Audio Transformers Chapter

Audio Transformers
by
Bill Whitlock
Jensen Transformers, Inc.
9304 Deering Avenue
Chatsworth, CA 91311
This work first published by Focal Press in 2001 as

Chapter 11
Handbook for Sound Engineers, Third Edition
Glen Ballou, Editor
Copyright © 2001, 2006 Bill Whitlock

All rights reserved
Bill W hitlock Audio Transformers Page 1
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition
1 Audio Transformer Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Basic Principles and Term inology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.1.1 Magnetic Fields and Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 W indings and Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Excitation Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Realities of Practical Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Core Materials and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 W inding Resistances and Auto-Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Leakage Inductance and W inding Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 W inding Capacitances and Faraday Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 General Application Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Maximum Signal Level, Distortion, and Source Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Sources with Zero Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.5 Bi-Directional Reflection of Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.6 Transformer Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.7 Basic Classification by Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Audio Transformers for Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1 Equipm ent-Level Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1.1 Microphone Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Line Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.3 Moving Coil Phono Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.4 Line Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.5 Inter-Stage and Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.6 Microphone Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 System-Level Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Microphone Isolation or “Splitter” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Microphone Impedance Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Line to Microphone Input or “Direct Box” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.4 Line Isolation or “Hum Eliminators” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.5 Speaker Distribution or “Constant Voltage” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.6 Telephone Isolation or “Repeat Coil” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.7 Telephone Directional Coupling or “Hybrid” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.8 Moving Coil Phono Step-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 M easurements and Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1 Testing and Measurem ents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.1.1 Transmission Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.2 Balance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.3 Resistances, Capacitances, and Other Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.1 Data to Impress or to Inform? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.2 Comprehensive Data Sheet Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4 Installation and M aintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1 A Few Installation Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.2 De-Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1 Audio Transformer Basics

Since the birth of audio electronics, the audio transformer has played an important role. W hen compared to modern miniaturized
electronics, a transformer seems large, heavy, and expensive but it continues to be the most effective solution in many audio
applications. The usefulness of a transformer lies in the fact that electrical energy can be transferred from one circuit to another
without direct connection, and in the process the energy can be readily changed from one voltage level to another. Although a
transformer is not a complex device, considerable explanation is required to properly understand how it operates. This chapter is
intended to help the audio system engineer properly select and apply transformers. In the interest of simplicity, only basic concepts
of their design and manufacture will be discussed.
1.1 Basic Principles and Terminology
1.1.1 Magnetic Fields and Induction
As shown in Figure 1, a magnetic field is created around any

