DNA in the cell nucleus carries a genetic code, which consists of sequences of

adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) (Figure 1). RNA, which
contains uracil (U) instead of thymine, carries the code to protein-making sites in
the cell. To make RNA, DNA pairs its bases with those of the “free” nucleotides
(Figure 2). Messenger RNA (mRNA) then travels to the ribosomes in the cell
cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs (Figure 3). The base triplets of transfer
RNA (tRNA) pair with those of mRNA and at the same time deposit their amino
acids on the growing protein chain. Finally, the synthesized protein is released to
perform its task in the cell or elsewhere in the body.

Biology for Kids DNA and Genes DNA is an essential molecule for life. It acts like a recipe
holding the instructions telling our bodies how to develop and function. What does DNA
stand for? DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid. What is DNA made of? DNA is a long thin
molecule made up of something called nucleotides. There are four different types of
nucleotides: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. They are usually represented by their
first letter: A- adenine T- thymine C - cytosine G - guanine Holding the nucleotides together
is a backbone made of phosphate and deoxyribose. The nucleotides are sometimes referred
to as "bases". The basic structure of the DNA molecule Different Cells in the Body Our
bodies have around 210 different types of cells. Each cell does a different job to help our
body to function. There are blood cells, bone cells, and cells that make our muscles. How do
cells know what to do? Cells get their instructions on what do to from DNA. DNA acts sort of
like a computer program. The cell is the computer or the hardware and the DNA is the
program or code. The DNA Code The DNA code is held by the different letters of the
nucleotides. As the cell "reads" the instructions on the DNA the different letters represent
instructions. Every three letters makes up a word called a codon. A string of codons may
look like this: ATC TGA GGA AAT GAC CAG Even though there are only four different letters,
DNA molecules are thousands of letters long. This allows for billions and billions of different
combinations. Genes Within each string of DNA are sets of instructions called genes. A gene
tells a cell how to make a specific protein. Proteins are used by the cell to perform certain
functions, to grow, and to survive. Shape of the DNA Molecule Although DNA looks like very
thin long strings under a microscope, it turns out that DNA has a specific shape. This shape is
called a double helix. On the outside of the double helix is the backbone which holds the
DNA together. There are two sets of backbones that twist together. Between the backbones
are the nucleotides represented by the letters A, T, C, and G. A different nucleotide connects
to each backbone and then connects to another nucleotide in the center. Only certain sets
of nucleotides can fit together. You can think of them like puzzle pieces: A only connects
with T and G only connects with C.

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DNA is perhaps the most famous biological

molecule; it is present in all forms of life on earth.
But what is DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid? Here, we
cover the essentials.

Virtually every cell in your body contains DNA or the genetic code that makes
you you. DNA carries the instructions for the development, growth, reproduction,
and functioning of all life.

Differences in the genetic code are the reason why one person has blue eyes rather
than brown, why some people are susceptible to certain diseases, why birds only
have two wings, and why giraffes have long necks.

Amazingly, if all of the DNA in the human body was unraveled, it would reach to
the sun and back more than 300 timesTrusted Source.
In this article, we break down the basics of DNA, what it is made of, and how it
works.

What is DNA?
In short, DNA is a long molecule that contains each person’s unique genetic code.
It holds the instructions for building the proteins that are essential for our bodies to
function.

DNA instructions are passed from parent to child, with roughly half of a child’s
DNA originating from the father and half from the mother.

Structure
Share on Pinterest DNA’s double helix.

DNA is a two-stranded molecule that appears twisted, giving it a unique shape

referred to as the double helix.

Each of the two strands is a long sequence of nucleotides or individual units made
of:

 a phosphate molecule
 a sugar molecule called deoxyribose, containing five carbons
 a nitrogen-containing region
There are four types of nitrogen-containing regions called bases:

 adenine (A)
 cytosine (C)
 guanine (G)
 thymine (T)

The order of these four bases forms the genetic code, which is our instructions for
life.

