UNIT 2: LESSON 3

Welcome to chapter three, lecture from introduction to meteorology. And today we'll be talking about air temperature,
air temperature, and the daily variations of temperature. We'll also talk about the factors, the global factors that control
temperature. We'll talk about different types of temperature, data, and data points and how they're used.

We'll take a look at human comfort and temperature when chills and heat indexes. And we'll also briefly talk about.
Temperature measurement that first we'll take a look at the daily variations of temperature, the daily variations of
temperature. We know that the atmosphere is heated from below the atmosphere acts as a window, or is essentially
transparent to the suns.

Incoming shortwave radiation that insulation from the sun, the short wave radiation of the sun moves to the
atmosphere. Some of it being absorbed very little. Some of it being scattered, some of it being reflected, but most of it
reaches the ground. The earth absorbs that radiation, the earth is warmed and then radiates away long wave radiation
that is absorbed by selective absorbers are greenhouse gases, but.

The main warming of the atmosphere occurs from below as the warm earth heats the first few centimeters of air and
those first few centimeters of air, then a rise or lift by convection to warm the rest of the atmosphere. And because that
occurs, the atmosphere is heated from below. And as you look at our illustration, One thing to point out here is that box
up on legs, that wooden box with a thermometer in the middle of it, that is actually the correct way to measure the
temperature.

It has to be six feet off the ground. It has to be inside a wooden box, uh, the thermometer away from all the walls, or it
has to be wooden slots to let the air go through. And that is how temperature is, uh, is measured. All across the country
and really all across the globe. Now in the last 10 to 15 years, digital temperature measurements has begun to change
that, but that's how it was done literally for centuries and looking at the graph with the Y axis being altitude and the X
axis being temperature.

We see at the surface, the temperature is somewhere just above 50 degrees Celsius. And in the first few meters of the
atmosphere that temperature drops just over 15 degrees Celsius, because you're always going to be warmer during the
daytime closest to the earth surface. And why is that? Err is a poor conductor of heat.

It does not have good thermal capacity. It doesn't have good, uh, properties, uh, moving heat, uh, thermal conductivity.
So initial heating only warms the air immediately above the ground. So the initial heating of the ground warms the air
and those first couple of centimeters installation warms those first few centimeters of the air there.

And then that air is mixed through convection. Again. Up and down motion of the air and that warms the rest of the
atmosphere. So there is this daily temperature lag while insulation, incoming shortwave, radiation, or incoming solar
radiation peaks at noon. Noon is going to be when the sun is highest in the sky, it's still exceeds outgoing energy
throughout the afternoon.

And the surface. Continues to warm. So look at our graph. And once again, the Y axis has both energy rate and
temperature and the X axis showing the time from midnight to noon and then back to midnight and the incoming solar
radiation. And we're going to assume the sun rises at six in the morning and sets that six in the evening with the peak
incoming solar radiation occurring.

Right at noon, the highest. Point of the sun in the sky. And what we see is that the Earth's outgoing, uh, radiation rises as
the incoming radiation goes up as well. But the incoming radiation remains higher than the earth outgoing radiation
until about three or four o'clock in the afternoon. So cooling.

Only occurs, uh, evening or nighttime cooling only occurs when the Earth's outgoing Longwave radiation exceeds the
suns and coming short wave radiation. So what time is the maximum and minimum temperatures on any given day?
After the atmosphere heats from convection, the daily high temperature usually occurs between about three and 5:00
PM.

And this is known as the daily temperature lag the lag between maximum solar energy and the actual maximum
temperature of the day. The daily minimum temperature usually happens near sunrise. Now this is not. Every day in all
situations, but these are the generalities of temperatures maximum and minimum each day, as the sun continues to
heat the atmosphere and before outgoing Longwave radiation exceeds incoming shortwave radiation, the temperature
continues to climb through three, four or five o'clock in the afternoon.

And then the temperature does not begin to fall until that outgoing radiation exceeds. Incoming radiation that may
happen late in the afternoon through six or seven o'clock in the evening, but that outgoing terrestrial radiation, that
outgoing Longwave radiation continues all night long, right up until the sun comes up over the horizon.