conductor (wire) in which current flows. The strength of the
field is directly proportional to current. These invisible magnetic
lines of force, collectively called flux, are set up at right angles
to the wire and have a direction, or magnetic polarity, which
depends on the direction of current flow. Note that although the
flux around the upper and lower wires have different directions,
the lines inside the loop aid because they point in the same
direction. If an alternating current flows in the loop, the
instantaneous intensity and polarity of the flux will vary at the Figure 2 - AC Magnetic Field
same frequency and in direct proportion to the instantaneous
current. W e can visualize this flux, represented by the concentric circles in Figure 2, as expanding,
contracting, and reversing in polarity with each cycle of the ac current. The law of induction states
Figure 1 - Magnetic Field that a voltage will be induced in a conductor exposed to changing flux
Surrounding Conductor and that the induced voltage will be proportional to the rate of the flux
change. This voltage has an instantaneous polarity which opposes the
original current flow in the wire, creating an apparent resistance called inductive reactance. Inductive
reactance is calculated according to the formula X L = 2ðfL, where X L is inductive reactance in ohms, f
is frequency in Hz, and L is inductance in Henries. An inductor generally consists of many turns or
loops of wire called a coil, as shown in Figure 3, which links and concentrates magnetic flux lines,
increasing the flux density. The inductance of any given coil is determined by factors such as the
number of turns, the physical dimensions and nature of the winding, and the properties of materials in
the path of the magnetic flux. Figure 3 - Coil
Concentrates Flux
According to the law of induction, a voltage will be induced in any conductor (wire) that cuts
flux lines. Therefore, if we place two coils near each other as shown in Figure 4, an ac
current in one coil will induce an ac voltage in the second coil. This is the essential principle
of energy transfer in a transformer. Because they require a changing magnetic field to
operate, transformers will not work at dc. In an ideal transformer, the magnetic coupling
between the two coils is total and complete, i.e., all the flux lines from one cut across all the
turns of the other. The coupling coefficient is said to be unity or 1.00.
1.1.2 Windings and Turns Ratio Figure 4 - Inductive Coupling
The coil or winding that is driven by an electrical source is called the primary and the other is called the secondary. The ratio of
the number of turns on the primary to the number of turns on the secondary is called the turns ratio. Since essentially the same
voltage is induced in each turn of each winding, the primary to secondary voltage ratio is the same as the turns ratio. For example,
with 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, the turns ratio is 2:1. Therefore, if 20 volts were applied to the
primary, 10 volts would appear at the secondary. Since it reduces voltage, this transformer would be called a step-down
transformer. Conversely, a transformer with a turns ratio of 1:2 would be called a step-up transformer since its secondary voltage
would be twice that of the primary. Since a transformer does not create power, the power output from the secondary of an ideal
transformer can only equal (and in a real transformer only be less than) the power input to the primary. Consider an ideal 1:2 step-
up transformer. W hen 10 volts is applied to its primary, 20 volts appears at its secondary. Since no current is drawn by the
primary, its impedance appears to be infinite or an open circuit. W hen a 20 Ù load is connected to the secondary, a current of 1
amp flows making output power equal 20 watts. At the same time, a current of 2 amps is drawn by the primary, making input
power equal 20 watts. Since the primary is now drawing 2 amps with 10 volts applied, its impedance appears to be 5 Ù. In other
words, the 20 Ù load impedance on the secondary has been reflected to the primary as 5 Ù. In this example, a transformer with a
1:2 turns ratio exhibited an impedance ratio of 1:4. Transformers always reflect impedances from one winding to another by the
square of the their turns ratio or, expressed as a formula: Zp/Zs = (Np/Ns) 2 where Zp is primary impedance, Zs is secondary
impedance, and Np/Ns is turns ratio (which is the same as the voltage ratio).
The direction in which coils are wound, i.e., clockwise or counter-clockwise, and/or the connections to the start or finish of each
winding determines the instantaneous polarity of the ac voltages. All windings which are wound in the same direction will have
the same polarity between start and finish ends. Therefore, relative to the primary, polarity can be inverted by either (1) winding
the primary and secondary in opposite directions, or (2) reversing the start and finish connections to either winding. In schematic
symbols for transformers, dots are sometimes used to indicate which ends of windings have the same polarity. Observing polarity
is essential when making series or parallel connections to transformers with multiple windings. Taps are connections made at any
intermediate point in a winding. If 50 turns are wound, an electrical connection brought out, and another 50 turns completes the
winding for example, the 100-turn winding is said to be center-tapped.
1.1.3 Excitation Current
As shown in Figure 5, when there is no load on the

secondary of a transformer and an ac voltage is
applied to the primary, an excitation current will flow
in the primary creating magnetic excitation flux
around the winding. In theory, the current is due only
Figure 5 - Excitation Current to the inductive reactance of the primary winding. In Figure 6 - Cancellation of Flux
accordance with Ohm’s law and the formula for Generated by Load Current
inductive reactance, I E = E P ÷ 2ðfL P where I E is excitation current in amperes, E P is
primary voltage in volts, f is frequency in Hz, and L P is primary inductance in Henries. In an ideal transformer, primary inductance
would be infinite, making excitation current zero. As shown in Figure 6,
when a load is connected, current will flow in the secondary winding.
Because secondary current flow is in the opposite direction, it creates
magnetic flux which opposes the excitation flux. This causes the
impedance of the primary winding to drop, resulting in additional current
being drawn from the driving source, which creates additional flux just
sufficient to completely cancel that created by the secondary. The result,
which may surprise some, is that flux density in a transformer is not
increased by load current. This also illustrates how load current on the
secondary is reflected to the primary.
Figure 7 illustrates the relationships between voltage, excitation current,

