Parts of Speech

PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more
than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly

disappeared. Oh my!
2. PRONOUN
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is
the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or
things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize
another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative
pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
disappeared. Oh my!
3. VERB
 A verb expresses action or being.

jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different
forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she
quickly disappeared. Oh my!
4. ADJECTIVE
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
disappeared. Oh my!
5. ADVERB
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,

and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
6. PREPOSITION
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:
disappeared. Oh my!
7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
disappeared. Oh my!
8. INTERJECTION
 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
disappeared. Oh my!
BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement
*Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed
here.
The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.
SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject
usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man . . .
PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains
the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man / builds a house.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or
detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of
these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences. (See TIP Sheet on "Sentence Type and Purpose.")
DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or
pronoun.
The man builds a house.
The man builds it.
INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being
done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds his family a house.
The man builds them a house.
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a
noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within
the sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).
The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)
The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)

SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
A sentence is a group of words that contains three things:
 A subject (that makes sense with the verb

 A verb (that goes with the subject)
 A complete thought
A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks one or more of these three things. While there
are many ways to end up with a fragment, almost every fragment is simply a result of one of the
following three problems:
 It is missing a subject
 It is missing a verb.
 It fails to complete the thought it starts.
Fragments are no big deal in conversation; spoken English is full of them. In fact, if you spoke in
complete sentences for one entire day, you would probably get some strange looks. But English
conventions require that you avoid writing fragments (except in very rare instances), so you must
be able to identify them in your writing and fix them.
To begin to identify fragments in your writing, read a sentence aloud. Does it sound complete? If
you walked up to a stranger and said it to him, would it sound like a complete thought to him? Or
would he be waiting expectantly for you to finish? Even if it sounds okay to you (because you
already know what you mean), look at it and identify the subject (who or what did the action)
and the verb (what the subject did) to make sure they're there. (For help identifying subjects and
verbs, see the TIP Sheet Parts of Sentences.) If you think a subject is missing, or the verb sounds
a little strange, or the thought is left hanging, refer to the tips below.
Missing subjects
Some fragments are missing subjects. Often the subject appears nearby, perhaps in the preceding
sentence; however, each sentence must have a subject of its own. The following fragment lacks a
subject:
Fragment
Was running late that day.
Who was running late? The instructor? The train? The simplest (but by no means only) way to
correct this fragment is to add a subject:
I was running late that day.
Phrases which include words ending in -ing often appear as fragments:

Fragment
Biking and swimming after work on Thursday.
What about biking and swimming? Who is biking and swimming? Are you proposing that we all
go biking and swimming? Add both a subject and a verb to correct this (again, not the only
solution):
Mitchell went biking and swimming after work on Thursday.
Another suspect in the missing subject category is a phrase like this one:
Fragment
To register for class before the deadline.
Who wants to register? Or failed to register? Or plans to register? This fragment lacks both
subject and verb. ("To register" is not really a verb, but another thing entirely; see the TIP
Sheet Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute). The simplest fix is to add a subject and
verb:
Stan hopes to register for class before the deadline.
(Avoid the mistake of thinking that a command, demand, or request lacks a subject. This kind of
sentence has an unstated subject, you. So the subject of "Turn in your schedule changes at the
counter" is you: "[You] turn in your schedule changes at the counter.")
Missing verbs
Some fragments are fragments because they are missing a verb or an essential part of a verb. Any
phrase, no matter how long, is a fragment if the verb is missing:
Fragment
The birch trees with their rattling yellow leaves.
What about the birch trees? Adding a verb makes this fragment complete:
The birch trees with their rattling yellow leaves swayed in the wind.
Some verbs require helpers in order to be complete. Words ending in -ing, for example, must
include helpers such as is, are, was, were, will be, or has been to be real verbs; without these
helpers, they are not verbs. (If you want to know more about verb look-alikes, see the TIP
Sheet Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute.) The fragment below contains an incomplete
verb:
Fragment
Caroline studying her sociology tonight at Moxie's downtown.
Did your ear hear the strangeness? Add helpers to make the verb complete and repair the
fragment:
Caroline will be studying her sociology tonight at Moxie's downtown.
Unfinished thoughts
A very common type of fragment is the unfinished thought fragment. While other kinds of
fragments require you to add something--a subject, or a verb, or both--you can often fix
unfinished thought fragments simply by joining them to a preceding or following sentence. The
following example, while it contains a subject and a verb, fails to complete the thought:
Fragment
Because tuition increased again this semester.
The word to blame for making this thought incomplete is because. (Contrary to rumor, it's
perfectly okay to start a sentence with because; you just have to finish what you're saying--in the
same sentence.) If you find a fragment of this kind, see if the sentence before or the sentence
after it would complete it:
Because tuition increased again this semester, Kou got a second job as a Student Assistant.
Or
Kou must take fewer units because tuition increased again this semester.
If the preceding or following sentence does not complete the unfinished thought, add the missing
information to the fragment to make it complete. There are many words that, by their mere
presence, make a clause incomplete, for example, since, while, when, unless, although. For more
about these words, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses.
In spite of the rules of grammar, language is plastic and can be shaped a great many ways, so for
any fragment problem, many solutions exist. The more you practice writing, the more you will
be able to spot fragments and fix them. And the more you learn about English, the more ways
you will find to make your grammatically correct sentences say exactly what you mean.
RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES
Run-on sentences can be divided into two types. The first occurs when a writer puts no mark of
punctuation and no coordinating conjunction between independent clauses. The second is called
a comma splice, which occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined by just a comma
and no coordinating conjunction.
Example of a run-on sentence:
The flowers are beautiful they brighten the room. (Incorrect)
Example of a comma splice:
The flowers are beautiful, they brighten the room. (Incorrect)
Examples of correct alternatives:
The flowers are beautiful. They brighten the room.

The flowers are beautiful; they brighten the room.
The flowers are beautiful, and they brighten the room.
The flowers are beautiful because they brighten the room.
A run-on sentence is not defined by its length! The fact that a sentence is very long does not
automatically make it a run-on sentence. As you will see, the sentence structure and use of
punctuation determine whether a sentence is a run-on.
In order to better understand run-on sentences and comma splices, it is important to review the
basics of writing a grammatically correct simple sentence:
A simple sentence is made up of only one independent

clause. An independent clause is a group of words that
contains a subject and a predicate and forms a complete
thought when standing alone. The subject refers to
someone or something (the subject contains at least one
noun or pronoun). The predicate refers to what the subject
does or is (the predicate contains the verb or verbs). Both
the subject and predicate can contain additional
descriptive elements, such as adverbs, adjectives,
prepositions, or other modifying phrases, but in its most
basic form the subject is the part of the sentence that
contains the noun, and the predicate contains the verb.
A sentence can be complete and correct with one basic independent clause made up of one
subject plus its corresponding predicate. To demonstrate the basic structure of a simple sentence,
find the noun that forms the subject and divide it from the verb.
Subject Predicate Sentence

I am. I am.
The man studied. The man studied.
A frog jumped. A frog jumped.
Lola sings. Lola sings.
By dividing the noun and verb, we can add modifiers to a simple sentence and still see the two
basic parts, the subject and the predicate.
Subject Predicate
The man studied.
The kind man studied hard.
The kind man at the studied hard for the test on
library Friday.

When looking at the structure of an independent clause, it is helpful to think of all elements of

the subject separately from all elements of the predicate. Together the subject and predicate form
the two basic and separate parts of each clause.
Subject Predicate
The kind man and his studied hard for the test and
wife read a book.
The man, his wife, and studied hard, read books, and
their child ate dinner.

If the independent clause forms a complete thought, a period at the end demonstrates that the
sentence is complete. The period means STOP. The sentence has ended, and a new sentence will
begin.
Run-ons and comma splices occur when more than one subject/predicate pair exists in the
sentence. When one subject/predicate pair is followed by an additional subject/predicate pair
within one sentence (forming separate independent clauses), they need to be separated (or joined)
according to very specific rules of punctuation and grammar.
Look at the following example of a run-on sentence:
The kind man studied hard his wife read a book. (Incorrect)
If we divide the sentence into subject/predicate pairs (each an independent clause), we see that
two independent clauses exist, one following the other:
First independent clause Second independent clause

Subject Predicate Subject Predicate
The kind man studied hard his wife read a book.

Without the correct separation, the two independent clauses written together form a run-
on sentence. Once you can identify a run-on sentence by its incorrect structure, it is not hard to
find a way to correct it.
When two independent clauses appear in one sentence, they must be joined (or separated) in one
of four ways:
1. The two clauses can be made into two separate sentences by adding a period.
2. The two clauses can be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (comma plus: and,
but, or, nor, for, so, yet).
3. The two clauses can be joined by a semicolon.
4. The two clauses can be rewritten by adding, changing, rearranging, or deleting words. The
simplest way to accomplish this is to add a subordinating conjunction between the clauses.
Notice that joining the independent clauses by a comma alone is NOT a choice. When two
independent clauses are joined by only a comma, this error is called a comma splice.
The table below demonstrates the four correct options. When two independent clauses appear in
a sentence, try to imagine a middle column in which only four possibilities exist to join the two
clauses:
First independent Second

clause independent clause
4 CORRECT
Subject Predicate Subject Predicate
OPTIONS
The studied har His wif read a
. (period)
kind man d e book.
, and
, but
, or
, for
The studied har read a
, nor his wife
kind man d book.
, so
, yet
(comma plus a
coordinating conjunction)
The studied har read a
; (semicolon) his wife
kind man d book.
while
after
as
The studied har because . . . read a
his wife
kind man d (examples of book.
subordinating
conjunctions - no comma
required)
Please note again that in the above examples a comma alone is NOT one of the correct options.
The kind man studied hard, his wife read a book. (Incorrect)
A comma alone between two independent clauses creates an incorrect comma splice.
Summary (Including Related Grammar Rules)
1. An independent clause contains one subject/predicate pair and expresses a complete thought.
Music makes my life worth living.
Subject Predicate

2. A simple sentence is made up of only one independent clause:
3. A run-on sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses that are not joined
correctly or which should be made into separate sentences. A run-on sentence is defined by its
grammatical structure, not its length.
Incorrect: My favorite band is in town they are performing now.

