Chapter: 1

Topic: Grammatical Issues

What are Parts of Speech?
The parts of speech explain how a word is used in a sentence.
There are eight main parts of speech (also known as word classes): nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
Most parts of speech can be divided into sub-classes. Prepositions can be divided into
prepositions of time, prepositions of place etc. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns, common
nouns, concrete nouns etc.
It is important to know that a word can sometimes be in more than one part of speech. For
example with the word increase.
THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more
than one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article (the, a,
an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do not. Nouns
can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by adding 's. Nouns can
function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object,
indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.
2. PRONOUN
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is
the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or
things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize
another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative
pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.
3. VERB
 A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing."Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different
forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.
4. ADJECTIVE
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.
5. ADVERB
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.
6. PREPOSITION
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase
modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.
7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.
8. INTERJECTION
  An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
1. What is Sentence Structure?
A sentence’s “structure” is the way its words are arranged.
In English, we have four main sentence structures: the simple sentence, the compound
sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-complex sentence. Each uses a specific
combination of independent and dependent clauses to help make sure that our sentences are
strong, informational, and most importantly, that they make sense!

2. Examples of Sentence Structures

In the examples, independent clauses are green, dependent clauses are purple, and conjunctions
are orange. Here are examples of each type of sentence:
1. The dog ran. Simple Sentence
2. The dog ran and he ate popcorn. Compound sentence
3. After the dog ran, he ate popcorn. Complex sentence
4. After the dog ran, he ate popcorn and he drank a big soda. Compound-complex sentence

3. Parts of Sentence Structures

All forms of sentence structures have clauses (independent, dependent, or both), and some also
have conjunctions to help join two or more clauses or whole sentences.
a. Independent Clause
Independent clauses are key parts of every sentence structure. An independent clause has a
subject and a predicate and makes sense on its own as a complete sentence. Here are a few:
 The dog ate brownies.
 The dog jumped high.
 She ate waffles.
 He went to the library.
So, you can see that all of the clauses above are working sentences. What’s more, all sentences
have an independent clause!

b. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

A dependent clause is a major part of three of the four sentence structures (compound, complex,
and compound-complex). It has a subject and a predicate; BUT, it can’t be a sentence. It
provides extra details about the independent clause, and it doesn’t make sense on its own, like
these:
 After he went to the party
 Though he ate hotdogs
 While he was at the dance
 If the dog eats chocolate
Each of the bullets above leaves an unanswered question. By itself, a dependent clause is just a
fragment sentence (an incomplete sentence). So, it needs to be combined with an independent
clause to be a sentence.
c. Conjunction
A conjunction is a word in a sentence that connects other words, phrases and clauses.
Conjunctions are a big part of compound, complex, and compound
compound-complex
complex sentences. The most
common conjunction that you know is “and.” Others are for, but, or, yet, and so. Conjunctions
are important because they let us combine information, but still keep ideas separate so that they
are easy to understand.
Here are two sentences, with and without conjunctions:
Incorrect: The girl ran to the ice cream truck then she ate ice cream.
Correct: The girl ran to the ice cream truck, and then she ate ice cream.
So, you can see that we need a conjunction for the sentence to be clear!
It is important to know that the word “then” is NOT a conjunction—it’s it’s an adverb.

4. Types of Sentence Structures

As mentioned, there are four main types of sentence structures: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex.
complex. To begin, here is a simple chart that outlines the patterns of each type.

a. Simple sentence
A simple sentence has only one subject and on one predicate—one
one independent clause. In fact, an
independent clause itself is a simple sentence. Here are some examples:
 She jumped.
 The cheetah ran.
 He ran to the gas station.
 He ate dinner.
Simple sentences don’t have many details and they don’t really ccombine
ombine multiple ideas—they
ideas
are simple!

b. Compound sentence
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. It uses a conjunction like “and” to
connect the ideas. Here are some examples:
  The dog ate pizza but the cat drank apple juice.
 The dog ate pizza but the cat drank apple juice and the fish had eggs.
As you can see, a compound sentence allows us to share a lot of information by combining two
or more complete thoughts into one sentence.

c. Complex sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. It
sometimes uses conjunctions and other words to combine all of the clauses together.
 When he was on the airplane, the man bought cookies.
 When he was on the airplane, the man bought cookies, but not brownies.
A great way to make a sentence more detailed is by adding dependent clauses (which couldn’t be
sentences on their own). So, complex sentences let us add information to simple sentences.

d. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause—so, it uses conjunction(s) to combine two complete sentences and at least one
incomplete sentence. Here is an example:
The girl smelled cookies, which were baking at home, so, she ran all the way there.
The result of combining the three clauses and the conjunction is a compound-complex sentence
that is both informational and easy to understand. The independent clauses give the main
information, and the dependent clause(s) give the details.
What Is a Phrase? (with Examples)
A phrase is a group of words that stand together as a single unit, typically as part of a clause or a
sentence.

A phrase does not contain a subject and verb and, consequently, cannot convey a complete thought. A
phrase contrasts with a clause. A clause does contain a subject and verb, and it can convey a complete
idea.
Here Are Some Examples of Phrases
Here are some examples of phrases in a well-known quote by Shirley Temple:
 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department store,
and he asked for my autograph. (Shirley Temple)
(This phrase acts like a noun. It is the direct object of the verb stopped. This phrase is a gerund
phrase.)
 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department store,
and he asked for my autograph.
(This phrase acts like a noun. It is the subject of the adverbial clausewhen my mother took me to
see him in a department store.)
 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department store,
and he asked for my autograph.
(This phrase acts like a noun. It is the object of the prepositionfor.)
 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department store,
and he asked for my autograph.
(This phrase acts like an adverb. It tells us where the activity took place. It is an adverb of place.)

What is the clause?

A clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite verb. A clause contains
only one subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must
be apparent and distinguishable.
A clause “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence. ” – Merriam-Webster
Example:
 I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
 When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
 When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)
Types of Clause
Clauses are mainly of two types:
1. Independent Clause
An independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like
a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or,
nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
 He is a wise man.
 I like him.
 Can you do it?
 Do it please. (Subjectyou is hidden)
 I read the whole story.
 I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
 He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the
Lords” is an independent clause.)
 Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)
2. Dependent Clause
A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished.
It is also called subordinate clause. Dependent clauses help the independent clauses complete the
sentence. A dependent clause alone cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete
the sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators
include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
 When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
 I know the man who stole the watch.
 He bought a car which was too expensive.
 I know that he cannot do it.
 He does not know where he was born.
 If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
 He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
What is article?
An article is a word used before a noun that indicates whether or not the reference is to a specific
entity or entities or an unspecific one.
There are only three articles, a, an and the. A andan, the indefinite articles, are used to refer to a
single and unspecified entity. A is used with nouns that start with a consonant sound, as in a
battery, while an is used with words that start with a vowel sound, as in an iPad.

What is Tense?
Tenses play a crucial role in the English language. It denotes the time an action takes place,
whether sometime in the past, in the present or will take some time in the future.

From a general view of tenses, this module will go on to discuss each tense in detail with
examples and also New way to learn Tense with Examples and Exercises. The table below gives
a glimpse of the way tenses are used using the verb 'play'.
12 Types of Tenses
PAST TENSE
1) Simple Past Tense-
Indicates an action took place before the present moment and that has no real connection with the
present time.
For example, "He danced in the function." (The action took place in the past, is finished and is
completely unrelated to the present)
"He flew to London yesterday."
Note
a. The verb 'flew' is an irregular verb which does not take 'ed' in the past tense like regular verbs.
b. The form of Simple Past Tense is - verb + ed
2) Past Perfect Tense-
Indicates an action in the past that had been completed before another time or event in the past.
For example, "He had exercised before it started to rain."
"He had slept before I came back from the market."
Note
a. The form of Past Perfect Tense is- had + verb (past participle form or the 3rd form of the
verb)
3) Past Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action going on at some time in the past or an action in the past that is longer in
duration than another action in the past.
For example, "It was getting darker."
"The light went out while theywere reading."
Note
a. The form of Past Continuous Tense is- was/were + verb + ing

4) Past Perfect Continuous Tense-

Indicates an action in the past that took place before another time or event in the past and
continued during the second event/time point in the past.
For example, "At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months."
"He had been exercising when I called."
Note
a. The form of Past Perfect Continuous Tense is- had + been + verb + ing
PRESENT TENSE
1) Simple Present Tense-
Indicates an action that is generally true or habitual. That is, it took place in the past , continue to
take place in the present, and will take place in the future. This tense is used to denote
-a habitual action- for instance, "He walk to school."
-general truths- for instance, "The sun rises in the east", "Honesty is the best policy."
-a future event that is part of a fixed timetable- for instance, "The match starts at 9 o' clock."
Note
a. The form of Simple Present Tense is- verb (infinitive without 'to' and agreeable with the
subject)
2) Present Perfect Tense-
Indicates an action that has been completed sometime before the present moment, with a result
that affects the present situation.
For example, "He has finished the work."
"He has slept."
Note
a. The form of Present Perfect Tense is- has/have + verb (past participle form or 3rd form of the
verb)
3) Present Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action that is taking place at the moment of speaking.
For example, "She is walking."
"I am studying."
Note
a. the form of Present Continuous Tense is- is/am/are + verb + ing
4) Present Perfect Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action that started in the past and is continuing at the present time.
For example, "He has been sleeping for an hour."
Note
a. The form of Present Perfect Continuous Tense is- has/have + been + verb + ing
Read More : What is Future Tense?Get Examples and Practice Exercise
FUTURE TENSE
1) Simple Future Tense-
Indicates an action that will take place after the present time and that has no real connection with
the present time.
For example, "She will visit her ailing grandmother soon."
"He will walk home."
Note
a. the form of Simple Future Tense is- will/shall + verb
2) Future Perfect Tense-
Indicates an action in the future that will have been completed before another time or event in the
future.
For example, "By the time we arrive, he will have studied."
Note
a. The form of Future Perfect Tense is- will/shall have + verb(past participle form or 3rd form
of the verb)
3) Future Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action in the future that is longer in duration than another action in the future.
For example, "He will be walking when it starts to rain."
Note
a. The form of Future Continuous Tense is-will/shall be + verb + ing
4) Future Perfect Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action in the future that will have been continuing until another time or event in the
future.
For example, "He will have been exercising an hour at 2:00."
Note
a. The form of Future Perfect Continuous Tense is- will/shall have been + verb + ing

What is Transformation?
1. a transforming or being transformed
2. Now Rare a woman's wig
3. Linguis.
o the process of changing, by the application of certain syntactic rules, an abstract
underlying structure into a surface structure
o any of the rules that derive surface structures from abstract underlying structures
alsotransformational rule
4. Math. the process of setting up correspondences between the elements of two sets or spaces so
that every element of the first set corresponds to a unique element of the second set
What is the Suffix?
Suffix is a letter or a group of letters that is usually added onto the end of words, to change the
way a word fits into a sentence grammatically.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs all tend to use different suffixes, so this makes it a little
easier to remember! Collectively, prefixes and suffixes are known as ‘affixes’.
Noun Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-acy state or quality privacy, fallacy, delicacy
-al act or process of refusal, recital, rebuttal
-ance, -ence state or quality of maintenance, eminence, assurance
-dom place or state of being freedom, kingdom, boredom
-er, -or one who trainer, protector, narrator
-ism doctrine, belief communism, narcissism, skepticism
-ist one who chemist, narcissist, plagiarist
-ity, -ty quality of inactivity, veracity, parity, serenity
-ment condition of argument, endorsement, punishment
-ness state of being heaviness, sadness, rudeness, testiness
-ship position held fellowship, ownership, kinship, internship
-sion, -tion state of being concession, transition, abbreviation
Verb Suffixes
-ate become regulate, eradicate, enunciate, repudiate
-en become enlighten, awaken, strengthen
-ify, -fy make or become terrify, satisfy, rectify, exemplify
-ize, -ise* become civilize, humanize, socialize, valorize
Adjective Suffixes
-able, -ible capable of being edible, presentable, abominable, credible
-al pertaining to regional, grammatical, emotional, coastal
-esque reminiscent of picturesque, statuesque, burlesque
-ful notable for fanciful, resentful, woeful, doubtful
-ic, -ical pertaining to musical, mythic, domestic, chiastic
-ious, -ous characterized by nutritious, portentous, studious
-ish having the quality of fiendish, childish, snobbish
-ive having the nature of creative, punitive, divisive, decisive
-less without endless, ageless, lawless, effortless
-y characterized by sleazy, hasty, greasy, nerdy, smelly

What is the prefix?

A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that attaches to the beginning of a word and helps to
indicate or modify its meaning. An easy example would be the word ‘prefix’ itself! It begins
with the prefix pre-, which means ‘before’.
It is quite important to understand what different prefixes mean as they can help to understand
the meanings of any new vocabulary that you learn. However, you do need to be careful, as
sometimes a prefix can have more than one meaning!
An example would be im-, this can mean ‘not’ or ‘into’
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
ante- before antenatal, anteroom, antedate
anti- against, opposing antibiotic, antidepressant, antidote
circum- around circumstance, circumvent, circumnavigate
co- with co-worker, co-pilot, co-operation
de- off, down, away from devalue, defrost, derail, demotivate
dis- opposite of, not disagree, disappear, disintegrate, disapprove
em-, en- cause to, put into embrace, encode, embed, enclose, engulf
epi- upon, close to, after epicentre, episcope, epidermis
ex- former, out of ex-president, ex-boyfriend, exterminate
extra- beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra-terrestrial
fore- before forecast, forehead, foresee, foreword, foremost
homo- same homosexual, homonuclear, homoplastic
hyper- over, above hyperactive, hyperventilate
il-, im-, in-, ir- not impossible, illegal, irresponsible, indefinite
im-, in- into insert, import, inside
infra- beneath, below infrastructure, infrared, infrasonic, infraspecific
 PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
inter-, intra- between interact, intermediate, intergalactic, intranet
macro- large macroeconomics, macromolecule
micro- small microscope, microbiology, microfilm, microwave
mid- middle midfielder, midway, midsummer
mis- wrongly misinterpret, misfire, mistake, misunderstand
mono- one, singular monotone, monobrow, monolithic
non- not, without nonsense, nonentity, nondescript
omni- all, every omnibus, omnivore, omnipotent
para- beside parachute, paramedic, paradox
post- after post-mortem, postpone, post-natal
pre- before prefix, predetermine, pre-intermediate
re- again return, rediscover, reiterate, reunite
semi- half semicircle, semi-final, semiconscious
sub- under submerge, submarine, sub-category, subtitle
super- above, over superfood, superstar, supernatural, superimpose
therm- heat thermometer, thermostat, thermodynamic
trans- across, beyond transport, transnational, transatlantic
tri- three triangle, tripod, tricycle
un- not unfinished, unfriendly, undone, unknown
uni- one unicycle, universal, unilateral, unanimous

What is Synonms?
A synonym (sin--uh-nim) is a word that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another
word. When words or phrases have the same meaning, we say that they are synonymous of each
other. The term synonym comes from a combination of the Ancient Greek syn, meaning with,
and onoma, meaning “name.” Synonyms are regular and essential parts of everyday language
that we use almost without thinking. They come in all parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, and so on. What’s more, synonyms are so important that there is a whole reference
work dedicated to them, called a thesaurus—it’s a dictionary of synonyms!