and flux in a transformer as frequency is changed. The horizontal scale is
time. The primary voltage Ep is held at a constant voltage as the frequency
is tripled and then tripled again. For example, the left waveform could
represent one cycle at 100 Hz, the middle 300 Hz, and the right 900 Hz.
Because of the primary inductance, excitation current Ip will decrease
linearly with frequency, i.e., halving for every doubling in frequency or
decreasing at 6 dB per octave. The magnitude of the magnetic flux will
likewise decrease exactly the same way. Note that the inductance causes a
90-degree phase lag as well. Since the slew rate of a constant amplitude
sine wave increases linearly with frequency, i.e., doubling for every
doubling in frequency or increasing at 6 dB per octave, the resultant flux
rate of change remains constant. Note that the slope of the Ip and flux
waveforms stays constant as frequency is changed. Since, according to the
law of induction, the voltage induced in the secondary is proportional to
this slope or rate of change, frequency response will be uniform or “flat.”
Figure 7 - Excitation Current and Flux

Vary Inversely with Frequency
1.2 Realities of Practical Transformers
Thus far, we have not considered the unavoidable parasitic elements which exist in any practical transformer. Even the design of a
relatively simple 60 Hz power transformer must take them into account. The design of an audio transformer operating over a 20
Hz to 20 kHz frequency range is much more difficult because these elements often interact in complex ways. For example,
materials and techniques which improve low-frequency performance are often detrimental to high-frequency performance and
vice-versa. Good transformer designs must consider both the surrounding electronic circuitry and the performance ramifications of
internal design tradeoffs.
A schematic representation of the major low-frequency

parasitic elements in a generalized transformer is shown
in Figure 8. The “ ID EAL XFM R ” represents a perfect
transformer having a turns ratio of 1:N and no parasitic
elements of any kind. The actual transformer is
connected at the “ PRI” terminals to the driving voltage
source, through its source impedance RG, and at the
“ SEC ” terminals to the load RL. Figure 8 - Transformer Low-Frequency Parasitic Elements
One of the main goals in the design of any transformer is to reduce the excitation current in the primary winding to negligible
levels so as not to become a significant load on the driving source. At a given source voltage and frequency, primary excitation
current can be reduced only by increasing inductance LP. In the context of normal electronic circuit impedances, very large values
of inductance are required for satisfactory operation at the lowest audio frequencies. Of course, inductance can be raised by using
a very large number of coil turns but, for reasons discussed later, there are practical limits due to other considerations. Another
way to increase inductance by a factor of 10,000 or more is to wind the coil around certain highly magnetic materials.
1.2.1 Core Materials and Construction
Magnetic circuits are quite similar to electric circuits. As shown in Figure 11, magnetic flux always takes a closed path from one
magnetic pole to the other and, like an electric current, always favors the paths of highest conductivity or least resistance. The
equivalent of applied voltage in magnetic circuits is magnetizing force, symbolized H. It is directly proportional to “ampere-turns”
(coil current I times its number of turns N) and inversely proportional to the flux path length R in the magnetic circuit. The
equivalent of electric current flow is flux density, symbolized B. It is measured as the number of magnetic flux lines per square
unit of area. A graphic plot of the relationship between field intensity and flux density is shown in Figure 9 and is referred to a the
“B-H loop” or “hysteresis loop” for a given material. In the United States, the most commonly used units for magnetizing force
and flux density are the Oersted and Gauss, respectively, which are CGS (centimeter, gram, second) units. In Europe, the SI
(Système International) units amperes per meter and Tesla, respectively, are more common. The slope of the B-H loop indicates
how an incremental increase in applied magnetizing force changes the resulting flux density. This slope is effectively a measure of
conductivity in the magnetic circuit and is called permeability, symbolized ì. Any material inside a coil, which can also serve as a
form to support it, is called a core. By definition, the permeability of air is 1.00 and common “non-magnetic” materials such as
aluminum, brass, copper, paper, glass, and plastic also have a permeability of 1 for practical purposes. The permeability of some
common “ferro-magnetic” materials is about 300 for ordinary steel, about 5,000 for 4% silicon transformer steel, and up to about
100,000 for some nickel-iron-molybdenum alloys. Because such materials concentrate magnetic flux, they greatly increase the
inductance of a coil. Audio transformers must utilize both high-permeability cores and the largest practical number of coil turns to
create high primary inductance. Coil inductance increases as the square of the number of turns and in direct proportion to the
permeability of the core and can be approximated using the formula: L = 3.2 N 2 ì A / 10 8 R where L = inductance in Henries, N =
number of coil turns, ì = permeability of core, A = cross-section area of core in square inches, and R = mean flux path length in
inches.
The permeability of magnetic materials varies with flux

