ya 70

1991 15· 19 ),l",ch Tusen0yane. HopeR. Stonehreen. Olgastretet. Kong Karls Land. KVlt0ya 41

1992 6 - 8 March Slorfjordrenna. Hopen - Storoonken. Erik Enk.\en.~trctet 23

441
 The ('OC;c (lverlapping photm were fltteu Intu .In an.tlytlc ,terwplutter (Zel" PI:,lllll;Ump C 11)1))
to (reate a ';(ereographic mlluel of each iceberg. Thl' mouel \Va' then u,eu ((1 ur.t\\':t m.tp of e.tch
Iceberg ba.,eu on regular photogr:tmmetric principle,. The ,terw-oper.ltor con,tructeu map' with
I m Intervab between contour Itne~ anu ulgitizeu the contour Itne, Into a uata ba ,e .It the ,ame
tIme. Figure 2. an example of an ICeberg map. ,how,S Iceberg' that were origtn.tllv one tabul.tl'
Iceberg gruunueu north of Kong KJ.r\, Lanu. It ,pitt Into ,m.tller ttlteu tabular Iceberg, th.tt wel'e
tn the proces.' of unfttng .lpart when photographeu on 13 June I9i19. The resulting ulglt:J.I terratn
mouel w.t~ then u~eu to c.lkulate maximum height .lbove w.tter level. maximum length anu wluth
at water level. length of penmeter. waterltne plane .lrea anu volume above water level. The latter
was calculateu by the following methou:
From the ulgital terratn model the plane area of each height Cllntour was calculateu. Knowing
thl'. a ,lice of the iceberg extenuing a ui,tance egu.l1 ·to h.llf the contour Interval on each ,iue
of the contour line pl.lne was c:tkulateu for volume Then all the slICes were auueu together to
give the tOl:t1 above water volume for each Iceberg. For the top anu bottom ,Iices. only h..llf the
contour interval W.l' useu for the volume calcul.ttlon,.

Contour plots of 5 Icebergs trom 19X9.

The Icebergs have ongmaHy been one tahular H.:eherg.

Nominal accuracy of height measurements in ,tereomndels with 00 % overlaps is 0 (J 15 ck of

aircraft altitude. i.e. ± 9 em at 0 I() m. Accurate altttuue wa., maintaineu by calibrating the

442
baromt:tric altimt:tt:r with a radar J.ltImeter at hl() m (max altnude f,)r tht: radar J.ltimeterl .tnd
then using the calibrated barometric altImeter at altitudes higher than b I (I m. Accuracy of .urcraft
altitude (which dictates scale) is normally wnhln ± 15 m below 915 m. Scale t:rror will then be
± 2.5 'K at 610 m.

The iceberg maps were used to mea~ure the minimum and maximum horizontal distance, from
the waterline contllur to each I m contour line. The iceberg mass \\·J.S calculated using Archi-
medes pnnciple and an Ice density of 900 kglm' and a water densit)" elf 1027 kglm '.
Further. SINTEF NHL calculated a shape factor at the waterline (S =41tNp2) and c1asqtied
all the digitized icebergs by type (Tabular. Pinnacled etc).
Statistical analysis of iceberg parameters mcluded the calculation of minimum. maximum and
average values as well as standard deviation. The results were presented m tabular. frequency "f
occurrence and probability of exceedance form. Due to its dependency on iceberg ~ize. the
minimum and maximum distances from the waterline contour to each I m contour line were
normalized by maximum iceberg length. while the corresponding height of the contour line were
normalized by iceberg height above water level. This normalization enabled comparison of the
profiles of icebergs with different size.
The purpose of the ice floe analysis was to quantify ice floe dimenSIOn. Table :2 ,how, the .ma-
lysis approach employed J.nd the number of photos analyzed by project. In 19XX and Il)Xl) the
perimeter of all identifiable Ice tloes in the analyzed photos was digltlzed on a Graptec KD 4h(J(1
digitizing tablet. The size of the ~malle,t Identifiable ice floes was generally from 50-1 O() m. In
1992. all sea ice photo~ with the majority of the ice tloes longer than Ion m were scanned at 13()
dpi and combined digitally into two image mosaics (one from each photo strip). The penmeter,
of the ice Hoes were diglUzed using hardcopy print, of the image mo~aics and using the photo
scale. the desired ice tloe dimensions were calculated.
The analyzed ice tloe dimensions included maximum length (diameter). maximum Width
(perpendicular to maximum length) and area. In additIon a shape factor (S = 41tNp2) was
calculated. As the sea ice Imagery analyzed vaned from single photos to continuow, lmJ.ge
mosaics. the analysIs methodology varied al~o. In 1999 number-size relationshlpsl were plotted
for all analyzed photos in a photo strip. This enabled comparison of the vaIiation In ice fllle 'Izes
between various part~ of the ice field. The image mosaics from 1992 enabled analysis of ice floe
size versus distance from the Ice edge to the areal center of gravity of each Hoe.

A number-size relauon,hlp shows lhe number (N) of objects wilh SIze (s) above a gIven "ze:
N(s) = C's", where C IS a constant of proporuonality and D IS the absolutc value of the ,Iopc of
lhe distnhuunn III a 10ganUTIlc plo!.

443
 --
Tahle :. Icc flne <Umlv . . t .... methndnlo!!v

Year Methodology Analy led photo, [\;umher of tloe~ Phtlln scale

'Ulalyzed

19,~X Selected piloto, B12. BIY -1-15 I -1-11 IX

Nili. NIl. N31. N35, N-I-I. NI22 27Y 1:6016
:-'11J7. MIS. M2X. M33 377 1.362'15

I'1X'1 E \'ery 10th ph"tn StrIP A. Stnp D. StrIP G 206S. 57'1.1477 1:401111
E \ ery 6th photo StrIp F 730 1'%<>5
E very 6th pilot" Stnp B (June) 32S7 1:X3X2

1990 None

lY91 None

1992 Image mos::uc AOI-AI3. 2756 1:37222

BOI-B07 895 1:37222

4_ STUDY RESULTS

Tahle 3 shows the maXImum values for each iceherg parameter each year. Both the numher of analyzed
icehergs and the maximum size values vary considerahly from year to year.

-
Tahle 3 Maxunum Iceherg panunetcrs I YXX - 1992.