Correct: My favorite band is in town. They are performing now.
Correct: My favorite band is in town, and they are performing now.
4. A comma splice is the incorrect use of a comma to join two independent clauses.
Incorrect: I love classical music, it makes me feel joyful.

Correct: I love classical music because it makes me feel joyful.
Correct: I love classical music; it makes me feel joyful.
5. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses that are correctly joined by
a comma plus a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon:
Music means a lot to me, and certain songs bring wonderful memories to mind.
First independent
Second independent clause
clause
Comma and
Subjec
Predicate coordinating Subject Predicate
t
conjunction
means a lot certain bring wonderful
Music , and
to me songs memories to mind.
Music means a lot to me; certain songs bring wonderful memories to mind.
First independent
Second independent clause
clause
Subjec Semicolo
Predicate Subject Predicate
t n
means a lot to certain bring wonderful memories
Music ;
me songs to mind.

6. A comma plus a coordinating conjunction can connect independent clauses correctly. There

are seven coordinating conjunctions (sometimes remembered by the acronym "fanboys"):
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
7. A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction:
I always think of summer whenever they play that song.
Second independent
First independent clause
clause
Subjec Subordinating
Predicate Subject Predicate
t conjunction
always think of play that
I whenever they
summer song.

8. A subordinating conjunction connects a dependent clause to an independent clause. The

dependent clause cannot stand alone; it requires attachment to an independent clause in order to
express the complete meaning of the sentence. The following are examples of some of the most
common subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, in order that, rather than, since, so
that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while
SENTENCE TYPE AND PURPOSE
Sentences come in a variety of shapes and lengths. Yet whatever their shapes and lengths (or
types), all sentences serve one of only a few very basic purposes.
Sentence Type
Sentence variety is not about mere novelty; it is about meaning. You can avoid boredom (yours
and your readers') and choppiness by varying your sentence types. Longer, more complex
sentences can increase the impact of a shorter, simpler sentence.
Every sentence is one of the following types.
 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound/Complex
In order to vary your writing, you want to be able to construct sentences of each kind. To master
these four types, though, you really only need to master two things: independent and dependent
clauses. This is because the four types of sentences are really only four different ways to
combine independent and dependent clauses.
(Let's review: independent clauses are essentially simple, complete sentences. They can stand
alone or be combined with other independent clauses. Dependent clauses are unfinished thoughts
that cannot stand alone; they are a type of sentence fragment and must be joined to independent
clauses. For more information, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses:
Coordination and Subordination.)
The simple sentence

A simple sentence is simple because it contains only one independent clause:
Justin dropped his Agricultural Economics class.
A simple sentence is not necessarily short or simple. It can be long and involved, with many
parts and compound elements. But if there is only one independent clause, it is, nevertheless, a
simple sentence. The following example has a single independent clause with a single subject
(Justin) and a compound verb (gulped, swallowed, groaned, and decided):
Justin gulped down his fourth cup of coffee, swallowed a Tylenol for his pounding headache,
groaned, and decided he would have to drop his Agricultural Economics class.
The compound sentence

When you join two simple sentences properly, you get a compound sentence. Conversely, a
compound sentence can be broken into two complete sentences, each with its own subject and its
own verb. You can join simple sentences to create compound sentences either of two ways:
 With a semicolon
 With a comma and coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
For example, the following pairs of independent clauses can be joined either way:
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays; Environmental Horticulture
conflicted with his schedule.
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays, but Environmental Horticulture
conflicted with his schedule.
(Be aware that if you join two simple sentences improperly, you do not get a compound
sentence; you get a run-on, most likely either a comma splice or a fused sentence. For more
information, see the TIP Sheets Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences and Independent &
Dependent Clauses: Coordination & Subordination.)
The complex sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains both a dependent and an independent clause. In
the following example, both clauses contain a subject and a verb, but the dependent clause has,
in addition, the dependent-making words even though. If you start the sentence with the
dependent-making words (or subordinating conjunction), place a comma between the clauses.
On the other hand, if you start with the independent clause and place the dependent-making
words in the middle of the sentence, do not use a comma:
Even though Eva took Turf Management just to fill out her schedule, she found it unexpectedly
interesting.
Eva found Turf Management unexpectedly interesting even though she took it just to fill out her
schedule.
(For more on subordinating conjunctions, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses:
Coordination & Subordination.)
The compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence combines at least two independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause. The punctuation rules remain the same: the two simple sentences are joined by
one of the two methods described above, and the dependent clause is punctuated (or not)
depending on whether it precedes or follows an independent clause. In the following example,
the dependent-making word signaling the beginning of the dependent clause is while:
Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab while Justin was sleeping off his headache.
While Justin was sleeping off his headache, Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab.
Homer was already in class while Justin slept off his headache; Eva was in the lab.
Sentence Purpose
Sentences can do different things. The purpose of some sentences is to make statements.
Declarative sentences make statements and end with periods:
I am planning to drop Agricultural Economics.
The purpose of another sentence may be to pose a question. These interrogative sentences ask
questions and end with question marks:
Have you taken any Agricultural Engineering classes?
Imperative sentences give commands or make demands or requests. They usually end with a
period. An imperative sentence often has as its subject an unstated "you" (giving to beginners in
English grammar the appearance of lacking a subject altogether). The subject of each of the
following four sentences is "you:"
Hand in your homework assignments, please.
Stop. Drop. Roll.
Exclamatory sentences convey strong emotion and end with exclamation marks; use them
sparingly:
Watch out for the rattlesnake!

INDEPENDENT & DEPENDENT CLAUSES: COORDINATION & SUBORDINATION
An independent person is one who can solve problems on his own, take care of his own needs,
stand on his own two feet, so to speak. An independent clause (a clause is a group of words that
contains at least one subject and one verb) is one that can stand on its own two feet--
independently. You can join independent clauses if you want to. This is called coordination.
A dependent person is one who needs help from another, more independent person. A dependent
person needs to lean on someone stronger. A dependent clause is one that cannot stand on its
own two feet--it needs an independent clause to lean on. You must join a dependent clause to an
independent one. This is called subordination.
Independent clauses are strong

Compare an independent clause to the ideal roommate: She cleans up after herself, pays her
share of the bills, never forgets to turn off the iron, and can fix a leaky faucet. Like the ideal
roommate, an independent clause lacks nothing to stand on its own. For example, each of the
following independent clauses can stand alone:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party.
Mai figured out how to fix the garbage disposal.
The clauses above contain a subject and a verb, and they finish the thought they have started;
they are complete simple sentences. For the sake of variety, however, you will often want to
combine simple sentences using coordination to create compound sentences. You can choose one
of two methods:
 Join two independent clauses with a semicolon.

 Join two independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction.
The most used coordinating conjunctions are often referred to as the FANBOYS
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). When you use one of the FANBOYS between independent
clauses, you signal that the clauses are equal (sort of like how two independent roommates are
equals). These two methods of coordination are demonstrated below:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; Mai figured out
how to fix the garbage disposal.
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party, and Mai figured
out how to fix the garbage disposal.
If you choose to coordinate two independent clauses using a semicolon, you have another option.
You may choose to add a conjunctive adverb (followed by a comma-the adverb acts rather like
an introductory phrase) after the semicolon:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; moreover, Mai
figured out how to fix the garbage disposal.
A conjunctive adverb adds meaning or clarifies the relationship between the two clauses. See
how choosing a different conjunctive adverb subtly changes the meaning of the pair:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; however, Mai
figured out how to fix the garbage disposal.
The pattern, with appropriate punctuation (and yes, the punctuation counts) is as follows:
Coordinating Independent Clauses

Method 1 Independent Independent
;
Semicolon clause clause
;moreover,
Semicolon
;however,
with
Independent ;consequently, Independent
conjunctive
clause ;indeed, clause
adverb and
;nevertheless,
comma
;therefore,
Method 2 , for
Comma and , and
coordinating , nor
Independent Independent
conjunction , but
clause clause
, or
, yet
, so

(Note: Do not try to join two independent clauses with a simple comma. This error is called
a comma splice. Furthermore, do not try to join two independent clauses with a coordinating
conjunction alone, omitting the comma. This error is called a run-on. For more on these errors,
see the TIP Sheet Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences.)
Dependent clauses are needy

In contrast to an independent clause, a dependent clause is incomplete; it is a type of sentence
fragment. (For more information, see the TIP Sheet Fragments.) A dependent clause may contain
a subject and a verb, but it begins a thought that it doesn't finish:
Because Amy left the iron on.

When the firemen arrived at the dorm.
The words that are to blame for making the above dependent clauses dependent are the
words because and when. Inquiring minds want to know-what happened as a result of the iron
being left on? What happened when the fire department reached the dorm? Like a needy
roommate, these dependent clauses need to lean on something stronger. In the following
examples we have added independent clauses for the dependent clauses to lean on:
The dorm's obsolete wiring melted and started a fire because Amy left the iron on.
Jennifer and Mai had already put out the fire when the firemen arrive at the dorm.
When you join a dependent clause to an independent clause, you are not joining equals. One side
of the resulting sentence (the independent clause) is stronger, and the other side (the dependent
clause) is weaker, or subordinate. (If you are a subordinate at work, you do as you're told.) The
words used to join unequal pairs of clauses are called subordinating conjunctions.
But even here you have choices. Just because the independent clause is stronger, it doesn't have
to always go first. (Sometimes the stronger person holds the door open to allow the person on
crutches to enter first.) You could just as well write the following:
Because Amy left the iron on, the dorm's obsolete wiring melted and started a fire.
When the firemen arrived at the dorm, Jennifer and Mai had already put out the fire.
The important thing to remember about subordination is that the punctuationdiffers depending on
whether the independent or the dependent clause "enters" first. If the dependent clause is first
(again, rather like an introduction to the main clause), it is followed by a comma (like in this
sentence and the next). If the independent clause comes first, no punctuation separates the two.
The pattern, with appropriate punctuation, is as follows:
Subordinating Dependent Clauses