density. As shown in Figure 9, when magnetic field
intensity becomes high, the material can saturate,
essentially losing its ability to conduct any additional
flux. As a material saturates, its permeability decreases
until, at complete saturation, its permeability becomes
that of air or 1. In audio transformer applications,
magnetic saturation causes low-frequency harmonic
distortion to increase steadily for low-frequency signals
as they increase in level beyond a threshold. In general,
materials with a higher permeability tend to saturate at a
lower flux density. In general, permeability also varies
inversely with frequency.
Magnetic hysteresis can be thought of as a magnetic

memory effect. W hen a magnetizing force saturates
material that has high-hysteresis, it remains strongly
magnetized even after the force is removed. High-
hysteresis materials have wide or “square” B-H loops
and are used to make magnetic memory devices and
permanent magnets. However, if we magnetically
saturate zero-hysteresis material, it will have no residual
magnetism (flux density) when the magnetizing force is Figure 9 - B-H Loop for Magnetic Core Material
removed. However, virtually all high-permeability core
materials have some hysteresis, retaining a small memory of their previous magnetic state. Hysteresis can be greatly reduced by
using certain metal alloys which have been annealed or heat-treated using special processes. In audio transformers, the non-
linearity due to magnetic hysteresis causes increased harmonic distortion for low-frequency signals at relatively low signal levels.
Resistor RC in Figure 8 is a non-linear resistance which represents the combined effects of magnetic saturation, magnetic
hysteresis, and eddy-current losses.
The magnetic operating point (or zero signal point) for most transformers is the center of the B-H loop shown in Figure 9, where
the net magnetizing force is zero. Small ac signals cause a small portion of the loop to be traversed in the direction of the arrows.
Large ac signals traverse portions farther from the operating point and may approach the saturation end points. For this normal
operating point at the center, signal distortions (discussed in detail later) caused by the curvature of the loop are symmetrical, i.e.,
they affect the positive excursion and negative excursion equally. Symmetrical distortions produce odd-order harmonics such as
third and fifth. If dc current flows in a winding, the operating point will shift to a point on the loop away from the center. This
causes the distortion of a superimposed ac signal to become non-symmetrical. Non-symmetrical distortions produce even-order
harmonics such as second and fourth. W hen a small dc current flows in a winding, under say 1% of the saturation value, the effect
is to add even-order harmonics to the normal odd-order content of the hysteresis distortion, which affects mostly low-level signals.
The same effects occur when the core becomes weakly magnetized, as could happen via the brief accidental application of dc to a
winding for example. However, the narrow B-H loop indicates that only a weak residual field would remain even if a magnetizing
force strong enough to saturate the core were applied and then removed.
W hen a larger dc current flows in a winding, the symmetry of saturation distortion is also affected in a similar way. For example,
enough dc current might flow in a winding to move the operating point to 50% of the core saturation value. Only half as much ac
signal could then be handled before the core would saturate and, when it did, it would occur only for one direction of the signal
swing. This would produce strong second-harmonic distortion. To avoid such saturation effects, air gaps are sometimes
intentionally built into the magnetic circuit. This can be done, for example, by placing a thin paper spacer between the center leg
of the E and I cores of Figure 10. The magnetic permeability of such a gap is so low — even though it may be only a few
thousandths of an inch — compared to the core material, that it effectively controls the flux density in the entire magnetic circuit.
Although it drastically reduces the inductance of the coil, gapping is done to prevent flux density from reaching levels which
would otherwise saturate the core, especially when substantial dc is present in a winding.
Because high-permeability materials are usually electrical conductors as