Year Numher of HeIght Length WIdth Area V,)lume TOL.lI In.l........

analyzed lceherg~ 1m) 1m) 1m) 1m') 1m') (tonne . . )

IYXX lOY 36.7 319.1 251.7 -I-Ixn X56601 6234302

19X9 68 34.2 196.1 16Y.3 21'198 23620Y 171'111X

1990 89 385 257.7 1880 26X66 153745 IIISY4Y

1'191 41 24.0 3076 272.6 5161S 3819114 277'1479

1992 23 24.3 217.8 120.0 17466 IOY304 79551J'I

Figures 3-5 ,how the cumulative numher of icehergs wtth height. length and rna" ahove a given value,

while Figures 6-X show frequency of occurrence distnhutlOns of the same iceherg parameters. TIle higge't
iceherg (623 mill. tonnes) is excluded from Figure 12. Figure 3 shows two disunct differences hetween
the years. In 1991 and 1992 the tallest Iceherg was 10-13 m lower than than the ones in 19XX-90. and in
1990 and 1992 there were far less tall Icebergs than in the other years. In 19X9 ahout 31 % of the
analyzed Icehergs reached more than 20 m ahove the waler level, while ahout 10 % reached ahove 30

m. Figure 4 does not show the same differences as in Figure 3. The percentage of long icehergs is low
compared to the whole iceherg poulation. Less than 10 % are longer than 200 m. Figure 5 shows that only
a few icehergs have a tOlal ma~s greater than I rrul1ion tonnes.
Figure 6 shows that the majority of the icehergs have a maximum height hetween 7 m and 20 til, with
15.4 m a~ the average heIght and 14.2 m a~ the median value (Tahle 4). Table 4 also shows decreasing
average and median values each year from 1988 to 1992. The tahle shows that the average and median
values are dose. The sample standard deviations are less than half the average value.

444
Tahle .. S~llI'ULal value, of lccher~
- par;uneler,

Q
Maximum Iceherg heIght Ma.xunum u:eherg length at Total lCeherg ma..I\!o- (tonnes)
ah<we water level (tn) Water level (m)

Average SO' Meulan Average SO Meu"ul A\crage SO Medlal1

19XX IU 7.1 17.3 IOI.R 60.3 R".6 .. 53271 73XX36 243993

19X<i 175 72 160 834 39.8 740 276705 306720 172495

1991) 13.3 6.1 1:.6 X.. 9 46.6 71.6 196596 244325 995 .. 6

1991 13.2 5.0 13.3 83.1 61.9 61.3 284278 516950 77532

I 'In 10.2 38 '1.5 1042 4X.X 104.4 221175 219356 16(JX36

I All year, I 15.4 69 14.2 92.3 52.9 84.6 311186 512175 152197

Figure 7 shows that the majority of the icebergs have a maximum length between 50 m and
90 m. with 91.3 m as the average length and X4.6 m as the median value (Table 4). Table 4 also
shows that except for 1992 the median values are quite smaller than the average values. The
sample standard deviations are generally 40 - 60 % of the average values. except for 1991 where
the SSD value is nearly 75 % of the average value.
Figure X shows that the majority of the icebergs have a total mass less than 500 000 tonne,.
WIth 3111H6 tonnes average total mass and 1511Y7 tonnes as the median value (Table 4). T.lble
4 also ,how, that the median values are considerably smaller than the average values. Except for
1991 the ,ample standard deviations are ,igmticantly larger than the average values.
In the summer of 19XX the ice edge did not move north of KlIng Karls Land. In 19X9 thiS
triggered an examination of the possibility for icebergs to remain in this area from one year to
another. The basis for reidenuficauon was similarities in ,ize, shape and sUlface texture. Broken
icebergs were puzzled together and compared with the icebergs Identified in 19XX. The ou[(;ome
was that 3 of the icebergs located on the northern Side of Kong Karls Land in 19XX were
considered reidentified in 19X9. The icebergs were however split into two or m(lre ,maIler
icebergs and had drifted Sllmewhat towards west. Figure 2 shows 5 icebergs that were origtnally
one. By puzzling the 5 iceberg pieces together one piece was misstng In order to reassemble the
iceberg from 19H8. The 6th iceberg was assumed to have drifted away before the ph(lto was
taken tn 19X9. The Icebergs in Figure 2 were located about 45 km east of the location where the
iceberg wa., photographed in 19XH.

'SO = Smnplc 't.,mdard UCVIlll1011

445
 Barents Sea icebergs Barents Sea Icebergs

f..
~
~ '0 +-""'=-+--+--+---+--~
.
~i:
,.,
I -
~"~~~~~--~~~~---+---+~==~

~" +--'--~~-="+=::----'-f-"'.=-+---1
~ I
"0 &0 10
Cumulabve numD.r ollceoergs
Iceberg n81gt'1l above sea leval 1m)

Iceberg height above sea level . Figure 6 Iceberg height above water leveL
Cumulauve dlstnbuuon 1988 - 1992. Frequency of occUlTence 1988 - 1992.

Barents Sea icebergs Barents Sea icebergs

" "
Cumulatrve number 01 ICebergs

Length of Iceberg at water level. Figure 7 Length of Iceberg at water leveL

Cumulauve dlstnbuuon 1988 - 1992. Frequency of occUlTence 1988 - 199~.

Barents Sea icebergs

~
o 'lin
0''''
D IMI
0'"2
.0
'---
E
i1 " -Hl1I1't.-+---+--+----O---+--.,--I

.. " "
Cumulabve number of Icebergs
b~~c. 15 2 25
l
TOlallceberg mass (Millon tonnes)

Total Iceberg mass. Ftgure 8 Total Iceberg mass.

Cumulauve distnbuuon 1988 - 1992. Frequency of occUlTence 1988 - 1992.

