Study Unit 1

THAT-COMPLEMENT CLAUSES

1.2 The main syntactic properties of that-complement clauses

Syntactic Properties of that-Complements

Complement clauses introduced by that occur in typical NP positions and display certain nominal
properties. The similarities between the syntactic behavior of that-complement clauses and noun
phrases are given below:

1. That-complement clauses fulfill the same syntactic functions as the NP: Subject, Object,
Predicative, Attribute (see section 1.2.)
2. That-complement clauses can change their position in the complex sentence, just like NPs in a
simple sentence. Both that-complements and NPs participate in passivisation, topicalisation and
clefting, as shown below:

a. Passivisation
Complex sentences containing that-complement clauses functioning as Object may undergo
passivisation:

People assume [that they will get married soon]. (active voice)
active Su Verb Direct Object.

[That they will get married soon] is assumed. (passive voice)

passive Subject

Thus, the complement clause functioning as DO for the active verb assume in the main clause can
be moved to subject position in the passive sentence.

b. Topicalisation
A complement clause can be topicalised, i.e. a complement clause with the function of DO can be
moved to pre-Subject position for the sake of emphasis:

I request [that Tim be given a scholarship]. (neutral)

DO
[That Tim be given a scholarship], I request. (emphatic)
topicalized DO

c. Pseudo-cleft constructions.
A complement clause can be highlighted or focused on in a pseudo-cleft construction (see section
6.3). Complement clauses can occur after the copulative be in focus position:
 He noted [that she changed her expression].
[What he noted] was [that she changed her expression].
relative clause + be + focus (emphasised constituent)

Note that unlike NPs, complement clauses cannot be emphasised in a cleft construction.

d. Clause shift
Clause Shift is a syntactic operation that allows a ‘heavy’, clausal Direct Object to be moved to
the right end of the sentence, for the sake of clarity. Movement of the Direct Object takes place
over an adverb phrase or a prepositional phrase, as follows:

*Sam said [that he wanted to drive] furiously.

clausal DO adverb

This complex sentence is not semantically acceptable, because the adverb phrase furiously may
erroneously refer to the verb in the complement clause (to drive). If, however, clause shift operates,
the resulting complex sentence is grammatical:

Sam said furiously [that he wanted to drive].

adverb clausal DO

Thus, the adverb can no longer have ambiguous interpretation. It is obviously linked to the main
clause verb as intended.

Similarly, the clausal complement may be shifted over a prepositional phrase for the
ungrammatical sentence to become grammatical:

*You will demonstrate [that the repairs are necessary] to the court.
clausal DO PP
You will demonstrate to the court [that the repairs are necessary].
PP clausal DO

Extraposition and it-insertion

Extraposition is a syntactic process that moves a complement clause to the right periphery of the
complex sentence and obligatorily substitutes it for the displaced complement clause. Thus, the
complement clause acquires a marginal, peripheral position in the complex sentence.
The complement clause may be extraposed from subject position, direct object or prepositional
object position.

Extraposition from subject position. Consider the following complex sentence in which the
subject position is occupied by a that-complement clause:

[That they are good students] is obvious.

clausal Subject

Since the clausal subject is felt to be a ‘heavy’ (long) constituent, it has to be moved to final
position in the complex sentence:
 It is obvious [that they are good students].
gr. Su logical Subject

The expletive pronoun it is inserted in the position left empty by the complement clause, where it
functions as a grammatical, formal subject, anticipating the real, logical or semantic subject
(expressed by the that-complement clause). Thus, the complement clause may appear in initial,
non-extraposed position, or in final, extraposed position:

[That I knew very little about that report] was clear.

non-extraposed subject clause

It was clear [that I knew very little about that report].

extraposed subject clause

Extraposition from Direct Object position. The complement clause can be extraposed when it
functions as a clausal Direct Object for the main verb:

He regrets [that he missed the concert] wholeheartedly.

clausal DO

Since the clausal Direct Object is a ‘long’ constituent that may give rise to ambiguities (the
complement clause separates the verb regret from the adverb wholeheartedly), extraposition has
to be used:

He regrets it wholeheartedly [that he missed the concert].

gr. DO logical DO

With complex transitive verbs, a clausal DO in post-verbal position renders the sentence
ungrammatical. In such cases, extraposition is obligatory:

*I consider [that he gave up] very disappointing.

clausal DO predicative
I consider it very disappointing [that he gave up].
gr. DO logical DO

Thus, the clausal DO is shifted over the predicative adjective (very disappointing).

