Darshana (Indian) Philosophy

Main teachings of Philosophy:

Atman: This is the Individual Soul known through ‘I’ notion. It is covered by Avidya or
ignorance and identifies itself with body, senses, mind etc.

Brahman: This is derived from root ‘Bruh’ means to grow. Brahman is portrayed as the cause
of creation, sustenance and dissolution of this universe.

World: From Brahman came into existence ether, air, fire, water and earth in an order. The
world is spoken of as Organic and Inorganic. All Organic things including plants are said to
have souls.

Liberation: Union of finite with infinite transgressing births and deaths.

-----

Overall, there are nine schools of Hindu philosophy.

At the primary level there is a two way classification of these schools into Astika and Nastika
philosophies, the Astika (from the Sanskrit word Asti = to be) and the Nasitka (from the
Sanskrit word Nasti = to not be). The terms to be and to not be are used in the context of the
Vedas. Hence, the astika schools of philosophy are those which believe in the authority of the
Vedas and the Nastika schools are those which do not believe in the authority of the Vedas.

The Astika philosophical systems are six in number and there are three philosophical
systems in the Nastika school.

I will try to summarise the Astika schools briefly.

The systems of the Astika School and their subject matter are as follows. Please bear in mind
that no one knows when these were created. Also I am trying to summarise them in a very
concise manner. There are many layers to each of them.

1. Nyaya – Akasapada Gautama.

Nyaya primarily deals with three aspects of knowledge.

1. Prameya: What are the objects about which knowledge is to be gained? These are 12 in
number.

2. Pramana: What are the valid sources of knowledge? These are four in number.

3. There are 14 elements which deal with the process of creation of knowledge starting with
samsaya (doubt) and ending with nigrahastahana (reasons for defeat in an argument).
Hence there are 16 divisions of the Nyaya philosophy (Prameya, Praman and the 14
components).

2. Vaisheshika – Kanada

The Vaisheshika school deals with atomic structures. The smallest particles visible to the
naked eye are the dest particles which we can seen when a ray of sunlight enters a room
through a window (trasarenu).

Vaisehsika explains the nature of the world by dividing them into seven categories;
Dravya, guna, karma, samanya, vishesha, amavaya and abhava. This school presumes
the existence of the divine. The basic thrust of this philosophy is as follows.

The soul has moral and immoral qualities. Depending upon these qualities God puts the
atoms and through them the 9 dravyas (5 material and 4 non material) consisting of 24
properties into motion which create our physical surroundings. In these surroundings we
perform the basic actions (lifting up, putting down, contraction, extension and moving) and
we experience pleasure or pain. The only way to achieve Moksha is to get to a state where the
soul is devoid of qualities and hence does not act.

3. Sankhya (Samkhya) – Kapila

The uniqueness of Sankhya lies in that is atheistic in nature. According to this system of
philosophy the universe was not created by God. The two main components in action are the
Prakriti and the Purusha. Prakriti does not have a cause but is the cause of everything. It
consists of sattva, rajasi and tamasic gunas.

Purusha is the efficient cause of the world. Purusha in essence is spirit. The entire world is
created by an interaction between the Prakriti and Purusha. That is the reason why the three
gunas are present in every object of the universe. This interaction between Prakriti and
Purush produces the Mahat (The Great Idea). The second evolute the ego, called the ahankara
out of which evolve the manas (mind), the five sense organs, the five motor organs the five
subtle elements and the five gross elements.

4. Yoga – Patanjali

Yoga is considered as the practical aspect of Sankhya. Only one term, chitta, is used to
denote a mix of mahat, ahankara and the manas. Throught the Ashtanga- yoga (Yoga of 8
steps) a human can attain a complete mastery over the chitta.

However, there as some points of difference between Sankhya and Yoga. Yoga is theistic in
nature. According to Sankhya there are many purushas but according to Yoga there is one
Supreme Purusha whom we call God.
5. Purva Mimansa - Jaimini

This is considered to be one of the earliest works in Indian philosophy. It deals with rituals
and sacrifices. Whereas Nyaya philosophy accepts that there are four valid sources of
knowledge (Perception, inference, comparison and testimony), according to Jaimini
Sabda is the only valid source of knowledge. The Charvaka philosophy in this aspect
says that perception is the only valid source of knowledge.

According to this philosophy both the world and the individual souls are real (pluralistic
realist). The Law of Karma is central to the process of achieveing Moksha.

6. Uttara Mimansa (Vedanta)- Various

Vedanta is considered to be the most dynamic of all the astika schools. Ever expanding in its
scope, it has now become a way of life. During the revival phase between the 8th and the
13th centuries, it evolved into a full fledged philosophy and also underwent the process of
further division into various different theories. They are

1. Advaita – Shankara

2. Dvaita – Madhava

3. Vishishta Advaita – Ramanuja

4. Bheda abheda – Nimbarka

5. Shuddha advaita – Vallabha

The Advaita Vedanta essentially functions on the concepts of the Brahman and the Atman.
Two shlokas give the essence of the Advaita Vedanta beautifully.