well, small voltages are also induced in the cross-section of the core
material itself giving rise to eddy currents. Eddy currents are greatly
reduced when the core consists of a “stack” of thin sheets called
laminations, as shown in Figure 10.
Because the laminations are effectively
insulated from each other, eddy currents
are generally insignificant. The E and I
shaped laminations shown form the widely
used “shell” or “double-window” core
construction. Its parallel magnetic paths
are illustrated in Figure 11. W hen cores
are made of laminations, care must be
taken that they are flat and straight to avoid
tiny air gaps between them which could Figure 11 - Magnetic
significantly reduce inductance. Circuits in Shell Core
A toroidal core is made by rolling a long thin strip of core material into a
coiled ring shape that looks something like a donut. It is insulated with a
conformal coating or tape and windings are wound around the core
through the center hole using special machines. W ith a toroidal core, there
Figure 10 - Core Laminations are Stacked and are no unintended air gaps which can degrade magnetic properties. Audio
Interleaved around Bobbin which Holds W indings transformers don’t often use toroidal cores because, especially in high-
bandwidth designs where multiple sections or Faraday shields are
necessary, physical construction becomes very complex. Other core configurations include the ring core, sometimes called “semi-
toroidal.” It is similar to core of Figure 11 but without the center section and windings are placed on the sides. Sometimes a solid
(not laminations) metal version of a ring core is cut into two pieces having polished
mating faces. These two C-cores are then held together with clamps after the windings are
installed.
1.2.2 Winding Resistances and Auto-Transformers
If zero-resistance wire existed, some truly amazing transformers could be built. In a 60

Hz power transformer, for example, we could wind a primary with tiny wire on a tiny
core to create enough inductance to make excitation current reasonable. Then we could
wind a secondary with equally tiny wire. Because the wire has no resistance and the flux
density in the core doesn’t change with load current, this postage-stamp sized transformer
could handle unlimited kilo-watts of power — and it wouldn’t even get warm! But, at
least until practical superconducting wire is available, real wire has resistance. As
primary and secondary currents flow in the winding resistances, the resulting voltage
drops cause signal loss in audio transformers and significant heating in power
transformers. This resistance can be reduced by using larger (lower gauge) wire or fewer
turns, but the required number of turns and the tolerable power loss (or resulting heat) all
conspire to force transformers to become physically larger and heavier as their rated
power increases. Sometimes silver wire is suggested to replace copper, but since its
resistance is only about 6% less, its effect is minimal and certainly not cost-effective.
However, there is an alternative configuration of transformer windings, called an auto-
transformer, which can reduce the size and cost in certain applications. Because an auto-
transformer electrically connects primary and secondary windings, it can’t be used where
electrical isolation is required! In addition, the size and cost advantage is maximum when
the required turns ratio is very close to 1:1 and diminishes at higher ratios, becoming
minimal in practical designs at about 3:1 or 1:3.
For example, in a hypothetical transformer to convert 100 volts to 140 volts, the primary
could have 100 turns and the secondary 140 turns of wire. This transformer, with its 1:1.4
turns ratio, is represented in the upper diagram of Figure 12. If 1 amp of secondary
(load) current I S flows, transformer output power is 140 watts and 1.4 amp of primary Figure 12 - Auto-Transformers
Employ a Buck/Boost Principle
current I P will flow since input and output power must be equal in the ideal case. In a practical transformer, the wire size for each
winding would be chosen to limit voltage losses and/or heating.
An auto-transformer essentially puts the windings in series so that the secondary voltage adds to (boosting) or subtracts from
(bucking) the primary input voltage. A step-up auto-transformer is shown in the middle diagram of Figure 12. Note that the dots
indicate ends of the windings with the same instantaneous polarity. A 40-volt secondary (the upper winding), series connected as
shown with the 100-volt primary, would result in an output of 140 volts. Now, if 1 amp of secondary (load) current I S flows,
transformer output power is only 40 watts and only 0.4 amp of primary current I P will flow. Although the total power delivered to
the load is still 140 watts, 100 watts have come directly from the driving source and only 40 watts have been transformed and
added by the auto-transformer. In the auto-transformer, 100 turns of smaller wire can be used for the primary and only 40 turns of
heavier wire is needed for the secondary. Compare this to the total of 240 turns of heavier wire required in the transformer.
A step-down auto-transformer is shown in the bottom diagram of Figure 12. Operation is similar except that the secondary is
connected so that its instantaneous polarity subtracts from or bucks the input voltage. For example, we could step down US 120-
volt ac power to Japanese 100-volt ac power by configuring a 100-volt to 20-volt step-down transformer as an auto-transformer.
Thus, a 100-watt load can be driven using only a 20-watt rated transformer.
The windings of low-level audio transformers may consist of hundreds or even many thousands of turns of wire, sometimes as
small as #46 gauge, whose 0.0015 inch diameter is comparable to a human hair. As a result, each winding may have a dc
resistance as high as several thousand ohms. Transformer primary and secondary winding resistances are represented by RP and
RS, respectively, in Figure 8.
1.2.3 Leakage Inductance and Winding Techniques
In an ideal transformer, since all flux generated