Examples of Synonyms
Here are some synonyms of words you use every day:
 Bad: awful, terrible, horrible
 Good: fine, excellent, great
 Hot: burning, fiery, boiling
 Cold: chilly, freezing, frosty
 Easy: Simple, effortless, straightforward
 Hard: difficult, challenging, tough
 Big: large, huge, giant
  Small: tiny, little, mini
What is Antonyms?
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For instance, the antonym of
'hot' may be 'cold.' The root words for the word 'antonym' are the words 'anti,' meaning 'against'
or 'opposite,' and 'onym,' meaning 'name.'
In order to better understand antonyms, let's take a look at what the word 'synonym' means.

A synonym is a word that has a similar meaning to or exactly the same meaning as another
word. Synonyms and antonyms are exactly the opposite.
There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations divided by a common
language.”
No one knows exactly who said this, but it reflects the way many Brits feel about American
English. My British friend still tells me, “You don’t speak English. You speak American.”
But are American and British English really so different?

Vocabulary
The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary. There are
hundreds of everyday words that are different. For example, Brits call the front of a car the
bonnet, while Americans call it the hood.
Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, orhols.
New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.
There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortunately, most Americans and Brits
can usually guess the meaning through the context of a sentence.

Collective nouns
There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English. Let’s start with
collective nouns. We use collective nouns to refer to a group of individuals.
In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to a group of
employees; band refers to a group of musicians; team refers to a group of athletes. Americans
would say, “The band is good.”
But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might hear someone from
Britain say, “The team are playing tonight” or “The team is playing tonight.”

Auxiliary verbs
Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to auxiliary verbs.
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that help form a grammatical function.
They “help” the main verb by adding information about time, modality and voice.
Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the future.
For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall means, but rarely use it in
conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would probably use “I will go home now.”
In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American would probably say,
“Should we go now?”
When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping verb do with negative
not followed by need. “You do not need to come to work today.” Brits drop the helping verb and
contract not. “You needn’t come to work today.”
Past tense verbs
You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.
The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option of learned
or learnt. The same rule applies to dreamed and dreamt, burned and burnt, leaned and leant.
Americans tend to use the –edending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.
In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some irregular verbs. For
example, an American might say, “I have never gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have
never got caught.” Americans use both got and gotten in the past participle. Brits only use got.
Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past forms of irregular verbs. People
in both countries can easily understand both ways, although Brits tend to think of the American
way as incorrect.

Tag questions
A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a question. For example, “The
whole situation is unfortunate, isn’t it?” or, “You don’t like him, do you?”
The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be, have or do. Tag questions
encourage people to respond and agree with the speaker. Americans use tag questions, too, but
less often than Brits. You can learn more about tag questions on a previous episode of Everyday
Grammar.

Spelling
There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British and American English. You
can thank American lexicographer Noah Webster for this. You might recognize Webster’s name
from the dictionary that carries his name.
Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort to reform English spelling in
the late 1700s.
He was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Webster wanted to spell words the
way they sounded. Spelling reform was also a way for America to show its independence from
England.
You can see Webster’s legacy in the American spelling of words like color (from colour), honor
(from honour), and labor (from labour). Webster dropped the letter u from these words to make
the spelling match the pronunciation.
Other Webster ideas failed, like a proposal to spell women as wimmen. Since Webster’s death in
1843, attempts to change spelling rules in American English have gone nowhere.

Not so different after all

British and American English have far more similarities than differences. We think the
difference between American and British English is often exaggerated. If you can understand
one style, you should be able to understand the other style.
With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and Americans can understand each
other without too much difficulty. They watch each other’s TV shows, sing each other’s songs,
and read each other’s books.
They even make fun of each other’s accents.
I’m Jill Robbins.
And I’m John Russell.
And I'm Claudia Milne.
What is spelling?
Spelling is the writing of one or more words with letters and diacritics. In addition, the term
often, but not always, means an accepted standard spelling or the process of naming the letters.
In the sense of a standard, spelling is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive
element of alphabetic languages. Spellings attempt to transcribe the sounds of the language into
alphabetic letters, but phonetic spellings are exceptions in many languages for various reasons.
Pronunciation changes over time in all languages, and spelling reforms are irregular in most
languages and rare in some. In addition, words from other languages may be adopted without
being adapted to the spelling system, non-standard spellings are often adopted after extensive
common usage, and different meanings of a word or homophones may be deliberately spelled in
different ways to differentiate them visually.
What is thePunctuation?
Punctuation (formerly sometimes called pointing) is the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain
typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of written text, whether read
silently or aloud. Another description is, "It is the practice action or system of inserting points or other
small marks into texts in order to aid interpretation; division of text into sentences, clauses, etc., by means
of such marks.

The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
 pause before proceeding
 add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
 separate items on a list
 use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more
information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense
although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:
The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was about to arrive.

Commas are also used to separate items in a list.

For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals
and cartons of milk.
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma.

Commas are used to separate adjectives.

For example:
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to
where you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a
comma should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the ‘rules’ of where a comma needs to be
placed should also be followed.
For example:
However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
Full Stop (.)
A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been
made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.
Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of
a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in
the following examples:
 Telephone Number = Tel. No.
 September = Sept.
 Pages = pp.

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is
also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
“Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
 “Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
 “Ha! Ha! Ha!”
The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop.
Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your
written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!!in
the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken
from a direct quote.

Capitalizations
Below are the most important rules for capitalising words in English.
A. Easy rules
Do notcapitalise common nouns.
A common noun is the name for the people, places and things around us, such as woman, cat,
tree, table, church, air, river, room, etc. Common nouns can also name non-visible 'things' such
as idea, luck, happiness, memory, justice, etc.
These words are not capitalised in English (although they are in German).
Capitalise the first person pronoun.
Mary and I are no longer friends.
Capitalise the first word of a sentence
The grammar test was very easy.
Where did you buy your iPad?
Capitalise proper nouns*
* A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place or thing.
The names of people: The new student is called SadakoIshii.
The names of countries and continents: Everyone knows that China is the largest country in
Asia.
The names of pet animals: I have a dog called Spot.
The names of towns and cities: My grandparents live in London.
The names of planets: The Earth is much smaller than Jupiter.
The names of rivers: The longest river is the Nile.
The names of lakes: Is there a monster in Loch Ness?
The names of streets: I live in Oak Road.
The names of buildings: Have you ever visited the Sears Tower?
The names of mountains: The highest mountain is Mount Everest.
The names of businesses: I think Apple computers are best.
The names of organisations: My mother works for the United Nations.
The names of sports teams: Do you like the Lakers?
The names of days/months: I was born on 2 April 1999, a Monday.
Note: Seasons are notcapitalised. E.g., Myfavourite season is spring.
The names of holidays / festivals: Which is your favourite holiday: Christmas or Easter?
The names of periods of time: Life was hard and short in the MiddleAges.
The names of religions: The most common religion in India is Hinduism.
The names of languages / nationalities: Can you speak Russian?
Note: Languages and nationalities are always capitalised, both when used as nouns and when
used as adjectives. (The French are a proud people. - I love French wine.)

Capitalise the first word of direct speech.

My mother asked, "Where have you been?"

B. Harder rules
Capitalise titles that come before names:
I saw President Obama in Macdonalds yesterday.
Have you met Doctor Spock?
.. otherwise do not capitalise them:
Barack Obama is the first black president of the USA.
Spock is a doctor at UCLA.
Capitalise compass points if they are regions:
Do you like living in the South?
There are many car factories in the Northeast
.. but do not capitalise them if they are directions:
I saw a flock of birds heading south.
Capitalise family words when they are titles or substitutes for a person's
name:
Just then Mother called me on my iPhone.
The man at the edge of the photo is Uncle Pete.
.. but do not capitalise them if they are preceded by a possessive:
Have you met my mother?
The man at the edge of the photo is my uncle Pete.
Capitalise building words when they are part of a specific building:
I was born in St Martins Hospital.
.. Otherwise do not capitalise them:
My brother's in hospital after an accident.
Capitalise brand names:
Our next car will be a Mercedes.
.. but do not capitalise the nouns that follow them:
I got an Acer notebook for my birthday.
Capitalise geographical features when they refer to a specific feature:
The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water on Earth.
.. otherwise do not capitalise them:
Which is the largest ocean?
Capitalise the first word in a piece of direct speech - if the direct speech is a
new sentence:
"If you listen, you will learn," the teacher said. "And you will not get a detention."

The Twelve Tenses of English

PRESENT (main verb)
I study English.
He studies English.

PAST (past tense of main verb)

I studied English.
He studied English.

FUTURE (will or shall + main verb)

I will study English.
He will study English.

PRESENT PERFECT (have or has + past participle of verb)

I have studied English.
He has studied English.

PAST PERFECT (had + past participle of verb)

I had studied English.
He had studied English.

FUTURE PERFECT (will or shall + have + past participle of verb)

I will have studied English.
He will have studied English.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (form of "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb)

I am studying English.
He is studying English.
PAST PROGRESSIVE (past tense of form "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb)
I was studying English.
He was studying English.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE (will or shall +be + "ing" form of main verb)

I will be studying English.
He will be studying English.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (have or has + been + "ing" form of main verb)
I have been studying English.
He has been studying English.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (had + been + "ing" form of main verb)

I had been studying English.
He had been studying English.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (will or shall + have + been + "ing" form of main verb)
I will have been studying English.
He will have been studying English.

Definition of tense
English tense is totally associated with the time and situation. The definition of tense may be
described as ‘tense’ is basically the use of a form of the verb to express the time related to the
moment of occurrence of an action or the moment of speaking. For example;
“The world is getting hot day by day.” Here in the sentence, the time reference is present
continuous tense. That is the occurrence of the event is happening in the present time.
There are mainly three kinds of tense in the English language .they are;
 Present tense.(it refers to the present moment of occurrence of an event)
For example, Sarah gets up early in the morning.
2. Past tense. (it refers to the past moment of occurrence of an event)
For example, Sarah went to church yesterday for purification.
3. Future tense. (it refers to the future moment of occurrence of an event)
For example, Sarah will visit her aunt next Sunday.
Read also related post
Difference between has and had
What is the difference between has been and have been
Difference between was and were

Types Of Tenses
Now every kind of tense is also divided into four types. First of all, the present tense is four
kinds.
1. Present indefinite tense.
Structure: : Subject + Main Verb+ Extension or object
Examples: I live in London, I like reading books in my leisure time.
1. Present continuous
Structure: Subject + am/is/are + main verb + ing +extension.
Examples: They are traveling in Chicago. We are going to College regularly.
1. Present perfect
Structure: Subject + Have/ has +Past participle form of verb + object
Examples: He has started a new work, I have lost my Smartphone.
1. Present perfect continuous
Structure: Subject + have/has been + main verb +ing +extension.
Examples: I have been reading two books since morning.
Secondly, there are four kinds of past tenses
1. Past indefinite
Structure: Subject + past form of main verb + Extension.
Examples: They did the task, We went to go, New York before 1 year ago.
1. Past continuous tense.
Structure: Subject + was/ were + (main verb + ing) + Extension.
Examples: They were playing Football, He was watching Drama.
1. Past perfect tense.
Structure: Subject + had + Past Participle of main verb + extension.
Examples: They had shifted to a new flat, He had joined with me for his self-respect
1. Past perfect continuous
Subject + had been + main verb + ing + object.
Examples: He had been cooking for her children, We had been running for a few times.
Finally, the future tense is four kinds as well.
1. Future indefinite.
Structure: Subject + shall/will + verb +object.
Examples: We will go to college, He will ready to do his homework.
1. Future continuous.
Structure: Subject + shall be / will be + (verb +ing) + extension.
Examples: I will be dancing in the program tomorrow, They will be traveling in Australia.
1. Future perfect
Structure: Subject + shall have / will have + past participle of main verb + extension.
Examples: They will have taken their Lunch, He will have played Ice Hockey.
1. Future perfect continuous.
Structure: Subject + shall have / will have + been + (verb + ing) + extension.
Examples: I will have been shopping for her before she comes to my home

PRESENT TENSE
Simple Present Tense
Structure: Base verb (+ es/es for third person):
Example: 1) I play a game every day. 2) He studies in school.
View: Simple Present Tense Examples, Exercise and Worksheet
Present Continuous Tense
Structure: is/am/are + present participle:
Example: 1) I am playing the game. 2) He is studying in college.
View: Present Continuous Tense Exercise, Formula and Usage
Present Perfect Tense
Structure: Has/have + past participle:
Example: I have finished my homework.
View: Present Perfect Tense Exercise, Formula and Usage
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure: Has/have + been + present participle:
Example: 1) I have been finishing my homework for the last two hours.
2) He has been studying in the school since his childhood.
PAST TENSE
View: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (Formula, Usage & Exercise)
Simple Past Tense
Structure: Verb+ed or irregular verb:
Example: 1) You played the game. 2) He read the newspaper.
View: Simple Past Tense (Formula, Usage & Examples)
Past Continuous Tense
Structure: Was/were + present participle:
Example: 1) I was reading a newspaper. 2) He was going to Karachi.
View: Past Continuous Tense (Formula, Usage & Examples)
Past Perfect Tense
Structure: Had + past participle:
Example: 1) I had finished my homework. 2) He had completed his task.
View: Past Perfect Tense (Formula, Usage & Exercise)
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure: Had + been + past participle:
Example: 1) I had been finishing my homework for 50 minutes.
2) He had been playing the game since morning.
FUTURE TENSE
View: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Formula, Examples, Exercise)
Simple Future Tense
Structure: Will/shall+verb
Example: 1) I shall go to my home town. 2) He will complete his task.
View: Simple Future Tense Formula, Usage & Examples
Future Continuous Tense
Structure: Will be + present participle
Am/is/are + going to be + present participle:
Example: I will be watching the news at 9 pm. / I am going to be watching the news at 9 pm.
View: Future Continuous Tense Formula, Usage & Examples
Future Perfect Tense
Structure: Will have + past participle
Am/is/are + going to have + past participle
Example: I will have played the game. / I am going to have played the game.
View: Future Perfect Tense Formula, Usage & Examples
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure: Will have been + present participle
Am/is/are + going to have been + present participle:
Example: I will have been watching the news for over ten minutes before you join me. / I am
going to have been watching the news for over ten minutes before you join me.
View: Future Perfect Continuous Tense Usage, Formula & Examples
ENGLISH GRAMMAR TENSES TABLE
SIMPLE FORMS
The action that takes place once, never or several times
TENSES EXAMPLES

Present
Simple He plays a game every Sunday.

Past Simple He played a game every Sunday.

