INTRODUCTION

• What is grammar?
Grammar is the study of the structure of sentences and their parts. Is also the linguistic and scientific study
of the language.

• Grammar rules
“The old man has been ill”
The old man: Subject, comes before the verb
Ill: Complement, comes after the verb
The: Determiner,
Old: Premodifier
Man: Head Noun

• Diachronic description: The history of English language.

Synchronic description: The description of the English language as it is today.
Phonetics: One part of grammar and it’s the study of sounds, in particular of human sounds.
Morphology: The study of the word’s structure, the way they are built.
Syntax: The linguistic study of phrases, clauses and sentences.
Semantics: Studies the meaning of phrases, clauses and sentences.

INTRODUCING SENTENCE STRUCTURE

1.1 The constituents of a sentence
“My father retired when he was sixty”
Certain words go together to form meaningful units: [My father][retired][when he was sixty]
They are the basic building blocks of the sentence and they are known in grammar as the constituents of
the sentence. A constituent is a word or a string of words that behaves grammatically and semantically as
a unit. So this sentence has 7 words and 3 constituents. Each constituent has is function: My father is the
subject and when he was sixty is the adjunct. Every constituent has a complete meaning in itself, for that
reason every constituent can be replaced by a single word ([He][retired][then]) (except the verb), this is
called the one-word substitution test.

1.2 The grammatical hierarchy

There are 3 types of constituents: words, phrases and clauses. Words
are at the bottom of the hierarchy.
SENTENCE consist of one or more CLAUSES consist of one or more
PHRASES consist of one or more WORDS. In this diagram we have the
words at the bottom, the sentence at the top and clauses and phrases
in between. The triangle indicates that there is even more structure
inside the constituent when he was sixty.
“Amy works in the centre of London” ([She][works][there]), Amy is a noun phrase, works is a verb phrase
and in the centre of London is a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase has 3 constituents
embedded within it:
Prepositional phrase: in the centre of London
Noun phrase: the centre of London
Prepositional phrase: of London
Noun phrase: London

1.3 Form and function in grammatical description

Form refers to the “shape” or “appearance” of a sentence constituent. “the old man is walking his dog”, we
say that “the old man” has the form of a noun phrase because its main word, man, is a noun. The whole

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constituent could be replaced by the single word he. We can also
describe the old man in terms of its function, that is the grammatical
role that it plays in the sentence. In this case, it has the function of
subject. His dog has the form of a noun phrase and the function of
direct object.

1.4 Subject and verb

The simplest type of sentence consists of a verb only: Stop.
This is called imperative sentences and it’s used to give orders or instructions. More commonly, a sentence
will have a Subject and a verb. (ex. Amy retired.) The verb is often expanded to form a verb phrase (ex.
Amy is a nurse/ Paul plays football).

1.5 Identifying the Subject

In a simply sentence, the subject comes before the verb, but it’s not necessarily the first constituent in the
sentence. (ex. When she finally understood the joke, Amy (S) laughed (S)). Here the subject is preceded by
the adjunct. The definition “doer of the action” only applies to the simplest sentences, and is inaccurate in
relation to passive sentences (ex. Paul was bitten by a snake). Here the subject is Paul, but he is not the
doer of the action. More correctly the doer of the action is called the agent, which is a snake.

1.5.1 The inversion test→ When we turn a statement into a question, the subject inverts with the verb:

James is at school → Is James at school?

If there are 2 verbs present, the subject inverts with the first verb (the operator):

The children are playing outside → Are the children playing outside?

1.5.2 The tag question test→ A tag question is a question which is added to the end of a statement:

Paul is getting big, isn’t he?

The last word in the tag question refers back to the subject of the statement, and in that way helps us to
identify the subject of the sentence as a whole. The tag question test can also be used to identify the
subject of more complicated sentences:

There was a storm last night, wasn’t there?

Here, the tag question test identifies the subject of the sentence as the word there. This called a there-
sentence.

It was on Monday that we met Amy, wasn’t it?

Here the tag question test identifies the subject as the word it. This type of sentence is called a cleft
sentence.

1.5.3 Subject-verb agreement→ The subject of a sentence agrees in number with the verb that follows it:

The dog barks all night / The dogs bark all night

The form of the verb is determined by whether the subject is singular or plural. This is known as subject-
verb agreement. It only applies when the sentence is in the present tense. In the past tense the verb
remains the same. (barked). Agreement applies only when the subject is third-person:

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 He/she/the boy likes pizza / they like pizza

With all other subjects the same verb form is used whether the subject is I or We:

I sleep all night / We sleep all night

Subject-verb agreement does not apply if the first verb is a modal verb, such as will or can, since these
verbs do not change their form:

He will be here soon / They will be here soon

Subject-verb agreement is limited as a way of identifying the subject. The inversion test and the tag
question test are more useful since they can be applied to any type of statement

1.6 Verb types and sentence patterns

The structure of a sentence is determined to a very large extent by the type of verb it contains. There are 3
main types of verb: intransitive, linking, transitive. Transitive verbs can be monotransitive, ditransitive and
complex transitive.

1.6.1 Intransitive verbs→ An intransitive verb needs only a subject to form a complete sentence:

The prisoners escaped / The baby cried

Each of these sentences contains just a subject and a verb, so their structure is S V.

1.6.2 Linking verbs and Subjective complement→ The verb be does not denote any kind of “action”.
Instead, it links the subject to another constituent following the verb:

Amy is my sister

Amy does not perform any action. The verb simply links the 2 constituents, and for that reason is called
linking verb. the constituent after a linking verb is called the Subject complement (SC) and it’s required to
form a complete sentence. Be is the most common linking verb, but there are other: seems, appeared,
looks, sounds, became, grew, went. The structure of a sentence with a linking verb is S V SC.

1.6.3 Monotransitive verbs and Direct objects→ Monotransitive verbs require another constituent to form
a complete sentence, like the verb destroyed. (ex. The soldiers destroyed the village). The constituent after
the verb is called the Direct object and it completes the meaning of the verb. Their structure is S V DO.
Many verbs are both intransitive and monotransitive:

The children grew (S+V) / The children grew flowers (S+V+DO)

1.6.4 Ditransitive verbs and Indirect objects→ Ditransitive verbs require 2 objects, an indirect object (IO)
and a Direct object:

The judges gave David (IO) the prize (DO)

The indirect object always comes before the direct object. The first constituent after the verb is described
as “indirect” because it is only indirectly affected by the verb. We can also say The judges gave the prize to
David, this is called the prepositional paraphrase of the ditransitive structure. The prepositional paraphrase
does not contain an indirect object. The sentence ends with a prepositional phrase consisting of a
preposition followed by the constituent that was the indirect object of the ditransitive version. The
structure is S V IO DO.

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1.6.5 Complex transitive verbs and objects complements→ They require a direct object and an Object
complement (OC):

The dye turned the water (DO) blue (OC)

In semantic terms, the complex transitive construction describes an action applied to the direct object that
produces a specific result. The result is expressed by the object complement. The relationship between the
DO and the OC is similar to that between a Subject and a subject complement.

And as a result.. the water (S) is blue (SC)

The object complement comes after the direct object, so the structure is S V DO OC. Some complex
transitive sentences may look very similar to ditransitive sentences:

The headmaster made Jones a prefect (OC)

The headmaster made Jones a coffee (DO)

The difference can be seen when we rephrase them:

The headmaster made a coffee for Jones

The headmaster made a prefect for Jones

It’s not correct, because a prefect is an attribute of the direct object Jones, so a prefect is an Object
complement. We can rephrase it: As a result.. Jones is a prefect (SC)

1.6.6 Adverbial complements→ Some intransitive verbs co-occur with a constituent that expresses
location, direction, or time, and which is obligatory in the sentence structure. This constituent is called the
adverbial complement (AC)

This road goes (V) to Sevenoaks (AC)

Without the AC this sentence would be incomplete. The structure is S V AC.

1.7 Active sentence and passive sentence

Amy is a lawyer (S+V+SC)

Amy hired a lawyer (S+V+DO)

The second one can be re-written as: “A lawyer hired by Amy”. This is called the passive version of
sentence, the other is called active version. Sentence 1 has not a passive version, because it doesn’t have a
direct object. In a passive sentence, the direct object became the subject. The subject of the active version
moves to the end of the passive version where it forms the by-phrase, which can often be omitted, leaving
an agentless passive (The burglar broke a pane of glass / a pane of glass was broken by a burglar / a pane
of glass was broken). Also sentences with 2 direct objects can be passivized:

The judges gave David the prize / David was given the prize by the judges / The prize was given to David by
the judges.

Also sentences with a complex transitive verb can be passivized:

The dye turned the water blue / The water was turned blue by the dye.

Some verbs cannot be passivized, even if they’ve a direct object: have, afford, lack, resemble and suit.

1.8 Adjuncts
The six sentence pattern can all be extended by the use of adjuncts (A), which contribute optional,
additional information to a sentence. For example:
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 The sky darkened suddenly
The sky darkened before the hailstorm
The sky darkened at about 9 o’clock

Adjuncts are mobile within a sentence, that is, they can occupy different positions. They can occur at the
end of the sentence as in the examples above, or at the beginning:

When I told her the story, Amy laughed / In the end, the judges gave David the prize

Can also occur within a sentence, and when they do, they are placed between constituents, not within
constituents.

[The meeting] unfortunately lasted 2 hours

[The unfortunately meeting] lasted 2 hours

Adjuncts can co-occur:

Before the hailstorm the sky darkened suddenly

If we leave them out, the sentence is still grammatically complete.

1.8.1 The meanings of adjuncts→ The principal additional information are:

• Time (when something happens)→ The play opened yesterday
• Place (where something happens)→ Amy attended university in New York
• Manner (how something happens)→ She sings beautifully

1.9 Peripheral constituents in sentence structure

A tag question is added to the end of a sentence to seek the hearer’s agreement with a statement. If the
sentence is negative, the corresponding tag question is positive, and vice-versa:

It’s not too late, is it? / it’s too late, isn’t it?

Sometimes the positive tag question is used with a positive sentence:

You wrote this yourself, did you?

In this case the tag question may imply that the speaker suspects the sentence to be untrue:

You wrote this yourself, didn’t you?