So cooling continues all night long, and that's why the minimum temperature typically is near sunrise. Now, different
aspects of a cloudy day or a windy day or rainy day or a cold front passage or a warm front passage can change that. Uh,
but generally the high temperature of the day between three and five, the low temperature near sunrise, the controls
on the highest temperature of the day absolutely include clouds, moisture, content, to the air, proximity to water.

And what covers the surface, whether it's asphalt and buildings or it's waving wheat or grasses or prairies, all those
things impact the daily temperature. So in the same way that the warmest temperature was closest to the ground
during the day, the coolest temperature will be closest to the ground at night, both the air and the ground.

Cool. By radiating infrared radiation, meaning the atmosphere. To what degree it absorbs outgoing infrared, radiation,
and the earth and all the, uh, the incoming solar radiation that's absorbed and heats up the earth. The outgoing. Long
wave radiation of the earth and the outgoing Longwave radiation of the atmosphere are both moved away from the
earth in the atmosphere through radiation.

And that is called radiational cooling. Uh, the earth warms up during the day and at night, it just literally gives up that
heat to space. Now we've talked about temperature, decreasing with height, but an inversion and inversion occurs when
the air temperature increases with height in the atmosphere. And one of those unique and fairly small, uh, layers where
that occurs is right at the surface at nighttime.

At night, the air in contact with the ground continues to cool, more rapidly than the air above it. And a radiation
inversion or a nocturnal inversion develops the air closest to the surface is coldest overnight because the earth is a
better radiator of energy than the air. And it cools more quickly. So while both the atmosphere and the earth cool by
radiational cooling, the earth is a better.

Radiator of energy and it cools more quickly. So on any given very early morning, just like this graph shows us the
temperature at the surface can literally be below freezing while the temperature at six feet above ground level, maybe
as warm as a several degrees above freezing. And that's. How you get forecasts that say overnight low of 38 degrees, but
there could be some frost because that overnight low is being measured at six feet above ground level.

And the temperature of the surface could still be below freezing and allow frost formation. As the sun rises in the
morning, the earth surface warms more quickly than does the air above on a clear calm day. The air in contact with the
surface normally reaches its highest temperature at noon. When the sun's energy is most intense.

However, the air several meters above the ground where thermometers are usually located, typically reaches its highest
temperature later in the afternoon. At night, the ground cools more quickly than the air. This situation causes the air in
contact with the ground to become colder than the air, several meters above and the temperature inversion forms just
above the earth surface.
So looking at both of these photos, pictures at the bottom calm air, dry air, long nights and cloud free nights, promote
strong inversions or promote significant cooling by contrast cloudy skies and windy weather. Keep daytime
temperatures cooler. So what allows for both day and night to be cooler than normal?

Well, in the case of nighttime, it's calm air, dry air, long nights and cloud free nights that allows the earth to cool very
quickly. So look at the far. Right. And for red radiation is escaping to space very easily on a clear, calm, dry night. Look on
the left. The warmer night cloud cover, both absorbs and reradiate away infrared radiation.

And that night will be warmer. And it's the opposite with the daytime and the daytime calm air. Clear skies. Even dry
conditions will allow all of the sons incoming solar radiation to strike the earth and make for a warmer day. And as we
talked about in chapter two with cloud cover, uh, whether it's a scattering or reflection or even absorption, uh, those
three occur with the incoming solar radiation and not as much of that insulation reaches the ground.

And therefore you have a cooler day. Same general illustrations, nighttime cooling clouds, insulate by absorbing and re
radiating long wave radiation, therefore warmer surface temperatures, weaker and versions. The temperature
difference between the very cool. Surface in a slightly warmer six feet above ground level is not as high moist air
insulates by absorbing and re radiating long wave radiation.

So with high humidity, you're going to have warmer surface temperatures at night when insulates by mixing the air. And
so when you have windy conditions, you'll have warmer surface temperatures at night. Of course, the longer the night is
the longer the surface has to. Cool. So a longer night will provide for coolest.