Future Simple He will / is going to play the game every Sunday.

Actions that happen one after another
Present Simple He plays football and then he takes bath.

Past Simple He played a game and then he took bath.

Future Simple He will play football and then he will take bath.
State
Present Simple He loved yoga.

Past Simple He loves yoga.

Future Simple He will love yoga.

PROGRESSIVE FORMS
Action going on at that moment
Present Continuous/ Present Progressive He is playing a game.

Past Continuous/ Past Progressive He was playing the game.

Future Continuous/ Future Progressive He will be playing a game.

Actions that are taking place at the same time
Present Continuous/ Present
Progressive He is playing a game and she is watching.

Past Continuous/ Past Progressive He was playing a game and she was watching TV.

Future Continuous/ Future He will be playing a game and she will be watching
Progressive TV.
PERFECT FORMS
Action taking place before a certain moment in time; shows completion/result
Present Perfect He has won two matches so far.

Past Perfect He had won two matches until that day.

Future Perfect He will have won two matches by then.

PERFECT PROGRESSIVE FORMS
Action taking place before a certain moment in time and beyond that time, emphasizes the
duration
Present Perfect Continuous/
Present Perfect Progressive He has been playing a game for ten years.

Past Perfect Continuous/ Past

Perfect Progressive He had been playing a game for ten years.

Future Perfect Continuous/

Future Perfect Progressive He will have been playing a game for ten years.
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Related topics you may like:

1) What are the Parts of Speech? Definitions and Examples
2) Foreign Words used in English | 60 Common Words
3) Most Common Figures of Speech (Types and Examples)
4) Types of Clauses in English Grammar

All 12 Verb Tenses in English – Past, Present and Future Verb Conjugation
Published on: June 2, 2018 | Last Updated: January 1, 2020

All 12 Verb Tenses in English – Past, Present and Future Verbs

Do you want to improve your English verb tense skills?
A good place to start is this list of all 12 verb tenses where we give the verb conjugation for the
verb “to travel”.
From past, present and future, here are practical examples with different subjects.
Take a look at these 12 types of verb conjugation:
The 12 Verb Tenses in English
Before we begin, here’s a list of the 12 verb tenses in English:
 Present Simple
 Present Continuous/Progressive
 Present Perfect
 Present Perfect Continuous/Progressive
 Past Simple
 Past Continuous/Progressive
 Past Perfect
 Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive
 Future Simple
 Future Perfect
  Future Continuous/Progressive
 Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive
Present Simple Verb Tense
When you use present simple, you are using a routine. It’s something that you always do every
day, month or year. Or it’s something that you never do.
PRESENT VERB TENSE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They: travel every day.
 He, She, It: travels every day.
Present Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
When you use present continuous, you are referring to what is happening right now. Also, it can
be an action that is not yet complete.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I: am traveling right now.
 You, We, They: are traveling right now.
 He, She, It: is traveling right now.
Present Perfect Verb Tense
Although it’s easy to confuse this verb tense with present simple, the main difference is that the
action is complete for present perfect. In other words, you are looking at the result right now
without any words referring to time.
PRESENT PERFECT EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They: have traveled to France.
 He, She, It: has traveled to France.
Present Perfect Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
In this verb tense, an action starts in the past but it’s still continuing now. You have been
performing the action and still are performing the action in the present.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They: have been traveling for a day.
 He, She, It: has been traveling for a day.
Past Simple Verb Tense
For past simple, it includes a finished action and time.
PAST SIMPLE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: traveled to France yesterday.
Past Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
When you use past continuous, you are often using two actions. However, one action is not
finished in the past, and another is complete interrupting the other action.
PAST CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I, He, She, It: was traveling by bus when the deer crossed the road.
 You, We, They: were traveling when the deer crossed the road.
Past Perfect Verb Tense
This verb tense uses two actions at two different times. Before the second action occurs, the first
action is complete.
PAST PERFECT EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: had traveled by car when the bus arrived.
Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
For colloquial English, we don’t use past perfect continuous very often. But in text books, it’s a
bit more common. This very tense has a complete action that happened before a second action.
But in this case, you can describe how long.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: had been traveling for one hour when the car broke down.
Future Simple Verb Tense
This verb tense is about planning things to do in the future. For example, what will you do
tomorrow or next week?
Instead of using “will”, you can use “going to” for future tense. But this lesson uses “will” for
the future tense.
FUTURE SIMPLE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: will travel to France tomorrow.
Future Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
The action is not complete, when another action happens in the future. This is similar to past
continuous, but it refers to the future.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: will be traveling when you arrive.
Future Perfect Verb Tense
An action will be completed in the future before another is completed.
FUTURE PERFECT EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: will have traveled to France by the time you arrive.
Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive Verb Tense
An action will be continuing in the future when it is interrupted by another action. In this future
verb tense, it often includes an indication of how long the action has been happening.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE EXAMPLES:
 I, You, We, They, He, She, It: will have been traveling for one hour when you arrive.

The links below are to lessons for each of the 12 basic English tenses. In each lesson we look at
two aspects of the tense:
 Structure: How do we make the tense?
 Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional matters, and most of them finish with a quiz to check your
understanding.
 Present Simple
I do, I do do
 Present Continuous
I am doing
 Present Perfect
I have done
 Present Perfect Continuous
I have been doing
 Past Simple
I did, I did do
 Past Continuous
I was doing
 Past Perfect
I had done
 Past Perfect Continuous
I had been doing
 Future Simple
I will do
 Future Continuous
I will be doing
 Future Perfect
I will have done
 Future Perfect Continuous
I will have been doing
Test Yourself
Q1. Choose the correct verb from those in brackets:
a. The earth _____ round the sun. (move, moves, moved)
b. My friends _____ the film yesterday. (see, saw, have seen)
c. It started to rain while we _____ tennis. (are playing, had played, were playing)
d. I _____ English for five years. (have been studying, study, am studying)
e. The train _____ before we reach the station. (arrives, will have arrived, had arrived)
f. Don't disturb me. I _____ my work. (do, did, am doing)
g. Fortune _____ the brave. (isfavouring, will favour, favours)
h. I _____ the letter before you arrived. (had written, wrote, will write)
i. He _____ us next week. (will have met, will have been meeting, will be meeting)
j. Perhaps we _____ Delhi next month. (visit, will visit, visited)

Q2. Complete the dialogue.

Rashid: Rahul! Your friend Manas has sent you a postcard. It’s from Kerala. It ____ (look) nice.
Rahul: I bet it does!
Rashid: He ____ (write) that it’s very hot there. There ___ (be) a lot of tourists. The hotels ____
(be) full. He ____ (say) the restaurants ____ (be) always full!
Rahul: Yes. I’m sure it is. The papers____ (say) that the temperature there is 30C.
Rashid: Then he ___ (write) that he has learnt a bit of Malayalam, and that he ____ (get on) well
with the people there, especially the women!
Rashid: Look, didn’t the newspaper ____ (say) that there’s another strike in Kerala.
Rahul: Yes, it did Manas won’t mind having to stay in Kerala longer!
Read More : Why Language skills are so Crucial?

Q3. Correct the following sentences:

i. I lived in Calcutta since 1930.
ii. She died before her husband came.
iii. I have written a letter to her last Monday.
iv. I am reading Kalidasa for the last six days.
v. The new hotel has been opened last Saturday.
vi. He had gone to Madras last week.
vii. The train leave the station before I reached there.
viii. I wish my men had been coming quickly and find us.
ix. At the moment the baby sleep in the cradle.
x. He goes out for ten minutes.
S.No. Words Synonyms Antonyms

1. Acumen Awareness, brilliance Stupidity, Ignorance

2. Adhere Comply, observe Condemn, disjoin

3. Abolish Abrogate, annual Setup Establish

4. Abash Disconcert, rattle Uphold, Discompose

5. Abound Flourish, proliferate Deficient, Destitute

6. Abate Moderate, decrease Aggravate

7. Abject Despicable, servile Commendable, Praiseworthy

8. Abjure Forsake, renounce Approve, Sanction

9. Abortive Vain, unproductive Productive

10. Absolve Pardon, forgive Compel, Accuse

11. Accord Agreement, harmony Discord

12. Acrimony Harshness, bitterness Courtesy, Benevolence

13. Adamant Stubborn, inflexible Flexible, Soft

14. Adherent Follower, disciple Rival, Adversary

15. Adjunct Joined, Added Separated, Subtracted

16. Admonish Counsel, reprove Approve, Applaud

17. Adversity Misfortune, calamity Prosperity, Fortune

18. Alien Foreigner, outsider Native, Resident

19. Allay Pacify, soothe Aggravate, Excite

20. Alleviate Abate, relieve Aggravate, Enhance

21. Allure Entice, fascinate Repulse Repel

22. Ascend Climb Escalate Descend, Decline

23. Amplify Augment, deepen Lessen, Contract

24. Arraign Incriminate, indict Exculpate, Pardon

25. Audacity Boldness, Courage Mildness, Cowardice

26. Authentic Accurate, credible Fictitious, unreal

27. Awkward Rude, blundering Adroit, clever

28. Axiom Adage, truism Absurdity, Blunder

29. Baffle Astound, Faze Facilitate, Clarify

30. Bewitching Alluring, charming Repulsive, Repugnant

31. Bleak Grim, Austere Bright, Pleasant

32. Brittle Breakable, crisp Tough, Enduring

33. Bustle Commotion, Tumult Slowness, Quiet

34. Barbarous Frustrate, perplex Civilized

35. Baroque Florid, gilt Plain, unadorned

36. Barren Desolate, Sterile Damp, Fertile

37. Barrier Barricade, Obstacle Link, Assistance

38. Base Vulgar, Coarse Summit, Noble

39. Batty Insane, silly Sane

40. Bawdy Erotic, Coarse Decent, Moral

41. Befogged Becloud, Dim Clear headed, Uncloud

42. Benevolent Benign, Generous Malevolent, Miserly

43. Benign Favorable, friendly Malignant, Cruel

44. Bind Predicament Release

45. Bleak Austere, Blank Bright, Cheerful

46. Blunt Dull, Insensitive Keen, Sharp

47. Boisterous Clamorous, rowdy Placid, Calm

48. Bold Adventurous Timid

49. Busy Active, Engaged Idle, Lazy

50. Calculating Canny, Devious Artless, honest

51. Calamity adversity, misfortune Fortune

52. Callous obdurate, unfeeling Compassionate, Tender

53. Calumny defamation, aspersion Commendation, Praise

54. Capable competent, able Incompetent, Inept

55. Captivate Charm, fascinate Disillusion offend

imprisonment,
56. Captivity Freedom, Liberty
confinement

57. Cease terminate, desist Begin, Originate

58. Chaste virtuous, pure Sullied, Lustful

59. Chastise punish, admonish Cheer, encourage

60. Compassion kindness, sympathy Cruelty, Barbarity

61. Comprise include, contain Reject, lack

62. Concede yield, permit Deny, reject

63. Concur approve, agree Differ, disagree

64. Consent agree, permit Object Disagree

65. Consequence effect, outcome Origin, Start

66. Consolidate solidify, strengthen Separate, Weaken

67. Conspicuous prominent, obvious Concealed, hidden

68. Contempt scorn, disregard Regard, Praise

69. Contradict deny, oppose Approve, Confirm

70. Contrary dissimilar, conflicting Similar, Alike

71. Calm Harmonious, unruffled Stormy, turbulent

72. Callous Insensitive, indurated Kind, merciful

73. Camouflage Cloak, disguise Reveal

74. Candid Blunt, bluff Evasive

75. Captivate Beguile, bewitch Repel

76. Carnal Earthly, fleshly Spiritual

77. Catholic Generic, liberal Narrow- minded

78. Celebrated Acclaimed, lionized Unknown, Inglorious

79. Cement Plaster, mortar Disintegrate

80. Censure Rebuke, reprimand Praise, Acceptance

Competitive,
81. Cheap Dear, unreasonable
Inexpensive

82. Clandestine Covert, fruitive Open, Legal

83. Classic Simple, Typical Romantic, Unusual

84. Coarse Bawdy, Boorish Fine, Chaste

85. Comic Clown, Jester Tragic, tragedian

86. Compact Bunched, thick Loose, Diffuse

87. Compress Abbreviate, Shrink Amplify, Expand

88. Conceit Egotism, Immodesty Modesty

89. Concord Agreement, accord Discord

90. Condemn Castigate, Chide Approve, Praise

91. Confident Bold, Undaunted Diffident, cowardly

92. Consolidate Centralize, Fortify Weaken

93. Courtesy Generosity, Reverence Disdain, Rudeness

94. Creation Formation, foundation Destruction

95. Cunning Acute, Smart Nave, Coarse

96. Decay Collapse, decompose Flourish, Progress

97. Deceit deception, artifice Veracity, Sincerity

98. Decipher interpret, reveal Misinterpret, distort

99. Defile contaminate, pollute Purify, sanctity

100. Defray spend, pay Disclaim, Repudiate

101. Deliberate cautious, intentional Rash, Sudden

102. Demolish Ruin, devastate Repair, construct

103. Deprive despoil, divest Restore, Renew

104. Deride mock, taunt Inspire, Encourage

105. Disdain detest, despise Approve, praise

106. Dissuade Remonstrate, Counsel Insite, Persuade

107. Denounce Blame, boycott Defend

108. Dense Opaque, piled Sparse, brainy

109. Derogatory Sarcastic, critical Laudatory, appreciative

110. Despair Depression, misery Contentment, Hope

Catastrophic,
111. Destructive Creative, Constructive
pernicious

112. Docile Pliable, pliant Headstrong, obstinate

113. Dwarf Diminutive, Petite Huge, Giant

114. Eager Keen, acquisitive Indifferent, apathetic

115. Eclipse Diminution, Dimming Shine, eclipse

116. Eccentric strange, abnormal Natural, Conventional

117. Ecstasy delight, exultation Despair, Calamity

118. Efface destroy, obliterate Retain, Maintain

119. Eloquence expression, fluency Halting, Stammering

120. Encumbrance hindrance, obstacle Incentive, stimulant

121. Endeavour undertake, aspire Cease, quit

122. Enormous colossal, mammoth Diminutive, negligible

123. Epitome precise, example Increment, expansion

124. Equivocal uncertain, hazy Obvious, lucid

125. Eradicate destroy, exterminate Secure, plant

126. Fabricate construct, produce Destroy, Dismantle

127. Fallacy delusion, mistake Veracity, Truth

128. Falter stumble, demur Persist, Endure

129. Fanatical narrow-minded, biased Liberal, Tolerant

130. Feeble weak, frail Strong, Robust

131. Ferocious cruel, fierce Gentle, Sympathetic

132. Feud strife, quarrel Harmony, fraternity

133. Fluctuate deflect, vacillate Stabilize, resolve

134. Forsake desert, renounce Hold, maintain

135. Fragile weak, infirm Enduring, Tough

136. Frantic violent, agitated Subdued, gentle

137. Frivolous petty, worthless Solemn, significant

138. Frugality economy, providence Lavishness, extravagance

139. Gather Converge, huddle Disperse, Dissemble

140. Gloom obscurity, darkness Delight, mirth

141. Glut stuff, satiate Starve, abstain

142. Gorgeous magnificent, dazzling Dull, unpretentious

143. Gracious courteous, beneficent Rude, Unforgiving

144. Grisly disgusting, atrocious Pleasing, attractive

145. Grudge hatred, aversion Benevolence, Affection

146. Guile cunning, deceit Honesty, frankness

147. Generosity Altruism, bounty Stinginess, greed

148. Genuine Absolute, Factual Spurious

149. Gloomy Bleak, cloudy Gay, Bright

150. Glory Dignity, renown Shame, Disgrace

151. Hamper retard, prevent Promote, facilitate

152. Hapless unfortunate, ill-fated Fortunate, Lucky

153. Harass irritate, molest Assist, comfort

154. Haughty arrogant, pompous Humble, Submissive

155. Hazard Peril, danger Conviction, security

non-conformist,
156. Heretic Conformable, religious
secularist

157. Hideous frightful, shocking Attractive, alluring

158. Hamstrung Cripple Debilitate Strengthen, Encourage

Conformity,
159. Harmony Discord, discord
Amicability
160. Hasty Abrupt, Impetuous Leisurely, Cautious