The bases of the two strands of DNA are stuck together to create a ladder-like
shape. Within the ladder, A always sticks to T, and G always sticks to C to create
the “rungs.” The length of the ladder is formed by the sugar and phosphate groups.

Packaging DNA: Chromatin and

chromosomes
 The complete set of chromosomes in a human male.
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Image credit: National Human Genome Research Institute

Most DNA lives in the nuclei of cells and some is found in mitochondria, which
are the powerhouses of the cells.

Because we have so much DNA (2 metersTrusted Source in each cell) and our
nuclei are so small, DNA has to be packaged incredibly neatly.

Strands of DNA are looped, coiled and wrapped around proteins called histones.
In this coiled state, it is called chromatin.

Chromatin is further condensed, through a process called supercoiling, and it is

then packaged into structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes form the
familiar “X” shape as seen in the image above.
Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes or 46 chromosomes in total. Interestingly, fruit flies have 8
chromosomesTrusted Source, and pigeons have 80.

Chromosome 1 is the largest and contains around 8,000 genes. The smallest is
chromosome 21 with around 3,000 genes.

What is a gene?
Each length of DNA that codes for a specific protein is called a gene. For instance,
one gene codes for the protein insulin, the hormone that helps control levels of
sugar in the blood. Humans have around 20,000–30,000 genes, although estimates
varyTrusted Source.

Our genes only account for around 3 percent of our DNA, the remaining 97 percent
is less well understood. The outstanding DNA is thought to be involved in
regulating transcription and translation.

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How does DNA create proteins?

For genes to create a protein, there are two main steps:
Transcription: The DNA code is copied to create messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA
is a copy of DNA, but it is normally single-stranded. Another difference is that
RNA does not contain the base thymine (T), which is replaced by uracil (U).

Translation: The mRNA is translated into amino acids by transfer RNA (tRNA).

mRNA is read in three-letter sections called codons. Each codon codes for a

specific amino acid or building block of a protein. For instance, the codon GUG
codes for the amino acid valine.

There are 20 possible amino acids.

What is a telomere?

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Telomeres are regions of repeated nucleotides at the end of chromosomes.

They protect the ends of the chromosome from being damaged or fusing with other
chromosomes.

They have been likened to the plastic tips on shoelaces that stop them from
becoming frayed.

As we age, this protective region steadily becomes smaller. Each time a cell
divides and DNA is replicated, the telomere becomes shorter.

In a nutshell
Chromosomes are tightly coiled strands of DNA. Genes are sections of DNA that
code individual proteins.

Put another way, DNA is the master plan for life on earth and the source of the
wonderful variety we see around us.

Mendel's Genetics
For thousands of years farmers and
herders have been selectively breeding
their plants and animals to produce more  
useful hybrids  .   It was somewhat of a
hit or miss process since the actual
mechanisms governing inheritance were
unknown.  Knowledge of these genetic Hybridized domesticated horses
mechanisms finally
  came as a result of
  careful laboratory breeding experiments carried out over the
last century and a half.
 
  By the 1890's, the invention of better microscopes allowed
  biologists to discover the basic facts of cell division and
 
  sexual reproduction.  The focus of genetics   research
  then shifted to understanding what really happens in the
 
 
Gregor Mendel   
1822-1884   
transmission of hereditary traits from parents to children.  A number of hypotheses
were suggested to explain heredity, but Gregor Mendel  , a little known Central
European monk, was the only one who got it more or less right.  His ideas had been
published in 1866 but largely went unrecognized until 1900, which was long after his
death.  His early adult life was spent in relative obscurity doing basic genetics
research and teaching high school mathematics, physics, and Greek in Brno (now in
the Czech Republic).  In his later years, he
became the abbot of his monastery and put aside
his scientific work.

While Mendel's research was with plants, the  

basic underlying principles of heredity   that he
discovered also apply to people and other
animals because the mechanisms of heredity are Common edible peas
essentially the same for all complex life forms.