A comment clause is a brief clause inserted into a sentence, expressing the speaker’s attitude towards what
is being said:

We could, I suppose, shape one between us / The building was used, I image, for storing grain

A parenthetical is a complete sentence which is inserted “parenthetically” into another sentence:

The range of colours (most suppliers have 72) can include metallics and warm colours

In speech, parentheticals are introduced by and:

Lionel Messi is and I think most people agree with me one of the best players

A sentential relative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which. It’s used to add a comment about
what has just been said:

James took an earlier train, which was lucky for him

A vocative is used to identify the person or persons to whom a sentence is addressed:

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 James, your dinner is ready / Come inside, children

1.10 Fragments and non-sentences

Grammatically complete sentences typically contain at least a verb. a great deal of communication consists
of incomplete sentences of fragments. In conversation speakers often omit the subject, especially when the
understood subject is I:

Must set my alarm clock tonight

Fragments are commonly used in response to questions:

What did you buy for Sandra ? A gold necklace / Labour party in expenses scandal

We refer to these as fragments because we can interpret them in the same way as grammatically complete
sentences. Only some of the sentences elements are missing. Non-sentences have no sentence structure at
all, and they generally occur without any surrounding context:

No parking / 10% off / Bye / Sure

In online communication the following fragments and non-sentences are regularly used: LOL, OMG, pls, tnx.

WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

2.1 Open and closed word classes

Words may be divided into: nouns, pronouns, determiners, main verbs, auxiliary verbs, prepositions,
adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions. Some word classes are open, they admit new words as members. The
class of nouns is infinite, since it continually being expanded. The class of numerals is open, since we can
add 1 to a number to make a new number. Also the adjective and adverb classes admit new members. In
contrast with this, prepositions belong to a closed class. We never invent new prepositions.

2.2 Nouns and determiners

Nouns denote both concrete objects and abstract entities (book/anger). Many nouns can be identified by
their characteristic endings:

-ence: absence, evidence

-ment: experiment
-tion: education
-ism: optimism
-ist: realist

2.2.1 Singular nouns and plural nouns→ Most nouns have 2 forms, a singular form and a plural form.
Regular nouns form the plural by adding -s to the singular (ex. Boy/boys), but some nouns have irregular
plurals (ex. Man/men).

2.2.2 Common nouns and proper nouns→ Proper nouns are the names of individual people and places (ex.
Patrick, Hong Kong, Mount Everest). But also the names of institutions, newspaper, building, ships and
languages (ex. Titanic, Latin, British Museum, Harvard University). Include also the days of the week, the
month and other periods of the calendar. Proper nouns are written with an initial capital letter, all the
other nouns are common nouns. Since proper nouns usually refer to unique individuals, places or events,
they do not normally have a plural form. They may take a plural ending when number is specifically being
referred to (ex. There are 2 Patricks in my class).

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2.2.3 Countable nouns and uncountable nouns→ Singular nouns denote just one instance, while plural
denote more than one (ex. One boy/two boys). These nouns are called countable nouns, in contrast, some
are called uncountable nouns (ex. Advice/software). These nouns refer to things which are considered as
indivisible wholes, and therefore cannot be counted. They have a singular form, but not a plural form and
they don’t take an a or an before them. Some nouns may be uncountable or countable, depending on how
their meaning is perceiver in a particular context.

Do you take sugar?

Here sugar is uncountable, since it has no plural form (Do you take sugars).

I take two sugars.

Here it’s countable.

2.2.4 Genitive nouns→ The genitive is formed by adding ‘s to the singular form of noun (ex. John’s car). If
the noun already has an -s ending because it is plural, we add the apostrophe alone to form the genitive
(ex. The farmers’ union). With irregular plural nouns, the genitive is formed by adding apostrophe s (ex. The
children’s clothes/the men’s toiletries). Noun ending in -s, in which -s does not denote plural, generally take
an apostrophe alone (ex. Prince Charles’s sons). The genitive form can express a lot of meanings:

Possession: The baby’s toys

Relationship: My wife’s sister
General attribute: China’s economy
Subjective genitive: The judge’s decision
Objective genitive: The prisoner’s release

2.2.5 Dependent genitives and independent genitives→ Genitives are wither dependent or independent. A
dependent genitive is followed by a noun (ex. The baby’s toys). An independent genitive is not followed by
a noun (ex. A friend of Caroline’s). An independent genitive is often used in referring to relationships
between people, as in these examples. The independent genitive does not mean the same as the
dependent genitive:

Independent: We met a friend of Caroline’s in Spain

Dependent: We met Caroline’s friend in Spain

The independent genitive means “one of Caroline’s friend” who may or not be known to the hearer. In
contrast, the dependent genitive means “one specific friend” who is assumed to the hearer. Independent
genitives are also used in references to places and business:

She stayed at Rebecca’s (house)

2.2.6 Determiners→ Come before a noun and indicate the kind of reference the noun has, whether the
noun is singular or plural, and possession. The most common determiners are a/an and the. The first one
indicates an indefinite reference, while the second one a definite reference. a/an Is called indefinite article,
the is called definite article. The indefinite article is restricted to singular nouns, while “the” can be used
with both. Many others determiners occur in the same position, before a noun. Any, every, one, that and
this are restricted to singular nouns, a few, both, many, several, those, these and two can only be used with
plural nouns. All can be used with plural countable nouns and singular uncountable nouns; a few/fewer are
used with plural countable nouns; little/less are used with singular uncountable nouns; more/some are
used with both singular uncountable and plural countable; much is used with singular uncountable, many is
used with plural countable, and my, your.. are used before both countable and uncountable nouns.
Determiner can co-occur (ex. All those books).

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2.3 Pronouns
Pronouns are a subclass of nouns, and many of them can be used as substitutes for a noun or a noun
phrase.

John was late for the meeting. He missed the train.

The pronoun he functions as the subject. This pronoun is called independent pronoun.

I’m painting my house

In this case, it occur before a noun, so it’s a dependent pronoun.

2.3.1 Personal pronouns→ The personal pronouns have 2

forms, the subjective form and the objective form. All the
personal pronouns are independent. The subjective form is
used when the pronoun functions as the subject of a sentence,
and the objective form is used for all other functions:

I (S) phoned her (DO)

She (S) phoned me (DO)

2.3.2 Possessive pronouns→ The possessive pronouns are the

possessive forms of the personal pronouns. The dependent forms
must occur before a noun, where they act as determiners:

This is my car

The independent forms are not dependent on any noun, and can
occur alone as the subject, object or subject complement:

Mine (S) is the blue car

That money is yours (SC)
We cook ours (DO) in the oven

There is no independent form of the third person singular its (X ex. The dog wagged its tail and the cat
wagged its X). the independent forms also occur in independent genitives (ex. I met a friend of mine).

2.3.3 Reflexive pronouns→ The reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves and correspond to the personal
pronouns. They have 2 major uses:

1. They refer back to the subject: A little girl (S) hurt herself
2. For emphasis: The president himself wrote back to me

They’re all independent pronouns.

2.3.4 Demonstrative pronouns→ This, These, That, Those. They can be used independently as the subject
or object in a sentence, where they refer to something in the surrounding context:

This (S) is a beautiful place / Did you enjoy that? (DO)

They can also be used dependently, before a noun, where they act as determiners (ex. This book)

2.3.5 Quantifying pronouns and numerals→ The class of

quantifying pronouns is large. Pronouns marked with a single * are
dependent and can only be used before a noun (ex. A couple of
days). Those marked with a double asterisk are independent, and
can only be used as subject or object of a sentence (ex. A lot has
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been written about Donald Trump’s hair). A lot can also be and adverb meaning often (ex. He goes abroad a
lot on business). All, A few, few, many, enough, least, more, other, some can be used both dependently and
independently. We also include any, anybody, anyone, anything, every, everybody, everyone, everything,
no, nobody, none, no one, nothing, some, somebody, someone, something. Most of them can only be used
independently, but every and no can only be used dependently, before a noun. Each and any can be used
both dependently and independently.

It’s important to distinguish between pronoun more and adverb more. Pronoun more means “a greater
quantity” (I need more money). Adverb more is a degree adverb and means “to higher degree” it’s used
before an adjective “the more exciting” or another adverb “more recently, I visited Paris”. When it occurs
before an adjective + noun its function can be ambiguous, as in “We need more skilled workers”. This
could mean we need more workers who are skilled or We need workers who are more skilled.

Quantifying a noun is most directly achieved through the use of numerals, which are divided into 2
subclasses: Cardinal numerals (one, two..) and Ordinal numerals (first, second..). as determiners, cardinal
numerals express the precise quantity of the noun that follows them (ex. He has one son and two
daughters), they can also be used independently (ex. One of his children is a boy). The ordinal numerals
express a position in an ordered sequence (ex. Amy was awarded first prize) and they can be used
independently (ex. Prince William is second in line to the throne).

2.3.6 Relative pronouns→ The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that. Relative pronouns
introduce relative clauses (ex. That’s the boy (who won the prize). Who and whom are used to refer to
humans, while that and which are used in all other contexts (ex. The boy who won the prize). Who is the
subjective form, and is used when the pronoun functions as subject of the relative clause (ex. That’s the boy
who (S) won the prize). Whom is the objective form, and is used when the pronoun functions as direct
object (DO) of the relative clause (ex. That’s the man whom (DO) we met yesterday). Whom is generally
considered to be formal, and is often omitted in casual conversations. Is also used after a preposition, again
in fairly formal contexts (ex. The person on whom we rely). In less formal contexts, whom is often omitted
altogether, and the preposition is moved to the end (ex. The person we rely on).

The four Thats

It’s important to distinguish between the relative pronoun and the complementizer. Relative pronoun
introduce a relative clause, and can be replaced by which (ex. The book that I’m reading). The
complementizer introduces a that-clause and cannot be replaced by which (ex. Everyone knows that
smoking is dangerous). There are 2 other thats. The demonstrative pronoun that acts as a determiner in
noun phrase (ex. I enjoy that class) and the degree adverb that functions as premodifier of an adjective
(ex. It was not that expensive) or of another adverb (ex. I don’t see him that often).

2.3.7 Nominal relative pronouns→ The nominal relative pronouns are what, whatever, whichever,
whoever. They are used to introduce a nominal relative clause.

[What you need] is a long holiday

Whatever and whichever can be used dependently, as determiners before a noun (ex. You can have a car in
whatever colour you prefer).

2.3.8 Interrogative pronouns→ The interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, whose and
they’re used to introduce a question. When the pronoun whose is used dependently, before a noun, it
corresponds to one of the dependent possessive forms my, your, her etc. (ex. Whose is that laptop? That
laptop is mine).