1. Brahma satyam jagat mitha, jivo brahmaiva naparah: The Brahmin is the reality, the
universe is an illusion, there is no difference between the Brahman and the individual self, the
jiva.

2. Arthasya nishchayo drishto vicharena hitoktitah; Na snanena, na danena

pranayamashatena va: Reason, reflection and instructions of teachers are the only way to
attain the supreme knowledge. It cannot be attained by ablutions, donations or even by
performing hundreds of breathing exercises.

Another crucial aspect of Advaita is that it recognises six valid source of knowledge
compared to the four according to Nyaya. These are perception, inference, comparison,
testimony, postulation and non-cognition.
Hence, each system of philosophy has its own subject matter. There are subtle
differences in what are the valid sources of knowledge.

(https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-major-differences-between-six-schools-of-Indian-
philosophy)
 Darshana (Indian) Philosophy – Another ver.

The sad-darshana (six philosophical views) are nyaya (logic), vaisesika (atomic theory),
sankhya (analysis of matter and spirit), yoga (the discipline of selfrealization), karma-
mimamsa (science of fruitive work) and vedanta (science of God realization).

The sad-darshanas are termed astika philosophies (from asti, or "it is so"), because they all
acknowledge the Veda as authoritative, as opposed to the nastika philosophies of the
Carvakas, Buddhists and Jains (nasti, "it is not so"), who reject the Vedas. Beginning with
nyaya, each of the sad-darshanas in their own turn presents a more developed and
comprehensive explanation of the aspects of Vedic knowledge.

Nyaya sets up the rules of philosophical debate and identifies the basic subjects under
discussion: the physical world, the soul, God and liberation.

Vaisesika engages the method of nyaya or logic in a deeper analysis of the predicament of
material existence by showing that the visible material forms to which we are all so attached
ultimately break down into invisible atoms.

Sankhya develops this analytical process further to help the soul become aloof to matter.

Through Yoga, the soul awakens its innate spiritual vision to see itself beyond the body.

Karma-mimamsa directs the soul to the goals of Vedic ritualism.

Vedanta focuses on the supreme spiritual goal taught in the Upanisads.

Originally, the six darshanas were departments of study in a unified understanding of the
Veda, comparable to the faculties of a modern university. But with the onset of Kali-yuga
(the Age of Quarrel), the scholars of the darshanas became divided and contentious.

Some even misrepresented Vedic philosophy for their own selfish ends. For instance, karma-
mimamsa (which by 500 BC had become the foremost philosophy of the brahmana class) was
misused by bloodthirsty priests to justify their mass slaughter of animals in Vedic sacrifices.

But the unexpected rise of a novel non-Vedic religion challenged the power of karma-
mimamsa. This new religion was Buddhism. By 250 BC, the influence of karma-mimamsa
and other darshanas had weakened considerably. When King Ashoka instituted the Buddha's
doctrine as the state philosophy of his empire, many brahmanas abandoned Vedic scholarship
to learn and teach nastika concepts of ahimsa (nonviolence) and sunyata (voidism).

Buddhism in its turn was eclipsed by the teachings of the Vedantist Shankara, who revived
the Vedic culture all over India in the seventh century after Christ. But Shankara's special
formulation of Vedanta was itself influenced by Buddhism and is not truly representative of
the original vedanta-darshana taught by Vyasa (the last chapter will take this up in greater
detail).
Each darshana was codified by a great Vedic sage -- nyaya by Gautama, vaisesika by
Kanada, sankhya by Kapila, yoga by Patanjali, karma-mimamsa by Jaimini and vedanta by
Vyasa.

Because the sages drew their arguments from the same source -- the Vedic sastra -- their
darshanas share many of the same basic philosophical principles, for instance: the self is
understood to be an individual spiritual being of the nature of eternal consciousness; the self
acquires a succession of physical bodies through reincarnation under the law of karma; the
self suffers because of its contact with matter; the end of suffering is the goal of philosophy.

Vedanta: The Conclusion of the Vedic Revelation

In the introduction of this book it was explained that the Upanisads are the subject of the
fourth and final degree of Vedic scholarship. Therefore the Upanisads are known as vedanta,
"the conclusion of the Veda." Karma-mimamsa philosophy arose from the earlier study of the
ritualistic portions of the Vedas, and so it is also known as purva-mimamsa, "the prior
deliberation."

Vedanta is called uttara-mimamsa, "the higher deliberation", and also as brahma-mimamsa,

"deliberation on Brahman, the Absolute Truth." The word upanisad means "that which is
learned by sitting close to the teacher." The texts of the Upanisads are extremely difficult to
fathom; they are to be understood only under the close guidance of a spiritual master (guru).
Because the Upanisads contain many apparently contradictory statements, the great sage
Vyasadeva (also known as Vedavyasa, Badarayana and Dvaipayana) systematized the
Upanisadic teachings in the Vedanta-sutra or Brahma-sutra.