by the primary is linked to the secondary, a
short-circuit on the secondary would be
reflected to the primary as a short circuit. In real
transformers, the unlinked flux causes a residual
or leakage inductance which can be measured
at either winding. Therefore, the secondary
would appear to have residual inductance if the
primary were shorted and vice-versa. The
leakage inductance is shown as LL in the model Figure 13 - Transformer High-Frequency Parasitic Elements
of Figure 13. Note that leakage inductance is
reflected from one winding to another as the square of turns ratio, just as other impedances are.
The degree of flux coupling between primary and secondary windings depends on the physical spacing between them and how
they are placed with respect to each other. The lowest leakage inductance is achieved by winding the coils on a common axis and
as close as possible to each other. The ultimate form of this technique is called multi-filar winding where multiple wires are wound
simultaneously as if they were a single strand. For example, if two windings (say primary and secondary) are wound as one, the
transformer is said to be bi-filar wound. Note in the cross-section view of Figure 14 how the primary and secondary windings are
side-by-side throughout the entire winding. Another technique to reduce leakage inductance is to use layering, a technique in
which portions or sections of the primary and/or secondary are wound in sequence over each other to interleave them. For
example, Figure 15 shows the cross-section of a
3-layer transformer where half the primary is
wound, then the secondary, followed by the
other half of the primary. This results in
considerably less leakage inductance than just a
secondary over primary 2-layer design. Leakage
inductance decreases rapidly as the number of
layers is increased.
Figure 14 - Bi-Filar W indings Figure 15 - Layered W indings

1.2.4 Winding Capacitances and Faraday Shields
To allow the maximum number of turns in a given space, the insulation on the wire used to wind transformers is very thin. Called
“magnet wire,” it is most commonly insulated by a thin film of polyurethane enamel. A transformer winding is made, in general,
by spinning the bobbin shown in Figure 10 on a machine similar to a lathe and guiding the wire to form a layer one wire thick
across the length of the bobbin. The wire is guided to traverse back and forth across the bobbin to form a coil of many layers as
shown in Figure 15, where the bobbin cross-section is the solid line on three sides of the winding. This simple side-to-side, back-
and-forth winding results in considerable layer-to-layer capacitance within a winding or winding section. More complex
techniques such as “universal” winding are sometimes used to substantially reduce winding capacitances. These capacitances
within the windings are represented by CP and CS in the circuit model of Figure 13. Additional capacitances will exist between
the primary and secondary windings and are represented by capacitors CW in the model. Sometimes layers of insulating tape are
added to increase the spacing, therefore reducing capacitance, between primary and secondary windings. In the bi-filar windings
of Figure 14, since the wires of primary and secondary windings are side by side throughout, the inter-winding capacitances CW
can be quite high.
In some applications, inter-winding capacitances are very