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2.3.9 Pronoun one→ The pronoun one needs to be distinguished from the numeral one. It has 2 uses:

Substitute one: Is used to substitute for a noun that has previously been mentioned (ex. The black coat is
nice but I prefer the green one). Has the plural form ones.

Generic one: Carries a generic meaning corresponding approximately to “people in general” (ex. One
cannot expect miracles). Has the possessive form one’s and the corresponding reflexive pronoun is oneself.
Generic one is considered by many speakers to be unnecessarily formal, and it can be replaced by you.

2.3.10 Pronoun it→ Has 2 major uses:

Personal pronoun: it can replace a 3 person singular noun with non-human reference (ex. It skidded on
ice). The possessive form is its.

Relating to the weather and time: It’s cold today. This is called dummy it or empty it because it doesn’t
refer to anything in particular. Is also used with even more vague reference, in many other expressions (ex.
Hold it, Take it easy, Can you make it to my party?).

2.4 Main verbs

Main verbs don’t necessarily denote an action. It’s simpler to think of a verb as any word that can co-occur
with the subject I (ex. I believe). We distinguish main verbs from auxiliary verbs, such as can, could, may..
main verbs can occur as the only verb in a sentence (ex. Caroline eats pizza) in contrast, an auxiliary verb
such as will cannot occur as the only verb (ex. Caroline will pizza). instead, an auxiliary verb always occurs
with a main verb (ex. Caroline will eat pizza).

2.4.1 The five verb forms→ The base form, the -s form, the past form, the -ed/-en form, the -ing form.
The endings -s, -ed/-en, -ing are called inflections and they’re added to the base form of the verb. in regular
verbs, 2 of the forms are identical: the past form and the -ed/-en form. We distinguish between these two
forms because they are not always identical. For example, the irregular verb write has the following 5
forms:

Daniel loves to write poetry

Daniel writes poetry
Daniel wrote poetry
Daniel has written a poem
Daniel is writing a poem

2.4.2 The base form→ The base form of a verb is the form that is listed in dictionaries. Is used:

After the infinitive marker to: We decided to walk. The combination of to+the base form is called infinitive.
In the present tense, with all subjects except the 3 person singular: I walk, you walk..
In the imperative sentences: Walk quickly.
In the subjunctive: I demand that she resign immediately.

2.4.3 The -s form→ The -s form is produced by adding -s to the base form. It’s used in the present tense,
when the subject of the verb is third-person singular (ex. She walks)

2.4.4 The past form→ Is produced by adding -ed to the base form. It’s used for the past tense with all
subjects (ex. I cooked last dinner). Irregular verbs form the past in a variety of ways.

2.4.5 The -ed/-en form→ Is used to describe the -ed ending of regular verbs as well as the endings that we
find on even more irregular verbs. The -ed/-en is used:

After the passive auxiliary: The movie was directed by..

After the perfective auxiliary have: The brothers have directed many movies
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 In subordinate clauses: Published in 2020, the book became a best-seller.

2.4.6 The -ing form→ Is produced by adding -ing to the base form. Is used:

After the progressive auxiliary be: She’s walking to school

In subordinate clauses: Paul slammed the door, bringing the ceiling down.

2.4.7 Irregular verbs→ Many of the most common verbs are irregular. We can distinguish these groups:

Base form end in d, past form and -ed/-en in t: Bend/Bent

Base form has I, past form has a and -ed/-en has u: begin/began/begun
Base form has ee/ea, past form and -ed/-en has e: bleed/bled
Base form is identical to the past form and -ed/-en form: cut/cut/cut
Past form and -ed/-en are identical, end in -ought/-aught: bring/brought

2.4.8 Regular and irregular variants→ Some irregular verbs have regular variants for both the past form
and the -ed/-en form.

Regular: The government should have learned from the economic downturn
Irregular: Some governments have learnt valuable lessons from the recession

2.4.9 The verb be→ The verb be is irregular. Many of

these forms are contracted in informale use (ex.
I’am→I’m). some of the forms also have contracted
negative counterparts (ex. He is not→ he’s not). The form
aren’t is used as a contraction of am not in tag question
(ex. I’m right about that, aren’t I?).

2.4.10 Multi-world verbs→ Are cominations of a verb

and one or more other words. The combinations function
like a single verb. we distinguish 3 types:

Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb and an adverb (ex. The engine cut out just before landing)
Prepositional verbs are combinations of a verb and a preposition (ex. Paul is looking after his sister)
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are combinations of a verb, an adverb, and a preposition (ex. I won’t put up
this noise any longer).

In some case a more formal single verb can replace a multi-word verb: Jeremy has been trying out the car→
Jeremy has been testing the car.

2.4.11 Light verbs→ Many of the most frequent main verbs in english are called light verbs because they
are semantically light. They have a very vague meaning in themselves, and only acquire full meaning from
the surrounding context. Among the most common light verbs are do, get, give, have (ex. She’s doing her
hair/we must get the midday news/she gave him a kiss/I’m having a rest/have a look at this/I have an
appointment for 3pm.). some light verb constructions can be replaced by a corresponding single verb (ex.
I’m doing a crossword→I’m solving a crossword).

2.5 Auxiliary verbs

Main verb can occur alone in a sentence, while an auxiliary verb cannot occur alone. They are of 2 types:

Modal verbs: can, may, will, shall, must

Primary verbs: Be, have, do

The auxiliary verb always comes before the main verb (ex. Paul can play the guitar). They can co-occur, up
to a maximum of four, through that number is rarely reached (ex. Amy should have graduate by then).
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2.5.1 Modal auxiliary verbs→ Are can, may, shall, will, must (presente tense)/could, might, should, would
(past tense). They’ve negative contracted forms. We use shall to express future time with I as subject, while
we use will with all the other subjects. The reverse was recommended when expressing intention (ex. I will
work hard).

2.5.2 The meanings of modal auxiliaries→ We divided the meaning into 3 types:

Deontic meaning: concerned with permission, obligation and prediction (You may go/You must be in bed.)
Permission and obligation are also expressed by some of the semi-auxiliary verbs (You have to be in bed/I
will see you later)

Epistemic meaning: is concerned with the speaker’s belief in the likelihood that something is true, based on
contextual knowledge (He left home hours ago. He should be here by now).are also expressed by some of
the modal adverbs (There’s a light on Amy’s room. Possibly she’s working late).

Dinamic meaning: Is concerned with an ability to do or to be something (I can speak French):

2.5.3 The passive auxiliary be→ The passive auxiliary be is used to form a passive sentence and it’s
followed by the -ed/-en form of a verb.

2.5.4 The progressive auxiliary be→ Is used to denote activity in progress and it’s followed by -ing form.

2.5.5 The perfective auxiliary have→ It’s followed by -ed/-en form of a verb.

2.5.6 Auxiliary do→ The auxiliary verb do has 3 uses:

Forming questions: Do you like it?

Forming negative statements, with not: I do not like it
In negative imperatives, with not: Do not touch it
In informal use, do not is contracted to don’t: Don’t touch it

2.5.7 Semi-auxiliary verbs→ Are multi-word auxiliary verbs, like be about to, be going to, need to, used to..
the occur before a main verb (ex. James is about to start).

2.6 Adjectives
Espress a quality or attribute of a noun, but in certain uses the attribute is not directly related to the noun
itself, and the adjective must be interpreted in a different way.

An old car / An old school friend

A beautiful girl / a beautiful singer

In some cases, the adjective describes only part of the noun (ex. A red pen (with red ink)). Typical adjective
ending include -al, -ble, -ive, -ous, -y. Most adjectives can occur before a noun, as its premodifier (a violent
storm). In a small number of expressions, an adjective appears immediately after the noun and its function
is postmodifier (the people responsible). Adjectives can also modify a small number of pronouns and they
always follow the pronoun (ex. Something new).

2.6.1 Gradable adjectives→ Most adjectives can take a modifying word, such as fairly before them (ex.
Fairly cold very cold extremely cold) the modifying word locates the adjectives on a relative scale of
intensity. In this example, the scale is from fairly cold to extremely cold. This characteristic is called
gradability. And the modifying words (fairly, very and extremely) are called degree adverbs.

2.6.2 Comparative adjectives and superlative adjectives→ The adjective cold has 2 other forms: colder and
coldest. The form cold is called base form. The comparative form is produced by adding an -er at the
ending to the base form. Superlative form is produced by adding -est at the ending. Some adjectives form

12
the comparative and superlative using more and most. The adjectives good and bad are irregular (good,
better, best/bad, worse, worst).

2.6.3 Participial adjectives→ Have the -ed/-en or -ing endings that we normally associate with verbs (ex. An
amazing singer/a stolen car). Most participial adjectives have a corresponding verb (to complicate) but
some do not. Principial adjective may be gradable (ex. A very complicated process).

2.6.4 Nomianal adjectives→ A number of adjectives behave like nouns, in the sense that they take the
word the before them, and can function as the subject or object of a sentence (ex. The homeless need our
help) on the other hand, nominal adjectives can take degree adverbs before them, just like other adjectives
(ex. The very young need constant care). This class also includes some nationalities (ex. The french). These
nominal adjectives are grammatically plural, but there are many others which are singular (ex. The best is
yet to come). Nominal adjectives appear in many fixed expressions, after a preposition (ex. He fixed the
heater for free).

2.7 Adverbs
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective (ex. Certain→certainly). Apart from these “ly
adverbs” the class as a whole is fairly “formless”, in the sense that most adverbs do not have any distinctive
endings by which to recognise them (maybe, more, much, soon, still, there). These adverbs do not appear
to have much in common, but in fact they may be subdivided into just 2 major types: circumstantial adverb
and degree adverbs.

2.7.1 Circumstantial adverbs→ Convey information about the circumstances of an event or action. They
function as adjuncts in sentence structure, and in that role they express the following range of meanings:

Time adverbs indicate when something happened, as well, as frequently of occurrence (ex. We visited
Milan today)
The adverbs early and late can also be used as adjectives (ex. I’m having an early lunch).

Place adverbs indicate a place or a direction (ex. Stand here)

Manner adverbs indicate how something happens (ex. The children was playing happily in the garden)
Adverbs with the -ly ending often express manner, as in these examples (beastly)

Stance adverbs express the speaker’s attitude towards what’s happening (ex. Obviously she doesn’t care)
Among stance adverbs, the modal adverbs express the speaker’s degree of certainty about what is being
said (ex. Perhaps he is not coming).