161. Honor Adoration, Reverence Denunciation, Shame

162. Humble Meek, Timid Proud, Assertive

163. Humility Resignation, Fawning Boldness, Pride

164. Hypocrisy Deception, Pharisaism Sincerity, frankness

165. Impenitent Uncontrite, Obdurate Repentant

166. Impulsive Flaky, Impetuous Cautious, Deliberate

167. Indifferent Equitable, Haughty Partial, Biased

168. Indigent Destitute, Impoverished Rich, Affluent

169. Infernal Damned, Accursed Heavenly,

170. Insipid Tedious, Prosaic Pleasing, appetizing

171. Interesting Enchanting, Riveting Dull, Uninteresting

172. Immaculate unsullied, spotless Defiled, Tarnished

173. Immense huge, enormous Puny, Insignificant

174. Immerse submerge, involve Emerge, uncover

175. Imminent impending, brewing Distant, Receding

176. Immunity prerogative, privilege Blame, Censure

177. Impair diminish, deteriorate Restore, Revive

178. Impartial just, unbiased Prejudiced, Biased

179. Impediment hurdle, obstruction Assistant, Concurrence

180. Impious irreligious, unholy Pious, Devout

181. Impute attribute, ascribe Exculpate, support

182. Inclination disposition, affection Indifference, Disinclination

183. Incompetent inefficient, unskilled Dexterous, Skilled

184. Incongruous inappropriate, absurd Compatible, harmonious

unavoidable,
185. Inevitable Unlikely, Doubtful
ascertained

186. Infringe violate, encroach Comply, Concur

187. Ingenuous undisguised, naive Wily, Craftly

188. Insinuate allude, hint Conceal, Camouflage

189. Insipid tasteless, vapid Delicious, luscious

190. Insolvent indigent, destitute Wealthy, solvent

191. Instill inculcate, inject Eradicate, extract

192. Intricate tangled, complicated Regulated, Orderly

193. Intrigue scheme, conspiracy Candor, Sincerity

194. Intrinsic genuine, fundamental Extraneous, incidental

195. Invective accusation, censure Approval, acclamation

unconquerable,
196. Invincible Effeminate, languid
impregnable

197. Irrepressible irresistible, unconfined Composed, hesitant

198. Immaculate Exquisite, Impeccable Defiled, Tarnished

199. Jaded tired, exhausted Renewed, recreated

200. Jejune dull, boring Interesting, exciting

201. Jovial frolicsome, cheerful Solemn, morose

202. Jubilant rejoicing, triumphant Melancholy, depressing

203. Judicious thoughtful, prudent Irrational, foolish

204. Just honest, impartial Unequal, unfair

205. Justify defend, exculpate Impute, arraign

206. Juvenile young, tender Dotage, antiquated

207. Keen sharp, poignant Vapid, insipid

208. Kindred relation, species Unrelated, dissimilar

209. Knave dishonest, scoundrel Paragon, innocent

210. Knell death knell, last blow Reconstruction, rediscovery

211. Knotty complicated difficult Simple, manageable

212. Lavish abundant, excessive Scarce, deficient

213. Lax slack, careless Firm, reliable

compassionate,
214. Lenient Cruel, severe
merciful

215. Liable accountable, bound Unaccountable, apt to

magnanimous,
216. Liberal Stingy, malicious
generous

217. Linger loiter, prolong Hasten, quicken

218. Lucid sound, rational Obscure, hidden

219. Lunacy delusion, insanity Normalcy, sanity

220. Lure attract, entice Repel, dissuade

221. Luscious palatable, delicious Unsavory, tart

222. Luxuriant profuse, abundant Scanty, meagre

223. Languid Sluggish, apathetic Energetic, spirited

224. Malice Vengefulness, grudge Goodwill, Kindness

225. Mandatory Imperative, requisite Optional

226. Masculine Gallant, strapping Feminine, meek

227. Merit Stature, Asset Demerit, dishonor

marvelous,
228. Miraculous Ordinary, trivial
extraordinary

229. Mitigate alleviate, relieve Augment enhance

230. Modest humble, courteous Arrogant, pompous

231. Molest harass, tease Console, soothe

232. Mollify appease, assuage Irritate, infuriate

233. Momentous notable, eventful Trivial, insignificant

234. Monotonous irksome, tedious Varied, pleasant

235. Morbid Nasty, Macabre Healthy, Cheerful

236. Munificent liberal, hospitable Frugal, penurious

237. Murky dusky, dreary Bright, shining

238. Mutinous recalcitrant, insurgent Submissive, faithful

239. Mutual joint, identical Separate, distinct

240. Niggardly miser, covetous Generous, profuse

241. Nimble prompt, brisk Sluggish, languid

242. Nonchalant indifferent, negligent Attentive, considerate

243. Novice tyro, beginner Veteran, ingenious

244. Noxious baneful, injurious Healing, profitable

245. Nullify cancel, annual Confirm, Uphold

246. Notion Conceit, Apprehension Reality, Concrete

247. Numerous profuse, various Scarce, deficient

248. Obstruct impede, prevent Hasten, encourage

249. Obliging Complaisant, Willing Mulish, Obstinate

250. Obscure Arcane, Vague Prominent

251. Obstinate Stubborn, Adamant Pliable, flexible

252. Obtain Access, Inherit Forfeit

253. Obvious Evident, apparent Obscure, ambiguous

254. Odious Malevolent, obnoxious Engaging, fascinating

255. Offensive Abhorrent, obnoxious Engaging, fascinating

256. Occult latent, ambiguous Intelligible, transparent

257. Offspring descendant, sibling Ancestor, forefather

258. Ominous Menacing, Foreboding Auspicious

259. Opaque obscure, shady Transparent, bright

260. Optimist Idealist Pessimist

261. Oracular cryptic, vague Lucid, distinct

262. Ordain Order, impose Revoke abolish

263. Ornamental decorative, adorned Unseemly, plain

264. Outbreak eruption, insurrection Compliance, subjection

265. Outrage offence, maltreatment Praise, favour

266. Pacify Appease, Chasten Irritate, worsen

267. Persuade Cajole, Impress Dissuade, halt

268. Perturbed Flustered, anxious Calm

269. Propagate Inseminate, fecundate Suppress, deplete

270. Progress Pace, Betterment Retrogress, worsening

271. Prompt Precise, Punctual Slow, Negligent

272. Prudence Vigilance, Discretion Indiscretion

273. Pamper Flatter, indulge Deny, disparage

274. Paramount foremost, eminent Trivial, inferior

275. Peerless matchless, unrivalled Mediocre, commonplace

276. Peevish perverse, sullen Suave, amiable

277. Pertness flippancy, impudence Modesty, diffidence

278. Perverse petulant, obstinate Complacent, docile

279. Placid tranquil, calm Turbulent, hostile

280. Pompous haughty, arrogant Unpretentious, humble

281. Precarious doubtful, insecure Assured

282. Predicament plight, dilemma Resolution, confidence

283. Quack Impostor, deceiver Upright, unfeigned

284. Quaint Queer, strange Familiar, usual

285. Quarantine seclude, screen Befriend, socialize

286. Quell subdue, reduce Exacerbate, agitate

288. Quibble equivocate, prevaricate Unfeign, plain

289. Raid Incursion, Foray Retreat, release

290. Rapidity Quickness, Velocity Inertia, languidity

291. Reason Acumen, Bounds Folly, Speculation

292. Rebellious Restless, attacking Submissive, Compliant

293. Rectify Amend, Remedy Falsify, Worsen

294. Reluctant Cautious, Averse anxious, Eager

295. Restrain Detain, Confine Incite

296. Ratify consent, approve Deny, dissent

297. Ravage Destroy, ruin Reconstruct, renovate

298. Redeem Recover, liberate Conserve lose

299. Remnant Residue, piece Entire, whole

300. Remonstrate Censure, protest Agree, loud

301. Remorse Regret, penitence Ruthlessness, obduracy

302. Rescind Annul, abrogate Delegate, permit

303. Resentment Displeasure, wrath Content, Cheer

304. Retract Recant, withdraw Confirm, assert

305. Reverence Respect, esteem Disrespect, affront

306. Rout Vanquish, overthrow Succumb, withdraw

307. Rustic Rural, uncivilized Cultured, Refined

308. Ruthless Remorseless, inhumane Compassionate, lenient

309. Sacred Cherish, Divine Ungodly, Profane

310. Savage Wild, untamed Polished, Civilized

311. Startled Frightened, Shocked Waveringly

312. Steep Course, lofty Flat, gradual

313. Stranger Immigrant, guest Acquaintance, national

314. Sublime Magnificent, eminent Ridiculous

315. Succinct Concise, Terse Lengthy, polite

316. Sympathy Tenderness, harmony Antipathy, Discord

317. System Scheme, Entity Chaos, Disorder

318. Sarcastic Ironical, derisive Courteous, gracious

319. Saucy Impudent, insolent Modest, humble

320. Shrewd Cunning, craftly Simple, imbecile

321. Scanty scarce, insufficient Lavish, multitude

322. Servile Slavish, Docile Aggressive, Dominant

miserable,
323. Shabby Prosperous, thriving
impoverished

324. Slander defame, malign Applaud, approve

325. Sneer mock, scorn Flatter, praise

326. Solicit entreat, implore Protest oppose

327. Subterfuge Deceit, Stratagem Frankness, Openness

328. Stain blemish, tarnish Honor, purify

329. Spurious Fake, Counterfeit Genuine, Authentic

330. Sporadic intermittent, scattered Incessant, frequent

331. Spry Nimble, Brisk Lethargic, Sluggish

332. Squalid dirty, filthy Tidy, Attractive

333. Successful Propitious, Felicitous Destitute, Untoward

334. Sterile Barren, Impotent Profitable, Potent

lethargy,
335. Stupor Sensibility, Consciousness
unconsciousness

336. Subsequent consequent, following Preceding, previous

337. Substantial Considerable, solid Tenuous, fragile

338. Subvert Demolish, sabotage Generate, organize

339. Superficial Partial, shallow Profound, discerning

340. Sycophant Parasite, flatterer Devoted, loyal

341. Taboo Prohibit, ban Permit, consent

342. Taciturn Reserved, silent Talkative, extrovert

343. Tedious Wearisome. Irksome Exhilarating, lively

344. Temperate Cool, moderate Boisterous, violent

345. Tenement Apartment, Digs Breakeven, dislodge

346. Tenacious Stubborn, Dodge Docile, non- resinous

347. Throng Assembly, crowd Dispersion, sparsity

348. Timid Diffident, coward Bold, intrepid

349. Tranquil Peaceful, composed Violent, furious

350. Transient Temporal, transitory Lasting, enduring

351. Trenchant Assertive, forceful Feeble, ambiguous

352. Treacherous Dishonest, duplicitous Forthright, reliable

353. Trivial Trifling, insignificant Significant, veteran

354. Tumultuous Violent, riotous Peaceful, harmonious

355. Tyro Beginner, riotous Proficient, veteran

356. Tame Compliant, Subdued Wild, untamed

357. Terse Incisive, Compact Diffuse, Gentle

358. Thick Chunky, massive Thin, attenuated

359. Thrifty Frugal, prudent Extravagant

360. Tranquil Amicable, Calm Agitated, Fierce

361. Transparent Diaphanous Opaque

362. Tremble Vibrate Steady

363. Uncouth Awkward, ungraceful Elegant, Compensate

364. Utterly Completely, entirely Deficiently, incomplete

365. Umbrage Chagrin, offense Sympathy, goodwill

366. Uncouth Boorish, Clownish Elegant, Compensate

367. Urchin Foundling, Orphan Creep, Knave

368. Urge Incite, Implore Abhorrence, Abomination

369. Vain Arrogant, egoistic Modest

370. Vagrant Wander, roaming Steady, settled

371. Valor Bravery, prowess Fear, cowardice

372. Vanity Conceit, pretension Modesty, Humility

373. Venerable Esteemed, honored Unworthy, immature

374. Venom Poison, malevolence Antidote, Benevolent

375. Veteran Ingenious, experienced Novice, tyro

376. Vicious Corrupt, obnoxious Noble, Virtuous

377. Vigilant Cautious, alert Careless, negligent

378. Vivacious Spirited, Energetic Dispirited, Unattractive

379 Vilify Malign, Slur, Defame Cherish, Commend

380. Vouch Confirm, consent Repudiate, prohibit

381. Virtue Ethic, morality Vice, dishonesty

382. Vivid Eloquent, lucid Dull, Dim

383. Waive Relinquish, remove Impose, Clamp

384. Wan Pale, faded Bright, healthy

385. Wane Decline, Dwindle Ameliorate, Rise

386. Wary cautious, circumspect Heedless, negligent

387. Wed marry, combine Divorce, Separate

388. Wicked vicious, immoral Virtuous, Noble

389. Wield Exert, employ Forgo, avoid

390. Wile Trickery, Artifice Naivety, honor

391. Winsome Beautiful, Comely Alluring, Rapturous

392. Wilt wither, perish Revive, bloom

393. Yell shout, shriek Whisper muted

394 Yield surrender abdicate Resist, protest

395. Yearn languish, crave Content, satisfy

396. Yoke connect, harness Liberate, Release

397. Zeal eagerness, fervor Apathy, lethargy

398. Zenith summit, apex Nadir, base

399. Zest delight, enthusiasm Disgust, passive

400. Zig -zag oblique, wayward Straight, unbent

 Free Download Synonyms and Antonyms Dictionary PDF

Also check out the list of Idioms and Phrases from here for the competitive Exams - Idioms
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English Synonyms and Antonyms Quiz with Answer

If you have completely learned the Synonym and Antonym word list with meanings. Go through
the short quiz of frequently asked Synonyms and Antonyms in competitive exams and test your
knowledge.