Through the selective cross-breeding of common pea plants (Pisum sativum) over
many generations, Mendel discovered that certain traits show up in offspring without
any blending of parent characteristics.  For instance, the pea flowers are either
purple or white--intermediate colors do not appear in the offspring of cross-
pollinated pea plants.  Mendel observed seven traits that are easily recognized and
apparently only occur in one of two forms:

1.    flower color is purple or white 5.   seed color is yellow or green

2. flower position is axil or terminal       6. pod shape is inflated or constricted
3. stem length is long or short 7. pod color is yellow or green
4. seed shape is round or wrinkled

This observation that these traits do not show up in offspring plants with intermediate
forms was critically important because the leading theory in biology at the time was
that inherited traits blend from generation to generation.  Most of the leading
scientists in the 19th century accepted this "blending theory."  Charles Darwin
proposed another equally wrong theory known as "pangenesis"  .  This held that
hereditary "particles" in our bodies are affected by the things we do during our
lifetime.  These modified particles were thought to migrate via blood to the
reproductive cells and subsequently could be inherited by the next generation.  This
was essentially a variation of Lamarck's incorrect idea of the "inheritance of acquired
characteristics."

Mendel picked common garden pea plants for the focus of his research because
they can be grown easily in large numbers and their reproduction can be
manipulated.  Pea plants have both male and female reproductive organs.  As a
result, they can either self-pollinate themselves or cross-pollinate with another plant. 
In his experiments, Mendel was able to selectively cross-pollinate purebred   
plants with particular traits and observe the outcome over many generations.  This
was the basis for his conclusions about the nature of genetic inheritance.
 Reproductive       
structures of
flowers

In cross-pollinating plants that either produce yellow or green pea seeds exclusively,
Mendel found that the first offspring generation (f1) always has yellow seeds.  
However, the following generation (f2) consistently has a 3:1 ratio of yellow to green.

This 3:1 ratio occurs in later generations as well.   Mendel realized that this
underlying regularity was the key to understanding the basic mechanisms of
inheritance.

He came to three important conclusions from these experimental results:

 1.   that the inheritance of each trait is determined by "units" or
"factors" that are passed on to descendents unchanged     
(these units are now called genes  )
2. that an individual inherits one such unit from each parent
for each trait
3. that a trait may not show up in an individual but can still be
passed on to the next generation.

It is important to realize that, in this experiment, the starting parent plants

were homozygous   for pea seed color.  That is to say, they each had two
identical forms (or alleles  ) of the gene for this trait--2 yellows or 2 greens.  The
plants in the f1 generation were all heterozygous  .   In other words, they each
had inherited two different alleles--one from each parent plant.  It becomes clearer
when we look at the actual genetic makeup, or genotype  , of the pea plants
instead of only the phenotype  , or observable physical characteristics.

Note that each of the f1 generation plants (shown above) inherited a Y allele from
one parent and a G allele from the other.  When the f1 plants breed, each has an
equal chance of passing on either Y or G alleles to each offspring.

With all of the seven pea plant traits that Mendel examined, one form
appeared dominant over the other, which is to say it masked the presence of the
other allele.  For example, when the genotype for pea seed color is YG
(heterozygous), the phenotype is yellow.  However, the dominant yellow allele does
not alter the recessive green one in any way.   Both alleles can be passed on to the
next generation unchanged.

Mendel's observations from these experiments can be summarized in two principles:

1.   the principle of segregation

2. the principle of independent assortment

According to the principle of segregation, for any particular trait, the pair of alleles
of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each parent on to an
offspring.  Which allele in a parent's pair of alleles is inherited is a matter of chance. 
We now know that this segregation of alleles occurs during the process of sex cell
formation (i.e., meiosis  ).