2.7.2 degree adverbs→ Degree adverbs function as premodifiers of an

adjective or another adverb. In that role, they’re used to express the
degree to which the adjective or adverb applies. The most common is
very. Degree adverbs may be subdivided into boosters, which express a
higher degree, and downtoners, which express a lower degree. The most
general booster is more, and the most general downtoner is less. The
adverb as is used to denote equal degree. Other degree adverbs can be
used to denote various positions on a scale of intensity (photo). With the
comparative forme of the adjective (colder) we use the degree adverb much. This applies also to
comparative adverbs. In informal use, the words pretty and that are often used as degree adverbs (ex. The
weather is pretty bad).

2.7.3 Comparative adverbs and superlative adverbs→ Some adverbs exhibit 3 forms: the base form, the
comparative form and the superlative form. The adverbs badly and well are irregular (worse, worst/better,
best). The base form can take a wide range of degree adverbs but these are not used with the comparative
13
form (very harder). Instead the comparative form usually takes much one of the following multi-word
degree adverbs (You will have to work a bit/a lot/ a good deal harder). The superlative form hardest does
not take a degree adverb because it already denotes the highest possible point on the scale.

2.8 Prepositions
Includes about, across, over, on, for, from. In themselves, prepositions are fairly meaningless, which is why
they must be followed by another consitutent to express a complete meaning (ex. After dark). The
prepositions are followed by a noun phrase and the combination of the 2 is called prepositional phrase.
The major meanings of these phrases can be summarised as follows:

Space: to, from, at, under, on, across, against, through

Time/duration: at, in, for, on, before
Cause/purpose: for, of, from, through
Accompaniment: with, without
Concession: except, despite

The 2 Tos
It’s important to distinguish between the preposition to and the infinitive to. The preposition comes
before a noun. It’s a preposition because it can be replaced by many other prepositions (from, around..).
the infinitive to comes before the base form of a verb and it’s not a preposition because it cannot be
replace by any preposition.

Prepositions can also be followed by a clause in which the verb has the -ing form. The combination of the
two forms a prepositional phrase. In the following examples, the prepositional phrases are backeted (ex.
[After eating breakfast] we go to school). Multi-word prepositions are two and three-word combinations
which act as a unit (ex. According to/in front of), like one word prepositions, multi-word prepositions are
also followed by either a noun phrase or a clause (ex. [Because of the weather] the show has been
cancelled).

2.9 Conjunctions
Are used to link constituents together:

Coordinating conjuctions: Are used to link constituents in a sentence. The main coordinating conjunctions
are and, but, or. (ex. Paul plays football and Maria plays rugby).
Subordinating conjunctions: Introduce clauses that function as adjuncts. (ex. Paul has to leave because he
has an appointment). There are also multi-word conjunctions like so long as, as long as, in order that.

PHRASES
3.1 What is a phrase?
The term phrase refers to more than one word, as in “one upon a time”. In grammar, the term phrase also
includes single words. This is shown in the grammatical hierarchy. This means that even one word is
considered to be a phrase. It’s because one word can be expanded to form larger constituents (ex.
Books→expensive books→expensive books about gardening). When we discussed word classes we referred
to books as a noun, but at phrase level it’s a noun phrase. Similarly, expensive books is a noun phrase. The
examples can be all replaced by the pronoun them. Pronouns replace noun phrases. There are 5 major
phrase types:

Noun phrase: books, expensive books

Adjective phrase: proud, very proud
Adverb phrase: recently, very recently
Prepositional phrase: on time
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 Verb phrase: was stolen, has been stolen

3.2 The basic structure of phrases

The first 4 types all have the same potential three-part structure (photo) the verb phrase is different. Those
4 types are potential because phrases do not always have all 3 parts. They will at least have the main word,
which is called the head of the phrase. The head determines the phrase type. The pre-head constituent is
called premodifier and the post-head constituent is called the postmodifier. This are grammatical
functions, not forms. The head of a phrase is the only constituent that cannot be omitted. If we omit the
head, the phrase is incomplete. Prepositional phrases are different, in that only the premodifier can be
omitted (ex. Exacly on time, “on time” is complete). In a prepositional phrase, both the head and what
follows it are obligatory constituents.

3.3 Adverb phrases

Are the simplest type of phrase. They usually consist of a head which is always an adverb. The head can be
premodified by another adverb phrase (ex. Very recently) and can also take a postmodifier, another adverb
phrase (ex. Very recently indeed). In this phrase each adverb phrase has its own head. With comparative
adverbs, the premodifier more can have its own premodifier much (ex. Much more recently). The words
enough and indeed can function as premodifiers in an adverb phrase (ex. You didn’t study hard enough).
Postmodifiers in adverb phrases are common in comparative constructions (ex. Amy arrived earlier than I
did).

3.3.1 The functions of adverb phrases→ Adverbs themselves always function as the head of an adverb
phrase. Then has the following major functions:

Adjunct: Park the car there.

Premodifier of an adjective: Very old
Premodifier of an adverb: Quite gradually
Premodifier of a preposition: Immediately after the game

3.4 Adjective phrases

The head of an adjective phrase is an adjective. The phrase contain an adverb phrase as premodifier (ex.
Very cold). The premodifier in an adjective phrase is most commonly a degree adverb (ex. Fairly new).
Adjective also take adverb phrases as postmodifiers (ex. Very cold indeed). With some adjectives, a
postmodifier is usually required (ex. Amy is unable to walk). In expressions of measurement and age, a
noun phrase may functions as a premodifier in an adjective phrase (ex. Three months old).

3.4.1 Comparative constructions→

Simple comparatives are formed with an -
er ending on the head adjective (ex.
Paul is getting taller). If a standard of
comparison is involved, it’s
expressed by the postmodifier (ex.
Paul is taller than Amy). The postmodifiers
are prepositional phrase in these
examples. The head can also take a

premodifier (ex. Paul is much taller than Amy). Adjectives that don’t
take -er ending use more, less, as to form comparative phrases (ex. Amy

15
is more industrious than Paul). The premodifiers more, less, as can have their own premodifiers (ex. Amy is
much more industrious than Paul). The premodifiers much, slightly, just premodify the adverb, not the
adjective (photo). If the head adjective has a premodifier too or so, it takes a clause as postmodifier (ex.
Grandad is too old to dance = to-clause) (ex. Grandad is so old that he cannot dance = that-clause).

3.4.2 The functions of adjective phrases→ All adjectives function as the head of an adjective phrase. Then
the adjective phrase can perform the following grammatical functions:

Subject complement: Our aunt is quite ill

Premodifier of a noun: Emily was wearing a very old dress
Postmodifier of a pronoun beginning with -any, no-, some-: Did he say anything interesting?
Object complement: We painted the walls red.

3.5 Prepositional phrases

The head of a prepositional phrase cannot occur alone. It must be followed by
another constituent, which is called the prepositional complement. The
prepositional complement is most commonly a noun phrase (ex. Paul is crazy [about
football]). Some prepositions can also take an -ing clause as prepositional
complement (ex. [after breakfast] PC=noun phrase/[after eating breakfast] PC=
clause). In expressions of location or time, the PC may be an adverb phrase (ex. It
would be better to start [from here]). Premodifiers of PP heads are relatively rare,
but some examples are shown in this photo. In measuring of quantifying expressions,
a noun phrase can function as premodifier in a PP (ex. The clock stopped [a minute
before midnight]). At first glance, these PPs may look like noun phrases, but cannot be replaced by
pronouns. They must be replaced by the adverbs then or there (The clock stopped then). The premodifier
can be omitted, but not the rest of the phrase (The clock stopped [a minute before midnight]).

3.5.1 The functions of prepositional phrases→ Prepositions function as the Head of a prepositional phrase,
and then the prepositional phrase performs the following grammatical functions:

Adjuncts in sentence or clause structure: We met [in London]

Postmodifier in a noun phrase: The train [to London]
Postmodifier in an adjective phrase: Afraid [of dogs]

3.6 Noun phrase

The structure of a noun phrase is the same as that of AdvP, AdjP and PP, with a head and optional
premodifier and postmodifier. Noun phrases differ from other phrases types in 2 important ways: 1. NPs
are often introduced by determiner such as all, many, the, those (ex. All books), determiner don’t occur in
any other phrase type. 2. NPs can have several premodifiers and postmodifiers (ex. Big red apples by
shakespeare about love).

3.6.1 Noun phrase Heads→ The head of a noun phrase can be a common noun, a proper noun, an
indipendent pronoun, a numeral, or a nominal adjective. Common nouns freely take premodifiers and
postmodifiers (ex. Young people from China). Proper nouns usually occur without any modifiers, though
premodifiers are possible (ex. Clever Simon). Proper nouns often occur in apposition, that’s, with another
NP that refers to the same person or place (ex. Simon, the president of the student union). All independent
pronouns can function as the head of a NP, and the phrase usually consists of a head only (ex. [I] spoke to
Amy). Pronouns do not normally take premodifiers or postmodifiers, but a small number can do so (ex.
Lucky you). When numerals function as the head of a noun phrase, they usually have a postmodifier in the
form of a prepositional phrase (ex. [One of the students] is ill). Nominal adjectives as NP heads co-occur
with the determiner the (ex. We must do more for [the homeless]).

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3.6.1.1 Identifying the head→ A student from China. This phrase has 2 nouns, so which one is the head?
The head tells us what “kind of thing” the phrase refers to (a kind of student, not a kind of china). The head
is student and from china is postmodifier. The test, based on the meaning, is the least reliable test for
identifying the head. It only works with the simplet sypes of NP. A pair of shoes, a piece of string. We need
2 grammatical test:

The number test: The head of a noun phrase is the word that changes when the whole phrase becomes
plural (ex. A slice of melon→two slices of melon)

The agreement test: The head is the noun that agrees with the verb when the whole NP is the subject of a
sentence (ex. The boy in the car is my son→the boys in the car are my sons). Any other noun in the phrase
has no effect on the verb.

Both the number test and the agreement test show that the first noun is the head. Specifically, the first
noun is the head when the noun phrase has the following structure (NOUN+PREPOSITION+NOUN2= slice of
melon). We will refer to these as type 1NPs. Type 2 NPs have the following structure (NOUN2+NOUN1 =
song contest).

The number test: give the plural form of the whole phrase, and see which noun changes: song
contest→song contests. The second noun changes, while the first remain unchanged. Contest is the head of
the noun phrase.

The agreement test: put the phrase into a sentence as the subject and see which noun agrees with the
verb: a song contest was held in tokyo/song contests were held in tokyo. The verb agrees in number with
contests, not with song, so contest is the head. Even if the first noun is plural, it has no effect on the verb:
the results table is now available. Type 2 NPs can sometimes be re-written as Type 1 NPs by inverting the
order of the nouns and inserting a preposition: Type 2: a school uniform→type 1 a uniform for school.