To analyze the sea ice conditions in 1989, the number-size distributions from all photos in each
analyzed photo snip (see Table 2) were plotted in logaritmic plots. Based on these plots the
average slope factor (D) of the number-size relationships on ice floe areas were estimated. Figure
9 shows the location of the photo strips superimposed on the ice map issued by the Norwegian
Meteorological Institute (DNMI) 17 April 1989, while Table 5 shows the estimated slope factor
of ice floe area from each strip and the date. The ice map shows very close pack ice in the entire
area. A high slope factor indicates more uniform size disnibutions (If all ice floes were nearly
equal in size the slope factor would approch inifinity). The high slope factor from Snip A there-

446
fore reflects the more umform ice conduions Table 5 E~umated slope factor of Ice noe area number-
Size dlstrlbuuons.
in the margin:li ice zone. whlle the lower
values farther into the ice field reflects ice
floe areas more evenly distnbuted over the Pboto Date Number of Slope
Strip analyzed factor
varymg ice floe sizes. photos
To analyze the sea ice condllions in 1992 A 10 Apnl 1.. 1.18
the two photo suips were combined intO F 15 Apnl 7 0.8 ..
image mosaics. Figure 10 shows the Ice con- G 15 Apnl 20 0.81
centration as estimated from the photO stnps. D 15 Apnl 17 0.4-0.6
The ice edge is located in the southernmost B 13 June 30 0.75
parts of the photo suips. Figures II and 12
show the length of the digitized ice
floes from Image Mosaics A and B
plotted versus the distance :liong the
representative photo stnps. The south-
ernmost edge of each image mosaic is
located ..7 - 48 km from the edge or"
the respective photo stnps. In the area
from the ice edge to the Start of each
image mOS:llC the ice floe lengths
mcrease gradu:lily from 5 - 10 m up to

about 100 m. The largest floe IS a

giant floe located in the northern part
of PAotO Suip B and is nearly 14 !un
across. while the second largest floe is
less than 7 km across. Figure 13
shows the probability of exceedance
for ice floe length from the combined
data set (Image Mosaics A and BJ.
The bin width in Figure 13 is 250 m.
Analyzed photo stnps from 1989 super-
while the inset shows the graph in
IIDposed on the DNMI Ice map from 17 Apnl.
more detail.

447
5. DISCUSSION

Stereo photogrammetric
.J" r ", ,r ,"r ,, ,f, ,,t "r", "f , , , c

l" ~0 l l
analysis must be regarded as
the most accurate method to
obtain statistics on iceberg
size. There are however some
factors that affect the relia-
bility of the statisucs. One
(l
i t
IL I
r JI . . = I r[
,1;1:,\I€d r
!

\
factor is the representative-
r r ~ Ir \~ [\
ness of the photographed ice-
m
r r ~ if.iil:u,l"..\
l
Ft I
bergs to the entue iceberg
I I i ~:" r, I I I., I \'
population. Due to fog and
low cloudbase the aerial
stereo photography missions
I!l
'I
i flif"
,.. ,-
r
r
i [
I '
did not cover the entire :--;or- L L
weglan sector of the Barents
Sea each year. However.
except for 1992. the icebergs
photographed are considered FIgure 10 Ice concenlfauon JS esurnaled from
Photo Stnps A and B.
a representative amount of
the actual iceberg population each year..Au1other factor is that many of the analyzed icebergs
were grounded and hence probably elevated from the free-floating positIOn. Also when a
grounded iceberg split into smaller icebergs. the smaller Iceberg often gets tilted and hence
elevated on one edge. These
processes would cause the :::~:: tl---;------;---.---'-----;-------+
T.---;------;---.------;------.!.
, JO[·';·
measured iceberg parameters tl ----;-------;------:------+
':O{· .. •

to be overestimated. espe-
}: "",. tl--,-----,---;-----;---...:...--+
'~O(·.J· t---,-----;---.------;---~--+

ciall y affecting the total mass i toOO tl ---!----.....:.--;---.--,.---+----!----+

of the iceberg and the height
above sea level.

• cc~ .04
- .
100(.0" I oot.o.. , ooc:.os
~IS,~;'\C2 ~Ionq line {m}

Figure 11 Length of Ice floes along Photo Stnp A.

448
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is based on the

I I , i
outcome of the aenal stereo ,
I I I i
photography projects carried i , I
I I
E' ,O(.~a
out each year from 1988 to
1992 as part of the Ice Data
.
-'00(_0_

~
U
I
I
I
,
,
I
i
I
I

I
I
I
I
I

I I I I
Acquisition Program I I I o·
I
I 10 I
(IDAP). The financial I I , • I ,
I I
.
I
support of the Operator ,
I 08 ' I I I
Committe North of 62"N I , o. 0
" ~o I
I ..;,. oIIlIIiiiil Ii. ... , I
(OK.!'1) is acknowledged. 400(_0" 100(_000
Dlst~l'1ce
100(-0.
:,c"g line (:-)
'OCIC.~

Figure 12 Length of Ice floes along PbOlO Strip B.

:\
§\ i '-1
- \ I
;~ rr T~
=.
c ~: I ~1~--~~----~~----~~--r ~
~ .0 .! I ~
~

~ I 'i Il
v t
I :11
I
I ' I i~
-=
~
'' .,
~ ~ I II\! ~_~.
, : I
~
F'~r+=.~---+_---:---,---,,--f t"
'0
! I
"
~

~
~
! I
c '0
\ I ICI! 1!01! ... ",,1> ( .... ,

.?:
'0 \ I
~
.D
0
a:
'0

000
000
\1 2000 5Oi>o
Ice floe length (m)
5000 120[.04

Figure 13 Probability of exceedance of Ice floe lengths from Image M05a1cS A and B.

7. REFERENCES

The foHowing references are FjeHanger Wider~e project reportS to IDAP members:
L0Vas, S.M. and N:ess, T. (1989): "IDAP'88 - Aerial Stereo Photography", 99 pages, 5 appendices.
L0Vas, S.M. and Nress, T. (1989): "IDAP'S9 - Aerial Stereo Photography", 100 pages, 4 appendices.
L0vas, S.M. and Holm, A. (1990): "IDAP'90 - Aerial Stereo Photography", 60 pages, 5 appendices.
L0vas, S.M. and Holm, A. (1991): "IDAP'91 - Aerial Stereo Photography", 52 pages, 3 appendices.
L0vas, S.M. and Holm, A. (1992): "IDAP'92 - Aerial Stereo Photography", 70 pages, 3 appendices.

449
 RESULTS OF THE ICE DATA ACQUISITION PROGRAM (IDAP)
IN THE BARENTS SEA, 1988-1992

Walter Spring Mobil Research and USA

Ph. D. Development Corporation

Atle Sangolt Mobil Exploration Norway

Manager R&D Norway, Inc.

ABSTRACT

During 1988 - 1992, the Operator committee North of 62° N (OKN)

funded a program to obtain sea ice and iceberg data in the Barents
Sea called the "Ice Data Acquisition Program (IDAP)". Projects
carried out in this program included both analyzing existing data
and obtaining new data through field expeditions.