Or cooler surface temperatures. So each factor has a different impact clouds during the day, keeping it cooler clouds at
night, keeping it warmer, clear skies during the day, making it warmer or clear skies at night, making it cooler wind
during the day makes it feel a little bit cooler. A windy day is going to feel a little cooler.

When did night mixes, the atmosphere up cooling does not happen as efficiently and windy nights tend to be a little bit
warmer.

What are the controls of temperature on a global scale? Not even a regional scale? Well, we have four of them. Latitude,
land, water distribution, ocean currents, and elevation latitude refers to the sun's angle of incidents as determined by
latitude. The higher, the angle of incidents, the more warming capacity of the sun's, right?

It's the highest angles of incidents being at lower latitudes, such as the equator land water distribution is another control
of temperature, the unequal heating and cooling properties of land and water have a big impact on the climate. Of a
region land heats up and cools off much more quickly, both heats up and cools off much more quickly than water
because water heats up and cools off much more slowly areas near large bodies of water.

Have a moderate climate. They don't get as cold, but they also don't get as warm land, water distribution, and the
unequal heating and cooling properties of land and water. Being a major control of temperatures, ocean currents, also a
major control of temperatures, ocean currents, drive air occurrence, warm air currents North, but also transfer heat
with warm ocean water.

Being moved to the North and ocean currents can have a big impact on entire. Regions of the world. And you can think
about, uh, Western Europe, including, uh, England and Scotland and Ireland. Those are at very high latitude, just the
same latitudes of Northern parts of Canada, but they are much, much warmer year round because the Gulf stream
current, which we'll show you in a few minutes, brings warm water to those areas.

And. Elevation acts very similar to latitude we're at higher elevations, you're colder then at lower elevations.
so the first control of temperature, this is a very good description of a lot of tea. So a is the summertime. The Northern
hemisphere is tilted. Toward the sun. B is the wintertime. The Northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun and sea
is spring and autumn. So a represents the summer solstice B represents the winter solstice C represents either the spring
or the tumbler Equinox.

And again, Equinox refers the fact that on those days there are equal date. It's day and night, 12 hours a day at night.
And you can see in our summertime, our days are long, 13 and a half to 15 hours long in North America. And in our
winter time, our days are, are much shorter, uh, somewhere between, uh, uh, nine to 10 hours, uh, in North America
and our winter time.

But. At the equinoxes are both of our day and night are 12 hours more important than the length of the daytime. The
length of the daytime of course, is a control of temperature, but the angle of incidents, the angle at which the sun's
raised, right? The earth look at C at the equator. Those. Sunrays strike at a 90 degree angle, the higher the angle, the
more warming capacity of those suns raised, and even at the Arctic circle and the North pole, the angle is not terribly
small.

And so that's why, and the summertime, uh, the Arctic ocean actually will melt and it's not warm at the North pole, but
it's also not sub freezing the entire time. Conversely, in the wintertime, look at B and I look at the Arctic circle. The Arctic
circle in the winter at the winter solstice is completely dark.

That's where you get the six months of winter. It's tilted away from the sun. So not only are the sun's rays, I'm almost at
a tangent to the globe. They're in some cases, North of the Arctic circle, they don't strike the global at all six months a
nighttime. And so obviously very cold where in our summer, the sun's rays do strike the North pole, but they don't strike
the South pole.

So the angle of incidents. Is the greatest factor in controls of temperature and is highest at low latitudes. That angle of
incidence is highest at low latitudes.

On equal heating and cooling properties of land and water specific heat of water is higher than specific heat of land. The
specific heat is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius. And we know there takes one calorie of heat to raise one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

Most. Other substances required less heat than that. So water requires the most heat to heat up, but it also requires the
removal of more heat to cool off. So that's the first reason why water heats up and cools off more slow than in land. The
specific heat of water. The second reason that water heats up and cools off more slowly than land is that insulation.

Incoming solar radiation or incoming shortwave, radiation only heats a thin layer of soil, meaning it only has to heat that
very, very first thin layer of soil. Whereas the rays, the sun penetrate and have to heat a much deeper layer of water. So
the sun is. Much more efficient at heating the earth than it is at heating water and therefore water again, the world's
oceans and large lakes heat up and also cool off more slowly than land.