Extraposition from Prepositional Object position occurs after prepositional adjectives (e.g. sure
of, afraid of) or verbs (e.g. insist on):

We are sure [of something].

PO
We are sure [that it is a boy].
non-extraposed PO
We are sure of it [that it is a boy].
gr.PO extraposed logical PO
 He insisted [on something].
PO
He insisted [that they should not change the rules].
non-extraposed PO
He insisted on it [that they should not change the rules].
gr.PO extraposed logical PO

As it can be noticed, extraposition allows the preposition (of, on) to reappear in the structure of the
complex sentence.

Extraposition from Direct Object and from Prepositional Object position are less frequent than
extraposition from Subject position.
For the sake of simplicity of presentation, we may say that the result of applying extraposition is
a complex sentence with two subjects, two direct objects or two prepositional objects, one
grammatical (expressed by the expletive/pleonastic pronoun it) and the other one logical (realised
by the complement clause).

To briefly summarize, complement clauses introduced by that occur in typical NP positions and,
as a consequence, they display certain nominal properties:

- complement clauses fulfill the same syntactic functions as the NP (see section 1.2.)
- just like Object NPs, complement clauses in Object position participate in passivisation and
can be topicalized
- complement clauses can be emphasised in a pseudo-cleft construction, while NPs are
focused on in a cleft or in a pseudo- cleft construction.
- just as ‘heavy’, long NPs can be shifted over other constituents, so can complement clauses
be moved to a final position in the complex sentence

For a detailed account of the syntactic properties of that-complement clauses, see Cornilescu
(1982: 133-156).

1.3 The syntactic functions of that-complement clauses.

According to Cornilescu (1982: 161-172) that-complement clauses can fulfill the syntactic
functions of Direct Object, Prepositional Object, Subject, Predicative, Attribute, which are typical
of the noun phrase.

That-complements functioning as Direct Objects

a. The following transitive verbs take a clausal DO introduced by the conjunction that: admit,
arrange, assume, believe, consider, forget, imagine, maintain, mean, mind, know, object, prove,
pretend, realise, reckon, recollect, remember, say, suppose, suspect, think, understand. Verbs
belonging to this group allow the deletion of the conjunction in informal English:

I gathered [(that) they were not expected to eat with us].

Biber et al (1999: 659-677) point out that the most common use of that-complement clauses is to
report people’s mental states and processes. The transitive verbs that most frequently take that-
complement clauses in conversation are: to think (verb of mental activity) and to say
(communication verb).

The conjunction that is obligatory with verbs that occur in formal contexts (anticipate, affirm,
allege, announce, assert, certify, conclude, conjecture, declare, establish, intend, estimate, judge,
mention, predict, proclaim, pronounce, protest, profess, require, rule, settle, speculate, state,
specify, etc.):

The board concluded [that they should vote against the offer].

See also Downing & Locke (2006: 102-103) for a semantic classification of transitive verbs that
take a clausal complement.

Passivisation and extraposition can freely apply to complex sentences with a clausal Direct Object:

The journalist disclosed [that the treaty had been signed].

Su clausal DO
[That the treaty had been signed] was disclosed by the journalist. (passive)
passive Subject
It was disclosed by the journalist [that the treaty had been signed]. (extraposition)
gr.Su logical Su

b. That-complement clauses function as Direct Objects for ditransitive verbs in the main clause.
Ditransitive verbs that take a to-IO are mostly communication verbs: tell, read, write, permit,
allow, promise, suggest, indicate, confess, declare, describe, demonstrate, explain, recommend.
The clausal DO, as a ‘heavier’ constituent, is preferably placed in final position:

He confessed to me [that he was extremely alarmed].