Ques 1. The word ‘Censure’ is the Synonym of –

(A) Yield(B) Remonstrate(C) Vagrant(D) None of These

[toggle title="Show Answer"]

Remonstrate [/toggle]

Ques 2. The word ‘Deceptive’ is the antonym of

(A) Valid(B) Trivial(C) Peerless(D) Outrage

[toggle title="Show Answer"]

Valid [/toggle]

Ques 3. Which of the following word refers same meaning as the word ‘Camouflage’

(A) Vicious(B) Bleak(C) Conceal(D) Heretic

[toggle title="Show Answer"]

Conceal [/toggle]

Ques 4. The word ‘Impenitent’ is the synonyms of

(A) Accursed(B) Obdurate(C) Encroach(D) Lucid

[toggle title="Show Answer"]

Obdurate [/toggle]

Que 5. The word ‘Cajole’ is the antonym of

(A) Persuade(B) Antiquated(C) Pompous(D) Elegant

[toggle title="Show Answer"]

Persuade [/toggle]

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What is the Suffix?
Suffix is a letter or a group of letters that is usually added onto the end of words, to change the
way a word fits into a sentence grammatically.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs all tend to use different suffixes, so this makes it a little
easier to remember! Collectively, prefixes and suffixes are known as ‘affixes’.
Noun Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-acy state or quality privacy, fallacy, delicacy
-al act or process of refusal, recital, rebuttal
-ance, -
state or quality of maintenance, eminence, assurance
ence
place or state of
-dom freedom, kingdom, boredom
being
-er, -or one who trainer, protector, narrator
-ism doctrine, belief communism, narcissism, skepticism
-ist one who chemist, narcissist, plagiarist
-ity, -ty quality of inactivity, veracity, parity, serenity
-ment condition of argument, endorsement, punishment
-ness state of being heaviness, sadness, rudeness, testiness
-ship position held fellowship, ownership, kinship, internship
-sion, -tion state of being concession, transition, abbreviation
Verb Suffixes
-ate become regulate, eradicate, enunciate, repudiate
-en become enlighten, awaken, strengthen
-ify, -fy make or become terrify, satisfy, rectify, exemplify
-ize, -ise* become civilize, humanize, socialize, valorize
Adjective Suffixes
-able, -ible capable of being edible, presentable, abominable, credible
-al pertaining to regional, grammatical, emotional, coastal
-esque reminiscent of picturesque, statuesque, burlesque
-ful notable for fanciful, resentful, woeful, doubtful
-ic, -ical pertaining to musical, mythic, domestic, chiastic
-ious, -ous characterized by nutritious, portentous, studious
-ish having the quality of fiendish, childish, snobbish
-ive having the nature of creative, punitive, divisive, decisive
-less without endless, ageless, lawless, effortless
-y characterized by sleazy, hasty, greasy, nerdy, smelly
What is the prefix?
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that attaches to the beginning of a word and helps to
indicate or modify its meaning. An easy example would be the word ‘prefix’ itself! It begins
with the prefix pre-, which means ‘before’.
It is quite important to understand what different prefixes mean as they can help to understand
the meanings of any new vocabulary that you learn. However, you do need to be careful, as
sometimes a prefix can have more than one meaning!
An example would be im-, this can mean ‘not’ or ‘into’
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
ante- before antenatal, anteroom, antedate
anti- against, opposing antibiotic, antidepressant, antidote
circum- around circumstance, circumvent, circumnavigate
co- with co-worker, co-pilot, co-operation
de- off, down, away from devalue, defrost, derail, demotivate
dis- opposite of, not disagree, disappear, disintegrate, disapprove
em-, en- cause to, put into embrace, encode, embed, enclose, engulf
epi- upon, close to, after epicentre, episcope, epidermis
ex- former, out of ex-president, ex-boyfriend, exterminate
extra- beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra-terrestrial
fore- before forecast, forehead, foresee, foreword, foremost
homo- same homosexual, homonuclear, homoplastic
hyper- over, above hyperactive, hyperventilate
il-, im-, in-, ir- not impossible, illegal, irresponsible, indefinite
im-, in- into insert, import, inside
infra- beneath, below infrastructure, infrared, infrasonic, infraspecific
inter-, intra- between interact, intermediate, intergalactic, intranet
macro- large macroeconomics, macromolecule
micro- small microscope, microbiology, microfilm, microwave
mid- middle midfielder, midway, midsummer
mis- wrongly misinterpret, misfire, mistake, misunderstand
mono- one, singular monotone, monobrow, monolithic
non- not, without nonsense, nonentity, nondescript
omni- all, every omnibus, omnivore, omnipotent
para- beside parachute, paramedic, paradox
post- after post-mortem, postpone, post-natal
pre- before prefix, predetermine, pre-intermediate
re- again return, rediscover, reiterate, reunite
semi- half semicircle, semi-final, semiconscious
 PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
sub- under submerge, submarine, sub-category, subtitle
super- above, over superfood, superstar, supernatural, superimpose
therm- heat thermometer, thermostat, thermodynamic
trans- across, beyond transport, transnational, transatlantic
tri- three triangle, tripod, tricycle
un- not unfinished, unfriendly, undone, unknown
uni- one unicycle, universal, unilateral, unanimous

What is the clause?

A clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite verb. A clause
contains only one subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but
the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.
A clause “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence. ” – Merriam-Webster
Example:
 I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
 When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
 When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)

Types of Clause
Clauses are mainly of two types:
1. Independent Clause
An independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like
a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or,
nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
 He is a wise man.
 I like him.
 Can you do it?
 Do it please. (Subjectyou is hidden)
 I read the whole story.
 I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
 He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he
visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)
 Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)
2. Dependent Clause
A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished.
It is also called subordinate clause. Dependent clauses help the independent clauses complete the
sentence. A dependent clause alone cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete
the sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators
include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
 When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
 I know the man who stole the watch.
 He bought a car which was too expensive.
 I know that he cannot do it.
 He does not know where he was born.
 If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
 He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

What is the Punctuation?

Punctuation (formerly sometimes called pointing) is the use of spacing, conventional signs, and
certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of written text,
whether read silently or aloud. Another description is, "It is the practice action or system of
inserting points or other small marks into texts in order to aid interpretation; division of text into
sentences, clauses, etc., by means of such marks.

The Basic Signs of Punctuation

 the comma ,
 the full stop .
 the exclamation mark !
 the question mark ?
 the semi-colon ;
 the colon :
 the apostrophe '
 quotation marks “ ”
 the hyphen -
 brackets ( ) or [ ]
 the slash /

Top ten punctuation tips

1. Use apostrophes correctly

Maybe it’s because of its diminutive size, but the apostrophe tends to be neglected and misused
in equal measure. The apostrophe is used to form possessives (e.g., the school’s faculty, our
family’s crest, the shirt’s collar, Bill Thomas’s house) and certain contractions (e.g., it’s, let’s,
she’s, they’re, I’ve, don’t). The apostrophe is not used to form most plurals (e.g., she is looking
at several schools, the families have similar crests, these shirts are on sale, we are dining with the
Thomases). There are three exceptions: plurals of lowercase letters (e.g., dot your i’s and cross
your t’s); plurals of certain words used as words (e.g., we need to tally the yes’s, no’s, and
maybe’s); and plurals of certain abbreviations (e.g., the staff includes a dozen Ph.D.’s and four
M.D.’s).

2. Know where to place quotation marks

Periods and commas go inside quotation marks, even if they aren’t part of the material being
quoted. All other punctuation marks go outside the quotation marks, unless they are part of the
material being quoted. Examples “Any further delay,” she said, “would result in a lawsuit.” His
latest story is titled “The Beginning of the End”; wouldn't a better title be “The End of the
Beginning”?

3. Know how to punctuate with parentheses

When a parenthetical element is included at the end of a larger sentence, the terminal punctuation
for the larger sentence goes outside the closing parenthesis. When a parenthetical sentence exists
on its own, the terminal punctuation goes inside the closing parenthesis. Example She
nonchalantly told us she would be spending her birthday in Venice (Italy, not California).
(Unfortunately, we weren’t invited.)

4. Use a hyphen for compound adjectives

When two or more words collectively serve as an adjective before the word they are modifying,
those words should normally be hyphenated. The major exception is when the first such word is
an adverb ending in -ly. Example The hastily arranged meeting came on the heels of less-than-
stellar earnings.

5. Distinguish between the colon and the semicolon

The colon and the semicolon can both be used to connect two independent clauses. When the
second clause expands on or explains the first, use a colon. When the clauses are merely related,
but the second does not follow from the first, use a semicolon. Semicolon Only a third of
Americans have a passport; the majority of Canadians have a passport. Colon Only a third of
Americans have a passport: for most, foreign travel is either undesirable or unaffordable.

6. Avoid multiple punctuation at the end of a sentence

Never end a sentence with a question mark or exclamation point followed by a period. If a
sentence ends with a period that is part of an abbreviation, do not add a second period. Examples
I don’t particularly like the play Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? I didn’t like it even when I
worked at Yahoo! I especially didn’t like it when I saw it at 5:00 a.m.

7. Use a colon to introduce a list only when the introductory text is a complete sentence
Not all lists should be introduced with a colon. The general rule is that if the introductory text
can stand as a grammatically complete sentence, use a colon; otherwise, do not. Correct Please
bring the following items: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. Please
bring the typical evening hiking gear: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a
jacket. Please bring a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket. Incorrect Please
bring: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket.

8. Use commas to indicate nonessential information

If explanatory matter can be omitted without changing the general meaning of the sentence, it
should be set off with commas. If the explanatory matter is essential to the meaning of the
sentence, do not set it off with commas. Correct The novelist Don DeLillo seldom gives
interviews. Incorrect The novelist, Don DeLillo, seldom gives interviews. Explanation: The
identity of the specific novelist is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Otherwise, there is
nothing to indicate which of the multitude of novelists is being referred to. Correct America’s
first president, George Washington, served from 1789 to 1797. Explanation: America has only
one first president. Identifying him by name is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Incorrect America’s first president George Washington served from 1789 to 1797.

9. Use a dictionary
Is it U.S.A. or USA? Co-worker or coworker?Lets or let’s? Teachers’ college or teachers
college? Though these examples implicate punctuation marks (the use or omission of periods,
hyphens, or apostrophes), the correct form can be easily determined with a good dictionary.
10. If in doubt, rewrite
The easiest way to solve a vexing punctuation problem is to avoid it. If you aren’t sure how to
properly punctuate a sentence⁠ —or if the proper punctuation results in a convoluted, confusing,
or inelegant sentence⁠ —rewrite it. Perhaps as more than one sentence.

The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
 pause before proceeding
 add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
 separate items on a list
 use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more
information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense
although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:
The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was about to arrive.

Commas are also used to separate items in a list.

For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals
and cartons of milk.
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma.

Commas are used to separate adjectives.

For example:
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to
where you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a
comma should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the ‘rules’ of where a comma needs to be
placed should also be followed.
For example:
However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
Full Stop (.)
A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been
made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.
Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of
a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in
the following examples:
 Telephone Number = Tel. No.
 September = Sept.
 Pages = pp.

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is
also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
“Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
 “Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
 “Ha! Ha! Ha!”
The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop.
Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your
written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!!in
the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken
from a direct quote.
The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal writing.

Question Mark (?)

The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the
end of a sentence:
For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.

Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt,
avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence.
As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:
When joining two connected sentences.
For example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.
or
Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants and desires appropriately;
passive behaviour means complying with the wishes of others.
The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.
For example:
The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London, UK;
Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.

Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two
main uses of the colon:
It is most commonly used when listing.
For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and
cartons of milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.
For example:
Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers

Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.
The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.
For example:
The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than one
hat).
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.
Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:
For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)
The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
Note that a common mistake is to confuse itswith it’s.
It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.
For example:
It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
See also: Common Mistakes in Writing for more on using apostrophes correctly.

Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)

Quotation or speech marks are used to:
1. To mark out speech
2. When quoting someone else's speech
For example:
My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
"George, don't do that!"
"Will you get your books out please?” said Mrs Jones, the teacher, “and quieten down!"
It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks.
For example:
Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.

Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.
For example:
 sub-part
 eighteenth-century people
 week-end
 second-class post
 gender-neutral
 non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed
between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be
completed on the next line.
Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words for
you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.

Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of
the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should
still make sense.
For example:
“The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the
intervention continues.”
Another example is as follows:
“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic
resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of
wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that
exist in Western societies are an upper class (the wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus tops
executives – those who own or directly control productive resources); a middle class (which
includes most white-collar workers and professionals); and a working class (those in blue-collar
or manual jobs).” (Giddens, 1997, p.243)
Square Brackets […]
A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:
 to abbreviate lengthy quotations
 to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
 to add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.
To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report
“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic
resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of
wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that
exist in Western societies are an upper class […]; a middle class […] and a working class […].”
(Giddens, 1997, p.243)
To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence
For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:
According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the “[o]wnership of wealth, together with occupation, are
the chief basis of class differences”.
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above example or the
occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence) would be placed in
square brackets in this way.

Slash (/)
Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the
reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use ‘s/he’.

Capital Letters
The correct use of capital letters is also important in writing.
See our page: When to Use Capital Letters for information and examples.

Continue to:
Grammar
Spelling
See also:
The Importance of Structure
Common Mistakes in Writing
Clichés to Avoid | Gender-Neutral Writing
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Punctuation Sym
Definition Examples
Mark bol
An apostrophe is used as a substitute
for a missing letter or letters in a
word (as in the contraction cannot =
can't), to show the possessive case I can't see the cat's tail.
apostrophe ' (Jane's room), and in the plural of Dot your i's and cross your t's.
letters, some numbers and 100's of years.
abbreviations. Note: groups of years
no longer require an apostrophe (for
example, the 1950s or the 90s).
A colon is used before a list or quote.
There are many punctuation marks:
A colon is used to separate hours and
period, comma, colon, and others.
colon : minutes.
The time is 2:15.
A colon is used to separate elements
The ratio of girls to boys is 3:2.
of a mathematical ratio.
 A comma is used to separate phrases
comma , She bought milk, eggs, and bread.
or items in a list.
The dash is also known as an "em
A dash is used to separate parts of a dash" because it is the length of a
dash —
sentence. printed letter m — it is longer than
a hyphen.
An ellipsis (three dots) indicates that
ellipsis ... part of the text has been intentionally 0, 2, 4, ... , 100
been left out.
exclamation An exclamation point is used to
! It is cold!
point show excitement or emphasis.
A hyphen is used between parts of a
compound word or name. It is also The sixteen-year-old girl is a full-
hyphen -
used to split a word by syllables to time student.
fit on a line of text.
Parentheses are curved lines used to
separate explanations or qualifying
statements within a sentence (each This sentence (like others on this
parentheses () one of the curved lines is called a page) contains a parenthetical
parenthesis). The part in the remark.
parentheses is called a parenthetical
remark.
A period is used to note the end of a
period . I see the house.
declarative sentence.
question A question mark is used at the end of
? When are we going?
mark a question.
Quotation marks are used at the
quotation beginning and end of a phrase to
" She said, "Let's eat."
mark show that it is being written exactly
as it was originally said or written.
A semicolon separates two
Class was canceled today; Mr.
independent clauses in a compound
Smith was home sick.
sentence.
semicolon ; Relatives at the reunion included
A semicolon is also used to separate
my older brother, Bob; my cousin,
items in a series (where commas are
Art; and my great-aunt, Mattie.
already in use).