Also with land soil, there's no circulation, meaning the cold rocks, six feet under a stakehold and six feet under. Whereas
with the ocean and even lakes, if it's colder a few feet below the surface, circulation of water tends to move that water
around. And so the warmer water at the surface gets pulled the deeper depths.

The cooler water at the deeper depths gets pulled to the surface and it takes much more heat to warm up, uh, an ocean
or a Lake or a golf. The last going back to. Latent heat. And remember that evaporation is a cooling process. The
opposite condensation is a warming process, but in this case of operations cooling process, and that also takes up some
of the sun's energy.
So energy, so main reason, these four reasons, the main reason why the oceans and the lakes and the golfs heat up and
cool off more slowly than the earth. So as a result, the water heats up. Cools off more slowly than land resulting in a
moderating impact on temperatures, proximity to large bodies of water, moderate temperatures.

It doesn't get as cold in the winter time, but it also doesn't get as warm in the summer. Think about Seattle. In this
situation, we can see that St. Louis and Ponto Delgado are essentially at the same latitude by the same place North of
the equator. But we can also see that in St. Louis, we have a high variation in seasonality, meaning quite chilly in the
winter time, but also.

Again, quite hot in the summertime. It's in the middle of a continental landmass, a long way from any large body of
water, whereas a small Island in the middle of the ocean at the temperatures there throughout the year, moderated
significantly by its proximity to that large body of water. Not quite as hot in the summertime and certainly not as cold in
the winter time.

Ocean currents as a control of temperatures. So these are the great ocean currents of the world. There are five. What
we refer to as Geiers G Y R E S one in the North Pacific one in the South Pacific one in the North Atlantic one in the South
Atlantic, and one huge one, uh, between Antarctica and South America, Australia, and Africa and Indonesia and South
Asia called the Antarctic circumpolar current.

And we're not going to concern ourselves too much to that one, just the first five. And you can see that all five of those
move clockwise across the ocean basins. And you can also see looking at this just how much larger the Pacific ocean is
than the Atlantic and the significantly larger body of water.

The clockwise flow of water around the North Pacific basin. It means water moving from Indonesia at the equator is
very, very warm, keeping Japan fairly warm, but as that water moves across the North Pacific, it cools. And as it moves
along the West coast of North America, it keeps the West coast and North America fairly cool.

Think about going in the Pacific ocean, if you've ever had the chance, it is so much colder, even in the summertime than
the Atlantic ocean. As a matter of fact, Mark Twain said the longest. Winter he ever spent was one summer in San
Francisco because that cold California current keeps San Francisco in central California.

Very, very Chile, uh, even in the summertime, the opposite occurs in the Atlantic ocean because we are on the West side
of the ocean based in the East side of the continent, the West side of the basin. And again, that. Gulf stream nice and
nice and toasty, warm. And as it moves by Florida, uh, and the Southern States, it keeps our area very warm, very humid,
and really dramatically modifies our in our, uh, our climate.

But look at that warm water, traveling across the North Atlantic, straight toward the Iberian peninsula, the Bay of escape
and, uh, the, uh, the British Isles again. And that's why Western Europe, which is at the same latitude. As Northern parts
of Canada is so much warmer than North Canada because of that, uh, that, uh, Gulf stream and the other effects also
occur in the Indian ocean, the South Atlantic and South Pacific as well.

The last control of temperature is elevation and increase in elevation is similar to moving North. So an increase in
elevation is similar to an increase in latitude and increase in elevation and results in cooler temperatures and increase in
elevation. Also results in lower air density. Remember. It's thinner up there.

The air is thinner up there as you go up and they're playing the air's thinner. You may actually have to use oxygen as you
go up the mountain side. The air is thinner. If you decide you're going to train for an Ironman, do you train at sea level or
do you go out to Colorado and train a mile high where the air is thinner?

