Instituto Superior Dardo Rocha U.E.P.

71

Profesorado de Inglés

Traductor Literario-Técnico-Científico en Inglés

Lengua y Gramática Inglesa I

Words, phrases and clause elements:

There are different levels of analysis to start developing the understanding of the English
sentence structure: words, phrases and the clause elements.

Words:

A word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic content (with
literal or practical meaning), which can stand on its own. Words can be broadly classified
into content/ lexical words and structural/function words.

The content word group is the largest one, it contains the majority of the words in the
language, and new elements are being created all the time, or already existing words
adopt new meanings. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

The structural word group has a somewhat fixed number of elements, they are the
determiner group, which includes articles, possessive adjectives, demonstrative
adjectives, quantifiers and numerals; prepositions; pronouns; conjunctions, interjections,
question words, etc.

In this level of analysis we can observe sentences as just the smallest constituent parts:

e.x.: The (art) - Boy (n) – fell off (v) – the (art) - ladder (n). He (pron.) has (v) his (pron)
leg(n).

I (pron.) left (V) a (art.) box (N) here (adv) yesterday (adv) where (quest word) is (V) it
(pron).

Phrases:

However, words usually combine to have different functions within sentences. These
¨groupings¨ are called ¨phrases¨.,

A phrase is a group of words, or sometimes just one word, which can be part of a
sentence, usually having specific functions, or a special structure. We can classify them
into two groups: according to their functions and according to their structure.

Function phrases: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjectival phrase and adverbial phrase.

Structure phrases: prepositional phrase, gerundial phrase, infinitive phrase and participial
phrase,
A noun phrase is a noun, a pronoun or a group of words where the most important
element, sometimes called the nucleus, is a noun. For example: the girl (n.phr.); she
(n.phr.).

A verb phrase is a word or a group of words where the most important word is a verb. It is
the conjugated verb in the sentence, element that expresses an action, a state, a feeling.

For example: the boy (n.ph)ran(v.phr.) away I n.ph feel (v.phr.) tired.

An adjectival phrase is usually an adjective alone, for example, she´s beautiful (adj.phr.)

When they are modifying a noun, they are part of the noun phrase:

For example: she´s a beautiful girl (n.phr)

An adverbial phrase gives us information about manner, place, time, etc. usually adding
to the meaning of the verb. For example, they arrived yesterday (adv.phr).

A prepositional phrase is a noun phrase introduced by a preposition, that is, every time
there is a prepositional phrase, there will first be a noun phrase. For example, to
him(n.phr.)/ (prep.phr.) in the classroom

Gerundial phrases and (to) infinitive phrases are non-finite verb forms which have
functions other than to be the main verb in the sentence. They usually function as nouns,
so they have typically two functions, to be the subject or the object of the main verb.

E.x.: Swimming (ger.phr/n.phr.) is a great activity. (in subject position)

I want to go (inf.phr/n.phr.) swimming(ger.phr./n.phr.) (in object position)

Since both phrases are functioning as nouns, we can mark them as noun phrases.

Participial phrases are of two types: present participle and past participle. They are
verb forms that in most cases function as adjectives, so they are included either within
noun phrases, such as ¨a boring book¨, or are used alone, as in ¨I´m bored.¨

Clause:

A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a finite verb, and object,
complement or adverbial if necessary.

Clause Elements:

⮚ Subject (S): It is the part of the sentence that identifies what or who is topic
of the clause and/or the agent of the verb. The subject is the performer or
“doer” of the action in the sentence. It can be a noun, pronoun or noun
phrase, preceding and governing the main verb.
Noun Marcos is a nice guy. (“Marcos” is the subject of the sentence, controlling the
verb and the complement)

Pronoun: He is a nice guy.

Noun Phrase: The red-haired boy is a nice guy.

● Dummy Subject: Unless they are imperative, English sentences require a

subject. A dummy subject (it – there) is a word which contributes no
meaning but it is there because the clause would be ungrammatical without
it.

It (generally used when talking about weather and time)

E.g. It got dark. It’s raining. It’s early.

There (+ verb TO BE to denote existence)

E.g. There are seven beds.

E.g There has been a doubt in my mind.

● Predicate (P): It is the part of the sentence containing the verb and any
complement of it, which can include the object, adverbial, etc.

⮚ Verb (V): It is the clause element that typically expresses an event, action
or state. The verb is one of the major grammatical groups, and all
sentences are expected to contain one. Verbs generally refer to and action
(do, break, walk) or a state (be, like, own).

⮚ Object (O): It is the part of the sentence that denotes who or what is
affected by the verb. The object is the person or thing affected by the action
of the verb or that is involved in the result of the action.

▪ Direct Object (DO): The direct object of a verb is created, affected

or altered by the action of a verb, or appreciated or sensed by the
subject of the verb.

(s) Marcos (P) bought some nice red socks.

*In passive voice, the DO comes to be the subject of the sentence, as follows:

Some nice red socks were bought by Marcos.

 ▪ Indirect Object (IO): The indirect object of a verb is not directly
affected by the action, but can either receive the direct object or
have the action done for them.

Marcos told me many lies.

*In passive voice, the DO comes to be the subject of the sentence and the IO becomes a
prepositional phrase (preceded by to or for), as follows:

Many lies were told to me by Marcos.

⮚ Complement (C): It is the part of the sentence that gives further information
about some other sentence element, or completes what is said. The
complement generally completes the meaning about the subject (Subject
Complement) or the object (Object Complement). After a linking verb, the
complement is generally in the form of a noun or an adjective phrase.

▪ Subject Complement (SC): It says something about the subject of

the sentence, for example what it is or what it is like.

Marcos is now a physician

▪ Object Complement (OC): It says something about the direct object

of a sentence. A direct object and an object complement always
refer to the same person or thing.

The Mayor named Marcos the new physician in town.

⮚ Adverbial (A): It is the part of the sentence that adds extra information
about the situation (manner, place, time, result, reason, purpose, etc). The
adverbial is a word or group of words providing information about when,
where, why, how, etc, the action or state described in a sentence takes
place, or making some comment about what is said in the rest of the
sentence.

I did my homework instantly. (manner)

I did my homework at my cousin’s. (place)

I did my homework yesterday. (time)

Surprisingly, I did my homework. (opinion)

Surprisingly, I did my homework at my cousin’s yesterday

1. What is the difference between finite verbs and non-finite verbs?

 a) Finite-verb (FV): It is a main verb that can have modals or semi-modals; it can
be also marked by inflection to denote tense, number or person, and it is part of
Finite Clauses. In other words, finite verbs can be affected by person and
number to show agreement with the subject, as well as being tensed to show
the time of the action or state.

saw (past simple) – comes (present simple, 3rd person singular form) – should have
taken (+ modal)

Maria is an ugly girl. (IS 3rd person singular form, present simple)

They were at the supermarket. (WERE 3rd person plural form, past simple)

I decided to stay at home. (DECIDED 1st person singular form, past simple)

Non-finite verb (NFV): It is a verb that cannot have modals or semi-modals; it cannot be
marked by inflection to denote tense, number or person. It is part of Non-Finite Clauses. It
is represented by the infinitive form of the verb, or by its participial forms (–ing or present
participle, and –ed or past participle).

(infinitive) He came to see me yesterday.

(present participle) Having found a solution, the scientists decided to have a rest.

(past participle) Born in France, he now lives in Italy.