3.6.2 Determiners and determinatives→ A determiner is usually the first constituent in a noun phrase.
Genitive nouns as amy’s are also determiners because they can be replaced by a possessive pronoun, in this
cas “her”. The maximum number of determiners before a single noun is three, through the maximum is not
often reached. We classify determiners into 3 sub-types based on their positions relative to each other:

Central ad predeterminers do not co-occur, we can have

at most one each before a single noun (ex. the my car).
Postdeterminers can co-occur, with some restrictions
based on the meaning: every few days. The interrogative
determiners what and which introduce questions, either
and neither are used with singular count nouns (ex. either
team could win the game = each one). All determiners
function as the head of a determiner phrase which in turn
functions as a determinative (DVE) in the noun phrase.
Most determiner phrases consist of one word only, but
some can have premodifiers of their own, in the form of
adverb phrases (very many books). Two-word DPs are
very commonly found when one of the determiners is a
genitive noun (ex. My brother’s car). Here the determiner
my goes with the genitive noun brother’s and not with car
(is my brother, not my car). The DP can be replaced by his.
Determiner phrase are relatively minor phrases in the
sense that they cannot occur independently as other phrases do. Instead, they can only occur as
constituents of noun phrases. Determinatives come before any premodifiers that are present (those lucky
17
people). There is an exception to this: if the adjective has the premodifier too or so the determinative and
the premodifier switch places (ex. it was too big a problem to solve).

3.6.3 Noun phrase premodifiers→ The most common premodifiers in a noun phrase are:

Adjective phrases: Black taxi (also more than one)

Noun phrases: When a noun phrase functions as premodifier in another noun phrase, it creates a Type 2NP
(ex. TV programme). It can also have its own premodifier (ex. examination results table). We can work out
the structure of these by converting them to type 1 NP: examination results table→ a table of examination
results. A noun phrase can co-occur with an adjective phrase as a premodifier, the adjective phrase always
comes first (dangerous mountain slope).

3.6.4 Noun phrase Postmodifiers→ The function of postmodifier of an NP head can be performed by
several different forms. In each case, the head of the noun phrase is underlined, and the postmodifier is in
italics:

Prepositional phrase: a piece of cheese

Clauses: Several clause types can function as postmodifiers in noun phrase.

Relative clauses: the man who lives beside us
-ing clauses: anyone carrying a knife
-ed/-en clauses: vegetables grown in organic soil
To-clauses: the first man to walk on the moon

Adjective phrases: something cold

Adverb phrases: the way forward

3.6.4.1 Sequential and embedded Postmodifiers→ Noun phrase heads can have more than one
postmodifier, unlike any other phrase type. the postmodifiers are bracketed and the NP heads are
underlined: sonnets [by Shakespeare] [about love] / the arrival [of Trump] [in Washington]. These are
sequential postmodifiers, because they occur in sequence and separately modify the head: the NP refers to
sonnets by Shakespeare and sonnets about love. The order of sequential postmodifiers can be reversed.
There are restrictions on the reversibility of sequential postmodifiers.
In this phrase, the head is movie and
has just one postmodifier, about the
queen of England. Within that
postmodifiers, the noun queen has its
own postmodifier, of England.

3.6.4.2 Postmodifiers and

complements→ Complements are a
type of noun phrase postmodifier, but
they have a much closer link with the
noun that ordinary postmodifiers.
Postmodifier: the news that he gave us
today was welcomed by everyone.
Complement: the news that he intends
to resign was welcomed by everyone. In
the first phrase, the postmodifier that he gave us today doesn’t define the content of the news, in the
second, the complement tells us precisely what the content of the news was. There is also a grammatical

18
difference. In the postmodifier, we can replace that with which. The word that in the complement is called
complementizer that, while the word that in the postmodifier is the relative pronoun that. Independent
genitive constructions also involve the use of complements, not postmodifiers: an uncle of mine. The of-
phrase is a complement, and comes before any postmodifier that may be present (an uncle of mine who
works in London).

3.6.5 The functions of noun phrases→ Noun phrases are grammatically versatile. They can perform a wide
range of functions in sentence structure as well as in phrase structure. In sentence structure, noun phrases
have the following functions:

Subject: a large tile fell from the roof

Subject complement: Paul is my nephew
Direct object: The plane left the runway
Indirect object: She told the chairman the bad news
Object complement: She called him a loser
Adjunct: last week, our freezer broke down

In phrase structure, noun phrases have the following major functions:

Prepositional complement: over the moon

Premodifier in another noun phrase: a school uniform
In quantifying or measuring expressions, noun phrases function as premodifiers in an adverb phrase,
adjective phrase, or prepositional phrase: two minutes earlier (adverb phrase), six years old (adjective
phrase), ten metres below the surface (prepositional phrase).

3.6.6 Apposition→ Is a relationship between two noun phrases which have identical reference: The US
President, Donal Trump. The 2 noun phrases refer to the same person and are said to be in apposition to
each other. Further examples of apposition include: the Chinese capital, Beijing. Apposition is often used as
a device for clarifying the meaning of the first noun phrase (ex. ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria)). In this
type the word or is introduced between the 2 noun phrases (ex. ISIS, or Islamic..).

3.7 Verb phrases

Verb phrases are different from all other phrases types in terms of their structure. They do not have head,
premodifier or postmodifiers. This is the basic structure of a VP:
In terms of forms and functions, the VP
has been taking photos appears like this:
Has (OP:Aux), been (Aux), taking
(Pred:V), photos (DO:NP→Head:N). the
main verb functions as the predicator
(pred) in the VP. It’s necessary to give a
function label to the VP itself, since VPs
only ever have one function in grammar.
They’re the engine room of the whole
sentence. The first auxiliary verb
functions as the operator (OP), it has
several important grammatical roles in
the VP. All other auxiliary verbs are
labelled aux (auxiliary). The direct
object is a constitutent of the VP
because the direct object is required to complete the meaning of the main verb. for the same reason,
subject complements, indirect object, and object complements, are also constituents of the VP.

19
3.7.1 The operator→ The operator is the first or
only auxiliary verb in a VP (ex. Amy [is learning
french]). If there’s no auxiliary verb, then there is
no operator (ex. Amy [hired a lawyer]). These
VPs have a main verb only, and no auxiliary
verbs, so no operator is present. When the
operator is present, it carries the tense marking
of the VP as a whole (ex. James [is
leaving]→present tense). If no auxiliary is present, the
tense marking is carried by the main verb (ex. Amy
[sleeps] all day→ present tense). When an operator is present, all other verbs have the base form (including
the main verb), the -ing form or the -ed/-en form. When a modal verb is present, it always come first in the
VP, and it always functions as the operator (photo). In addition to carrying the tense, the operator has 4
other functions to perform in a verb phrase. These are summarised by the acronym NICE which stands for
negative inversion code emphasis.

NEGATION: When we make a sentence negative, we put the word not after the operator (ex. I will (OP) not
stay). If only a main verb is present, we introduce the auxiliary do as operator to form a negative sentence
(ex. amy did not take a selfie).

INVERSION: When we turn a statement into a question, we invert the subject and the operator (ex. The
manager (S) should (OP) resign→Should (OP) the manager (S) resign?) if a main verb only is present, we
introduce the auxiliary do as the operator, and then we invert the subject with do. (ex. She (S) admires Lisa
simpson→Does (OP) she (S) admire Lisa simposon?).

CODE: The term code refers to the fact that the operator can occur alone if the main verb is understood
from the previous context (ex. Will (OP) you stay? Yes I will (OP)). When the main verb only is present, once
again we introduce the auxiliary verb do as the operator (ex. I made a mistake. Yes you did (OP)).

EMPHASIS: The operator is given emphatic stress in speech (ex. Amy IS (OP) working hard). When a main
verb only is present, we introduce auxiliary do as the operator to take the emphatic stress. The stress is not
placed on the main verb: You made a mistake. Yes I centrainly DID (OP) make a mistake. The use of
auxiliary do as an operator with main verbs is called do-support. When the main verb be occurs alone, we
don’t need do-support to form questions and negative (ex. He’s very ambitious→ He is not very
ambitious→is he very ambitious?→Is he very ambitious? yes, he is→ i don’t think he’s very ambitious. Yes,
he IS very ambitious). With main verb have we can either use do-support or not. In general american
english tends to favour the use of do-support with main verb have, while british english typically favours
the versione without do.

3.7.2 The ordering of auxiliary verbs→ When two ord

more auxiliary verbs occur in a verb phrasem they follow
this order (photo) even if is very unusual to find all four
auxiliary types in the same verb phrase. The main verb is
always the last verb in the sequence. The order can be:
Modal-passive, progressive-passive, perfective-
progressive, perfective-passive, modal-perfective-passive,
modal-perfective-progressive-passive. in terms of their
forms, the ordering of verbs is: modal followed by base
form, perfective have followed by -ed/-en form,
progressive be followeb by -ing form, passive be

20
followed by -ed/-en form. The form of the first or only verb is a determined by the tense of the verb phrase
as a whole.

3.7.3 Finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases→ verbs that have tense marking are called finitive
verbs. Verbs with any of the other three forms (base, -ed/-en, -ing) are called non-finite verbs. If the first or
only verb has tense marking, the VP as a whole is finite (ex. Everyone [likes Amy]). Since modals always
come first in a VP, they carry the tense of the VP as a whole past or present. They do not have any non-
finite forms. If the first or only verb does not have tense, the VP as a whole is non-finite (ex with -ing form.
The plumber released the steam by [opening a valve]). In a non-finite verb phrase, all the verbs are non-
finite: having been bitten. The distinction between finite and non-finite verb phrases is important in the
classification of subordinate clauses.

3.7.4 Movement→ the greates difference between the other types of phrase is the process of movement,
which refers to the fact that constituents of verb phrases often move outside the phrase itself. When we
form a question from a statement, the subject and the operator change places:

Statement: John (S) has (OP) arrived

Question: Has (OP) John (S) arrived?

In terms of structure, this means that the verb phrase is

now interrupted by the subject, to become: Has (OP)……
arrived(V)? this is known as movement, and we can
visualise it like in the photo. The arrow shows that to form
the question, the operstor has moved from its normal
position inside the verb phrase to a new position before the
subject. Its function remains the same, and only its position
has changed. If we draw a tree diagram for the
corresponding statemtn we can see that the question and
the statemtn actually have exacly the same structure, even
though their word orders are different.