Su Verb IO clausal DO

I explained to him [that I was trying to write a book].

Su Verb IO clausal DO

Such complex sentences with a complement clause functioning as DO may undergo passivisation
and extraposition:

They suggested to us [that it might be better to wait]. (active)

Su clausal DO
[That it might be better to wait] was suggested to us. (passive)
Subject

It was suggested to us [that it might be better to wait]. (extraposition)

gr. Su logical Subject

c. Prepositional transitive verbs (blame sth. on sb., to request sth. of sb., require sth. from sb.,
etc.) also take a clausal DO. With such verbs extraposition of the complement clause is obligatory,
otherwise the complex sentence is ungrammatical:
 *Police blamed [that there had been a bomb attack] on the extremists.
clausal DO PO
Police blamed it on the extremists [that there had been a bomb attack]. (extraposition)
gr.DO PO extraposed logical DO

*I requested [that he should leave] of him.

clausal DO PO
I requested it of him [that he should leave]. (extraposition)
gr. DO PO logical DO

That-complements as Prepositional Objects

There are verbs and adjectives that take an obligatory preposition. The PO can be expressed by a
prepositional phrase or by a that-complement clause:

He complained [PP of unfair treatment].

PO
He complained of [that he had been treated unfairly].
PO

When the Prepositional Object is realised by a that-complement clause, the preposition is

obligatorily deleted. However, the preposition reappears in the sentence, when extraposition
applies or in pseudo-cleft constructions:
?
He complained [that he had been treated unfairly] repeatedly.
heavy constituent
He complained of it repeatedly [that he had been treated unfairly]. (extraposition)
[What he repeatedly complained of] was [that he had been treated unfairly].
(pseudo-cleft construction)

The complement clause functions as a PO for the following types of verbs or adjectives with
obligatory preposition:

a. Prepositional intransitive verbs like: admit (of), ask (for), answer (for), brag (of, about),
rejoice (at, over), marvel (at), see (to), theorize (on/about), vote (for), worry (about), wonder (at,
about), etc.:

He bragged [PP about his police contacts].

PO
He bragged [that he had contacts with the police].
clausal PO

Some of these prepositional intransitive verbs allow that deletion: conceive (of), confess (to),
decide (on), insist (on, upon), hope (for), learn (of, about).
b. Prepositional transitive verbs: advise sb. of, accuse sb. of, assure sb. of, congratulate sb. on,
forewarn sb. of, instruct sb. in, inform sb. of, notify sb. of, persuade sb. of, convince sb. of, warn
sb. of.:

He convinced them [PP of his loyalty].

DO PO
He convinced them [that he was loyal].
DO PO

c. Intransitive verbs with two obligatory prepositional Objects: argue with sb. about sth., agree
with sb. on/about sth., pray to sb. for sth., etc.
I agree with him [PP about his decision].
PO PO
I agree with him [that the law is behind the times].
PO PO

d. Prepositional adjectives: afraid (of), ashamed (of), amazed (at), annoyed (at), aware (of),
angry (about), certain (of) concerned (about), confident (in), conscious (of), delighted (at), glad
(about), happy (about), irritated (at), hopeful (of), indicative (of), sorry (for), sure (of), surprised
(at), thankful (for), etc.

She became conscious [PP of his tactics].

PO
She became conscious [ that he had changed his tactics].
PO

Complement clauses governed by prepositional adjectives can be extraposed or emphasised in

pseudo-cleft constructions.

We are sure [that it is a boy].

We are sure of it [that it is a boy]. (extraposition)
[What we are sure of] is [that it is a boy]. (pseudo-cleft)

It can be noticed that the preposition resurfaces in the sentence, when extraposition or pseudo-
clefting is applied.

That-complements as Subjects

That-complement clauses function as Subjects when the main clause contains the following:

a. Certain intransitive verbs like: seem, appear, happen, turn out, matter, come about, etc. All
verbs allow that deletion and the complement clause always occurs in extraposition:

It seemed [(that) she had forgotten about the appointment].

b. Predicative adjectives like: likely, unlikely, certain, uncertain, true, sure, possible, probable,
well-known, etc. also take clausal subjects and allow extraposition:

[That you would get your own office] is unlikely.