Method 1
Independent (No Dependent
Independent
clause punctuation) Clause
clause first
Method 2
Dependent Independent
Dependent , (comma)
clause Clause
clause first
For variety or to fine-tune meaning, you may choose to combine two independent clauses,
making one of the clauses subordinate to the other with the addition of a subordinating
conjunction:
While Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet, Mai figured out how to fix the garbage
disposal.
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet since Mai was figuring out how to fix the
garbage disposal.
Here is a partial list of subordinating conjunctions. (Some textbooks call them "dependent-
making words," or "dependent marker words.")
Common Subordinating Conjunctions

after in order that unless
although rather than until
as (as if) since when
because so that whenever
before than whereas
even though that whether
if though while
While other punctuation rules apply to particular kinds of clauses (for example, see the TIP Sheet
Relative Pronouns: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses), if you learn to distinguish
independent from dependent clauses and recognize subordinating conjunctions you will be more
apt to avoid some common fragment and punctuation errors in your writing.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
The verb of a sentence must agree with the simple subject of the sentence in number and
person. Number refers to whether a word is singular (child, account, city, I) or plural
(children, accounts, cities, we). Person refers to whether the word denotes a speaker
(I, we are first person), the person spoken to (you is second person), or what is spoken of
(he, she, it, they; Gary, college, taxes are third person).
Third person singular

Choosing verbs to agree with first and second person subjects is not usually much of a problem,
but a peculiarity of third person singular verbs causes some students, especially ESL students,
some confusion when working with third person singular subjects.
It matters whether a subject in the third person is singular or plural because the verb form for
third person singular often differs from other verb forms. For most third person singular verbs,
add an s to the root form of the verb: sit + s = sits, the third person singular form. (Be careful-
while an s on a noun usually denotes a plural, an s on a verb does not make the verb plural.)
Examples of how the verb form changes in third person singular follow; notice that even
irregular helping verbs (to have, to be, to do) add an s -- has, is, was, does -- in third person
singular:
Third person singular (he - she - it) Third person plural (they)
sits sit
is sitting are sitting
was sitting were sitting
has sat have sat
has been sitting have been sitting
does not sit do not sit
doesn't sit don't sit
Thus, Olivia sits, Phong sits, the college president sits in her office, and the remote
control sits on the table. When Olivia and Phong get together, however, they sit; the college
trustees sit.
Only the simple subject

The verb must agree with its simple subject -- not with the description or explanation of the
subject; ignore the descriptions and explanations. If the simple subject is singular, use the
singular form of the verb. If the simple subject is plural, use the plural form of the verb. (For
more about subjects, see the TIP Sheet Parts of Sentences: Subject, Verb, Object, Complement.
For tips on how to use prepositional phrases to help identify the subject, see Prepositions and
Prepositional Phrases.)
The pink and red flowers in the tall vase have wilted.

The old table that my parents gave us needs a coat of paint.
The back wheels of the car you borrowed are wobbling.
The verb must agree with its simple subject -- not with the subject complement. The subject and
its complement are not always both singular or both plural. Even if one is singular and the other
plural, the verb agrees with the subject:
His only hobby is his pigeons.

Her parents are her sole support.
Compound subjects
A compound subject joined by and is plural and takes a plural verb form:
Olivia and Phong are looking for the remote control. (They are looking.)
The verb for compound subjects joined by or or by (n)either...(n)or agrees with the subject
nearer to the verb:
Olivia or Phong has the responsibility to make the video presentation. (He has.)

Neither Phong nor Olivia knows if the board will be pleased. (She knows.)
The college president or the trustees interview all the candidates. (They interview.)
The trustees or the president often asks for a second interview. (He or she asks.)
Relative clauses
Relative clauses begin with the relative pronouns who, that, or which and contain a verb separate
from that of the independent clause. The verb in a relative clause agrees in person and number to
the word -- the person or thing -- to which the relative pronoun refers:
Most instructors appreciate students who ask good questions.

The student who asks a lot of questions is a valuable asset to a class.
The logic class, which is known to be difficult, nevertheless attracts a certain type of student.
The classes, which are held in the fall, usually fill up fast.
Verb preceding the subject

In questions, the subject follows the verb, but the subject still determines the person and number
of the verb:
Where in the house are the medicines kept? (They are kept.)
Why doesn't the soup have any noodles? (It does have.)
Under which tree do the mushrooms grow? (They do grow.)
In sentences that begin with a construction such as here is or there are, the subject follows the
verb but still determines the person and number of the verb:
Here is the famous flea circus. (It is here.)

Here are the famous fleas. (They are here.)
There is a mouse in the attic. (It is there.)
There are mice in the attic. (They are there.)
Indefinite pronoun subjects

Some indefinite pronouns are always singular, and some are always plural. (Some can go either
way; for more on indefinite pronouns, see the TIP Sheets Pronouns and Pronoun Reference, or
see a writers' guide such as SF Writer.)
Some indefinite pronouns are always singular no matter how much you feel that words
like everyone are plural. They require the third person singular verb form:
Nobody knows her.
Has anyone asked?
Everyone says so.
Each gets a ticket.
One uses a hammer.
Another has arrived.
Other indefinite pronouns are always plural and require a plural verb form:
Several work here.
Many have done it.
Few believe it.
Both were yellow.
CONSISTENT VERB TENSE
Verbs express a particular action (throw) or state of being (was). In addition, verbs help express
who or what performs the action (person), how many people or things perform the action
(number), the speaker's attitude toward or relation to the action (mood), and whether the subject
is the giver or receiver of the action (voice). Perhaps the most obvious characteristic of verbs,
however, is how the verb tenses express time.
Different verb forms are used in combination to express when actions occur. The simple present,
past, and future tenses simply place events in time. The perfect tenses (they occur with have, has,
and had) express events or actions completed; the progressive tenses (-ing verbs used together
with helpers such as is, was, and were) show actions or events that are continuing.
Intentional shifting of verb tense

A statement such as the following intentionally mixes verb tenses:
I had decided to add Anthropology 11 when I discovered it already had filled up and the
instructor would not be accepting any more students.
The mixed verb tenses here are intended to convey in what order things happened, what actions
are completed, and what actions are continuing. The class had filled and the speaker had decided
(both actions completed in the past) before he or she discovered the class was full. And the
instructor is at present turning away students and will continue to turn them away for the
foreseeable future.
In the following example, a statement about past actions is followed by a statement of a general
truth:
I had decided to add Anthropology 11 when I discovered it already had filled up; it is unwise
to wait until the last minute to add a required class.
Generalities and truisms like this (it is unwise to wait) are expressed in the simple present tense,
even if they are imbedded in a statement written in a past tense.
Unintentional shifting of verb tense

Clearly, intentionally shifting verb tenses can convey a great deal of information. However,
when verb tenses shift for no good reason, meaning becomes garbled. In general, avoid
unnecessary changes in verb tense. This is a particular problem in personal narratives, where it is
common to see something like this:
I was undecided about my major when I was a freshman. I wanted to study journalism but
I like art, too. I find that sketching is relaxing and helped reduce stress, while
journalism was a high-energy, often stressful class.
The verb shifts are unnecessary and make it more difficult for the reader to follow. Here is the
statement revised to a consistent past tense:
I was undecided about my major when I was a freshman. I wanted to study journalism but

I liked art, too. I found that sketching was relaxing and helped reduce stress, while
journalism was a high-energy, often stressful class.
In personal narratives, you may choose to use either past or present tense verbs. Just do not mix
them as this writer did:
He turns the key in the ignition, but only heard the relentless, useless chugging of an engine
unwilling to turn over. He glanced left, then right. He cannot see the approaching train
through the driving rain, but he could hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that
he thought he still might be able to save the car.
Revised to a consistent past tense, this story is more coherent:
He turned the key in the ignition, but only heard the relentless, useless chugging of an engine
unwilling to turn over. He glanced left, then right. He couldn't see the approaching train
through the driving rain, but he could hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that
he thought he still might be able to save the car.
In this case, however, you might be more successful in recreating the suspense of the moment by
keeping to a consistent present tense:
He turns the key in the ignition, only to hear the relentless, useless chugging of an engine
unwilling to turn over. He glances left, then right. He cannot see the approaching train through
the driving rain, but he can hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that he thinks he still
might be able to save the car.
The literary present tense

For discussing literary works, the preferred tense is the present:
Author Michael Crichton frequently addresses bioethical questions of this sort. His Jurassic
Park character Ian Malcolm is a kind of devil's advocate, a doomed protagonist who asks the
unasked question: "We can--but should we?"
This statement includes one about the author and his intentions or techniques, and another about
a character in one of his books; both are constructed in the literary present tense. Use literary
present tense for book and article reviews, summaries, and critiques.
Critiques of musical performances, art shows or other artistic works also may use the literary
present tense.
OTHER PHRASES: VERBAL, APPOSITIVE, ABSOLUTE
A phrase is a group of words that lacks a subject, a predicate (verb), or both. The English
language is full of them: under his supervision, apple trees in blossom, having completed the
soccer season. You are probably familiar with prepositional phrases--they begin with
prepositions, end with nouns (or pronouns), and they describe, or modify, a particular word in
the sentence: along the Yahi Trail, above Salmon Hole. (For more, see the TIP Sheet
"Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases.") But other kinds of phrases also enrich the English
language: verbal, appositive, and absolute phrases.
1. Verbals are verb look-alikes.

A verbal looks like a verb but does not act like a verb. In the following sentences, verbals are
used as something other than verbs:
Climbing El Capitan was out of the question. (Noun and subject of the sentence)
The applauding crowd rose to its feet. (Adjective)
I despise frozen peas. (Adjective)
He intends to study agricultural science. (Noun and direct object).
There are three kinds of verbals:
 Gerunds (-ing forms that function as nouns)

 Participles (present or past participle verb forms that function as adjectives)
 Infinitives (the root form of a verb preceded by to; it can function as a noun, adjective,
or adverb)
Gerund phrases are nouns.
A gerund is an -ing verb form that actually functions as a noun. Any -ing verb used in the
predicate (part of the verb) of a sentence must be accompanied by a helper verb such as is, was,
or has been; a gerund lacks this helper. As a result, a gerund can never function as a verb, but it
can do anything another noun can do. For example, the following gerund phrase is the subject of
a sentence:
Backpacking in Little Yosemite Valley was unforgettable.
This one-word gerund is the direct object of an action verb:
Tom explained rappelling as we clambered up Half Dome.

Gerunds can be predicate nominatives after linking verbs (careful! The verb of the sentence
below is was, not was stumbling. The adventure was not, itself, stumbling! The favorite
adventure was our act of stumbling.):
Our favorite adventure was stumbling upon Frog Pond deep in the forest.
The following gerund phrase is the object of a preposition:
We worried about being swept away over the waterfall as we swam.
Participial phrases are adjectives.