In academic writing, periods are also used to denote an abbreviation has been used. In science,
the most commonly used abbreviation form is “et al.,” which is an abbreviation of the Latin
etalii. A list of Latin abbreviations that are used in academic writing is as follows:
1. et cetera = etc.
2. notabene = n.b.
3. conferre = cf.
4. ibidem = ibid.
Finally, three periods in a row are called an ellipsis and this indicates that entire words have been
cut out of a quote. For example, here is a full quote from a newspaper article:

Types of Punctuation
There are fifteen basic punctuation marks in English grammar. These include the period, comma,
exclamation point, question mark, colon, semicolon, bullet point, dash, hyphen, parenthesis,
bracket, brace, ellipsis, quotation mark, and apostrophe. The following are a few examples of
these marks being used in a sentence.
Brackets and Ellipses
“Mr. Bumble said ‘a ass’ not ‘an ass’ in Oliver Twist. … [In a quotation, one] option might have
been ‘The law is a[n] ass,’ although this would have carried the condescending tone of a sic flag,
implying we’re smarter than Dickens.” (Quibbling Over Quotes, by Blair Shewchuk)
In this example, see the use of square brackets ([ ]) and an ellipsis (“…”). The author has used
the brackets to explain the technical description, and the ellipsis to show the omission of words.
Dashes and Parentheses
“The why and wherefore of the scorpion – how it had got on board and came to select his room
rather than the pantry (which was a dark place and more what a scorpion would be partial to),
and how on earth it managed to drown itself in the inkwell of his writing desk – had exercised
him infinitely.” (The Secret Sharer, by Joseph Conrad)
Here, Conrad has employed dashes to provide a short summary of the main clause. He has also
used parentheses, or curved notations, to explain the idea further.
Bullet Points
“The idea is simply to end by design rather than by default, and any of the following practices
will help:
 In your notes, keep track of potentially dramatic closing materials.
 Allow space for a developed ending.
 Commit to a closing worthy of the piece.
 Avoid the drift toward a clichéd ending.”
(Spunk & Bite, by Arthur Plotnik)
Here, the author has used bullet points to display his list of ideas.

Apostrophes and Quotation Marks

“And underneath the guy on the horse’s picture, it always says: ‘Since 1888 we have been
molding boys into splendid, clear-thinking young men.’ …”
“No, sir, I haven’t communicated with them.”
(The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger)
In this excerpt, Salinger has used an apostrophe, which allows the removal of letters from a
word, such that the word still makes sense. He also uses a pair of quotation marks around the
sentence in order to quote the statement of another character.
Colons and Semi-Colons
“The City is termite territory: thousands of heads-down workers serving an unacknowledged
queen, a fear motor buried deep in the heart of the place.”
(Lights Out for the Territory, by Iain Sinclair)
“The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there.”
(The Go-Between, by L.P. Hartley)
Here, a colon appears in the first example. It is used to introduce the explanation about the main
clause. In the second example, a semicolon connects the two independent clauses.

Questions and Exclamation Marks

LAVINIA – (startled – agitatedly)
“Father? No! … Yes! He does – something about his face – that must be why I’ve had the
strange feeling I’ve known him before … Oh! I won’t believe it! You must be mistaken, Seth!
…”
(Mourning Becomes Electra, by Eugene O’Neil)
In these lines, an exclamation point “!” indicates a sudden expression of emotion, while a
question mark “?” is used to pose a question.
Periods
ESTRAGON:
“I remember the maps of the Holy Land. Coloured they were. Very pretty. The Dead Sea was
pale blue. The very look of it made me thirsty.”
(Waiting for Godot, by Samuel Beckett)
Beckett has used five periods in the above sentences. The use of a period indicates the end of a
thought. A period can also be used as a pause after a thought.
Function
Punctuation serves as a pause within a sentence, which is often necessary in order to emphasize
certain phrases or words in order to help readers and listeners understand better what the writer
or speaker is trying to convey. Thus, the basic function of punctuation is to place stress on
certain sections of a sentence.
Punctuation marks are also used to divide text into words and phrases when necessary in order to
better clarify the meaning of those words or phrases. On the contrary, using punctuation
incorrectly can convey an entirely different meaning of a sentence from the one that was
originally intended.
Differences between British and American English
History

The British actually introduced the language to the Americas when they reached these
lands by sea between the 16th and 17th centuries. At that time, spelling had not yet
been standardised. It took the writing of the first dictionaries to set in stone how these
words appeared. In the UK, the dictionary was compiled by London-based scholars.
Meanwhile, in the United States, the lexicographer was a man named Noah Webster.
Allegedly, he changed how the words were spelled to make the American version
different from the British as a way of showing cultural independence from its mother
country.

In terms of speech, the differences between American and British English actually took
place after the first settlers arrived in America. These groups of people spoke using
what was called rhotic speech, where the ‘r’ sounds of words are pronounced.
Meanwhile, the higher classes in the UK wanted to distinguish the way they spoke from
the common masses by softening their pronunciation of the ‘r’ sounds. Since the elite
even back then were considered the standard for being fashionable, other people began
to copy their speech, until it eventually became the common way of speaking in the
south of England.

Spelling differences

British and American English have some spelling differences. The common ones are
presented in the table below.

British English American English

-oe-/-ae- (e.g. anaemia, diarrhoea, -e- (e.g. anemia, diarrhea, encyclopedia)

encyclopaedia)

-t (e.g. burnt, dreamt, leapt) -ed (e.g. burned, dreamed, leaped)

-ence (e.g. defence, offence, licence) -ense (defense, offense, license)

-ell- (e.g. cancelled, jeweller, marvellous) -el- (e.g. canceled, jeweler, marvelous)

-ise (e.g. appetiser, familiarise, organise) -ize (e.g. appetizer, familiarize, organize)

-l- (e.g. enrol, fulfil, skilful) -ll- (e.g. enroll, fulfill, skillfull)

-ogue (e.g. analogue, monologue, -og (e.g. analog, monolog, catalog)

catalogue)
*Note that American English also
recognizes words spelled with –ogue

-ou (e.g. colour, behaviour, mould) -o (e.g. color, behavior, mold)

-re (e.g. metre, fibre, centre) -er (e.g. meter, fiber, center)

-y- (e.g. tyre) -i- (e.g. tire)

Vocabulary differences

The Americans and the British also have some words that differ from each other. The
table below lists some of the everyday objects that have different names, depending on
what form of English you are using.
British English American English

trousers pants

flat apartment

bonnet (the front of the car) hood

boot (the back of the car) trunk

lorry truck

university college

holiday vacation

jumper sweater

crisps chips

chips French fries

trainers sneakers

fizzy drink soda

postbox mailbox

biscuit cookie

chemist drugstore

shop store

football soccer

Grammar differences

Aside from spelling and vocabulary, there are certain grammar differences between
British and American English. For instance, in American English, collective nouns are
considered singular (e.g. The band is playing). In contrast, collective nouns can be
either singular or plural in British English, although the plural form is most often used
(e.g. The band are playing).

The British are also more likely to use formal speech, such as ‘shall’, whereas
Americans favour the more informal ‘will’ or ‘should’.

Americans, however, continue to use ‘gotten’ as the past participle of ‘get’, which the
British have long since dropped in favour of ‘got’.
 ‘Needn’t’, which is commonly used in British English, is rarely, if at all used in American
English. In its place is ‘don’t need to’.

In British English, ‘at’ is the preposition in relation to time and place. However, in
American English, ‘on’ is used instead of the former and ‘in’ for the latter.

Final point

While there may be certain differences between British and American English, the key
takeaway is that the two have more similarities. Accidentally using one instead of the
other will not automatically lead to miscommunication. Americans and Brits can usually
communicate with each other without too much difficulty, so don’t be too hard on
yourself if you are unable to memorise the nuances of both languages.

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Six Differences Between British and

American English
For VOA Learning English, this is Everyday Grammar.

There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations divided by a
common language.”

No one knows exactly who said this, but it reflects the way many Brits feel
about American English. My British friend still tells me, “You don’t speak
English. You speak American.”

But are American and British English really so different?

Vocabulary
The most noticeable difference between American and British English is
vocabulary. There are hundreds of everyday words that are different. For
example, Brits call the front of a car the bonnet, while Americans call it
the hood.

Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, or hols.

New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.

There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortunately, most
Americans and Brits can usually guess the meaning through the context of a
sentence.

Collective nouns

There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English.
Let’s start with collective nouns. We use collective nouns to refer to a group
of individuals.

In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to
a group of employees; band refers to a group of musicians; team refers to a
group of athletes. Americans would say, “The band is good.”

But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might
hear someone from Britain say, “The team are playing tonight” or “The team is
playing tonight.”

Auxiliary verbs

Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to

auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that
help form a grammatical function. They “help” the main verb by adding
information about time, modality and voice.

Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the
future.
For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall means, but
rarely use it in conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would probably
use “I will go home now.”

In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American

would probably say, “Should we go now?”

When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping
verb do with negative not followed by need. “You do not need to come to work
today.” Brits drop the helping verb and contract not. “You needn’t come to
work today.”

Past tense verbs

You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.

The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the
option of learned or learnt. The same rule applies to dreamed and dreamt,
burned and burnt, leaned and leant.

Americans tend to use the –ed ending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.

In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some
irregular verbs. For example, an American might say, “I have never
gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have never got caught.” Americans
use both got and gotten in the past participle. Brits only use got.

Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past forms of
irregular verbs. People in both countries can easily understand both ways,
although Brits tend to think of the American way as incorrect.

Tag questions

A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a question.

For example, “The whole situation is unfortunate, isn’t it?” or, “You don’t like
him, do you?”
The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be, have or do.
Tag questions encourage people to respond and agree with the speaker.
Americans use tag questions, too, but less often than Brits. You can learn more
about tag questions on a previous episode of Everyday Grammar.

Spelling

There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British and

American English. You can thank American lexicographer Noah Webster
for this. You might recognize Webster’s name from the dictionary that carries
his name.

Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort to reform

English spelling in the late 1700s.

He was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Webster

wanted to spell words the way they sounded. Spelling reform was also a way
for America to show its independence from England.

You can see Webster’s legacy in the American spelling of words like color
(from colour), honor (from honour), and labor (from labour). Webster
dropped the letter u from these words to make the spelling match the
pronunciation.

Other Webster ideas failed, like a proposal to spell women as wimmen. Since
Webster’s death in 1843, attempts to change spelling rules in American
English have gone nowhere.

Not so different after all

British and American English have far more similarities than differences. We
think the difference between American and British English is
often exaggerated. If you can understand one style, you should be able to
understand the other style.

With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and Americans can
understand each other without too much difficulty. They watch each other’s
TV shows, sing each other’s songs, and read each other’s books.
They even make fun of each other’s accents.

I’m Jill Robbins.

And I’m John Russell.

And I'm Claudia Milne.

Now it’s your turn. What style of English are you learning? Why did you
choose it? Write to us in the comments section or on our Facebook page.

Adam Brock wrote this article for VOA Learning English.

_____________________________________________________
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QUIZ
6 Differences between British and American
English

Start the Quiz to find out

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Words in This Story
collective noun – n. a word which refers to a collection of things taken as a
whole.

auxiliary verb – n. a word used in construction with and preceding certain

forms of other verbs, as infinitives or participles, to express distinctions of
tense, aspect, mood, etc

modality– n. expressing ability, necessity, possibility, permission or

obligation.

lexicographer – n. someone who writes dictionaries

inconsistency – n. the quality or fact of not staying the same at different

times

exaggerate – v. to think of or describe something as larger or greater than it

really is
THE_BLOG

96 Differences Between American And British Culture

Drinking alcohol profusely is encouraged at most work events and the
rejoicing together the next day with a unanimous hangover.

By

Whitney Kay Bacon, Contributor

Blogger and vlogger, gay rights activist & ultimate foodie.

09/28/2016 01:41pm EDT | Updated September 29, 2017

This post was published on the now-closed HuffPost Contributor platform. Contributors control their own work and
posted freely to our site. If you need to flag this entry as abusive, send us an email.
USA and ENGLAND flags together on the staff