Segregation of alleles in the production of sex cells

According to the principle of independent assortment, different pairs of alleles are

passed to offspring independently of each other.  The result is that new combinations
of genes present in neither parent are possible.  For example, a pea plant's
inheritance of the ability to produce purple flowers instead of white ones does not
make it more likely that it will also inherit the ability to produce yellow pea seeds in
contrast to green ones.  Likewise, the principle of independent assortment explains
why the human inheritance of a particular eye color does not increase or decrease
the likelihood of having 6 fingers on each hand.  Today, we know this is due to the
fact that the genes for independently assorted traits are located on
different chromosomes  .

These two principles of inheritance, along with the understanding of unit inheritance
and dominance, were the beginnings of our modern science of genetics.  However,
Mendel did not realize that there are exceptions to these rules.  Some of these
exceptions will be explored in the third section of this tutorial and in the Synthetic
Theory of Evolution tutorial.

By focusing on Mendel as the father of genetics, modern biology often

forgets that his experimental results also disproved Lamarck's theory of the
inheritance of acquired characteristics described in the Early Theories of
Evolution tutorial.  Mendel rarely gets credit for this because his work
remained essentially unknown until long after Lamarck's ideas were widely
rejected as being improbable.
Mendel and Inheritance What is heredity? Heredity is when certain traits are passed
from the parents to the children. Traits are characteristics such as eye color, height,
and athletic ability. Heredity is passed through genes in the DNA molecule. In
biology the study of heredity is called genetics. Gregor Mendel Scientist Gregor
Mendel (1822 - 1884) is considered the father of the science of genetics. Through
experimentation he found that certain traits were inherited following specific patterns.
Gregor studied inheritance by experimenting with peas in his garden. Peas work as
an excellent test subject as they can self-pollinate, cross fertilize, and have several
traits that only have two forms. This enabled Mendel to easily control his
experiments and reduced the possibility of the outcomes to something he could
record and manage. Mendel's Experiments Gregor studied seven traits of the pea
plant: seed color, seed shape, flower position, flower color, pod shape, pod color,
and the stem length. There were three major steps to Mendel's experiments: 1. First
he produced a parent generation of true-breeding plants. He made these by self-
fertilizing the plants until he knew they bred true to the seven traits. For example, the
purple flowering plants always produced seeds that made purple flowers. He called
these plants the P generation (for parent). 2. Next, he produced a second generation
of plants (F1) by breeding two different true-breeding P plants. 3. He then produced
a third generation of plants (F2) by self-pollinating two F1 generation plants that had
the same traits. Mendel's Results Mendel found some incredible results from his
experiments. F1 Generation Mendel found that the F1 generation all produced the
same trait. Even though the two parents had different traits, the offspring always had
the same trait. For example, if he bred a P plant with a purple flower with a P plant
with a white flower, all of the offspring (F1) plants would have purple flowers. This is
because the purple flower is the dominate trait. These results can be shown in a
diagram called a Punnett square. The dominate gene is shown with a capital letter
and the recessive gene with a lower case letter. Here the purple is the dominant
gene shown with a "P" and the white is the recessive gene shown with a "w." P P w
Pw Pw w Pw Pw You can go to this page to learn more about inheritance patterns
and Punnett Squares. F2 Generation In the F2 generation he found that 75% of the
flowers were purple and 25% were white. Even though both parents had purple
flowers, 25% of the offspring had white flowers. This turned out to be because of a
recessive gene or trait was present in both parents. Here is the Punnett square
showing that 25% of the offspring had two "w" genes causing them to have white
flowers: P w P PP Pw w Pw ww Homozygous and Heterozygous When two of the
genes are the same (like with "PP" or "ww" above) they are called homozygous.
When they are different (like with "Pw") they are called Heterozygous. Interesting
Facts about Mendel and Inheritance Mendel's work was rejected by his fellow
scientists while he was alive. It wasn't until later that his work was rediscovered and
confirmed through further experimentation. Mendel was a monk and performed his
experiments in the monastery garden. His experimentation largely ended when he
was promoted to abbot. Mendel also ran experiments with honey bees, but found
them much more difficult to experiment with. The idea that an offspring receives one
unit of inheritance from each parent is the called the "theory of segregation."

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