Results have shown that icebergs will be of major concern to

operations in the northern Barents Sea and that the major source is
Franz Joseph Land. Iceberg data obtained included physical and
mechanical properties and frequency of occurrence. First year (FY)
sea ice was the predominant type found during the annual
expeditions. Large areas of multi-year (MY) sea ice were only
observed in 1989. Data on ice floe length, width, thickness and
ice strength was obtained in both the annual expeditions and by
remote sensing means. Extreme southerly locations of the ice edge
were determined and compared to those presented in the open
literature.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the late 1970's, oil company operators, in the Norwegian

offshore region north of 62 0 N, formed an organization called
Operator Committee North (OKN) to provide environmental data

450
required by all operators. The following companies are presently
members of OKN: BP, Conoco, Elf, Esso, Hydro, Mobil, Phillips,
Saga, Shell, Statoil and Total. Under the OKN R&D Committee,
several programs were established to obtain physical environmental
data required for exploration and eventual development purposes.
The Ice Data Acquisition Program (IDAP) was formed in 1987 to
obtain data on the Barents Sea ice and iceberg environment. The
objectives of IDAP effort were to obtain and analyze sea ice and
iceberg data for (1) planning of
exploration operations, (2)
evaluation of field development
scenarios, (3) development and
calibration of computer
simulation and forecast models.

companion papers, presented in

this conference, by Kloster and
spring, by spring, vinje and
Jensen and by L0vas, spring and
Holm, provide project results of
satellite imagery analysis, of
annual field expeditions and of
the stereographic analysis of
aerial photography of icebergs
and sea ice, respectively. All
discussion of these projects is
referred to these papers and
this paper will briefly present
results of other IDAP projects Figure 1. Barents Sea map with
performed. Figure 1 is a map of locations used in paper.
the region for location
references.

2. The 1988 PROGRAM AND RESULTS

The first year's program was of a general type in an attempt to

451
quantify the ice problem and projects undertaken included;

1. A Satellite Imagery Analysis project to monitor the advance and

retreat of the ice throughout an entire ice season. This
project used NOAA-AVHRR, Landsat and SPOT imagery products
from November 1987 through October 1988 to develop sea ice
maps, ice edge advance and retreat velocities, representative
ice floe size and velocities distributions, and iceberg
locations and size estimates.

2. An aircraft mounted SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) project to

provide an overall description of the sea ice environment in
March. The imagery was analyzed to obtain a comparison of X-
and C-Band imagery, the locations of iceberg and associated
size data, ice floe velocities.

3. A ten day field expedition to measure FY, MY and iceberg ice

properties, to document the presence of icebergs and to deploy
satellite tracked ARGOS buoys on icebergs to monitor drift and
develop velocity statistics. FY and MY floe temperature and
salinity profiles, sizes and thickness, iceberg position and
size data were also obtained.

4. A visual reconnaissance prior to the departure of the field

program to obtain an overview of the sea ice environment was
carried out. Similar flights were undertaken in each
subsequent year of the IDAP program.

5. An Aerial Photography project to photograph ice ridges and

floes, rubble piles and icebergs. Several Svalbard glaciers
were also photographed to determine if they calved icebergs.

6. DNMI sea Ice maps, for 1987 and 1988, were digitized and the
data entered into the same format as that set by a previous
OKN project which had digitized DNMI ice maps from 1967-1986.

452
 The results of the studies showed that icebergs may be the
governing ice feature in this region. The March field expedition
found 207 icebergs, most grounded in 80 - 100 m water depth on the
Spitsbergenbanken. The grounded icebergs were also clearly
identified in SAR and satellite imagery by the wake created as they
cut through the moving sea ice.

Iceberg dimensions observed were significantly larger than data

present in the open literature. The largest iceberg, from the
Aerial Photography data set, had an estimated mass of 6,236,000
tonnes. Over 60% of the icebergs observed were either tabular or
tilting tabular in shape.

Results of the SAR project were presented in Bercha, et. al.,

1989.

3. THE 1989 PROGRAM AND RESULTS

with icebergs more plentiful and larger than anticipated, the

1989 program placed more emphasis on icebergs than on sea ice.
Projects undertaken included;

1. A ten day field expedition to document the general sea ice

environment, to deploy ARGOS buoys on icebergs and to obtain
additional data on sea ice and icebergs.

2. An Aerial Photography project to continue to build up the

iceberg physical size data set.

3. A project to install satellite tracked ARGOS buoys on icebergs

in the Franz Joseph Land region. This project was performed
under a joint Norwegian-Russian research agreement between the
Norwegian Polar Institute (NP) in Oslo, Norway and the Arctic
and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) in st. Petersburg,
Russia.

453
4. The development of an IBM PC based database program containing
iceberg data obtained under IDAP projects. The database
program included analysis and presentation capabilities.

5. The analysis of the 1928-29 sea ice and iceberg season in order
to understand the climatic conditions which allowed icebergs
to reach the Norwegian coast in Finnmark.

6. A study to investigate extreme southerly ice edge positions as

shown in Russian sea ice atlases.

7. The analysis of aerial photography, taken since 1937 by NP, of

Svalbard glaciers to determine when and where glacial surges
have taken place.

8. DNMI sea ice maps for 1989 were digitized and put into the same
format as the previous maps.

The 1989 iceberg and sea ice conditions were significantly

different from those observed in 1988. While in 1988, most
icebergs were grounded on the eastern side of the
Spitsbergenbanken, they were to the north of this region in 1989.
As a large number of helicopter overflights were performed, this
was not due to a lack of observation opportunities.

The amount of MY ice encountered in 1989 was greatly increased

over that in 1988. The MY ice was mainly observed on helicopter
flights while deploying ARGOS buoys. Some areas contained up to
10/10 MY ice concentration and several MY floes were observed to be
on the order of 1 kilometer in diameter. Most of the MY ice was
observed to be in the regions around Hopen and to the north.

The Aerial Photography Project maximum observed iceberg mass was

1,719,000 tonnes and the mean was 276,783 tonnes. Of the observed
icebergs, 66% were tabular or tilting tabular in shape.

454
 The drift of the two icebergs instrumented near Franz Joseph Land
was not as expected due to the predominant NW wind component
experienced in September and October of 1989. One iceberg
travelled south on the eastern side of Novaya Zemlya before
reversing direction and returning to a location not very far from
where the buoy had been deployed. Both buoys stopped transmitting
after the passage of storms. The third Argos buoy, near Kong Karls
Land, remained grounded and survived into 1990.

The analysis of the 1928-29 winter showed that persistent

northerly winds from October 1928 through January 1929 and NNE
winds in March and April caused icebergs to reach the Finnmark and
Kola Peninsula coasts in May through July 1929. It is possible
that tabular icebergs, sighted by the icebreaker Sedov in 1928 near
Franz Joseph Land (Zubov,1943), were pushed south by the northerly
and NNE winds towards these regions in 1929. In addition, an
unusually high number of icebergs was also reported at Bj0rn0ya in
May 1929.