There's less oxygen. It makes you stronger. So. Because the air is thinner. There is lower air density. There are literally
fewer molecules of air. This higher elevations, a couple of things happen that also moderate the temperatures at higher
elevations. There is less absorption reflection and scattering of incoming solar radiation.
So less the sunlight is absorbed reflected or scattered as it strikes the earth during the day. That means that
temperatures heat up very quickly. At higher elevations. Now they may not get very warm, but it goes from the very cold
minimum temperature to the, uh, the maximum temperature of the day. Very, very quickly at higher elevations, also
outgoing radiation.

This is at night. Is not absorbed and reradiated, and therefore there is rapid cooling at night. So both rapid heating
during the daytime and rapid cooling at night. And that is why our high elevation deserts of Western parts of Texas, uh,
and into New Mexico and Arizona, those high elevation deserts are very, very cold at night and very, very warm in the,
during the daytime because at night, the temperature falls very quickly without all that air, those air molecules to absorb
and reradiate and at night, Uh, so it gets very chilly.

And then in the daytime, without those air molecules to reflect scattering absorb temperatures heat up very quickly. So
there is a higher daily temperature range when you are at higher elevations.

And we've seen these pictures before controls of temperature albedo and the impact of clouds. Remember albido is
how much light is reflected directly back from a surface and thick. Clouds had high albedo. They reflected a lot of light
back. How Beto is the percentage of insulation reflected clouds, reflect insulation as to other surface cover with high
albido days or cooler.

So what does that mean? If there's high albido thick clouds or surface cover that has high libido, your days will be colder.
Again, last lecture I mentioned fresh snow has very, very high I'll beat. It reflects more than 90% of the sunlight back and
so fresh snow. We'll keep temperatures Calder than literally old snow.

If you take fresh. Crisp white snow. It's going to reflect all that light very easily. If you go down into an urban area where
the snow has had a chance to partially melt and it's gotten dirty and gray, it doesn't have very high I'll Beto at all. So
clouds reflect insulation as does other surface cover with higher libido and days are cooler clouds also absorb and
reradiate long wave radiation.

Remember the earth is radiating away. It's. It's heat. It's infrared radiation. It's long wave radiation. The earth is radiating
at away 24 hours a day, daytime at nighttime. And at nighttime, if the skies are clear, it very easily radiates its energy
away. But if there are clouds at night, those clouds absorb and reradiate long wave radiation, and our nights are warmer.

temperature data, and this applies more to climatology and the nomenclature of climatology, what people are talking
about when they say different things. And, uh, we'll go through this quickly. This is all in your book. Uh, the daily or
diurnal temperature range as the difference between the daily high and low temperature.

And it's again, greatest next to the ground. Now you've probably heard the term nocturnal, the avocado. You may know
your cats are nocturnal. They run around at night. Diurnal is the opposite of nocturnal. It means during the day, so
diurnal as a term. And whether that means during the day. So the daily temperature range is a difference between the
high and the low temperature.

So if the daily temperature range in Florida was 30 degrees, that could mean the morning low is 60 and the afternoon
high was 90. The mean. Daily temperature is the average high and low temperature in a 24 hour period. So with that
other example of 60 and 90, the mean, or the average daily temperature of the day will be 75 degrees.

The average of 60 and 90. The mean monthly temperature is the average of all those mean daily temperatures. So let's
just say, because it was a, a crazy month, every single day in the month had a mean temperature of 75 than the mean
monthly temperature would also be 75. The main monthly temperature is an average.
Of mean daily temperatures, the annual temperature range or the annual range of temperature is the difference. An
average temperatures of the coldest and warmest month. So typically our call this month will be January or February or
our warmest month will be August and September. The difference between the coldest and the warmest will be the
annual range of temperatures for our area and mean average annual temperature is the average of those 12 monthly
average temperatures.

Now. When it comes to energy and the purchase of oil and natural gas and coal for heating and for use and electricity
for cooling, um, people that work in those markets refer to two terms, heating degree day and cooling degree day. Uh,
and if the average temperature is more than 65, uh, degrees, then. Let's say it is, uh, it is the average temperature for a
day is going to be 66 degrees.