Hi. My name is Whitney Kay Bacon, and I am an American who has been living in
England for nearly four and a half years now with my beautiful wife, Megan. I absolutely
love living in the UK, and it feels like a second home to me. Over the years I have
observed and naturally taken note of the differences between American and British
culture, some of which I've listed below.
1. The British are judged on which supermarket they shop at and the hierarchy often
goes like this: Waitrose/M&S, Sainsbury's, Tesco, Asda, Lidl, Aldi.
2. You may hear a British person ask for "tomato ketchup." As opposed to the onion
ketchup?
3. Getting "pissed" means drunk, but it can also mean angered. Confusing.
4. In restaurants, British people always insist on sitting by the window despite the views;
even if it's pouring (pissing*) down the rain and in the middle of a busy car park.
(*Another use of "pissed!")
5. If you don't ask your British colleagues if they would like a cup of tea or a coffee when
you go to make yours, then you instantly get the stink eye.
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6. Drinking alcohol profusely is encouraged at most work events and the rejoicing
together the next day with a unanimous hangover.
7. If you need to pee then it's a "wee," and if you need the bathroom then it's "the toilet"
or "loo."
8. The weather is a true topic of conversation, and you will discuss it with at least two
people every day. (I now actively join in with this.)
9. In addition, the weather is truly horrific as well, so it's interesting to discuss!
10. The roads are small and the cars are often smaller.
11. There's a high volume of hatchbacks on the road and the majority of people drive a
manual car. If you have a driving license to drive automatic, then you cannot drive a
manual. Oh, and an SUV is immediately called a 4x4.
12. Five-week paid vacations and amazing maternity leave is a real thing and does
exist. Hats off to the British for that.
13. Be prepared to pack your own shopping bags and being asked if you would like to
pay for a 5p bag (or upgrade to a "bag for life") otherwise you're left carrying your items
in your hands as all shopping bags now cost 5p to save the environment.
14. When greeting someone you may hear "you alright?" rather than "how are you?" It's
the same thing, but it can get confusing.
15. The British are brand savvy. The vacuum is called the "Hoover;" cream cheese is
"Philadelphia;"
16. Band aids are "plasters;"
17. Q-tips are "cotton buds."
18. Parking lots are called "car parks," and you will rarely find one that is free. Especially
at hospitals!
19. The doctor's office is known as the "GP Surgery." There are no operations happening
there! You have to go to A&E (accident and emergency), not the ER (emergency room.)
20. Nurses don't wear scrubs, and you'll often see them in the traditional uniform (still a
dress for women!)
21. British people don't say they have "errands to run," rather they have "things/ bits to
do."
22. The police don't carry guns; therefore, the general public do not carry guns (for the
majority.)
23. British people do not make small talk with strangers, and they would never strike up
conversation with someone on public transportation.
24. Occasions and get-togethers can sometimes drag on and end awkwardly because no
one likes to make excuses to leave.
25. Everyone talks about getting home extensions, and it's the norm as most houses are
very small in comparison to American-style homes.
26. The British do not embrace the fall (aka Autumn) and completely by-pass the
pumpkin spice craze like Americans. (Though thank you, Starbucks, for your Pumpkin
Spice Lattes!)
27. A large coke at McDonalds is equivalent to a medium in the states. A regular coke is
equivalent to a child's coke in a kids' meal.
28. There are only three main fast food restaurants, and those are McDonalds, Subway,
Burger King, and the occasional KFC.
29. You will rarely see drive-thru banks, Starbucks, fast-food restaurants etc.
30. It's called a "take away" rather than having "take out."
31. You rarely receive a lot of (if any) ice in your drink, British people would rather drink
a warm coke rather than ice as they see it dilutes their drink and/or they do not get as
much coke. This would be because there is no such thing as "free refills" (apart from
Nandos or American restaurants like TGI Friday's.)
32. Pickles are "gherkins" and "pickle" is a type of condiment.
33. Milk is put into coffee. There are no delicious endless flavors (flavours) of coffee
mate. Oh, how I miss Amaretto Coffee Mate. And Cool Whip.
34. Biscuits are essentially cookies and not delicious baked goods (though biscuits are
similar to scones, which you have with jam and clotted cream.) There is also a clear
distinction between what they see as biscuits and cookies in the UK.
35. Bath & Body Works does not exist here. Where am I meant to get my seasonal
candles?!
36. It's "jumpers," not "sweaters."
37. "AC" is known as "aircon" and it's not common to have in British homes and a lot of
pubs, shops or restaurants. There are hardly any ceiling fans either.
38. If it's cold, you turn on the radiators (which are attached to the wall), as opposed to
central heating.
39. Everyone loves Obama, hates Donald Trump and are unsure of Hillary. However the
choice for Hillary is still clear.
40. There are no plug-ins in the bathrooms, so good luck drying or straightening* your
hair in there. (*These are called GHD's, again its a brand thing.)
41. Stores are referred to as shops and grocery stores are supermarkets.
42. All 'shops' close early and it's not convenient at all to do any shopping after work
hours.

43. It's petrol, not gas, and it's by the litre not the gallon. You have to go inside the
'petrol station' to pay still, the pumps often still don't take card.
44. As the British are typically polite people, the rage can often come out in emails- aka
the keyboard warrior.
45. Also if you don't put any kisses 'xxx' at the end of a text/ email/ message to a friend/
loved one (or potential love interest) then they think you don't like them. They will
always put the same amount of kisses that you send them. You can analyse these to see if
they're mad at you also. No kiss means big trouble.
46. People read the newspaper on the tube to avoid small talk and eye contact.
47. As most British homes are incredibly old, you will find no built-in closets. You have
to buy them and they are called 'wardrobes'.
48. The 'garden' is your backyard and a garden, as Americans know it, is an 'allotment'.
49. It's weird to get a to-go box or a doggy bag at a restaurant. Typically, because you are
given the right amount of food per person.
50. The British follow the rules- no speeding, means no speeding. NO talking or texting
on your phone, means just that.
51. Eggs are not sold as refrigerated.
52. You rarely see pick-up trucks nor large American style cars.
53. The British value their time outside of work and do not hesitate to book holiday (aka
vacation) and take time off when needed.
54. It's rude not to comment on someone's tan after they've returned from holiday.
55. It's so easy and and can be cheap to go to Italy or Greece for the weekend.
56. No matter how rich or poor you are- your accent defines you.
57. Full stop = period.
58. It's not the norm to have a standard coffee pot, rather the British have great kettles
(the plug in kind, not the whistling kind).
59. The tea is superb and coffee in general isn't the best. You will find instant coffee in
most house holds.
60. British people will always use a knife and fork to eat their dinner. Some even eat ribs
and burgers with a knife and fork.
61. Fries are 'chips' and chips are 'crisps'.
62. KFC does not have mashed potato's, mac and cheese, green beans or biscuits- they
have fries as the main side.
63. Hidden Valley ranch has yet to arrive in the UK.
64. They do eat crumpets and they are delicious- especially with loads of butter and
mature cheddar (my personal fav).
65. The British love mature cheddar and it's the norm to always grate it freshly.
66. Having a dance is often called a 'boogie'.
67. Sweet corn, tuna and mayo are just some of the toppings you'll find on a jacket
potato (baked potato), along with baked beans and cheese.
68. Chips are typically served with steak, no matter how 'posh' the restaurant. Often
triple cooked aka thrice cooked.
69. The date is the opposite way round (day, month, year)
70. They drive on the left side of the road so make sure you look correctly when crossing.
You can't make a turn on red, even if its clear. You'll come across many roundabouts.
71. Jay Walking isn't illegal, they just go for it, but they'll often wait patiently at the zebra
crossing.
72. If you watch TV then you must pay a monthly bill for your TV, it's called a TV
licence.
73. VAT (tax) is already included in your purchase. So if something is £0.99, it's simply
that.
74. They pronounce a fillet (as in steak) like 'fill-it' rather than 'feel-lay').
75. They have separate boys and girls schools, and the uniforms to go with it.
76. A fag is known as a cigarette and it's not an offensive term in this context. Therefore,
you'll often hear men say "I'm going out for a fag".
77. No one really knows what a typical grilled cheese sandwich is, instead they'll have
cheese grilled on toast, or a 'toasty' (toasted sandwich).
78. You would 'grill' something in the oven rather than 'broil' it.
79. British bacon is amazing, and there is nothing better than a bacon sandwich aka
bacon roll, bacon sarnie, bacon bap.
80. Baked beans are a typical breakfast favourite and you'll often find it in a "cooked
breakfast," along with scrambled egg, sausages, bacon, fried mushrooms, hash browns
and fried bread. There may also be black pudding, which is essentially a blood sausage
(no, thanks.)
81. Baked beans and cheese on toast is a normal thing the Brit's eat.
82. Coke has real sugar in it, rather than high fructose corn syrup.
83. Built-in swimming pools and hot tubs are rare due to space.
84. It's taboo not to take a holiday.
85. In the winter, it starts to gets dark at 3:45pm, however in the summer it doesn't get
fully dark until after 10:00pm.
86. Apart from fish and chips, Indian food is probably the most loved dish -- it is
delicious. Chicken tikka masala is actually a British dish!
87. Deliveroo was founded in UK by an American due to the lack of great quality food
that you can get delivered. They now deliver restaurant food to your house on bicycles --
amazing!
88. You often get paid once a month vs bi weekly.
89. If a food is "quite" good to a British person, then they hate it.
90. Health care is free, which is awesome.
91. The idea of painkillers in the UK is different and mainly consist of ibuprofen and
paracetamol. For instance, "I just broke my leg." "Here, take some ibuprofen."
92. Time is an interesting one -- it's a 24-hour clock and it's rare to hear the exact time.
It's either 'half past', 'quarter past', or 'quarter to'.
93. You can't buy milk by the gallon rather it's by the pint.
94. Going to the movies is "going to the cinema" and you cannot get freshly popped
popcorn, or melted butter. (It's often dry and stale, you can only get salt or sweet.)
95. There are no mailboxes, just letter boxes built within the front door.
96. Brits will cheers to a toast, but they will also say "cheers" to say thanks, and
sometimes goodbye.
 Capitalization
What is capitalization in writing?

Capitalization (North American English) or capitalisation (British English) is writing a word with its first
letter as a capital letter (uppercase letter) and the remaining letters in lower case, in writing systems
with a case distinction. The term also may refer to the choice of the casing applied to text.

What are the types of capitalization?

Capitalisation may be of 3 types. They are over capitalisation,

under capitalisation and fair capitalisation. Among these three over capitalisation is
likely to be of frequent occurrence and practical interest.

At first glance, the rules of English capitalization seem simple. You probably know
you should capitalize proper nouns and the first word of every sentence. But you also
(sometimes) capitalize the first word of a quote. Usually you don’t capitalize after a
colon, but there are exceptions. And what do you do when you’re not sure whether
something is a proper noun?

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing always looks great? Grammarly can save you from
misspellings, grammatical and punctuation mistakes, and other writing issues on all your favorite
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English Capitalization Rules:

1 Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

This one’s easy. Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.

The cat is sleeping.

Where did I put that book?

Hey! It’s great to see you! How have you been?

2 Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns

You should always capitalize people’s names.

My favorite author is Jane Austen.

Tom and Diane met at Judy’s house.

Have you met my dog, Boomer?

Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, countries, companies, religions, and
political parties are also proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.

We experienced some beautiful Southern California weather last fall when we attended a Catholic
wedding in San Diego.

You should also capitalize words like mom and grandpa when they are used as a form
of address.

Just wait until Mom sees this!

But

My mom is not going to like this.

3 Don’t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)

In most cases, you don’t need to capitalize after a colon.

I have one true passion: wombat racing.

There are a couple of common exceptions. One is when the word following the colon
is a proper noun.

There is only one place I want to visit: New York City.

The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more
complete sentences.

Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times for these two reasons: Strong light often gives her a headache.
She also likes the way it looks.

4 Capitalize the First Word of a Quote (Sometimes)

Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence.

Mario asked, “What is everyone doing this weekend?”

Stacy answered, “My sister and I are going to the water park.”

Don’t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.

Gretchen said she was “way too busy” to join the gym.

Mr. Thompson described the rules as “extremely difficult to understand if you don’t have a law degree.”

5 Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, But Not Seasons

The names of days, months, and holidays are proper nouns, so you should capitalize
them.

I hate Mondays!

Tom’s birthday is in June.

Oh no! I forgot about Valentine’s Day!

The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to capitalize
them.
I hate winter!

Having a summer birthday is the best.

6 Capitalize Most Words in Titles

The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works vary a little
between style guides. In general, you should capitalize the first word, all nouns, all
verbs (even short ones, like is), all adjectives, and all proper nouns. That means you
should lowercase articles, conjunctions, and prepositions—however, some style
guides say to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions that are longer than five letters.

Sense and Sensibility is better than Pride and Prejudice.

The first movie of the series is Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone.

7 Capitalize Cities, Countries, Nationalities, and Languages

The names of cities, countries, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns, so you
should capitalize them.

English is made up of many languages, including Latin, German, and French.

My mother is British, and my father is Dutch.

The capital of Botswana is Gaborone.

8 Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes)

Specific periods, eras, and historical events that have proper names should be
capitalized.

Most of the World War I veterans are now deceased.

In the Middle Ages, poor hygiene was partly responsible for the spreading of bubonic plague.

Middle school students often enjoy studying the social changes that took place during the Roaring
Twenties.
However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England blossomed into an empire.

Capitalization Rules

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the
remaining letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It
is best not to use them if there is any doubt.

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a
period.

Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip

With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns
have taken on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require
capitalization.

Examples:
herculean (from the mythological hero Hercules)
quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)
draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)
 The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within
any group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle
of the country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which
distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.

Capitalization Reference List

 Brand names
 Companies
 Days of the week and months of the year
 Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the
Electoral College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not
capitalize federal or state unless it is part of the official title: State Water
Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal Communications
Commission, but federal regulations.
 Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
 Holidays
 Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
 Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
 Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
 Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
 Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
 Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
 Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
 capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed
specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700
miles per hour.
 Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African
American (Note: white and black in reference to race are lowercase)
 Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the
devil, satanic.
 Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
 Streets and roads

Lowercase Reference List

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper

noun or proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the
proper noun or adjective is capitalized.

 Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German
shepherd
 Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper
noun: einsteinium, nobelium, californium
 Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-
named recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin
tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
 Heavenly bodies besides planets
Never capitalize the moon or the sun.
 Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
 Minerals
 Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious
apples
 Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving
time

Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does

the Iraq war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not
the Hope diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does
the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't
always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books
and search engines is the best strategy.

In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they
capitalize any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's
Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or
a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply
describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to
determine where a brand name ends. There is Time magazine but also
the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue with Coca-Cola or Pepsi
Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.

If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone),

many authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.

Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.

Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is
followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or
instead of a name.

Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a
special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney
General Dalloway will attend.

NOTE

Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest
ranks in government, royalty, religion, etc.

Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.

Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country

where, theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.

Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations
before full names.

Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
 owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes

Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example
is general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same
with professor: the Associated Press Stylebook considers professor a job
description rather than a title, and recommends using lowercase even before
the full name: professor Robert Ames.

However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.

Example: Here comes Professor Ames.

Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The
more formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.

Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister.
Good afternoon, sweetheart.

Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they
immediately precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place
of a personal name.

Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.
However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with
possessive nouns or pronouns, or when they follow the personal name, or
when they do not refer to a specific person.

Examples:
My mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks well.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.

Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.

Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.

Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of

the compass.

Examples:
We had three relatives visit from the West.
Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United
States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.

Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:

Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side.
 I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.

Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.

Examples:
We visited the Grand Canyon.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.

In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official

title, it may be capitalized.

Example: We visited The Hague.

Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes

before the proper name.

Examples:
the city of New York
New York City
the county of Marin
Marin County

Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even
midsentence.

Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."

Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will
win."
Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence
independent clause or question.

Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?

Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general
academic subjects.

Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.

Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.

Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract

Expressionism.

Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.

Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.

For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.

Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."

Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of

books, plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing
matter, and policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the "important"
words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?

The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.
 Capitalize the title's first and last word.
 Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
 Capitalize all pronouns (including it).
 Capitalize all verbs, including the verb to be in all forms (is, are, was, has
been, etc.).
 Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O
Lord?).
 Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so)
unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or
last in the title.

Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short
conjunctions (e.g., as, if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by
others.

A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press

Stylebook recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters
(e.g., with, about, across). Other authorities advise lowercase until a
preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to capitalize any
preposition, even big words like regarding or underneath.

Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules,
except to always capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be
capitalized, such as to in My To-go Order (some would write My To-Go
Order). Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to capitalize words
following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-
Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be
capped in titles (Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).

Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after
the work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the
subtitle.
 Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage

Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.

Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital
letters: THE STUFF OF THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the
subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides would agree that the main
title should be written, The Stuff of Thought. But depending on which
capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of the following:

Language As a Window Into Human Nature

Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature
Language as a Window into Human Nature

Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you
capitalize a title such as not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title
are always capitalized, the only question is whether to cap yet. In this
case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are always capped. So make it Not Yet
Rich.

Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven
coordinating conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since
coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich
yet Miserable.

Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a
Balloon. In the first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not
capitalized. In the second title, Up is an adverb and should be capped.