The analysis of the extreme southerly position of the Russian sea

ice maps was inconclusive. The original data used to generate the
maps was either misplaced or destroyed and no longer available.
Analyzed maps were available, but for the periods where the two
methods overlapped, no conclusions could be made except to note
that the two data sets were not consistent.

The analysis of the Svalbard glaciers was carried out for

glaciers that have access to the Barents Sea. Maps, showing the
historical frontal positions of each glacier I were made using
available data and reports. The maximum extent of most glaciers
occurred pre-1900 and most glaciers are retreating from these
positions. Since 1930, 23 glaciers have surged and two of these
have surged twice.

4. THE 1990 PROGRAM AND RESULTS

455
 The 1990 program's aim was to obtain data in the Barents Sea and
in the Franz Joseph Land region. The projects initiated included;

1. A 10 day field expedition to deploy ARGOS buoys and obtain sea

ice data. Data on iceberg temperature, compressive strength,
and sea ice conditions and properties were obtained.

2. An Aerial Photography program to continue building a

statistical database on iceberg size and mass.

3. Another project to deploy Argos buoys on icebergs in the Franz

Joseph Land region. Two expeditions were performed, one in
July - August and the second, in late September.

4. A review of optical satellite imagery of the Franz Joseph Land

glaciers. Landsat and SPOT imagery were analyzed to determine
glacier front position and iceberg location and size.

5. A statistical analysis of the DNMI ice map data to determine

both average and extreme return period ice edge positions.

6. An analysis of the 1988 and 1989 Argos buoy determined iceberg

drift data to relate the relative importance of the driving
forces associated with iceberg movement.

Strong southerly winds, in February and March, drove the ice edge
farther north than normal. Only 20 icebergs were observed during
the field expedition and 6 Argos buoys were deployed. The low
number of icebergs was explained by the southerly winds which not
only created open water to melt the icebergs, but were also a
forcing function that kept icebergs to the north.

The Aerial Photography program's mean iceberg mass, 194,600

tonnes, and the largest mass, 1,120,000 tonnes, were both smaller
than the previous values. The predominant shape was still tabular
or tilting tabular, but more pinnacle and blocky shapes were noted.

456
 During the two expeditions to Franz Joseph Land, a total of 546
icebergs were observed. The majority were near Franz Joseph Land
and a large cluster was north of Kvit0ya. The largest iceberg, 1.1
km in length, was observed just south of Franz Joseph Land. One
iceberg, upon which a buoy had been deployed in 1989, was re-
visited, the battery replaced and the buoy re-installed. Two buoys
were deployed on large icebergs in the cluster north of Kvit0ya and
two were deployed south of Franz Joseph Land. All but a buoy
grounded off the eastern tip of Kvit0ya until spring 1991 were lost
in an October storm.

11211213031«141 10 II

81

80

78

,..
78

Figura 3. Extreme ice edge

positions from April DNMI
data.

71

The DNMI map analysis

70
effort produced monthly
minimum, mean, median and
Figure 2. April ice edge positions
from DNMI data. maximum locations for the ice
edge, and the 4/10 and 7/10
ice concentration limits. Figure 2 shows an example for April ice
edge. The extremal analysis was performed using a 3 parameter
Weibull distribution and produced maps of the 10, 50 and 100 year

457
estimate of ice edge, 4/10 and 7/10 ice concentration positions on
a monthly and annual basis. The April map resulting from this
analysis is shown in Figure 3.

The analysis of the 1988 and 1989 Argos buoy determined

velocities investigated the relative importance of tidal current,
wind drag and residual current forcing functions. The irregular
spaced position observations were smoothed and filtered to obtain
hourly velocity values. The analysis showed that the M2 tidal
component dominated iceberg motion in shallow water regions, the
residual current dominated the region around Hopen and Kong Karls
Land and wind forcing dominated the region south of Franz Joseph
Land. The analysis also showed that the characteristic time
required for an iceberg to respond to wind change was on the order
of 1 hour.

5. The 1991 PROGRAM AND RESULTS

The 1990 program confirmed that Franz Joseph Land was a possible
source region for the large tabular icebergs found in the Barents
Sea and the 1991 program attempted to further define the iceberg
threat. Projects initiated included;

1. A ten day field expedition was performed to deploy Argos buoys

on icebergs. Several iceberg and sea ice cores were brought
back for laboratory testing. Iceberg and sea ice observations
from an expedition in August were included in this study.

2. The Aerial Photography project continued to build an iceberg

size and estimated mass data base.

3. Analysis of satellite imagery of the Franz Joseph Land region

was continued by using 1991 Landsat and SPOT imagery. The
work concentrated upon the Renown Glacier on Wilczek Island.

4. Russian sea ice maps, from 1950 - 1970, were digitized to

458
 obtain additional information on ice edge advance and retreat.

5. A feasibility study on the technical and operational problems

associated with operating a remotely installed marine radar
station at the Hopen met station.

6. A joint effort with NP and Intaari to extract iceberg

observations from aerial ice reconnaissance flights performed
by AARI from 1936-1969.

As in 1990, the ice edge was further north than normal. It was
difficult to find icebergs and the major portion of the 36 icebergs
observed in the March field expedition were grounded on the south
side of Kong Karls Land.

The Aerial Photography project's largest iceberg had an estimated

mass of 2.78 million tonnes and the mean mass was 278,000 tonnes.
The predominant iceberg shape was pinnacle.

In the digitization of the 1950 - 1970 Russian sea ice maps, data
from over 1300 visual ice reconnaissance flights were analyzed to
develop ice edge maps for 10 day periods. Monthly average and
extreme maps were developed from this data set. A comparison to
concurrent DNMI maps for the years 1966-69 showed that the accuracy
of the Russian maps was comparable to the early DNMI maps.

In the extraction of Russian iceberg observations over 1400 ice

reconnaissance flights were reviewed and the positions of 22,000
icebergs were recorded. Monthly maps of the average and maximum
number of icebergs observed were developed. The largest value for
the monthly maximum concentration of icebergs per 10,000 km2 for
the western Barents Sea was 36, just south of Edge0ya, in May.

6. THB 1992 PROGRAM AND RBSULTS

The 1992 program was built around an attempt to deploy Argos

459
buoys in Franz Joseph Land, especially in the region of the Renown
Glacier. The following projects were performed;

1. A 14 day expedition to Franz Joseph Land was performed in

September to deploy Argos buoys and to obtain related iceberg
measurements.