Participial verbals--words or phrases--are adjectives. They look like present participle (-ing) or
past participle (-ed or -en) verb forms. A past participle verb used in the predicate of a sentence
must be accompanied by a helper verb such as has, had, or have; participles or participial phrases
functioning as adjectives lack this helper. The following participial phrase describes the
noun bear:
Grunting and snuffling noisily, the bear reached on tiptoe for our suspended food bags.
Above, suspended is a past participle form functioning as an adjective.

Below, frozen and making introduce participial phrases:
Frozen in anticipation, our muffled breath making scarcely a sound, we watched the bear
ascend the tree toward the ropes.
Frozen in anticipation modifies the pronoun we. Making scarcely a sound, on the other hand,

modifies breath. Muffled is a participial adjective also describing breath.
Infinitive phrases are nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

An infinitive is the root, or simple, form of a verb preceded by to: to expect, to enroll, to have
thought. (Because to is a common preposition, infinitives are often mistaken for prepositional
phrases, which they are not. For more information, see TIP Sheet "Prepositions and Prepositional
Phrases.") Infinitives are easy to recognize, with their to + verb pattern. They can play many
roles in a sentence--noun, adjective, or adverb.
In the following examples, infinitive phrases are used as nouns--in this case subject and direct
object, respectively:
To watch the bear toss our things around was distressing.

We tried to signal our friends on Half Dome with a text message, but failed.
On the other hand, the following infinitive phrase is used as an adjective to modify plans:
Our plans to continue on to Tuolumne Meadows changed suddenly once we lost our food
supplies.
The following infinitive is an adverb phrase modifying the verb will use (adverbs answer the
questions when, where, how, and why):
Next time, to prevent the loss of our food cache, we will use bear canisters instead.
(Note: Some verbs require an infinitive [claim to know] and some require a gerund [avoid
stating]. And some verbs differ dramatically in meaning if you switch from gerund to infinitive
[stop smoking, stop to smoke]).
2. Appositive phrases are nouns.

An appositive is a noun phrase that renames or restates the preceding noun or pronoun:
An overpowering fragrance, apple trees in blossom, drifted through the open window.
Appositive phrases are almost always punctuated as parenthetical elements of a sentence set off
by commas. An exception is a one-word appositive, where commas are unnecessary:
My brother Joseph reads six or seven blogs a day.
3. Absolute phrases modify absolutely everything.

Unlike other modifiers, absolute phrases do not modify a particular word in a sentence; rather,
they modify the entire sentence--setting the scene or background overall, so to speak. An
absolute phrase typically consists of a noun (or pronoun) and a participle (see "Participial
phrases," above): umbrellas tossing in the wind, his hopes dashed at last. In the following
examples, notice that the absolute phrases cannot logically be said to modify any particular word
of the main clause:
Umbrellas tossing in the wind, the students at the bus stop huddled under the scant shelter of
the elms.
Rodrigo unhappily prepared to vacate and sell his dream home, his hopes for a reconciliation
dashed at last.
Like appositives, absolute phrases are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
PRONOUN REFERENCE
Pronouns are indispensable; they replace nouns in our conversation and writing, keeping us from
saying things like this:
My instructor arrived late to class. My instructor claimed that the child care center opened late
and that was why my instructor, in turn, was late; however, a classmate said that the classmate
saw the instructor at the coffee bar at 8:00, and that the instructor greeted the classmate as the
instructor strolled toward the classroom.
Clearly, a few he's and she's would help this narrative. Of course, if both the instructor and the
classmate are females, we might end up with some confusion. Unclear pronoun reference, along
with a mismatch between the pronoun and its referent (or antecedent, the word the pronoun is
intended to replace), are issues that frequently cause students trouble. Avoid most pronoun
reference problems by following these rules:
Make pronouns agree in person and number with their antecedents.

Make pronouns gender-neutral when possible.
Make pronouns refer unambiguously to their intended referents.
Make sure the pronoun referent actually appears nearby.
1. Agreement in person and number

Pronouns must match the person and number of the words they replace. (Pronouns must, in
addition, match case. Case refers to whether a pronoun is a subject [I know this!] or object
[Tell me more.] in a sentence. Choosing the correct case is not a big problem for native speakers
of English, who usually know instinctively which pronoun to use in most instances. For
information about pronoun case see the TIP Sheet "Pronouns.")
First person pronouns are all those that can refer to the speaker(s): I, me, we, us. Second person
pronouns refer to the person(s) spoken to: you. And third person pronouns refer to what is
spoken of: he, him, she, her, it, they, them. Some of these pronouns are singular-I, me, you, he,
him, she, her, it. And some are plural-we, us, you, they, them. There are a great many more
pronouns, all of them with person and number. The trick is to make pronouns agree, in both
person and number, with their antecedents. Singular antecedents take singular pronouns in the
appropriate person. Plural antecedents take plural pronouns in the appropriate person.
The election was a watershed; it brought voters out in droves. (third person singular)
Voters stood in line for hours waiting for their turn at the ballots. (third person plural)
Each was eager to take part, knowing he or she was part of an historic event. (third person
singular)
We were a little anxious, for it was our first experience with touch screen voting. (first person
plural)
A prepositional phrase following an antecedent, or referent, has no effect on a following personal

pronoun, which still must match the referent itself:
One of the boys left his soccer ball here.
Though boys is plural, the pronoun in this sentence must agree with the singular
referent one (here the subject of the sentence. For more about using prepositional phrases to help
identify sentence subjects, see TIP Sheet "Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases").
Agreement in person and number is trickier with indefinite pronouns. Like the personal pronouns
listed above, indefinite pronouns also have person and number–it's their number that causes
confusion. In general, any pronoun that ends with –body (anybody, everybody) or –one
(someone, everyone) is singular, no matter how much you feel that it should be plural:
Somebody from the girls' soccer team left her cleats on the field.

Everyone on the girls' team wants to play indoor soccer when this season ends to keep
up her conditioning.
Other (usually) singular indefinite pronouns are each, either, and neither:
It's such a fast game, neither of the girls wants to play goalie for her team.
Each of the boys has received a sports scholarship to his preferred college.
On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns, such as none, can go either way depending on
whether they refer to count or non-count nouns:
None of the students will want to defer their education for another year. (plural, because none is
talking about students-a count noun.)
None goes to waste; it is all time well spent. (singular, because none here is about a quantity of
time-a non-count noun.)
For a more complete list of indefinite pronouns, see a writer's guide such as SF Writer, or the
TIP Sheet "Pronouns."
Other tricky words are collective nouns, for example jury, team, society. Collective nouns,
though they represent groups, are singular when the members act as one:
The soccer team was like an extended family to its members.

Our society values its sports heroes more than its civil servants.
On the other hand, if a group is acting as individuals or at cross purposes, a collective noun
becomes plural:
As soon as the judge read the verdict, the hung jury issued their statements.
Sometimes a pronoun refers to a compound subject. When a compound subject is joined by and,
it is plural and takes a plural pronoun:
Jack and Jill were unable to play because of their injuries.
When a compound subject is joined by nor/or (often accompanied by neither or either, which in
any case are themselves singular pronouns), the pronoun reference is singular:
Amy or Miya will be at her computer tomorrow.
2. Gender neutral pronouns

Even though most of us understand that mankind means all of us, male and female, and that the
generic he, like man, refers to both men and women, it is a recent innovation that pronouns must,
whenever possible, be chosen so as to be gender-neutral or gender-inclusive. There are various
clumsy ways to accomplish this, since in English there exists no gender-neutral pronoun in third
person singular (except it, which is inappropriate in reference to a person). To comply with this
practice, try using both male and female pronoun references:
Each student took his or her place at a computer station.
This method becomes awkward if there are a great many of these references. Another way,
therefore, to avoid a gender-exclusive pronoun is to change the antecedent to a plural if possible,
and use a plural pronoun reference:
All the students took their places at the computer stations.
A third way to avoid this so-called "sexist" language is to alternate pronoun reference
between he's and she's–this is actually the preferred solution at some general circulation
magazines (look up their writers' guidelines, or read a few magazine articles on childcare, for
instance, and see for yourself)!
Admittedly, gender-neutral or gender-inclusive language makes a certain amount of sense in
some contexts, for instance in the example below, where the intended implication is to point out
that the privilege of suffrage is extended to males and females as equals:
Voters stood in line for hours waiting for their turn at the ballots. Each was eager to take part,
knowing he or she was part of an historic event.
At this time the use of gender-neutral language is undergoing discussion and evolution. Some
people are trying to invent a new, gender-neutral personal pronoun, while others are calling for a
return to their as a singular pronoun–the way most of us use it in conversation anyway, as in
Everybody took their turn (it may be technically incorrect, but it sure has numbers going for it!).
For more information than you imagined existed on this subject, start with the University of
Texas website http://www.crossmyt.com/hc/linghebr/austheir.html. Meanwhile, if you are
unclear how to handle gender issues in your own papers, ask if your instructor has a preference.
3. Unambiguous reference
The referent must appear prior to the pronoun that refers to it. It may appear in a nearby sentence
if the reference is clear enough. Below, Mr. Piluso is the referent for all the he's and him's, while
Mai is the referent for the she's and her's:
Mr. Piluso arrived late to class. He claimed that the child care center opened late and that was
why he, in turn, was late. But Mai said that she saw him at the coffee bar at 8:00, and that he
greeted her as he strolled toward the classroom.
However, if there are two possible referents and if there is a possibility that a reader will
misunderstand which is intended, revise the sentence. For example, in the sentence below,
clearly two females interact; but who greeted whom, and who strolled to class?
She said she saw her at the coffee bar at 8:00, and she greeted her as she strolled toward the
classroom.
It is necessary to replace some of these pronouns; the various she's must be named before the
pronouns which refer to them. In addition, they must be identified as many times as necessary to
avoid confusion:
Mai said she saw Ms. Kloss at the coffee bar at 8:00; Mai greeted her as Ms. Kloss strolled to
class. (Ms. Kloss, alas, is in no hurry.)
Mai said she saw Ms. Kloss at the coffer bar at 8:00; Mai greeted her as she strolled to
class. (Now Mai is the one strolling to class.)
4. Missing referents
The pronoun's referent must actually appear (indefinite pronouns such as someone and everyone
are an exception). They and it commonly appear without proper antecedents, as in the following
examples:
On the news it said Chairman Arafat died of natural causes.