It is unlikely [that you would get your own office].

Some of these adjectives express the speaker’s point of view: doubtful, odd, fair, fine, fantastic,
funny, fortunate, good, bad, helpful, important, impossible, inconvenient, incredible, crucial,
essential, lucky, natural, alarming, astonishing, surprising, splendid, queer, etc.:

[That she still lived at home] was odd.

It was odd [that she still lived at home].

c. Nouns with the semantic feature [+abstract], such as: problem, thing, fact, idea, surprise,
miracle, party, (no) wonder, mystery, etc., can also be used in this pattern, as nominal predicatives:

[That she managed to come] is a wonder.

It’s a wonder [that she managed to come].

d. Subject that-clauses also occur with bisentential verbs, i.e. verbs that have both the Subject
and the Direct Object expressed by a that-complement clause: prove, show, imply.

[That they reached an agreement] proves [that they are mature].

Subject Direct Object

That-complements as Predicatives
That-clauses may also function as predicatives, when the subject in the main clause is a [+abstract]
nouns, like: fact, idea, reason, claim, trouble, etc.:

The trouble is [that it is getting a bit expensive now].

My feeling is [that it would work very well].
That complements as Attributes

That-clauses fulfill the syntactic function of attribute, modifying [+abstract] nouns (fact, evidence,
problem, feeling) in the main clause:

We saw evidence [that effort was made to promote tourism].

I had a feeling [that he was right].

The complementiser that

That is a purely syntactic word showing embedding. Unlike other subordinating conjunctions
(though, when, because), that has virtually no meaning, occasionally being deleted.
Complement clauses can be produced with or without the complementiser that. The occurrence of
the conjunction that depends on the matrix verb and on the grammatical complexity of the
sentence.
Omission of that is favoured in informal English and in certain quote clauses.

Informal English
Omission of that is the norm in conversation, as shown in Biber at al. (1999: 680-683). It makes
no difference to the meaning of the sentence whether that is present or not after informal verbs
(say, think, mean, notice, etc.), informal adjectives (obvious) or nouns (message):

It is obvious he did it.

First person singular subjects also favour deletion in conversation:

I think (that) something is missing.

The complementiser that is deleted in a quote clause with the main clause within the complement
clause or after the complement clause:

I think [that the weather is getting better].

main cl. quote clause

The weather is, I think, getting better.

main clause

The weather is getting better, I think.

quote clause main clause

Preserving that is favoured in formal English and in grammatically complex sentences.

In formal written English, however, the conjunction that is always preserved after formal or less
frequent verbs, like demand, estimate, brag:

They estimate [that there are 1.000 people affected by the flood].

2. Grammatical complexity is also significant in preserving the complementiser.

a. The complementiser that is preserved when complement clauses are in coordination:

Many people believe [that economy is improving] and [that the annual revenue will
increase].

b. That is retained when the complement clause is in subject position:

[That he’ll ever finish] is open to question.

*[He’ll ever finish] is open to question.
Subject

c. The complementiser that is retained with passive verbs in the main main clause in extraposition
patterns:
 Politicians believe [that peace is in sight].
[That peace is in sight] is believed by politicians. (passivisation)
clausal subject
It is believed by politicians [that peace is in sight]. (extraposition)
extraposed clausal subject

d. The complementiser that is retained when the complement clause is separated from the main
clause by some intervening material (usually expressing the speaker’s comment):

They maintain [that he was a spy].

main clause complement clause

They maintain, you want me to believe, [that he was a spy].

main clause intervening material complement clause.

e. The conjunction that cannot be deleted when the complement clause is topicalised (i.e. when
the complement clause with the function of DO is moved to pre-Subject position for the sake of
emphasis):

I didn’t know [that she had such a crush on him]. (neutral)

DO
[That she had such a crush on him], I didn’t know. (emphatic)
topicalized DO