2. An aircraft visual reconnaissance was performed to obtain an

overview of the ice conditions. A second objective was to
obtain an overview of the iceberg population.

3. An Aerial Photography project to continue building a database

on iceberg physical dimensions.

4. The extraction of iceberg locations from the Russian ice

reconnaissance flights was continued to include the years 1970
to 1989.

Even though the March 1992 ice edge was farther north than
normal, the iceberg population had increased over that observed in
the two previous years. Over 60 icebergs were observed, from the
ice edge to Kong Karls Land, by the visual reconnaissance.

Over 40% of the icebergs, from the Aerial Photography Project,

had a weathered shape reflecting the large amounts of open water.
The largest estimated mass was 796,000 tonnes and the mean mass was
221,000 tonnes.

In the additional iceberg observation data extraction work, over

16,000 icebergs were observed in the period 1970-89. During this
time period, 1014 reconnaissance flights were performed. The
largest monthly population in the western Barents Sea was observed
in April with a maximum concentration of 5 in the region from
Tousan0yanne to Hopen to Kong Karl's Land. This value was
significantly lower than concentrations found in the earlier study.

460
7. SUMMARY

The IDAP program has compiled a sea ice and iceberg database that
is available for use in planning and performing exploration and
production operations in the ice covered waters of the Barents Sea.
It has shown that icebergs may be the design environmental feature
for production facilities in this region and has provided data that
will help the design engineer. Sea ice will affect operations more
frequently and a database is now available to help avoid, or to
design against, the problems caused by its presence.

8. ACKlfOWLBDGEKENTS

This paper is based upon studies carried out for the IDAP effort.
The technical assistance of the IDAP company representatives and
financial support of the Operator Committee North is acknowledged.
The efforts of all contractors who worked on the various projects
performed in the IDAP program are also gratefully acknowledged.

9. REFERENCES

Bercha F,G., J.A. Deckha, W. spring, 1990: Barents Sea SAR

Survey", In Proceedings of The 9th Int. OMAE Conference, Houston,
Tex, pp. 301-307.

Zubov, N.N., 1943: Arctic Ice. Izdatel'stvo Glavsermorputi, Moscow.

(Translated by the US Navy Oceanographic Office, Washington DC,)

461
 ICEBERG AND SEA ICE DATA OBTAINED IN THE ANNUAL EXPEDITIONS OF
THE BARENTS SEA ICE DATA ACQUISITION PROGRAM (IDAP)

Walter Spring Mobil Research and USA

Ph. D. Development Corporation

Torgny Vinje Norwegian Polar Norway

Institute

Hans Jensen SINTEF Norwegian Norway

Hydrotechnical Laboratory

ABSTRACT

During 1988 - 1992, the Operator Committee North of 62 0 N (OKN)

funded a program to obtain sea ice and iceberg data in the Barents
Sea called the "Ice Data Acquisition Program (IOAP)". As part of
this program, annual field expeditions were performed to obtain
data on sea ice and iceberg physical and mechanical properties and
to deploy Argos satellite tracked buoys on icebergs. In 1988-91,
these expeditions, to the Norwegian sector of the Barents Sea from
75 0 N to 80 0 N, were performed in the spring of each year. In
1992, the expedition was performed in September, and with the
approval of the Russian government, investigations concentrated on
the areas around the southern coast of Franz Joseph Land. In
addition, under the Soviet-Norwegian oceanographic Program (SNOP),
two expeditions were performed to deploy Argos buoys on icebergs in
the Russian sector of the Barents Sea. This paper briefly presents
the results of these projects.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the late 1970' s, oil company operators, in the Norwegian

offshore region north of 62 0 N, formed an organization called

462
Operator Committee North (OKN) to obtain environmental data
required by all operators. The follwoing companies are presently
memebrs of OKN: BP, Conoco, Elf, Esso, Hydro, Mobil, Phillips,
Saga, Shell, statoil and Total. Under the OKN R&D Committee,
several programs were established to obtain physical environmental
data required for exploration and eventual development purposes.
The Ice Data Acquisition Program (IDAP) was formed in 1987 to
obtain data on the Barents Sea ice and iceberg environment. As
part of this program, annual field expeditions were performed to
obtain in-situ data on sea ice and icebergs. As the eastern part
of the Barents Sea is claimed by Russia, the IDAP expeditions
stayed in the western part. Several additional projects were
performed in cooperation with Russian research organizations to
obtain data on icebergs in the eastern part of the Barents Sea.
This paper briefly presents the results of these projects.

Companion papers, presented in this conference, by spring and

Sangolt, by Kloster and Spring, and by L0vas, Spring and Holm
provide an overview of the entire IDAP program, results of
satellite imagery analysis projects, and results of stereographic
analysis of aerial photography of icebergs and sea ice,
respectively.

The projects were carried out according to guidelines from the

OKN-IDAP Committee through Mobil Exploration Norway, Inc. SINTEF
Norwegian Hydrotechnical Laboratory (NHL) and the Norwegian Polar
(NP) Institute were responsible for carrying out the expeditions
and for the subsequent data analysis and reporting.

2. PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS

The objective of the IDAP program was to obtain data for use in
the exploration and any subsequent development of oil and gas
discoveries. While other IDAP projects were obtaining remotely
sensed data and analyzing data already available to determine ice
advance/retreat, floe size distributions, iceberg size and mass,

463
iceberg encounter frequency, etc., the field expeditions obtained
properties data that was missing. These properties data related to
the draft, velocity, strength, shape, etc. of ice floes and
icebergs.

The objective of anyone expedition changed as data became

available. The first expedition's objective was to obtain both sea
ice and iceberg data, but given the large size and numbers of
icebergs encountered, the emphasis of later expeditions was more
focused on icebergs. Also the target area of the expeditions
changed as it became apparent that the Svalbard Archipelago was not
a major contributor to the iceberg environment. The first
expedition concentrated on the areas south of Hopen, but in later
expeditions, the emphasis on the area of activity was shifted
further north and finally to the east to Franz Joseph Land.

In most of the expeditions to be discussed, the Norwegian

Hydrographic Services vessel, the MV Lance, was used as a platform
to go into the ice. The vessel was originally built as a combined
stern trawler-purse seiner-sealer with the ability to travel into
the ice. The vessel can travel in broken ice up to 8/10-9/10 ice
concentration, if there is no pressure within the pack. While not
an icebreaker, it can break ice with a thickness less than 0.3 m in
a mild environment. As such the vessel was suitable for work in
the ice regions south of Hopen. In the mild ice seasons of 1990
and 1991, the vessel was able to go as far north as 78 0 N.