That is one cooling degree day. If the average temperature was 70 degrees, that would be five cooling degree days. Uh,
so when, um, people working in energy markets are looking at a seasonal forecast, they'll come up with a number,
maybe it's 250 heating degree days. And that tells us how much natural gas or how much coal, uh, or how much oil they
need to have for that upcoming season.

So now we want to tell, talk about temperature and human comfort. The human body's perception of temperature
changes with varying atmosphere conditions. So the temperature may be 85, but it actually feels like it's 95 because of
high humidity or the temperature may be 35, but it actually feels like 25 because of high wind speeds.

The sensible temperature is the temperature we perceive regardless. Of what the air temperature is two types,
windshield and heat index. Now those are both human constructs, something that we've made up to define, uh,
something that we, a phenomenon that we see. Uh, in, in the atmosphere and the case of windshield, it, uh, it is the
colder temperatures he fell because of when, in the case of the heat index, it's a higher temperatures.

We feel because of high humidity. Windshield is the impact of when sweeping and insulating layer of warm air away
from exposed skin. The body operates at 98 degrees plus. It warms a layer of air around it. And that layer of air acts as
an insulating layer, if it's windy and the wind can strip away that insulating layer, your body has to produce more heat in
order to keep itself warm.

And we actually feel colder than the actual temperature. If this process continues the whole body exposed to wind in a
very cold environment and the warmth of robotic continues to be stripped away and our central. Temperature our core
temperature, human body's core temperature falls far enough than hypothermia can set in which the rapid progressive
mental and physical collapse that accompanies the lowering of human body temperature.

So wind chill is how much colder it feels because it's windy, but it has to be exposed. Skin, not something under a scarf
or under a hat or under a jacket. It's all exposed skin, your fingers, your lips, your nose, hopefully not your toes, but if
they're exposed to the wind, they can have wind chill as well.

Heat index is the opposite and it occurs because of high water vapor content. Well, what's a better word for high water
vapor content, high humidity, the amount of humidity in the air. Water vapor is. Invisible look around the room. You
don't see the water vapor in the room. There is humidity in this room.

There is water vapor in the room. You just can't see it. When you look outside in the atmosphere, you don't see it there
either. You do see clouds, but those clouds aren't water vapor. They are water droplets. So the higher the water vapor.
The poor, the evaporative processes, meaning evaporation can't happen as easily.

If there is high water vapor content. So why do we sweat? We don't sweat to get liquid on our bodies. That only makes
us feel worse when it's hot or clothes get damp. And it's just now it's icky. We sweat, because the idea is for the sweat
that goes out on your skin to evaporate in, as you know, Evaporation is a cooling process.
The heat index is the sensible temperature. We feel as a result of the inability of sweat to evaporate, which is a cooling
process from the human body due to increase water vapor content of the air. So 85 degrees with 95% relative humidity
may feel like 100 where 85 degrees with 40% relative humidity may just feel like 85 degrees.

So again, here's your temperature measurement? There's lots of different types of the monitors and your book discusses
these thermometers in details. There's an actual picture of one of those temperature recording sites. Uh, you have your
typical thermometer and the top where you're a liquid, usually some type of a, um, Mercury, uh, we'll um, climb up the
thermometer when it warms up that index marker will literally stay wherever it, it, uh, it goes, and that gives you an idea
of the highest temperature of the day.

Another way they get high temperatures as the, with this constriction, uh, thermometer with a mercury will go up to the
monitor because it's dis constricted at the bottom. It won't come back down. That'll also give you the highest
temperature of the day, but there's lots of different types of, uh, temperature, measuring devices, many of them now,
uh, using electricity.

Are also using, using lasers to determine the temperature of the air. All right. That was chapter three, from introduction
to meteorology, next chapter for humidity condensation in clouds. What is humidity? What does it mean? How is it
measured and what does it tell us? And then once we know a little bit about humidity, how do we get water droplets?

How do we get Cod droplets? How do we get rain droplets? And what are the different types of precipitation you might
expect? And we'll be doing all of that in chapter four.