At the bed and breakfast, they don't allow pets.
The missing referent of the first sentence may be news or reporter. The missing referent of the
second sentence might be managers or owners. One of these words should appear in the
sentence, or the sentence should be revised to eliminate the orphan pronoun:
The news was that Chairman Arafat died of natural causes; NBC reported it first.
On the news, the reporter said Chairman Arafat died of natural causes.
The owners of the bed and breakfast told us they don't allow pets.
At the bed and breakfast, the owners don't allow pets.
You may use the pronoun you without a referent only if you are actually referring to your reader
(as we just did); you may not use it to refer to people in general. For formal writing,
avoid you and substitute one (it's gender-neutral, by the way):
One never knows what one can expect of dogs and cats on vacation.
Don't overuse one–it tends to sound stuffy in American English. If by you you mean people in
general, choose another word: people, society, everyone, most Americans.
A pronoun may not usually refer to a possessive word. In the following example, therefore, the
referent is missing:
In the staff's opinion, the contract offers them distinct advantages.
The intended referent of them is staff; however, staff's, as a possessive, is ineligible. Revise to

add the missing referent, or eliminate the pronoun:
The staff believe the contract offers them distinct advantages.

In the staff's opinion, the contract offers distinct advantages.
However, a possessive may be the antecedent of another possessive:
The union's solidarity increased its bargaining power.

Relative clauses beginning with which often lack referents; the pronoun which must refer to a
particular word or at most, a noun phrase; it may not refer to an entire clause. In the following
sentence, therefore, which lacks an antecedent:
English 11 was not offered, which created a hardship for seniors.
Revise this sentence by adding a specific referent, or eliminate the which clause altogether:
English 11 was not offered, a situation which created a hardship for seniors.

English 11 was not offered, thus creating a hardship for seniors.
For more information on the use of relative pronouns such as this and which, see the TIP Sheet
"Relative Pronouns: Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses."
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE
The relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, and that. Relative pronouns introduce
subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive subordinate
clauses, and do not use commas to set off restrictive clauses. The choice of relative pronouns is
determined by the way the pronoun is used and the noun or pronoun to which it refers. Who,
which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
1. Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives.
The man who robbed us was never caught.

The arrow that has left the bow never returns.
In addition to introducing the clause, the relative pronoun, in this case

who, points back to a noun or pronoun that the clause modifies (man). In the second sentence,
that points back to arrow.
Relative pronouns are sometimes "understood."
The things [that] we know best are the things [that] we haven't been taught.
2. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive elements. Do not use commas to set off restrictive
elements.
A restrictive element defines or limits the meaning of the word it modifies and is therefore
essential to the meaning of the sentence. Because it contains essential information, a restrictive
element is not set off with commas.
Restrictive: For camp the children need clothes that are washable.
If you remove a restrictive element from a sentence, the meaning changes significantly,
becoming more general than you intended. The writer of the example sentence does not mean
that the children need clothes in general. The intended meaning is more limited: The children
need washable clothes.
Nonrestrictive: For camp the children need sturdy shoes, which are expensive.
A nonrestrictive element describes a noun or pronoun whose meaning has already been clearly
defined or limited. Because it contains nonessential or parenthetical information, a nonrestrictive
element is set off with commas. If you remove a nonrestrictive element from a sentence, the
meaning does not change significantly. The children need sturdy shoes, and these happen to be
expensive.
3. The choice of that, which, who, or whom is dependent upon the way in which the
pronoun is used within the sentence, as well as the noun or pronoun to which it refers.
In general, use that with restrictive clauses and which with nonrestrictive clauses.
Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to

things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people.
Fans wondered how an old man who (not that or which) walked with a limp could play football.
The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.
Who is used for subjects and subject complements; whom is used for objects.
Who is bringing what for whom?
4. Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
Take a suit that travels well. (A suit... travels well.)

Take clothes that are easy to wash. (Clothes... are easy to wash.)
Sometimes problems occur when one of the and only one of the are used. Generally, one of the is
treated as plural, and only one of the is treated as singular.
Our ability to use language is one of the things that set us apart from animals.
The antecedent of that is things, not one. Several things set us apart from animals, and language
is one of them.
Carmen is the only one of the applicants who has the ability to step into this position.
The antecedent of who is one, not applicants. Only one applicant, Carmen, has the ability to step
into the position.
AVOIDING MODIFIER PROBLEMS
Modifiers are words-adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, clauses-that explain, expand, and
enrich sentences. Misplaced modifiers are modifiers that need to be moved elsewhere in the
sentence to avoid possible confusion. The result of misplaced modifiers can be confusing or
comedic-in fact, comedians take deliberate advantage of them, as in these words of Groucho
Marx:
While hunting in Africa, I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How an elephant got into my
pajamas I'll never know.
A dangling modifier is an orphan-the thing that it is intended to modify does not actually appear
in the sentence at all. Revise sentences containing dangling modifiers.
Misplaced modifiers
Following are four rules of placement that can correct the majority of modifier problems:
1. Simple adjectives precede.

2. Adjective phrases and clauses follow.
3. Adverbs move around.
4. Limiters precede.
1. Simple adjectives precede.

In the following, aromatic modifies tea, fluffy modifies socks, and cold modifies feet:
Mai set a cup of aromatic tea to steep on the counter while she pulled fluffy socks over
her cold feet.
In general, an adjective modifier precedes the noun it modifies. In other words, it is aromatic

tea, not "tea aromatic." Nor is it "...cup of tea to steep aromatic on the counter," or "pulled socks
over her fluffy cold feet." If you are a native speaker of English, you probably knew this
instinctively.
2. Adjective phrases and clauses follow.

We tend to associate phrase modifiers with the nearest preceding noun. The following example
has a comic effect because we read the modifier, with a deep tan, as belonging to the nearest
noun:
Incorrect:
The lifeguard dove into the surf with the deep tan. (The surf with the deep tan?)
Revised:
The lifeguard with the deep tan dove into the surf.
Adjective phrases like this not only follow the nouns they describe (their headwords, as Tod E.
Jones calls them in his online article "Common Problems of English Grammar and
Punctuation"), they must follow very closely to make the proper sense.
Treat adjective clauses similarly. These are word groups that contain both a subject and verb, but
are not complete because they also contain a dependent-making word (that or which, for
example). They explain or otherwise expand on information in the sentence and, like adjective
phrases, should immediately follow their headwords:
Incorrect:
Her sorority sponsored a blood drive to assist the disaster relief effort that they had spent
almost six months planning. (Did the sorority plan the entire disaster relief effort? Or just the
blood drive?)
Revised:
Her sorority sponsored a blood drive that they had spent almost six months planning to assist
the disaster relief effort.
3. Adverbs move around.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. In English, adverbs are allowed to move
around quite a bit in a sentence. In the following example, the adverb quickly modifies the
verb calculated, or the verb graphed, or both - but without causing a great deal of confusion no
matter where it is placed.
Quickly she calculated the slope and graphed the result.
She quickly calculated the slope and graphed the result.

She calculated the slope and quickly graphed the result.
She calculated the slope and graphed the result quickly.
However, misplaced adverbs can cause ambiguity. If this happens, simply move the adverb to
place it next to the headword it is intended to modify.
Incorrect:
Mikail followed the instructions for setting up the computer network carefully. (Followed the
instructions carefully? Or were the instructions to set up the network carefully?)
Revised:
Mikail carefully followed the instructions for setting up the computer network.
Or:
Mikail followed the instructions for carefully setting up the computer network.
Because of the ability of adverbs to float around freely in a sentence, they are sometimes said
to squint. A squinting adverb is one which seems to modify two things at the same time. Like an
optical illusion, a sentence with a squinting adverb seems to mean first one thing and then
another. In the following example the prepositional phrase is modifying a verb or verbal-but
which?
Incorrect:
She agreed after the Rooks' game to meet her friends at Moxie's. (Did she agree to this after the
game? Or did she agree to meet following the game?)
Revised:
She agreed to meet her friends at Moxie's after the Rooks' game.
Or:
After the Rooks' game she agreed to meet her friends at Moxie's.
Adverb clauses express relationships such as time, cause, purpose, and condition, using words
like when, because, in order that, and if. Adverb clauses can move around in a sentence without
much problem. The following adverb clause clearly modifies the verb will erode, whether the
adverb clause is placed first or last:
If the Sacramento River rises fast enough, some farmland will erode along the banks.
Some farmland will erode along the banks if the Sacrament River rises fast enough.
If you think a reader may misunderstand, feel free to move the clause or revise the sentence to
eliminate confusion.
4. Limiters precede.
Limiters are words like only, almost, just, nearly, or hardly. Place these words in front of their
headwords. Consider the difference in meaning in the following two examples:
He does math homework almost every day.
Or:
He almost does math homework every day.
The difference - did you catch it? - is that the first subject does his math, while the second does
not. In the first example, almost modifies every. In the second, almost modifies do. But one
either does math, or doesn't; "almost doing" math is nonsense, unless the intended meaning is
that the second speaker thinks about doing math, and gets ready to do math, but never
actually does math.
Dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers are missing their intended headwords; that is, you cannot point to any word
in the main part of the sentence that the modifier refers to. In the following example, the
underlined modifier refers clearly to rafters:
Staggering with exhaustion after their long day on the river, the sunburned rafters dragged their
boat into the shallows.
But in the next example, the rafters have inexplicably disappeared, and the boat itself is said to
be staggering with exhaustion, which of course is nonsense:
Incorrect:
Staggering with exhaustion after their long day on the river, the boat was dragged into the
shallows.
Dangling modifiers frequently take the shape of -ing, or -ed phrases (gerunds and participles)
and most commonly appear at the beginnings of sentences. (They also frequently involve passive
voice verbs, which are less direct, less vivid, and more ambiguous. See the TIP Sheet Active and
Passive Voice to learn more about this.) To fix a dangling modifier, revise the sentence to
include the proper headword.
Incorrect:
Worried about finding an apartment, dozens of rental applications were filled out. (The dozens
of applications were worried?)
Revised:
Worried about finding an apartment, the two roommates filled out dozens of rental applications.
Less commonly, a dangling modifier occurs near the middle or end of a sentence, but the same
principle applies. Find the modifier, identify the appropriate (missing) headword, and revise the
sentence to clarify it.
Incorrect:
My GPA improved a whole point by using the textbook chapter reviews as a study guide. (My
GPA used the textbook chapter reviews?)
Revised:
I improved my GPA a whole point by using the textbook chapter reviews as a study guide.
Of course, as writers we know what we mean. But as writers with a purpose and an audience, we

must use word order rules that avoid ambiguity as much as possible so that the reader also knows
what we mean.
References
Jones, Tod E. "Common Problems of English Grammar and Punctuation." 26 May
2004. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/6354/grammar.html#Modifiers
TRANSITIONS
The burden of moving smoothly from one thought to another belongs to the writer. When you
write, your reader should never have to go to the trouble of puzzling out hidden connections
between ideas; those connections should be readily apparent. You can help your reader see at a
glance that a certain train of thought is begun, developed, challenged, or completed by using
word signals called transitions.
Good writers combine two transition techniques:
 Using transitional words and phrases (such as however or moreover) to make

connections
 Using placement of ideas to make connections (especially in longer papers)
Transitional words and phrases