As most of the expedition activities were related to icebergs, a

helicopter was used on the expeditions. Since the travel distances
were large and rescue facilities sparse, a twin engine Bell 212 was
specified for all expeditions.

One common task performed on all expeditions was the deployment

of Argos buoys on icebergs to track their movement and to develop
velocity statistics. The Argos buoys are designed to transmit a
signal, at a set frequency and time interval, which is received by

464
polar orbiting satellites. Service Argos receives these signals
and uses doppler shift corrections and satellite orbit parameters,
to estimate the buoy's position. The position data are in turn
used to calculate velocity. The Argos system has been widely used
and the accuracy of the position, for the buoys used in these
expeditions, was about 150 m to 300 m depending upon the quality of
the received signal and the transmitter used in the buoy. Most
buoys were designed to sink after falling off an iceberg to
eliminate the inclusion of drift in water with iceberg drift data.

In total, 5 expeditions were performed solely for IDAP and

several other projects were performed in cooperation with other
research organizations. The expeditions and projects, in the order
they were performed, are summarized below. Figure 1 is a map of
the region showing locations used in this paper.

1. A 10 day expedition from 18 -

28 March, 1988. Data
obtained consisted of FY and
MY floe temperature and
salinity profiles, floe size
and thickness, underwater
profiling of iceberg shape,
iceberg temperature, iceberg
position and size and the
tracking of icebergs by the
deployment of 11 Argos
buoys. Iceberg ice cores
were harvested and uniaxial
strength tests performed.

2. A 10 day expedition from 7 -

17 April, 1989. Nine ARGOS
buoys were deployed on
icebergs and data on ice floe size and thickness and iceberg
temperature were obtained. A surface pulled pulse radar was

465
 used to measure total iceberg thickness.

3. A proj ect to install ARGOS buoys on icebergs in the Franz

Joseph Land region in July - August, 1989. This project was
performed under a joint Norwegian-Russian research agreement,
called the soviet Norwegian Oceanographic Program (SNOP),
between NP and the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute in
St. Petersburg, Russia. Two buoys were installed near Franz
Joseph Land and one near Kong Karls Land. Due to the lack of
a helicopter these buoys were installed on small, low free
board icebergs.

4. A 10 day expedition from 20 - 30 April, 1990. Data obtained

included iceberg temperature profiles, ice cores for uniaxial
compressive strength, sea ice conditions and properties and
6 Argos buoys were deployed. In addition, snow and ice
properties, for use in SSM/I satellite microwave remote
sensing, were also obtained.

5. A second project to deploy Argos buoys on icebergs in the Franz

Joseph Land region under the SNOP agreement. Two expeditions
were performed, one using the MV Lance in July - August, 1990
and the second from a Russian vessel, the MV Pomor, in late
September, 1990. Four Argos buoys were deployed and a buoy
from the 1989 project was re-deployed on the same iceberg
after new batteries were installed.

6. A ten day expedition from 8 - 18 March, 1991. Four Argos buoys

were deployed, iceberg and sea ice cores were brought back for
laboratory testing and additional data on iceberg temperatures
were obtained. On 27 May 1991, in cooperation with the Royal
Norwegian Air Force 330 Squadron, an Argos buoy was deployed
on a grounded iceberg SE of Svensk0ya. Iceberg and sea ice
observations from a MV Lance expedition in August 1991 were
included in this study.

466
 7. A 14 day expedition to Franz Joseph Land in September to
deploy 15 Argos buoys and obtain iceberg temperature data by
the use of a thermal drill. Arrangements were made to have a
Russian SLAR aircraft fly and transmit to the vessel images of
the sea ice for navigation and iceberg detection purposes. A
hand held X-band radar, the same frequency as the SLAR, was
used on several icebergs to obtain ground truth data on the
scattering of the X-band signal within icebergs. A Russian
MI-8 helicopter was chartered to fly field team members around
the islands to evaluate glacier potential to calve tabular
icebergs.

3. PROJECT RESULTS

The results of these studies showed that icebergs may be the

governing ice feature in this region. Table 1 summarizes the
iceberg observations from the
various expeditions. The largest
I. .. . 30

number observed in the IOAP

expeditions was 207 in March
1988. Figure 2 shows the
locations of these icebergs, many
••
of which were grounded on the r---r----lr--_..x-.-1~tJ-1-~
D.- -
78

shallow water on the •••• 0 - ,.....--'

Spitsbergenbanken, between Hopen TO I------ ~..-. 0 _ .
.fl.I- •fl. 21 f-
-r------~UU~=--f'--I _ 3
and Bj~rn~ya. The low iceberg »- 0 6

~: ~
counts in 1990 and 1991 were due
to persistent southerly spring 74 1------t------+-------1~--'--­
I
winds which caused the ice edge
Figure 2. Locations of icebergs
to be farther north than normal. observed in 1988.
These winds exposed icebergs to
wave deterioration and warm water
in more northerly latitudes than in previous years, resulting in a
lower iceberg count.

In total, 51 Argos buoys were deployed under IOAP funding, 45 in

467
the IDAP expeditions and 6 under the SNOP program. Most buoys were
placed on icebergs in the western part of the Barents Sea, but the
1992 expedition was able to deploy 15 in the Franz Joseph Land
region. Most buoys showed periods of grounding during their drift,
but several also recorded no movement at all. Due to the lack of
space, only the drift track in Figure 3 can be shown. This figure
shows the drift of some of the icebergs from the Franz Joseph Land
region. The longest time of drift, so far, was that of Buoy #3056.
The buoy was deployed on an iceberg just south of Kvit0ya on 22
October 1987. The iceberg, observed on 17 March 1988 during a
visual reconnaissance, was frozen in landfast ice just northwest of
Kong Karls Land. As expected little deterioration was noted. An

YEAR MONTH NUMBER LOCAT:rON

:rCEBERGS
OBSERVED
1988 March 207 Hopen south to
Spitsbergen-
banken (SB)
May 56 SB
1989 April 91 Kong Karls
Land to SB
August 50 Kong Karls
Land
1990 April 20 Kong Karls
Land to Hopen
July - August 144 Kvit0ya along
ice edge
1991 March 36 Kong Karls
Land to Hopen
May 17 Kong Karls
Land
July 59 Kvit0ya

Table 1. Iceberg Frequency of Observation during IDAP Projects.

attempt was made to relocate it on 14 April, 1989 in the Stonebreen

468
region of Edge0ya and while the actual Argos buoy was not observed,
several small icebergs and growlers were observed at it's location.
The buoy stopped transmitting on 14 June 1989.