3.7.5 Tense→ Tense refers to the way in which a language

expresses the concept of time. In english there are just 2
tenses, the present tense and the past tense. In regular
verbs, the present tense is expressed by the -s form of the
verb, when the subject is third-person singular. For all other
subject the base form of the verb is used. The base form is
also used in non-finite verb phrases where it does not carry
tense, for example I like to walk to school. The past tense is
indicated by an -ed/-en ending, regardless of the subject.
When an auxiliary verb is present, the tense is indicated by the first or only auxiliary verb, and not by the
main verb.

3.7.6 Expressing future time→ English has 2 tenses, the present tense and the past tense. The -s ending
indicates present tense and the -ed ending indicates past tense. There’s no ending to indicate the future, so
it would be incorrect to speak of a future tense. In fact, future time is very often expressed by using the
present tense form of a verb, or by a modal auxiliary will, a semi-auxiliary be going to, progressive auxiliary
be+ing.

3.7.7 Aspect→ Tense refers to the absolute location of an event in time. Aspect refers to how an event is to
be viewed with respect to time. David broke his leg when he was 12 and David has broken his leg. In the
first phrase the verb broke tells us that David broke his leg in the past. This is a past tense verb. the auxiliary
21
has in the second phrase is the perfective auxiliary, and it expressed perfective aspect in the verb phrase
has broken. The verb has has present tense form, so we can describe the whole verb phrase has broken as
present tense, perfective aspect. The past tense version of the second phrase is David had broken his leg.
Here the event occurred in the past, but it’s implied that it was still relevant at some later time: David had
broken his leg, so he could not play in the cup final that year. The idea of relevance is important when we
wish to distinguish between tense and aspect. Tense alone is exemplified in the phrase number 1. The
event described is wholly in the past, and no current relevance is implied. Both tense and aspect are
exemplified in 2 and 2a. in each case, the event descrived has relevance, either in the present, as in 2, or at
some time between the event and the present, as in 2a. the other aspectual auxiliary is the progressive
auxiliary be:

3. David is working in Beijing. 4. David was working in Beijing when I met him

Sentence 3 expresses the idea that the action is still in progress: David is working in Beijing at the time of
speaking. For that reason, we say that the sentence exemplifies progressive aspect. Like perfective aspect,
progressive aspect also carries an implication of relevance. Here, it’s current relevance, at the time of
speaking (the present): David is working in Beijing, so it may be dififcult to contact him (now). The verb
phrase is working exemplifies present tense, progressive aspect. Sentence 4 also expresses the idea of
action in progress, but at a particular time in the past (when I met him). The verb phrase was working
exemplifies past tense, progressive aspect.

3.7.8 Mood→ Refers to distinction in the form of a verb phrase that express the speaker’s attitude towards
what is said. There are 3 moods: indicative, imperative and subjuntive.

Indicative: is the most common mood in declarative, interrogative and exclamative.

Imperative: is used in issuing orders or instructions

Subjunctive: is used when we refer to a non-factual or hypothetical situation (ex. If hilary clinton were
president, what would she do?) this is a were-subjunctive because of the form of the verb. the mandative
subjunctive is used after a small number of verbs, including ask, insist, suggest when these verbs are
followed by that: The committee insisted that she resign immediately. The mandative subjunctive is also
used after the following adjectives: crucial, essential, important, necessary, vital: It’s important that every
room be properly ventilated. The use of the subjunctive is much
more common in american english. In british english the indicative
mood is often preferred: If I was you, I would accept the offer. The
subjunctive is also used in many formulaic expressions (ex. As it
were/be that as it may/if need be).

CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

4.1 What’s a clause?
A clausse is a “sentence-like” structure, in that we can analyse it in
the same way as a full sentence (with subject, verb, object,
adjunct..), although it may not contain all the constituents of a
complete sentence, but contains at least a verb.

Amy likes reading novels

Reading novels is the direct object of the verb likes. It completes

the meaning of the verb, in the same way that novels completes its
meaning in amy likes novels.

Direct object clause: Amy likes reading novels (DO)

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 Direct object noun phrase: Amy likes novels (DO)

It’s called a clause because we can analyse it in the same way as we analyse a whole sentence: reading (V)
novels (DO). The subject of this clause is not directly stated, though we understand it to be amy. In the
second figure reading is called a clause, and not simply a VP. Recall the Grammatical Hierarchy, the relevant
part of the Hierarchy tells us clauses constist of one or more phrases. Specifically, the phrase in question
here is a verb phrase. Wherever we have a verb phrase, we have a clause. This means that the simplest
possible clause is: Amy likes [CL reading (V)]. The clause reading contains only a verb phrase, but it can be
expanded to include other constituents (ex. Amy likes reading novels in her spare time). These ar called
subordinate clauses, because they are smaller than the sentence as a whole. It follows from our definition
of a clause that a sentence is also a clause. The simplest possible sentence contains only a verb phrase:
[Move (V)]. Like a clause, this can be expanded: [Move (V) that chair (DO) if you need more room (A)].
Recall, too, the topmost level in the grammatical hierarchy: sentences consist of one or more clauses.

The children laughed

This is a clause because it contains a verb phrase Laughed. And since every sentence contains a verb
phrase, every sentence is a clause. The term sentence is very familiar to most people, so I will continue to
use it in the discussion that follows. The term really only applies to writing, where we recognise a sentence
as a unit beginning with an upperà-case letter and ending with a period (full stop), a question mark, or an
exclamation mark. In speech, there are no upper- or lower-case letters and no punctuation, so from the
point of view of grammar, a sentence is, in fact, a clause. This is an example of subordinate clauses
functioning as the direct object of a sentence. The direct object clauses are bracketed.

She said [she (S) missed (V) the bus (DO)]

The subordinate clause would make complete sentences on their own but this is not always the case. Some
subordinate clauses may lack an overt subject:

Amy likes [reading (V) novels (DO)]

Clauses can also function as the subject of a sentence:

[Reading] is fun

4.2 Subordination
The term subordination refers to the use of subordinate clauses as constituents in sentences or in phrases.
Subordinate clauses perform a very wide range of functions both at the sentence level and at the phrase
level.

4.2.1 Finite and non-finite subordinate clauses→ Non-finite verbs are the base form, the -ed/-en form and
the -ing form. In most sentences with a subordinate clause, the usual pattern is finite sentence + finite or
non-finite subordinate clause:

[Finite He left work [Non-finite feeling terrible]]

[Finite He left work [Finite because he felt ill]]

Subordinate clauses can be finite or non-finite, but sentences are generally finite. We do find some non-
finite sentences, but these are really fragments that can only be understood from previous context:

Why did you but that? [non finite to cheer you up]

There 3 non-finite forms give their names to three subordinate clause types:

To-clause→ the road was widened to improve the traffic flow

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-ed/-en clauses→ deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die.
-ing clauses→ michelangelo painted lying on his back

4.2.2 Adjunct classes→ Adjunct clauses are subordinate clauses that function as adjuncts in sentence
structure. They can be finite or non-finite. Finite subordinate clauses are introduced by a subordinating
conjunction:

Although he is only 18, he has a very mature attitude

The subordinating conjunction carries the function label SUBD

(subordinator) and the form label Conj (conjunction). The
following examples are of non-finite clauses functioning as
adjuncts:

To protect your skin, you should wear a sunblock

Abandoned in 1942, the village is now in ruins.

4.2.2.1 The meaning of adjunct clauses→ We identify 3 types of adjunct meaning: time, place, manner.
When clauses function as adjuncts, they can express a much wider range of meanings. The main types of
meaning expressed by adjunct clauses are shown here:

Time: When you leave, please clore the door

Condition: I’ll be home early if I can catch the early train
Concession: He paid for the meal, although he can’t really afford it
Reason: Paul was an hour late because he missed his train
Result: The kitchen was flooded, so we had to go to a restaurant
Purpose: Leave a window open to let the steam out

4.2.3 Relative clauses→ A relative clause is introduced by one of the relative pronouns: that, who, which,
whose. (ex. The book [that I’m reading] is fascinating). Relative clauses function as postmodifiers in noun
phrase. The relative pronoun refers to the head of the noun phrase. The relative pronoun refers to the
head of the noun phrase: the book [that (DO) I am reading]= im reading the book (DO). In structural terms,
this is an example of movement. No movement is involved when the relative pronoun functions as the
subject of the relative clause: the man [who (S) lives beside us]= he (S) lives beside us. In some
circumstances, the relative pronoun may be omitted, leaving a zero relative clause: The book [I’m reading]
is fascinating. In another variant, the relative pronoun is again omitted, and the verb has an -ed/-en or an -
ing form. This is a reduced relative clause: Houses built in the 1940s are usually draughty (compare: houses
which were built in the 1940s..).

4.2.4 Nominal relative clauses→ A nominal relative clause is introduced by what, whatever, whoever,
where, how (ex. What you need is a long holiday). As its name suggests, there is a clore correspondence
between a nominal relative clause and a noun phrase: the thing that you need is a long holiday. The
structure of a nominal relative clause also involves movement (You need… → What you need is..). the
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direct object what moves from its normal position after the verb to
become the first constituent in the nominal relative clause. As with
relative clauses, no movement is involved when the nominal relative
pronoun functions as subject: whoever (S) scores first is the
winner=Chelsea (S) scores first.

4.2.5 That-clauses→ A that-clause is introduced by complementizer (CZR)

that: The new ruling means that pensioners will suffer. (photo for the
structure of a that-clause). This is called zero subordinate clause. The
complementizer cannot be omitted when the that-clause functions as
subject: that the government is weak (S) is obvious. That-clause functioning as subject are usually moved to
the end of the sentence: it is obvious that the government is weak.

4.2.6 Comparative clauses→ Comparative clauses function as

complements of the preposition than or as. The prepositional
phrases express comparison in a gradable adjective or adverb.

Mary is older [than I am]

With preposition as, comparative clauses express equivalence (ex.

Mary is as old [as I am]). If the adjective is premodified by too, it’s
postmodified by a to-clause (ex. he is too young to vote). If it’s
premodifief by so, it’s postmodified by that-clause (ex. it was so cold
that the water froze).

4.2.7 The functions of clauses in sentences→ As constituents in sentence structure, subordinate clauses
most commonly function as adjuncts. They may also have the following functions:

Subject: ex. what you need is a long holiday (nominal relative clause) / leaving home can be very traumatic
(-ing clause) / to give up now would be such a pity (to-clause) / that he should fail to turn up is really
annoying (that-clause). Clauses are grammatically singular, so when they function as subject, they take a
singular verb: Flying kites (S) is fun. in a tag question singular pronoun it is used when the subject is a
clause: flying kites is fun, isn’t it? Clauses with the -ed/-en form of a verb cannot function as subject.