Transitions are words or phrases (furthermore, for example, nevertheless, indeed) that indicate
how a statement in one sentence relates to a statement that precedes or follows. In the following
example, the underlined transitions signal contrast:
In the winter of 1973-74 drivers lined up all over America to fill their gas tanks. But it was not
merely a question of a fifteen-minute wait and back on the road again. On the contrary, cars
often began to congregate at dawn.
Transition words are most effective when they are placed at the beginnings of sentences
(although they can also be used in the middle or at the end). The transition below signals a shift
to similarity:
Similarly, walkers appeared early on frigid mornings with an empty five-gallon can in one hand
and a pint of steaming coffee in the other, determined to wait out the chill and avoid
disappointment.
The next passage uses a cause-and-effect transition:
Everybody had to wait. As a result, high-school kids took Saturday morning jobs as gas line
sitters; spouses drove their mates to work and spent the rest of the day in line, and libraries had
a surge of activity as people decided to catch up on their reading while waiting.
In the final passage, this writer signals that she is summing up and concluding:
All in all, Americans were at their best during that bizarre season, abiding by the new rules as if
a place in the gas line had been guaranteed to everyone by the Bill of Rights.
In the lists below you will find that some transitions can do double duty, signaling, for instance,
either addition or amplification, depending on the context:
To add a thought or to show sequence in your own writing, use the following transitions:
again equally important in the first place still

also finally last then
and first moreover
and then furthermore next
besides in addition second
To amplify or intensify:
and also furthermore moreover

again further in addition too
after all even indeed truly
interestingly it is true of course
To show insistence:
indeed in fact yes no

To compare or show likeness:
also in the same way likewise similarly

To show concession:
granted it is true of course to be sure
To show contrast:
although despite however notwithstanding still

and yet even so in contrast on the contrary though
at the
even on the other
same in spite of whereas
though hand
time
for all
but nevertheless regardless yet
that
To give examples:
an illustration of for instance specifically

for example in fact to illustrate
To show a restatement:
that is in other words in simpler terms to put it differently
To show cause and effect or consequence:
accordingl to this
consequently otherwise therefore
y end
for this
as a result since thereupon thus
purpose
with this
because hence then this
object
To show time or place:
formerl
above below near(by) subsequently
y
adjacent
earlier here opposite to there
to
afterward elsewhere hitherto simultaneousl this time
y
at the
same farther on later so far until now
time
To repeat, summarize, or conclude:
in in
all in all in brief therefore
particular summary
in on the to put it
altogether in short
conclusion whole differently
as has been in other in simpler to
that is
said words terms summarize
Placement of ideas
Another strategy is to place older, previously stated ideas first, followed by newer, just-
introduced ideas. This is effective in essay and research papers (generally in pieces longer than a
single paragraph).
In the following example, the second paragraph recaps the information contained in the first
paragraph before going on to introduce a new idea:
Interestingly, in A Canticle for Leibowitz it is institutional religion itself that leads the struggle
against ignorance and superstition. The brothers of the Albertian Order of St. Leibowitz live
their lives-and sometimes lay those lives down-for the preservation of those fragments of written
human knowledge that have survived both the nuclear holocaust and the Great Simplification.
While for generations the church alone values these relics of knowledge, it is also, ironically, the
church alone that recognizes (as the new generation of scholar-scientists does not) that
knowledge will not redeem man, or make him better, or make him wiser. The secular scholar
Thon Taddeo sees the monks as lacking understanding of that which they preserve and himself
as a seeker after understanding; nevertheless, it is Abbott Paulo, not Taddeo, who points out that
there is no conflict between true religion and Taddeo's "refrangible property of light." In other
words, it is the church that most clearly understands both the value and the proper limits of
human knowledge.
The above example combines this placement technique with transitions of emphasis, time,
addition, contrast, and restatement; you, too, may use every trick in the book to lead your reader
along the path of your thought.
WOULD, SHOULD, COULD
Would, should and could are three auxiliary verbs that can be defined as past tenses
of will, shall, and can; however, you may learn more from seeing sentences using these
auxiliaries than from definitions. Examples of usage follow.
Would
Technically, would is the past tense of will, but it is an auxiliary verb that has many uses, some
of which even express the present tense. It can be used in the following ways:
 To ask questions:
Would you like some coleslaw? = Do you want some coleslaw?
Would you turn in your assignment now? = Please turn in your assignment now.
 With who, what, when, where, why, how:
How would the neighbors react?
What would you do if I sang out of tune?
In the two sentences above, would means about the same thing as will.
 To make polite requests:

I would like more coleslaw, please. = I want more coleslaw, please.
I would like you to sit down now. = I want you to sit down now.
 To show a different response if the past had been different:
I would have helped you if I had known you were stranded.
(I didn't know that you were stranded. This "not knowing" occurred before my not helping you.)
John would've missed the trail if Mary hadn't waited for him at the stream.
(First Mary waited for him. If her response had been to not wait, then next John would have been
on the wrong trail.)
 To tone down strong, controversial statements-not recommended in formal essays:

I would have to say that you're acting a bit immature.
Here would has a similar meaning to do but less emphatic.
 To explain an outcome to a hypothetical situation:

Should I win a million dollars, I would fix up my house.
Think of should as if, and would as will.
 To show habitual past action:

Helen would sob whenever John would leave home.
Think of would as did.
 To show repetitive past action:

For a moment the plane would be airborne, then it would bump back down along the hard earth.
(The plane was in the air and then back on the ground several times.)
 To show preference between two choices, used with rather or sooner:

I would sooner die than face them. = I prefer death in place of facing them.
I would rather handwrite than type. = I prefer handwriting instead in typing.
However, the second choice may by implied but not stated:
I would rather die.

Implied is that I would rather die than...do whatever it is that the context has provided as an
alternative to dying.
 To show wish or desire:

Those people would allow gambling. = Those people want to allow gambling.
Would it were so. = I wish it were so. (Infrequently used)
We wish that he would go. = We want him to go.
 To show intention or plan:

She said she would come. = She said she was planning to come.
 To show choice:
I would put off the test if I could.
This means my choice is to delay taking the test, but I do not have the ability to delay taking it.
 To express doubt:
The answer would seem to be correct. = The answer is probably correct.
 To show future likelihoods relative to past action:

He calculated that he would get to the camp around 6 p.m. The men would have dinner ready for
him.
The first sentence means he believed his camp arrival time was going to be about 6:00 p.m. The
"calculating" (or believing) happened in the past, yet the arrival is going to occur later. The
second sentence predicts that, at that future time, dinner will be ready for him.
 Strange but true: Notice how changing have to had can change the way would works:

Would you had changed your mind. = I wish you had changed your mind.
Would you have changed your mind. = If circumstances had been different, is it possible that
you might have changed your mind?
Should
Technically, should is the past tense of shall, but it is an auxiliary verb with a few uses, not all of
which are in the past tense, namely, the following:
Should you have erased the disk? = Were you supposed to have erased it?
Should I turn in my assignment now? = Am I supposed to turn in my assignment now?
Here, should means about the same thing as ought.
 To show obligation:
You should floss and brush your teeth after every meal.
Think of should as supposed to, as in the previous example, but here to make a persuasive
statement.
 To show a possible future event:

If I should find your coat, I will be sure to call you.
Think of should as do; furthermore, should could be left out of the above sentence, leaving, "If I
find your coat, I will be sure to call you." Alternately, if could be left out of the sentence:
"Should I find your coat, I will be sure to call you."
 To express a hypothetical situation:

Should you wish to do so, you may have hot tea and biscuits. = If you wish to do so, you may
have hot tea and biscuits.
 To express what is likely:
With an early start, they should be here by noon.
Think of should as ought to or probably will.
 To politely express a request or direct statement:

I should like to go home now. = I want to go home now.
I should think that a healthy forest program is essential to any presidential victory.= I think that
a healthy forest program is essential to any presidential victory.
Could
Technically, could is the past tense of can, but it is an auxiliary verb with a few uses, not all of
which are in the past tense, namely the following:
 As the past tense of can:

In those days, all the people could build houses. = In those days, all the people had the ability to
build houses.
Could you have erased the disk? = Is it possible that you erased the disk?
Could I leave now? = May I leave now; am I allowed to leave now?
 To show possibility:
You could study harder than you do. = You have the potential to study harder than you do.
He knew the sunset could be spectacular. = He knew that the sunset was sometimes spectacular.
 To express tentativeness or politeness:

I could be wrong. = I may be wrong.
Could you come over here, please? = Please come here.
In conclusion, you could use these three auxiliaries if you would, and you should! Write a
sample sentence for each possible usage of could, would, and should; then ask any
Reading/Writing or English tutor for further assistance.
ACHIEVING PARALLELISM
Effective writing requires a certain amount of variety. You vary word choice, for example, as
well as sentence length and structure. But effective writing is also patterned.
Parallelism is the way that we pattern writing so that similar elements in a sentence are
grammatically equivalent. That is, if there are two or more subjects, they are all nouns or noun
phrases. If there are two or more verbs, they are all of the same form. If there are two
prepositional phrases, they are similar in form (with no verbs snuck in to transform one of them
into a clause).
Achieving parallelism smoothes out writing and increases its impact. For example, without their
subject-verb pattern, these words by Confucius would not have nearly the impact they do:
"I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand."
What he means, of course, is "We learn best by doing." But there would be nothing particularly
memorable about saying so!
Parallelism is so important to the smooth flow of ideas that comedians sometimes deliberately
violate the rules of parallelism in order to make us laugh. Compare the elegance of Confucius's
parallel expression above to Dave Barry's unexpectedly non-parallel statement below:
"Skiing combines outdoor fun with knocking down trees with your face."
If we wanted to make this expression properly parallel, the two elements that follow "Skiing
combines" should be grammatically equivalent: "Skiing combines outdoor fun [adjective-noun]
with physical danger [adjective-noun]." (But you wouldn't have smiled.)
Unless you are writing comedy, then, follow these rules:

 In any compound composition using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or,
so, yet), such as sentences with compound subjects, compound verbs, compound
adjectives, compound prepositional phrases, or compound clauses, parallel structure is
required. (Note: It is not necessary to make the two parts of a
compound sentence parallel, even if they are joined by coordinating conjunctions.)
 In any correlative composition using correlative pairs (not only...but also, either...or,
neither...nor, both...and) parallel structure is required.
 In any series, list, or outline parallel structure is required.
Coordination
Coordinating conjunctions must connect like-patterned things. This sentence uses parallel
compound subjects:
High temperature [adjective-noun] and low humidity [adjective-noun] are typical of summers in

Chico.
This parallel structure is better than, for example, "High temperatures and the lowness of the
humidity are typical of summers in Chico."
The following example joins parallel compound verb forms:
We hiked along the creek to Bear Hole, where we gratefully dropped [past tense verb] our
daypacks, shed [past tense verb] our clothes, and plunged [past tense verb] into the water.
If we had not taken care to construct parallel verbs, we might have said, "We hiked along the
creek to Bear Hole, where we gratefully dropped our daypacks, were shedding our clothes, and
plunged into the water."
The following sentence uses parallel prepositional phrases, parallel verbs, and parallel direct
objects:
Along the Maidu Trail [prepositional phrase] and around Horseshoe Lake, [prepositional

phrase] people were walking [progressive verb] or running [progressive
verb] their retrievers [noun] and Labradors [noun].
A non-parallel expression is clumsier: "Along the Maidu Trail people were walking or ran their
dogs, which were mostly labs and retrievers, and around Horseshoe Lake we saw them, too."
This example uses parallel infinitives (to + verb, functioning as a noun):
In the summer we love to swim [infinitive/noun] at Five Mile and to hike [infinitive/noun] in

Upper Bidwell Park.
(It would be just as correct to eliminate the second "to" as long as the roots of the infinitives were
similar: "In the summer we love to swim at Five Mile and hike in Upper Bidwell Park.")
The following sentence uses parallel gerunds (-ing words functioning as nouns) as subjects:
Swimming [gerund/noun], hiking [gerund/noun], and stargazing [gerund/noun] are great ways to

pass summer evenings in Chico.
Gerunds should not be combined with infinitives in sentences requiring parallel structure:

"Swimming, hiking, and to stargaze are great ways to pass summer evenings in Chico."
Correlation
In correlative pairs (either...or, not only...but also, neither...nor, both...and) whatever
grammatical element follows the first part must follow the second as well.
We could either leave [present tense verb] at dusk or wait [present tense verb] until the

planetarium opened.
The sound of the coyotes yammering in the distance was not only very haunting [adverb-
adjective] but also somehow comforting [adverb-adjective].
A non-parallel version might be, "The sound of the coyotes yammering in the distance was not
only rather haunting but also comforted us in some strange way."
Other connecting words similar to correlative pairs benefit from and sometimes require parallel
structure. Use parallel structure when comparing (more than, less than) or contrasting (rather
[this] than [that], instead of), and in expressions such as "from [this] to [that]"
Even more than lunch [noun], I would like a cold drink [noun].
A non-parallel version is clumsier (though not technically incorrect): "Even more than lunch, I

would like to get something to drink."
They decided that they would rather tour [present tense verb] the brewery than visit [present
tense verb] the art glass factory.
Here is a version using non-parallel verbs following "rather...than": "They decided that they

would rather tour the brewery than be visiting the art glass factory."
Another characteristic of parallel expression in correlative pairs is that the two parts of the
expression are developed similarly; that is, each part contains approximately the same amount of
detail:
I prefer dancing [noun] to drinking [noun].

The parallel nouns in this example are both gerunds. We could have said, "I prefer dancing to
a bunch of drunks who can't balance even on two legs." The point is rather the same, but the
nouns are of different types and the two halves of the expression are unevenly developed: the
second half is developed with more enthusiasm than the first half.
Series, lists, and outlines

In sentences, items in a series need to be parallel in form:
I'm registered for economics, drafting, and Spanish [parallel nouns].
Compare to this: "I'm registered for economics, to learn drafting, and practicing Spanish." This
incorrect, non-parallel version combines a prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, and a
gerund.
The following sentence contains a single subject and compound parallel verbs:
The tutors can explain the assignment, help you locate background material, and give you tips
for citing your sources [parallel verb forms].
The verbs are parallel in form and share the single subject, tutors. Compare this with the
following: "The tutors can explain the assignment, help you locate background material, and
you learn valuable tips for citing your sources." Even though the third verb looks similar,
sticking in a second subject (you) breaks the pattern.
Series items are not necessarily verbs or nouns. The following example uses a series of parallel
modifiers:
Marketing should consider whether the plan is feasible, impractical, or impossible [parallel

adjectives].
The above example is easy to understand compared to this: "Marketing should consider the
feasibility of the plan, as well as whether it is impractical or if we should simply consider it
impossible."
Items in lists require parallel form, whether they occur in a sentence following a colon or in a
bulleted list (frequently used by business writers):
Be sure you bring all the essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent, water, snacks, fire

starter, whistle, emergency shelter, first aid kit, and extra clothing [parallel nouns].
In the following non-parallel form, extra verbs break the pattern (and, worse, create comma
splices): "Be sure you bring all the essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent is important, water,
snacks, fire starter is useful, especially the newer magnesium ones, whistle, emergency shelter,
first aid kit, and you never know when you'll need a change of clothing."
Bulleted lists should always begin with parallel forms.
College outreach representatives should be able to perform these tasks:
 Identify the special needs of the at-risk high school population

 Formulate a plan that addresses those needs
 Communicate the plan effectively to high school counselors [parallel
verb phrases]

The bullets can be written as parallel verb or noun phrases, prepositional phrases, or even
complete sentences. (Write the introductory sentence so that it logically and grammatically leads
into whatever list follows. For example, the sentence "College outreach representatives should
have these characteristics:" could not logically introduce the above example, since the list is not
one of personal characteristics.)
The headings of formal outlines (that is, outlines that are to be turned in as part of an assignment
rather than used for personal reference and study) require parallel form:
I. Things to do in Bidwell Park [noun phrase
A. Swim in Big Chico Creek [verb phrase]
1. The water can be cold early in the summer.

2. Some of the swimming holes can be dangerous.
3. Sycamore Pool has lifeguards in the summer. [full sentences]
B. Hike in Upper Park [verb phrase]
1. Early morning is a cooler time.

2. There is very little shade most of the way.
3. The views are spectacular. [full sentences]
II. Things to do in downtown Chico [noun phrase]
Notice that the corresponding levels of the outline are parallel with each other, although not
every level is parallel to every other level. The main headings I and II are noun phrases.
Headings A and B are verb phrases; heading C would also have been a verb phrase. On the other
hand, the details 1, 2, and 3 are all complete sentences. You may use phrases or sentences at any
level, as long as you keep corresponding items in each level parallel in structure.
Strategies
To achieve parallelism, try skimming your papers for coordinating conjunctions such
as and and or. Check the sentence elements on both sides of the conjunction to see if they are
parallel in form. If they are not, revise those sentences to achieve parallel structure. If you are
unsure whether the elements are parallel (you might discover you need a brush-up on basic parts
of speech, for example), underline them. Ask your instructor or bring them to a tutor for help.
(For more on parts of speech, see the TIP Sheet The Eight Parts of Speech.)
If you have a visual learning preference, try writing the sentence parts requiring parallel structure
in columns. Check to see if the elements are parallel. (Once you have taken the words out of their
context, though, avoid mistaking things like gerunds, swimming, for verbs, were swimming).
If you have a preference for auditory learning, try reading aloud, listening for patterns of sound.
This may help you find awkward places that reveal lack of parallel structure. (Reading aloud is a
useful proofreading technique anyway, since it forces you to slow down.) For practice in
discerning the rhythms parallelism creates, try reading aloud some of the examples below.
Impact
Speechwriters and orators know the impact of parallel expression. For example, American
abolitionist Frederick Douglass said this in 1886:
"Where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where ignorance prevails, and where any
one class is made to feel that society is in an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob, and degrade
them, neither persons nor property will be safe."
British statesman Winston Churchill said this:
"The empires of the future are the empires of the mind."
It just does not have the same impact to say, "The empires of the future will be mental"! In fact,
Churchill had a positive genius for parallelism:
"We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on
the seas and oceans. We shall fight with growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island,
whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds.
We shall fight in the fields and in the streets. We shall fight in the hills. We shall never
surrender."
American author Henry David Thoreau, Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu, American civil rights
activist Martin Luther King Jr., Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, former Costa Rican president Oscar
Arias Sanchez-almost any quotation search will turn up dozens of examples of masterful use of
parallel language.
You may not aspire to change the course of history; you may just want to improve this semester's
English grade. Achieving parallelism is sometimes more art than science, but with practice, you
can achieve a degree of parallelism that will smooth out your writing at the very least, or-who
knows?-change the world.
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or noun
equivalents and are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to indicate
that the identity of the noun is known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a
noun that is general or when its identity is not known. There are certain situations in which a
noun takes no article.
As a guide, the following definitions and table summarize the basic use of articles. Continue
reading for a more detailed explanation of the rules and for examples of how and when to apply
them.
Definite article
the (before a singular or plural noun)
Indefinite article
a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)

an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural
Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular
COUNT NON-COUNT
NOUNS NOUNS
Rule #1 a, an (no article)

Specific identity not
known
Rule #2 the the
Specific identity
known
Rule #3 (no article) (no article)

All things or things in
general
For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is important to know that nouns can
be either count (can be counted) or noncount (indefinite in quantity and cannot be counted). In
addition, count nouns are either singular (one) or plural (more than one). Noncount nouns are
always in singular form.
For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled on the table, there can be one drop
(singular) or two or more drops (plural) of water on the table. The word drop in this example is
a count noun because we can count the number of drops. Therefore, according to the rules
applying to count nouns, the word drop would use the articles a or the.
However, if we are speaking of water in general spilled on the table, it would not be appropriate
to count one water or two waters -- there would simply be water on the table. Water is
a noncount noun. Therefore, according to the rules applying to noncount nouns, the
word water would use no article or the, but not a.
Following are the three specific rules which explain the use of definite and indefinite articles.
Rule #1 - Specific identity not known: Use the indefinite article a or an only with a singular
count noun whose specific identity is not known to the reader. Use a before nouns that
begin with a consonant sound, and use an before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
 Use the article a or an to indicate any non-specified member of a group or category.