The Vedanta-sutra is divided into four chapters: Samanvaya, which explains the unity of the
philosophy of the Upanisads; Avirodha, which dispels apparent contradictions; Sadhana,
which describes the means to attain the Supreme; and Phala, which indicates the goal.
Vyasa's sutras are very terse. Without a fuller explanation, their meaning is difficult to grasp.
In India there are five main schools of vedanta, each established by an acarya who explained
the sutras in a bhasya (commentary). Of the five schools or sampradayas, one, namely
Shankara's, is impersonalist.

In nyaya, God is the operative cause of the world, but atoms are the material cause. (Note: in
philosophy there are four ways to explain causation, as in this example of the causation of a
house: the construction company is the "operative cause", the bricks, cement and other
building materials are the "material cause", the original type of house upon which this house
is modelled is the "formal cause", and the purpose of the house, i.e. that someone wants to
live in it, is the "final cause".)

In sankhya, creation is regarded as the spontaneous result of the contact between prakrti and
purusa. The sankhya philosopher says "there is no need for God" in his system, but he fails to
explain what governs the coming together of prakrti and purusa in the first place.

Patanjali says God is the Supreme Self distinguished from other selves, and He is the
intelligent governor of prakrti and purusa. But Patanjali nonetheless accepts the sankhya view
that prakrti and purusa have no origin. God as creator plays no essential role in the
mimamsaka system, which believes that the world as a whole is eternal, though its gross
manifestations may come and go.
Discounting all these theories, Vedanta-sutra defines God as He among all beings who alone
is simultaneously the operative, material, formal and final causes of the cosmos. As the
intelligence behind creation, He is the operative cause; as the source of prakrti and purusa, He
is the material cause; as the original transcendental form of which the world is but a shadow,
He is the formal cause; as the purpose behind the world, He is the final cause.

Mayavadi philosophy avoids the issue of causation by claiming that the world, though
empirically real, is ultimately a dream. But since even dreams have a cause, the mayavadi
"explanation" explains nothing. In the visistadvaita explanation, the material world is the
body of God, the Supreme Soul.

(https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-similarities-and-differences-between-the-six-major-
School-of-Indian-philosophy)
 Version 3

The Orthodox schools consider infallibility of Vedas. There are six orthodox schools. They
are Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Poorva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa.

These schools of thoughts expound their theories on certain proofs/Pramanas. There are six
Pramanas. They are Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda[Vedas], Anupalabdi and
Arthapatti. Various schools consider various Pramanas to postulate their theories. Pratyaksha
means knowledge produced by contact of senses with the objects of senses. It considers two
stages of perception. They are Nirvikalpa/indeterminate stage and Savikalpa/determinate
stage.

Anumana means knowledge based on inferences. Therefore, it is indirect and mediate.

Upamana means knowledge based on analogies.

Shabda/Verbal testimony means statement of a trustworthy person. Here, knowledge of

Vedas, Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Geeta are considered.

Arthapatti means assumption of unperceived based on perceived objects. Eg: “The fat
Devadattta does not have his food during day time. His fatness is a proof that he does have
his food. If he does not have his food in the morning, it means he will have his bellyful
during night.

Anupalabdhi: This means non-perception. The same sense organ which perceives any object
also perceives its absence. But, it is accepted as an independent testimony by Mimamsakas
like Kumarila Bhatta.

Even a brief introduction to these schools of philosophies make the answer voluminous. Still
a few lines about each school is given below.

Sankhya: It is the oldest school. We find references to its tenets in some Upanishads.
Tradition holds sage Kapila as its founder. But scholars hold Ishva Krishna’s work of 5th
century AD as the earliest work on Sankhya system and attribute the work of Kapila to 14th
century AD.

Yoga: The propounder is Sage Patanjali. It adovates control over body, senses and mind. This
has eight limbs. They are Yama, Niyama, Aasana, Pranayama, Pratyahara,Dharana, Dhyana
and Samadhi.

Nyaya and Vaisheshika are studied together as Tarka these days. Nyaya accepted the
Ontology of Vaisheshikas and developed it in the light of its epistomology. The sages are
Gautama and Kanada respectively.

Poorva Meemamsa and Uttara Meemaamsa: - Meemaamsa means reverred thought. The
word is also used in the sense of critical investigation. The Mimamsa applies to rules
according to which the vedic injunctions have to be interpretted and to the philosophical
justification for the rituals of Veda. The earliest work is by Jaimini. It is further commented
upon by Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara. Uttara Meemaamsa is based on triple foundation
i.e. Upanishads, Brahma sutra and Bhagavad Geeta. Shankara’s Advaita, Ramanuja’s
Vishistadwaita and Madwa’s Dwaita are major systems of Vedanta based on these Prastana-
trayas.

(https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-general-characters-and-special-features-of-Indian-
philosophy)