Direct object: Paul knows that Amy prefers tennis (that-clause) / Jim offered to drive us to the airport (to-
clause) / Amy enjoys visiting art galleries (-ing clause) / We still don’t know what will happen (nominal
relative clause).

Subject complement: A detective’s first job is to collect the evidence (to-clause) / The main problem is
finding enough money (-ing clause) / The real reason is that I can’t stand him (that-clause) / That’s what I’m
trying to tell you (nominal relative clause).

4.2.8 The functions of clauses in phrases→ When a subordinate clause occurs as a constituent in a phrase,
it most commonly functions as a postmodifier. Subordinate clauses may occur as postmodifiers in the
following phrase ypes. The phrases are bracketed and the subordinate clauses are in italics:

Postmodifier in a noun phrase: [The man who lives beside us] is unwell (relative clause) / [The man to ask
about plumbing] is Mr Davis (to-clause). That-clause function as complements in noun phrase: [The fact
that no one came] is really disappointing.

Postmodifier in an adjective phrase: I wasn’t [aware that I had to register] (that-clause) / Chelsea were
[reluctant to admit defeat] (to-clause).

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Complement in a prepositional phrase: She has a reputation [for being difficult] (-ing clause) / He’s still
coming to terms [with what happened] (nominal relative clause).

4.3 Coordination
Coordinating involves using one of the coordinating conjunctions and,
but, or to link constituents. (ex. [Antony] and [Caroline] have arrived).
Coordination can also be used to link clauses (ex. [David drinks wine] and
[I drink beer]). Constituents that are coordinated function as conjoins (CJ)
in the coordinated structure, and the coordinating conjunction functions
as a coordinator (COORD). The structure is in the photo. Conjoins must
have the same grammatical function:

[Paul] and [Amy] have arrived (coordination of subjects)

The house was [old] but [very beautiful] (coordination of subject complements)

The next set of examples illustrate coordination in phrase structure:

Spacious [rooms] and [corridors] (coordination of NP heads)

[neat] and [tidy] rooms (coordination of premodifiers)
People [ahead of us] and [behind us] (coordination of postmodifiers)
[four] or [five] people (coordination of determinatives
In [London] and [Edinburgh] (coordination of prepositional complements)

Conjoins usually have the same form. In the two examples above, we see coordination of noun phrases
(paul and amy) and coordination of adjective phrases (old and very beautiful). Unlike forms also are
sometimes coordinated:

This is known as disparate coordination, and in tree diagrams, we label

the form as Disp to denote disparate forms.

4.3.1 Coordination types→ When the coordinating conjunction is

present, is called syndetic coordination, but coordination can also
occur without a coordinating conjunction: [Quickly], [resolutely], he
strode into the bank. Coordination without the coordinating conjunction is placed between the final two
conjoins only and is called asyndetic coordination. When there are 3 asyndetic coordination and one
syndetic coordination, we call it polysyndetic coordination and it’s used to express repetition or
continuation (ex. He just talks and talks and talks). The coordinators and and or can be used to link any
number of conjoins in coordination. But is slightly different. It can link maximum of two conjoins, usually
clauses.

4.3.2 The meanings of coordinators→ AND expresses inclusive meaning, all the conjoins are considered to
be equally valid and true. The second conjoin in most cases adds to the first. And has other meanings:

Result: Tom [was bored] and (so) [left his job]

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Temporal sequence: The parrot [died] and [was buried] (we can’t reverse the order of conjoins)
Concession: He [has two degrees] and yet [can’t find a job]
Positive condition: [Stop smoking now] and [you’ll feek better]

OR espresses exlusive meaning, only one conjoin is realizable and valid (ex. You can have tea or coffee).
With imperatives, or expresses a negative condition (ex. [lend me some money] or [I’ll slap you]). The result
is negative, unlike the positive result expressed by and.

BUT can only coordinate 2 conjoins and expresses contrast or concession (ex. [tom wa there] but [Amy
wasn’t] / He is [old] but [very fit]). Note the use of but as a preposition, with no coordinating function: No
one but a fool would say that (except).

4.3.3 Correlative coordinators→ either.. or / neither.. nor / both.. and / not only.. but also. Either.. or
expresses exlusive meaning, in that only one option applies (ex you can choose either soup or salad), but is
used only for emphasis, is optional. Neither.. nor expresses inclusive meaning, both options are ruled out
(ex. We have neither soup nor salad). Neither..nor and either.. or can’t be used to coordinate whole
clauses, only to coordinate smaller constituents. Neither cannot be omitted. Neither functions as the
negator of the sentence. Both.. and cannot coordinate whole clauses but only smaller constituents. both is
used only for emphasis and can be omitted. Not only.. but also expresses inclusive meaning, also is
omissible or we can write it at the end of the sentence. So, but is the coordinator, and also functions as an
adjunct. not only is a constituent and the two words stay together.

4.3.4 Quasi-coordination→ The quasi-coordinator include: as well as, as much as, in addition to, rather
than. These do not produce genuine coordination.

[The student] as well as [the teacher] has to be considered (quasi-coordination)

[The student] and [the teacher] have to be considered (coordination)

The first verb is singular, while the second is plurar, because the subject in 1 is the student, and the
constituent as well as the teacher can be omitted. In the second, it can’t be omissible. The constituent as
well as the teacher is also mobile. It functions as a adjunct. the quasi-coordinators have a specific discourse
function: they focus on the first NP, which is given emphatic stress in speech. In contrast, conjoins always
have equal tress.

4.4 Sentence types

There are 4 major sentence types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative.

4.4.1 Declarative sentence→ A declarative sentence is typically used to convey information or to make a
statement: This is Gladstone Park. The subject usually comes first and is followed by the verb. while most
declarative sentences make a statement, they can also have the force of a question, if they are spoken with
rising intonation or written with a final question mark: You’re leaving?

4.4.2 Interrogative sentences→ An interrogative sentence is used in asking a question and in seeking
information or confirmation. There are 3 types:

Yes/no interrogatives: Expect only the answer yes/no: Has John arrived? Forming a question like this
involves subject-operator inversion and movement. The verb phrase is interrupted by the subject. The
question and the answer have the same basic structure, the only difference is in the word order. If no
operatore is present, we use do-support. When the main verb is be it moves outside the VP whenit inverts
with the subject. The expected answer to a yes/no question depends very much on wheter the question is
positive or negative: positive (Are you ready?) negative (Are you not ready?). In neutral yes/no
interrogatives, the speaker has no preference or expectation of a yes or no answer (ex. Would you like a
drink?) in conducive yes/no interrogatives the speaker has an expectation of either a yes answer or a no
27
answer (ex. Did you meet someone? / Did you not meet anyone?). neutral yes/no interrogative use the
any- set of pronouns, while conducive use the some- set. Negative yes/no interrogatives are always
conducive, and often express an element of surprise (ex. Do you not believe me?).

Alternative interrogatives: Offer two or more alternative answers (ex. do you want coffee or tea?). they
have the same grammatical form as yes/no interrogatives, with the subject-operator inversion.

Wh-interrogatives: Are introduced by a word beginning with wh and they expect an open-ended response.
Also the word how. Also wh- interrogative involve subject-operator inversion. Some of them involve
movement of one or more of the constituents from a position inside the verb phrase to the beginning of
the sentence. No movement is involved when the wh-word functions as the subject.

4.4.3 Imperative sentences→ Imperative sentences are used in giving orders or instructions: Stop. They do
not usually have a subject, through the understood subject is the addressee. For that reason, we can have
you as subject, for emphasis. When we understood subject is more than the addressee, we use the let
imperative: Let’s go.

4.4.4 Exclamative sentences→ Are introduced by what or how (ex. What a mess you made!). like
interrogatives, exclamatives involve movement of constituent from their normal positions in a declarative
sentence (ex. what a mess (DO) you (S) made (V)!→You (S) made (V) a mess (DO)). The word what functions
as determinative in the noun phrase what a mess.

4.5 Positive sentences and negative sentences

Sentences are either positive or negative. The distinction between a positive sentence and a negative
sentence is called polarity. The word not performs the function of negator in most negative sentence but
there are two other grammatical differences between positive sentences and negative sentences:
1. Positive sentences take a negative tag question and vice-versa.
2. Positive sentences coordinate with so and negative ones with neither.
These 2 grammatical differences give us two tests we can use to determine the polarity of a sentence: the
tag question polarity test and the coordination polarity test. We need a test because not is not always
present. The some- set of pronouns occur in positive sentences, while the any- every- no- sets occur in
negative sentences. In relation to the polarity, it’s worth noting the differences between a few, a little, few,
little. A few and few are both used with countable nouns, but they differ in terms of polarity (ex. Tom met a
few people that he knew / Tom met few people that he knew) we can work out the polarity of these
sentences using the polarity tests:
1. The tag question polarity test: Tom met a few people that he knew, didn’t he? (positive)
Tom met few people that he knew, did he? (negative)
2. The coordination polarity test: Tom met a few people that he knew and so did Amy (positive)
Tom met few people that he knew and neither did Amy (negative).
Both tests show that a few occurs in positive sentences, while few occurs in negative sentences.
A little and little are both used with uncountable nouns and we can work out their polarity using the two
tests. The polarity test show that a little is used in positive sentences, while little is used in negative
sentences.

4.6 Inverted sentences

In many declarative sentences, the order subject-verb is inverted (ex. Here comes James). James is the
subject of the sentence because it agrees in number with the verb. in an inverted sentence, the subject
comes after the verb. they are commonly used in informal style and in narration. When two sentences are
joined together by and so or and neither the second sentence is inverted (ex. Paul is a teacher and so is
Amy).