I think an animal is in the garage
That man is a scoundrel.
We are looking for an apartment.
 Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to more than one).
I own a cat and two dogs.
 Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a vowel sound.

a boy, an apple
◊ Sometimes an adjective comes between the article and noun:

an unhappy boy, a red apple
 The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an unspecified, limited

amount (but more than one).
an apple, some apples
Rule #2 - Specific identity known: Use the definite article the with any noun (whether
singular or plural, count or noncount) when the specific identity of the noun is known to
the reader, as in the following situations:
 Use the article the when a particular noun has already been mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.
 Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing the noun clarifies or
restricts its identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.
Thank you for the advice you gave me.
 Use the article the when the noun refers to something or someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity
the 2003 federal budget
Rule #3 - All things or things in general: Use no article with plural count nouns or any
noncount nouns used to mean all or in general.
Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)
Additional Information Regarding the Use of Articles
 When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of a count or noncount noun,

use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in general or advice about
everything, but a limited amount of advice).
I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited amount of coffee).
We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a certain amount of rain, as
opposed to rain in general).
There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more than one drop).
 Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted. Following are some
common examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy,
cauliflower, celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice
cream, lettuce, meat, milk, oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt
◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic,
rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun,

happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction,
truth, wealth
◊ Areas of study: history, math, biology, etc.
◊ Sports: soccer, football, baseball, hockey, etc.
◊ Languages: Chinese, Spanish, Russian, English, etc.
◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mail,
money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
 Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals,
rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands
the Gobi Desert

the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians
◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays,
single lakes, single mountains, islands
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay
Examples of the Use of Articles

I do not want a gun in my house (any gun).
The gun is in his closet (implies there is a specific gun).
I am afraid of guns (all guns in general).
She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter, not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).
I have a dog (one dog).
The dog is very friendly (the dog that I have already mentioned).
Dogs make great pets (dogs in general).
Greta needs furniture in her apartment (furniture is a noncount noun).

She is going to select the furniture that she needs (the specific furniture that she needs).
She hopes to find some furniture this weekend (an unspecified, limited amount of furniture).
We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of Liberty).

TWO-WORD (PHRASAL) VERBS
Verbs can be single words or can have "helpers" such as has, have, had, is, am, was, or were.
Verbs can be accompanied by modals such as could, would, might, or may. As if that were not
confusing enough, there exists another kind of verb, phrasal verbs, which look like verbs with
prepositions (or adverbs) attached: hand in, break up, fill out, run into. Some are three
words: come up with, check up on.
You probably have run into many verbs like these without experiencing any discomfort. You
might never even need to know that phrasal verbs exist. However, if you have learned to identify
the subject and verb of a sentence by crossing out all the prepositional phrases (up the stairs, out
the door), then phrasal verbs may be problematic. For instance, in the phrasal verb come up with,
is with a preposition? Then where is the object of the preposition? Or is it part of the verb?
Take, for example, this sentence: "You have run into verbs like these." It would be easy to make
the mistake of calling the verb run, and identifying into verbs as a prepositional phrase. In fact,
the verb is run into, meaning encountered; verbs is a direct object: what you encountered. You
have not run. You have encountered.
Phrasals can look like a verb + preposition (look into), or a verb + adverb (get away), or a verb +
adverb + preposition (get away from). An Internet search turns up exhaustive discussions of
phrasals (they are separable, inseparable, transitive, intransitive) and word order related to
phrasals, but in general, phrasal verbs have the following general characteristics:
 They are informal; usually there exists another, more "proper" word with the same or
similar meaning.
 They are idiomatic; that is, you cannot easily make out the meaning of the verb by
adding up the meanings of its parts.
 They are, nevertheless, often sensible, even if not obvious; phrasals do make a certain
amount of sense, depending on how you understand the particle, or preposition-like
attachment.
Informal
Phrasal verbs are informal, though perfectly acceptable in most academic papers. However, some
phrasal verbs contain "filler" words that do not add meaning (keep on going means the same
thing as keep going, for example; fell off of means the same as fell off). Some are vague or
somewhat cliché. In order to attain vivid writing, you will sometimes want to substitute other,
stronger verbs.
For example, here are some phrasal verbs and possible substitutes:

Phrasal verb Substitution
Hand in Submit
Check out Examine or borrow
Look up to Admire
Some phrasal verbs are difficult to replace. It's hard to think of a better way, for example, to say,
"I had to look up the word in the dictionary." And if you happen to be writing dialogue, the
informality of phrasals may be more authentic than stuffier language.
There are a great many phrasal verbs, far too many to list or memorize. For lists of phrasal verbs
with their corresponding meanings, try searching the Internet using the keyword "phrasal verbs."
Idiomatic
Phrasal verbs are idiomatic. For example, even if you know the meanings of blow and up, you
cannot add them together to arrive obviously at the intended meaning of blow up, which means
explode or erupt with force. Blow + up might just as easily refer to a gentle updraft of wind.
Because they are idiomatic, phrasals and their meanings might vary depending on where the
speaker lives. This TIP Sheet uses meanings commonly understood in the United States,
specifically in California, and even more specifically in a rural area of Northern California.
Speakers of British English or even speakers from other regions of the U.S. might understand
some of these expressions differently. For example, while an American might call you up on
your cell phone, a Brit would ring you up to tell you he needed to kip down (stay temporarily, the
American equivalent of crash) in your apartment. In the southern U.S., one might scoot down
the car; in California one would hose it down with water.
The website Phrasal Verb Demon offers a great discussion of phrasals. At the same time, it
illustrates the idiomatic nature of phrasals, giving definitions as they are commonly understood
in Great Britian; some of these may be new to U.S. readers (whose computers, for example,
usually freeze up, while British computers pack up.)
Sensible
Even though they are idiomatic, many phrasals do make a certain amount of sense, depending on
how you understand the particle, or preposition-like attachment. A single preposition/particle
can carry any of a multitude of meanings, and the meaning of a phrasal verb like blow
up depends largely on which meaning of up you choose. For example, up can refer to increase
(freshen up = increasing freshness); to movement (boil up = move about in a chaotic way);
or being out of bed (get up, stay up = getting or staying out of bed).
For example, in the case of blow up, you might understand up as relating either to increase (as a
fireball increases, perhaps), or to movement (for chaotic movement of air and debris).
(Up in blow up, on the other hand, has nothing whatever to do with staying out of bed.)
It is largely the particle that changes the meaning of a phrasal verb. For example, the
word break usually means a sudden stopping, bursting, or loss of function. On the other hand, the
website Phrasal Verb Demon lists seven different senses of the word up, nine different senses
of out, and ten of down. Break up is a phrasal verb meaning to end a personal relationship (up =
completion). Break down means to stop functioning (down = failure), and break out means to
happen suddenly (out = appearance).
Phrasals frequently are figurative; there is often an underlying metaphor that can help you make
sense of them. In the case of blow up, the metaphor compares the movement of air created by an
explosion to the movement of boiling water in a kettle. In addition, blow up is frequently itself
used in a figurative sense, as in, "The issue of the councilman's overspending blew up once the
newspapers ran the story." Here, the sudden public revelation and subsequent discussion of the
councilman's overspending is compared to an explosion.

Parts of Speech

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Parts of Speech

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PARTS OF SPEECH

 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

 A verb expresses action or being.

 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,

 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

The man / builds a house.

The man builds a house.

The man builds it.

The man builds his family a house.

The man builds them a house.

The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)

The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)

A sentence is a group of words that contains three things:

 A subject (that makes sense with the verb

I was running late that day.

Phrases which include words ending in -ing often appear as fragments:

Mitchell went biking and swimming after work on Thursday.

Stan hopes to register for class before the deadline.

Caroline will be studying her sociology tonight at Moxie's downtown.

Example of a run-on sentence:

The flowers are beautiful they brighten the room. (Incorrect)

Example of a comma splice:

The flowers are beautiful, they brighten the room. (Incorrect)

The flowers are beautiful. They brighten the room.

A simple sentence is made up of only one independent

Subject Predicate Sentence

When looking at the structure of an independent clause, it is helpful to think of all elements of

Look at the following example of a run-on sentence:

The kind man studied hard his wife read a book. (Incorrect)

First independent clause Second independent clause

3. The two clauses can be joined by a semicolon.

First independent Second

The kind man studied hard, his wife read a book. (Incorrect)

A comma alone between two independent clauses creates an incorrect comma splice.

Summary (Including Related Grammar Rules)

1. An independent clause contains one subject/predicate pair and expresses a complete thought.

Music makes my life worth living.

Music makes my life worth living.

Incorrect: My favorite band is in town they are performing now.

Incorrect: I love classical music, it makes me feel joyful.

6. A comma plus a coordinating conjunction can connect independent clauses correctly. There

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

I always think of summer whenever they play that song.

8. A subordinating conjunction connects a dependent clause to an independent clause. The

Every sentence is one of the following types.

The simple sentence

Justin dropped his Agricultural Economics class.

The compound sentence

The complex sentence

I am planning to drop Agricultural Economics.

Have you taken any Agricultural Engineering classes?

Hand in your homework assignments, please.

Stop. Drop. Roll.

Watch out for the rattlesnake!

Independent clauses are strong