In general, the average hourly drift velocity of the icebergs

ranged from 0.1 m/s to 0.3 mis,
while maximum hourly speeds range
20 10 10
from 0.3 m/s to just over 1.0 m/s.
82 1-i---4-"""-

All Argos buoys also recorded ice

81 I - i - - r - - T
and air temperature. As the design ~~ t
• ~ "w' ~~

of the buoys changed, the depth at' 80 ~ ~ ~ ,,: ~~,)

"'W.~~, -t
which temperature was recorded also 7t M;,--'....
' 1---<--1

varied. In the early expeditions,

temperature was measured within 0.5 7t

m of the ice surface. In later 77 I+---"f.--~.

expeditions, temperature was

measured as far down as 2.0 m.
Typically, the upper ice Figure 3. Drift of two icebergs
temperatures averaged as high as -2 0 from Franz Joseph Land.
C, before melting, but winter
temperatures at a depth of -1.5 m dropped below -20 0 C. The 1 m
depth temperature responded with a 4 - 5 day lag to the air
temperature, while at 2 m there was little response even to
extended cold spells. Air temperature was generally measured
within 0.3 m above the ice surface.

Additional iceberg temperature data were obtained by drilling

small diameter holes and using thermistors and thermocouples.
Temperatures down to 20 m were obtained by using either electric or
thermal drills. These data showed that the lowest temperature,
about -12 0 C, occurred at -10 m and that warming, to a temperature
of about -7 0 C occurred below this depth. Temperatures above -10
m depth were highly dependent upon the season and the long term
ambient air temperature.

469
 Temperature measurements were sensitive to where the iceberg was
relative to the ice edge and how much water was on the surface. In
1988 and 1989, many icebergs were wave washed, even those with
freeboards above 10 m, and the intrusion of sea water into the ice
appeared to have influenced the upper ice surface temperatures.

Measurements of the underwater shape of icebergs showed mostly

smooth vertical surfaces on the larger icebergs, but one smaller
iceberg did have an underwater protrusion that extended out over 20
m. Only a small number of icebergs were profiled and these results
apply mainly to larger tabular icebergs.

The 1988 laboratory testing of iceberg ice provided a mean value

for uniaxial compressive strength of 5.4 MPa and a range from 2.3
MPa to 7.3 MPa for 16 tests at -10 0 C. Additional data, taken in
1990, had a mean of 2.31 MPa and a range of 1.64 to 3.81 MPa for 7
tests at -4 0 C. Part of the difference between these two test
programs was caused by the higher testing temperature in the 1990
tests, while the remainder can probably be explained by normal
strength variation between icebergs and the parent glaciers.

A time gated synthetic pulse radar system was also used to

measure iceberg thickness during the 1989 expedition. The radar
and antennaes were mounted on a sled and dragged across an iceberg
to obtain data. Analysis of the results on 3 grounded icebergs
showed that the radar gave reliable results as the signal was
reflected off the seabed. The radar was not used on free floating
icebergs which have a less reflective interface between the ice and
water.

The hand held X-Band radar was used in 1992 on 5 large tabular
icebergs. The results showed that a maximum depth of 77 m could be
reached and areas of homogenous ice and non-homogenous features
like water or "soil" intrusions, cracks and areas of small scale
deformations could be mapped by the radar. As all iceberg
thicknesses were greater than the maximum penetration capability of

470
the unit, total ice thickness was not obtained.

Data obtained on FY and MY ice provided floe size and thickness

distributions, ice edge and ice floe velocities, vertical profiles
of floe salinity and temperature, compressive strength parameters,
and general ice condition data.

The sea ice conditions encountered varied dramatically from year

to year. In 1988, ice along the ship's track was encountered south
of Bj0rn0ya at 74.5° N, while in 1990 and 1991, ice along the
ship's track was not encountered until the latitude of Hopen, 76.5°
N, was reached. The mild years of 1990 and 1991 were due to
persistent southerly winds which affected all of northern Europe.
The size of the ice floes at the ice edge were also affected by the
wind conditions as floes smaller than 5 m in diameter were found
during 1990 and 1991. In 1988, the size of the floes encountered
at the edge was on the order of 10 - 20 m.

Large amounts of MY ice were observed in 1989 and 1990. In other

years, little could be positively identified. In 1989, the MY ice
was mainly observed on helicopter flights while deploying ARGOS
buoys. Some areas contained up to 10/10 concentration and several
MY floes were observed to be on the order of 1 kilometer in
diameter. Most of the MY ice was observed to be in the regions
around Hopen and to the north. Ground truth data were not obtained
as the MV Lance could not reach the regions of MY ice. Part of the
reason why so little MY ice was observed was that the MV Lance is
not an icebreaker and was limited to the regions near the ice edge.
As the sea ice never left the Barents Sea in the summer of 1988,
some of the MY ice encountered in 1989 was locally grown second
year ice.

Special Scanning Microwave Imagery (SSM/I) data, obtained by the

US DMSP (Defense Meterological Satellite Program) satellite, were
used for the first time in the 1990 expedition. Research personnel
from York University (Canada) accompanied the expedition to obtain

471
data on the snow structure and temperature and ice surface
temperatures. These data were later used to develop calibration
factors for use in interpreting SSM/I imagery for the Barents Sea.
Even without these calibration factors, the imagery data were able
to fairly accurately show locations of MY ice which were confirmed
by helicopter flights. The SSM/I imagery was also able to detect
and provide a location of the ice edge, while the analysis for the
ONMI maps was hampered by long periods of cloud cover.

4. SUMMARY

The field expeditions of the IOAP program have provided valuable

data on the sea ice and iceberg environment of the Barents Sea.
Argos buoy drift data have confirmed that Franz Joseph Land is the
main iceberg source for this area. Physical and mechanical data,
obtained during the expeditions, will help in the safe design of
exploration and production programs for the ice covered regions of
the Barents Sea.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEKENTS

This paper is based upon studies carried out for the IOAF effort.
The assistance of the IOAF company representatives during the field
activities and financial support of the Operator committee North is
acknowledged. The crew and officers of the MV Lance and the pilots
and mechanics of Lufttransport A/S are also gratefully acknowledged
for the professional manner in which they helped carry out the
field activities.

472