4.7 Extraposition and postponement

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When a to-clause functions as the subject of a sentence, it’s normal to move it to the end (ex. To exercise is
important → It’s important to exercise). The result is an extraposed sentence. The subject position is
occupied by anticipatory it, which anticipates the
extraposed to-clause. It functions as the provisional
subject (PRSU) and the to-clause functions as the
notorial subject (NOSU). (ex. It’s very difficult to learn
Chinese). Anticipatory it is semantically empty like
pronoun it, it cannot be replaced by a noun phrase.
(ex. The light is vert dim, so it is difficult to read).
Extraposition is also used when the subject is a that-clause (ex. it (PROSU) is a pity that you can’t come
(NOSU)). Extraposition is obligatory when the main verb is seem, appear, transpire, emerge, turn out. Is
normal if the direct object in a complex transitive sentence is a clause (ex. He made it clear (OC) that we
were not welcome (DO). Anticipatory it is used as the provisional direct object (PRODO) while the notional
direct object (NODO) is moved to the end of the sentence. The structure is S + V + PRODO + OC + NODO.
To-clauses and that-clauses functioning as direct object may be extraposed, but we do not usually
extrapose ing clauses (ex. He finds learing chinese difficult → He finds it difficult learning chinese) to
extrapose an ing clause we change it to a to-clause (He finds is (PRODO) difficult to learn chinese (NODO). In
most cases with ing clauses extraposition is not needed (He finds learning chinese (DO) difficult (OC) → He
considers studying grammar (DO) rewarding (OC). Postponement has the same effect as extraposition: it
moves a constituent to the end of a sentence. However, it does not involve the use of anticipatory it.
Postponement is generally used for stylistic reasons. Postponement can also be used to move other very
long constituents to the end of the sencense (ex. The new drug makes a full recovery (DO) possible (OC) →
The new drug makes a full recovery from the effects of inhaling dangerous chemical compounds released by
decomposing organic matter (DO) possible (OC). Both of these sentences are complex transitive but in
sentence 2 the very long direct object makes it stylistically awkward and difficult to read, the solution is to
postpone the DO at the end (The new drug makes possible (OC) a full recovery from the effects of inhaling
dangerous chemical compounds released by decomposing organic matter (DO)).

4.8 There-sentences
There-sentences are introduced by existential there (ex. There is a man at the door). Existential there is so
called because it’s used to posit the existence of something. Should be distinguish from the adverb there,
which refers to a location. The adverb can be replace by many other adverbs, while the existential there
cannot. In “there is a man at the door” there is the subject and we can identify that thanks to the inversion
test and the tag question test. If I say “there are two men at the door” the verb is plrak, and also man. This
suggests that the subject is man (agreement verb-subject). In fact, the function of subject in there-
sentences is shared by existential there and the noun phrase that follows the verb. existential there inverts
with the verb to form a question, while the noun phrase agrees with the verb in number. We say that there
functions as the provisional subject (PROSU) and the noun phrase after the verb functions as the notional
subject (NOSU). The structure is PROSU + V + NOSU + A. when the adjunct is present, it refers to a location.

4.9 Cleft sentence

The term cleft means divided and it’s used to describe a sentence that has been divided into 2 clauses:

[It was Amy][who studied history at Harvard]

The constituent after the verb is called focus. The focus receives stress in speech, and the choiche of focus
depends on what we wish to emphasise and what contrasts we wish to make:

It was Amy who studied History at Harvard, not Paul.

It was History that Amy studied at Harvard, not english.
It was at Harvard that Amy studied history, not at Yale.
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The it that introduces a cleft sentence is called cleft it and it functions as the subject. The verb in a cleft
sentence is always be and it’s followed by a clause, which functions as the focus complement. The structure
of a cleft sentence is S + V+ Focus + Focus complement.

4.10 Sentence connectors

There are 2 types of sentence connectors: logical connectors and structural connectors.

4.10.1 Logical connectors→ Express a logical relationship between sentences, they express 2 main types of
relationship:

• Contrast/Concession: (The closing date is 15 december. However, you are advised to submit your
application as soon as possible.)
Others are Anyway, nevertheless, in contrast, still, yet.

• Result: Are used to indicate that the second sentence expresses the result or consequence of what has
gone before: (Approval has already been given for a golf course at Smithstown, only three miles away.
Therefore, an extra facility in the area was considered to be unnecessary.)
Others are hence, in consequence, as a result, consequently.

4.10.2 Structural connectors→ Are devices for ordering sentences and paragraphs and for organizing the
points we wish to make. Structural connectors are used for the following purposes:

• Listing: Used to list points in a specific order: (first, he cannot stand against the leader unless he is fairly
sure of a victory. Second..)
Others are Firstly, secondly, to begin with, then, in the first place, for one thing, finally.

• Adding: Are used to add new information to what has previously been said: (All fatal accidents must be
reported immediately to police. In addition, the local coroner must be notified).
Others are Furthermore, additionally, moreover, what is more, as well as that.

• Summing up: Are used to introduce a section which sums up or concludes what has gone before: (In
conclusion, the fear of an overwhelming influx of immigrants is one of the least defensible arguments)
Others are altogether, in sum, in summary, to conclude, to summarize, overall, all in all.

• Exemplifying: Introduce examples or instance in support of what has previously been said: (Several new
feautures have been added. For example the display now offers a split-screen view).
Others are that is, for instance, namely.

All connectors functions as adjuncts in sentence structure. They are optional and they are mobile within the
sentence. Since their primary role is to create a link between two sentences, it’s usually best to place them
at the beginning of the second sentence.

4.11 Referring expressions

Continuous discourse always contains a great deal of cross-referring from one sentence to another. In fact,
the coherence of a text depends on making unambiguous cross-references between the various sentences.

Simon came home early. He was not feeling well

The personal pronoun he refers back to the proper noun Simon. We say that simon is the antecedent of he.
The pronoun he agrees with its antecedent in number, person and gender. This is called antecedent
agreement. A pronoun can also refer back to the whole of a previous sentence (that). The adverbs there
and then can also refer back to an antecedent. Referring back in this way is called anaphoric reference or
simply anaphora. For the purposes of clear communication, it’s important to ensure that there is
agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent. Sometimes we don’t understand the antecedent (ex.

30
Laura used to babysit a little girl who kept throwing her shoes in the fire), whose shoes were? Is laura or a
little girl the antecedent of her?. This is ambiguous. Referring back is the most common type of cross-
referring in a text. We can also refer forward (ex. When she got home, Amy went to bed). This is called
cataphoric reference or cataphora. Is more difficult to use than anaphora because is often ambiguous.

WORD FORMATION AND SPELLING

5.1 The structure of words

Many words in english have a recognisable internal structure. The word unsuccessfull can be broken into
un+success+ful. The first part is a prefix, the second is the base and the third is a suffix.

5.2 Prefixes

Are added to the beginning of a word to create a new word. They contribute specific types of meaning.
When we add the prefix to the word, we creat a now word.

Anti-: against, opposed to

De-: To reverse something
Dis-: Reverse of, remove something
Extra-: Beyond
Il-, im-, in-, ir-: not
Inter-: Between
Mis-: to do something badly or incorrectly
Non-: Not
Post-: After
Pre-: Before
Pro-: In favour of
Re-: To do something again
Un-: Reverse of, remove something

5.3 Suffixes
Are added to the end of a word to create a new word. Certain suffixes are associated with certain word
classes.

Noun suffixes: -age, -al, -ant, -dom, -ee, -er/-or, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship, -tion
Adjective suffixes: -able, -al, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -y
Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -ify, -ise/-ize
Adverb suffixes: -ly, -wards, -wise

5.4 Compounding and blending

COmpounding involves combining two bases to create a new word (ex. key+board= keyboard). Many
participial adjectives are formed by compounding a noun with the -ed/-en or -ing form of a verb (ex.
drug+induced= drug-induced). Blending is similar to compounding, except that only parts of existing words
are combined to create a new word. The word camcorder is formed by combining cam and corder (from
recorder). (ex. Bionic= biological+eletronic / cyborg= cybernetic+organism).

5.5 Acronysm, abbreviations and clipping

Acronysm are formed by combining the initial letters or syllables of 2 or more words. The combination is
pronunced ad a single word (ex. RAM= random access memory). Abbreviations are formed from the initial
letters of words, but unlike acronyms, they are spoken by spelling out each letter (ex. WWW= World Wide
Web). Clipping is a type of abbreviation in which one or more syllables are omitted or clipped from a word
(ex. gym= gymnasium / lab= laboratory).
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5.6 Back formations
Back formations are words formed by removing from a noun what’s thought to be asuffix and adding a
verb ending. (ex. televise / television).

5.7 Combining forms

Are segments that don’t exist as words in their own right, but carry a specific meaning when they are
combined with other segments. They are added to the beginning or end of another sgment or word to
create a new word. (ex. Bio-/Euro-).

5.8 Inflections
Inflections are a special type of suffix. They are added to the end of a word to indicate a grammatical
property. For istance, the -s inflections is added to a noun to indicate plural number. Inflections differ from
other suffixes in one important respect. The suffix -ment, for example, added to the verb embarrass creates
a completely different word, adding an inflection, does not create a new word, but a different grammatical
form of the same word. English has few inflections, they are always suffixes: -s, -‘s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est.

5.9 Adding inflections: General spelling rules

Spelling rule 1: Double the final consonant before adding -ed, -ing, -er or -est (ex. Stop→Stopped). Double L
is not doubled when it follows a or o (ex. reveal→Revealed). Final G is not doubled when it follows n (ex.
Strong→Stronger).

Spelling rule 2: Change final y to I before adding -s, -ed, -er, -est (ex. Cry→Cried). If the final y follows a
vowel, then it’s retained (ex. convey→conveyed)

Spelling rule 3: Drop silent e before adding -ed, -ing, -er, -est (ex. Care→Cared). If the base ends in ie,
changee it to y before adding -ing (ex. die→dying).

spelling rule 4: Add e before -s if the base form ends with s, sh, ch, thc, x, z (ex. pass→passes)

5.10 Adding -ly and -ally

Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective (ex. quiet→quietly). If the adjective already ends in
y, change it to I (ex. Steady→Steadily). If the adjective ends in -ic, add -ally to form the adverb (ex.
Basic→Basically).

5.11 Plural nouns

Regular nouns form the plural by adding -s to the singular form, but some plurals are formed by changing
the singular ending in an irregual way: -y→-ies / -s→-es / -f or -fe→-ves / -on→-a / -um→-a / -us→-I / -a→-
ae / -is→-es / -ex or- ix→-ices / -o→-os or -oes.

5.12 Variants with s or z

Many words can be spelled with -s- or -z- (ex. criticise/criticize)

5.13 British and American spelling variants

Spelling differences between british english and american english are not widespread as is often thought.

BRITISH ENGLISH AMERICAN ENGLISH

Colour Color
Centre Center
Dialogue Dialog

5.14 Problem Spellings

It’s and Its sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. Accept/except (verb/preposition),
practice/practise (noun/verb), loose/lose (adjective/verb)..
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