Along the same lines, compare the following three sentences: I Got It off the
Internet, Please Put It Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first
example, the preposition off is lowercase. But the word must be capped in the
second example because put off, meaning "to postpone," is a two-word
phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words). One-word verbs, helping verbs,
and phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also capped in the third
sentence because the word functions as an adjective in that title, and
adjectives are always capitalized.

Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may
have noticed there are many more than seven conjunctions in English. Most
of these are called subordinating conjunctions, because they join a
subordinate clause to a main clause. Familiar examples
include as, although, before, since, until, when.

There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize

them all, lowercase them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters
or more. Take your pick.

Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be
consistent.

10 capitalization rules every writer

should know
From the very basic rules to the very commonly broken ones in corporate America.

If you were standing outside my office door, you would hear a loud banging noise. That’s my
head banging on my desk out of sheer frustration. The reason?Capitalization.

I have documents to edit that are filled with words that shouldn’t be capitalized—such as
“federal,” “state,” “statutes,” “deadlines,” “laws”—but are uppercase. I have documents to edit
that are filled with words that should be capitalized—such as “West Texas” and “Supreme
Court”—but are not.

So to keep the head banging to a minimum, let’s go through the rules of capitalization.

1. Capitalize the first word in a sentence.

This is the most basic rule of capitalization.

2. Capitalize the pronoun “I.”

Another basic one, but in today’s text-message driven world, it bears mentioning.

3. Capitalize proper nouns: the names of specific people, places, organizations, and
sometimes things.

For instance, “Austin, Texas,” “Patrick O’Brian,” “Ragan Communications,” “Supreme Court.”

This seems to be the rule that trips up many people because they don’t know whether a word is a
proper noun. But as the AP Stylebook points out:

“Capitalize nouns that constitute the unique identification for a specific person, place, or thing:
John, Mary, America, Boston, England. Some words, such as the examples given, are always
proper nouns. Some common nouns receive proper noun status when they are used as the name
of a particular entity: General Electric, Gulf Oil.”

There are also derivatives of proper nouns. Capitalize words that are derived from a proper noun
and still depend on it for their meaning, such as “American,” “French,” and “Shakespearean.”

But lower case words that are derived from proper nouns that no longer depend on it for their
meaning: “french fries,” “pasteurize,” “darwinian.”

4. Capitalize family relationships when used as proper nouns.

Capitalize “Uncle John,” and “Grandma Jesse,” but leave it lower case when it’s not referring to
a person’s name. For instance, “We visit my cousin every Christmas.”

5. Capitalize titles that appear before names, but not after names.

This is perhaps the greatest capitalization crime in corporate America. Remember, it’s “President
of Writing Advice Laura Brockway” or “Laura Brockway, president of writing advice,” not the
other way around.

6. Capitalize directions that are names; North, South, East, and West when used as sections
of the country, but not as compass directions.

So capitalize “The Pacific Northwest” and “Central Texas,” but not “We drove west for two
hours.”

7. Capitalize the days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays, but not the seasons
used generally.

However, seasons are capitalized when used as a proper title. Some examples:
• “I will attend that conference in the fall.”
• “I have registered for three classes for Spring Semester 2013.”
• “We celebrate Valentine’s Day in July.”

8. Capitalize members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups.

For instance, “Texas Longhorns,” “Libertarians,” “Chinese.”

9. Capitalize periods and events, but not century numbers.

So that would be “Victorian Era” and “Great Depression,” and “first century.”

10. Capitalize trademarks.

Examples would be “Subaru,” “Coca-Cola,” “Apple.”

Remember to follow the sage advice of “The AP Stylebook”: “In general, avoid unnecessary
capitals. Use a capital letter only if you can justify it by one of the principles listed here.” And
when in doubt about a word that doesn’t fit under any of these rules, check the dictionary.

Ragan.com readers, any other capitalization rules you would like to share?

Laura Hale Brockway is a medical writer and editor from Austin, Texas. She is also the author
of the writing/editing/random thoughts blog, impertinentremarks.com.

(Image via)

TOPICS: WRITING & EDITING

8 Rules of Capitalization
Elementary SchoolMiddleSchoolHigh School

Most of the words we capitalize in English are what we call proper nouns. They're the names of
specific, unique things like Mount Fuji, Idaho, or your friend David. Meanwhile, when you're talking
about a common thing of which there are many - like mountains or states - you don't need a capital
letter for those words.
Of course, most grammar rules are not this cut and dry. So, let's review some of the most important
rules of capitalization. They'll provide a nice foundation for much of your future writing.
1. The First Letter in a Sentence
It's important to always capitalize the first letter of a sentence. This is perhaps the easiest and most
straightforward of the capitalization rules, as there are virtually no exceptions or other complications.
If it's the first word in a sentence, capitalize it.

2. The First Word in Quotations

If the sentence is a quotation within a larger sentence, capitalize it, but only if it's a complete
sentence. If it's merely a phrase that fits neatly into the larger sentence, it doesn't require
capitalization. Here are some examples:
 The waiter said, "My manager will be here shortly," but he never came.
 Ernest Hemingway famously said, "The way to learn whether a person is trustworthy is to trust
him."
 The waiter told us that his manager would "be here shortly," but he never came.
 Hemingway said the way to learn if someone is "trustworthy" is "to trust him."
For more on that, here's How to Use Quotation Marks.

3. Titles of People
This one may seem obvious, but there's also a catch. Of course, you capitalize the first letter of a
person's first, middle, and last names (John Quincy Adams), but you also capitalize suffixes (like Jr.,
the Great, or Princess of Power) and titles.
Titles can be as simple as Mr., Mrs. or Dr., but they also apply to situations wherein you address a
person by his or her position as though it were part of their name.
For example, when we talk about President Abraham Lincoln, we're using his role as though it were
a title, not a job description. However, we wouldn't capitalize the word president if it wasn't being
used as a title. For example: "During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln was the president of the
United States."

4. Job Titles
When capitalizing general job titles, look at the position of the job title relative to the person's name.
This will help you know if it should be capitalized or not.
 As we saw above, you should capitalize the title when it comes immediately before someone's
name. For example, "While I was an intern, I got to shadow Senior Marketing Director Sam
Jones for a day."
 You don't capitalize the job title if it is separated from the name, such as by a comma or the
word "the." For example, "Dr. Rogers was the cardiac surgeon on call."
Capitalize people's titles if they come before the person's name or are used instead of the person's real
name. For example, the Honorable Judge Eugene Crane may be called "Judge Crane" or simply
"Judge." Always capitalize his title, "Judge." Be sure to capitalize titles if used in direct address, such
as, "Will my dog be okay, Doctor?"
5. The Pronoun "I"
It's only necessary to capitalize other pronouns when they begin a sentence. However, the pronoun
"I" is always capitalized, no matter where it falls in a line. For example:
I don't know about you, but I would wait for it to go on sale.

6. Proper Nouns
Proper nouns, by definition, need to be capitalized. It's what differentiates them from common nouns.
So, a common noun would be tower. But a proper noun would be the Eiffel Tower. Specific people,
places, or things will generally be capitalized. Here are more examples:
 Names of mountains, mountain ranges, hills, and volcanoes (e.g., Mt. Olympus and Mount
Vesuvius)
 Cities and countries (e.g., Austin and Argentina)
 Names of bodies of water, including rivers, lakes, oceans, seas, streams, and creeks (e.g.,
Mississippi River and Muscogee Creek)
 Names of buildings, monuments, bridges, and tunnels (e.g., the Statue of Liberty and Holland
Tunnel)
 Street names (e.g., Manhattan Avenue and Oxford Street)
 Days, months, and holidays (e.g., Monday, May, and Christmas)
 Schools, colleges, and universities (e.g., Harvard University and Boston College)
 Political divisions, including continents, regions, states, counties, and towns (e.g., North
America and the Wayne County)
 Nationalities and languages (e.g., French and English)

7. Closing a Letter
When we sign off on letters, we generally close with a valediction like, "Sincerely" or "Yours truly."
The first word in these farewell words or complimentary close should be capitalized, just like the
beginning of a sentence. For example:
Wishing you all the best,
Sarah Smith
If you'd like to include your title after your name, that must be capitalized too. For example:
Yours truly,
Marie Kittelstad, Professor Emeritus
The signature is only one important component in a letter. For the full picture, here's How to Write a
Letter.
8. Book and Movie Titles
Books, movies, poems, and other creative works often require capitalization. If you have a future as a
blogger, you might choose to capitalize the headers in your articles. There are two primary ways to
draft headers in an online article.

Title Case
You can use title case, where you capitalize:
 the first word
 adjectives
 nouns
 verbs
 the last word
Meanwhile, you generally don't want to capitalize:
 articles
 conjunctions
 prepositions
The first letter of a work of art is always capitalized, even if it's an article, preposition or conjunction.
For example, consider The Glass Menagerie, A Few Good Men, and Of Mice and Men. The last word
of these titles always receives a capital too (like Fools Rush In). Articles, conjunctions, and
prepositions of four characters or more may also be capitalized (e.g., One Flew Over the Cuckoo's
Nest and Spider-Man: Far From Home).
Here's the low-down on all the Rules for Capitalization in Titles of Articles.

Sentence Case
On the other hand, you can opt for sentence case instead. In this instance, you'll only capitalize the
first word of your header and write the rest as a sentence (but without the terminal punctuation, or
period).

When Not to Capitalize

A place where words are commonly capitalized and (generally) shouldn't be capitalized is after a
colon. Colons are often used before the introduction of a list. In this case, they're usually not
introducing a complete sentence and, as such, shouldn't be capitalized. For example:
Here's her favorite reading material: books, magazines, and travel guides.
Don't stress too much about colons. We break down the five most important rules of colon
usage here.
Similarly, you generally don't capitalize after a semicolon. Even though a semicolon can be used to
separate two independent clauses, they're considered a part of the same sentence. For example:
Dad has always been a strict disciplinarian; however, he made an exception this time.
Remember how we capitalize days, months, and holidays? That remains true. However, don't let
seasons fall into the same category. We don't need to capitalize "winter," "spring," "summer," or
"fall" unless it's part of a title.

Remembering the Rules

How can you possibly remember all these rules? Are you a fan of mnemonic devices? They're
phrases that help people remember key information. Take a look at this sentence to help you
remember each category:
For Bob Barker, the price is sometimes wrong, Mom says.
The first letter of each word stands for a category:
 F - First letter in a sentence
 B - Buildings (and other man-made structures)
 B - Borders (of regions, states, countries, etc.)
 T - Titles
 P - People
 I-I
 S - Schools
 W - Water
 M - Mountains
 S - Streets
Alternatively, you can remember this sentence. It features the same initial letters, just not in the same
order:
Susan Sarandon bought my wife fancy toilet paper in Boston.

Correct Your Capitalization

No matter what you write, there will be moments when you'll have to decide whether or not to
capitalize a word. You can do it! It only takes a little bit of practice and, the more you read and write,
the more these rules will stick.
Once you feel like a capitalization pro, check out these Special Cases for Capitalization. Every heard
of capitonyms? They're the snowflakes of the English language that change meaning when you
capitalize them. Have fun out there!

Building names are capitalized.

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Related articles on YourDictionary


What Are the 14 Punctuation Marks in English Grammar?


Rules for Capitalization in Titles of Articles


Special Cases for Capitalization

 More articles

CAPITALIZATION RULES

Capitalize . . .

1. the first word of a sentence

EXAMPLE
2. proper nouns

 names of relatives (to indicate family relationship) when used with name

EXAMPLE

 names of relatives when used as proper name

|
EXAMPLE

 titles

A. preceding a name

EXAMPLE

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize titles that follow names.

 EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize titles used as general words.

B. when used in direct address

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR TITLES

Capitalize very high ranking government officials' titles even when not
followed by a name or used in direct address when a specific individual is
referred to.

EXAMPLES
If no specific individual is referred to, do not capitalize titles of even very
high ranking government officials.

EXAMPLE

Capitalize important words in compound titles used with names, but do

not capitalize prefixes or suffixes added to the titles.

EXAMPLES
3. major words in titles of books, articles, and songs

EXAMPLE

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize short prepositions, conjunctions, or

articles unless they are the first word of the title
 EXAMPLES

4. names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

EXAMPLES

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."

5. directions that are names, such as North, South, East, and West when
used as sections of the country
 EXAMPLE

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize directions when used as compass

directions

6. days of the week, months of the year, and holidays

EXAMPLES

7. seasons, when used in a title

EXAMPLE
 EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the names of seasons if they are used
generally.

8. countries, nationalities, and specific languages

EXAMPLES

9. periods and events

EXAMPLES

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize century numbers

10. names of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

EXAMPLES

11. trademarks

EXAMPLES

12. the first word in a sentence that is a direct quote, even if the direct quote
comes in the middle of a sentence

EXAMPLE
13. the first word of a sentence following a colon

EXAMPLE

EXCEPTION - Do not capitalize the first word of a list following a colon if

the list is not a complete sentence.

14. The first word in each line of most poetry

EXAMPLE

15. the single-letter word, first person pronoun I.

 EXAMPLE

16. salutations and closings in letters - first word only unless proper name is
used

EXAMPLES

17. initials, initialisms, and acronyms

EXAMPLES

18. names of the planets

EXAMPLES
 NOTE - Experts disagree about whether to capitalize earth,
sun, and moon. For consistency, this author suggests capitalizing them
when they are used to designate celestial bodies.

Model No. 1

Part One Part Two Part Three Part Four

I, WE, YOU I CAN DO I CAN DO WH- WORDS

YOU, HE, SHE I CAN NOT DO I COULD DO WHAT

THEY, MAN CAN I DO? I SHALL DO WHEN

FATHER, MOTHER CANNOT I DO? I SHOULD DO WHY

NATION, MOBILE WHAT I CAN DO? I WILL DO HOW

EDUCATION WHAT I CAN NOT DO? I WOULD DO WHOM

COMPUTER WHAT CAN IDO? I MAYDO WHO

TECHNOLOGY WHAT CAN NOT I DO? I MIGHT DO WHO

ELECTRICITY I OUGHT TO DO WHICH

HONESTY, POVERTY I USED TO DO WHOSE

ILLETERACY I NEED TO DO HOW MANY

TEACHER, WORKER I DARE DO HOW MUCH

IMMIGRANT I MUST DO WHETHER

TOTAL
List of verbs
ACT FEEL THINK
B FIGHT OBEY
BAD FIND UNDERSTAND
BEAR FORGET PLAY
BECOME FORGIVE WAKE
BEGIN READ WEAR
BRING GET REPOSE WIN
BUILD GIVE RUN WRITE
BURN GO WALK
BUY GORGET SAW
GROW SEE
CAT SELL
CATCH HEAR SEND
COME HIT SING
CONVINCE KEEP SIT
CUT KEEP SLEEP
KNOW SPEAK
DRAW SPREAD
DRIVE LIKE STAND
LOVE
EAT TAKE
MAKE TEACH
FEED MEET TELL

122