undesirable. Their effects can be almost completely
eliminated by the use of a Faraday shield between the
windings. Sometimes called an electrostatic shield, it
generally takes the form of a thin sheet of copper foil
placed between the windings. Obviously, transformers
that utilize multiple layers to reduce leakage inductance
will require Faraday shields between all adjacent layers.
In Figure 15 the dark lines between the winding layers
are the Faraday shields. Normally, all the shields
surrounding a winding are tied together and treated as a
single electrical connection. W hen connected to circuit
Figure 16 - High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
ground, as shown in Figure 16, a Faraday shield
with Faraday Shield and Driven by a Balanced Source
intercepts the capacitive current which would otherwise
flow between transformer windings.
Faraday shields are nearly always used in transformers designed to eliminate “ground noise.” In these applications, the transformer
is intended to respond only to the voltage difference or signal across its primary and have no response to the noise that exists
equally (or common-mode) at the terminals of its primary. A Faraday shield is used to prevent capacitive coupling (via CW in
Figure 13) of this noise to the secondary. For any winding connected to a balanced line, the matching of capacitances to ground is
critical to the rejection of common-mode noise or CMRR, as discussed in Chapter 37. In Figure 16, if the primary is driven by a
balanced line, C1 and C2 must be very accurately matched to achieve high CM RR. In most applications, such as microphone or
line input transformers, the secondary is operated unbalanced, i.e., one side is grounded. This relaxes the matching requirements
for capacitances C3 and C4. Although capacitances CC1 and CC2 are generally quite small (a few pF), they have the effect of
diminishing CM RR at high audio frequencies and limiting rejection of RF interference.
1.2.5 Magnetic Shielding
A magnetic shield has a completely different purpose. Devices such as power transformers, electric motors, and television or
computer monitor cathode-ray tubes generate powerful ac magnetic fields. If such a field takes a path through the core of an audio
transformer, it can induce an undesired voltage in its windings — most often heard as hum. If the offending source and the victim
transformer have fixed locations, orientation of one or both can sometimes nullify the pick-up. In Figure 11 note that an external
field which flows vertically through the core will cause a flux gradient across the length of the coil, inducing a voltage in it, but a
field which flows horizontally through the core will not. Such magnetic pick-up is usually worse in “input” transformers (discussed
later) because they generally have more turns. It should also be noted that higher permeability core materials are more immune to
external fields. Therefore, an unshielded “output” transformer with a high-nickel core will be more immune than one with a steel
core.
Another way to prevent such pick-up is to surround the core with a closed (no air gap) magnetic path. This magnetic shield most
often takes the form of a can or box with tight-fitting lid and is made of high-permeability material. W hile the permeability of
ordinary steel, such as that in electrical conduit, is only about 300, special-purpose nickel alloys can have permeability as high as
100,000. Commercial products include Mumetal®, Permalloy®, HyMu® and Co-Netic®.[1][2] Since the shield completely
surrounds the transformer, the offending external field will now flow through it instead of the transformer core. Generally
speaking, care must be taken not to mechanically stress these metals because doing so will significantly decrease their
permeability. For this reason, most magnetic shield materials must be re-annealed after they are fabricated.
The effectiveness of magnetic shielding is generally rated in dB. The transformer is placed in an external magnetic field of known
strength, generally at 60 Hz. Its output without and with the shield is then compared. For example, a housing of 1/8" thick cast-
iron reduces pickup by about 12 dB and a Mumetal can by about 30 dB. W here low-level transformers operate near strong
magnetic fields, several progressively smaller shield cans can be nested around the transformer. Two or three Mumetal cans can
provide 60 dB and 90 dB of shielding respectively. In very strong fields, because high-permeability materials might saturate, an
iron or steel outer can is sometimes used.
Toroidal power transformers can have a weaker radiated magnetic field than other types. Using them can be an advantage if audio
transformers must be located near them. However, a toroidal transformer must be otherwise well designed to produce a low
external field. For example, every winding must completely cover the full periphery of the core. The attachment points of the
transformer lead wires are frequently a problem in this regard. To gain size and cost advantages, most commercial power
transformers of any kind are designed to operate on the verge of magnetic saturation of the core. W hen saturation occurs in any
transformer, magnetic field essentially squirts out of the core. Power transformers designed to operate at low flux density will
prevent this. Often a standard commercial transformer, when operated at reduced primary voltage, will have a very low external
field.
1.3 General Application Considerations
For any given application, a number of parameters must be considered when selecting or designing an appropriate audio
transformer. W e will discuss how the performance of a transformer can be profoundly affected by its interaction with surrounding
circuitry.
1.3.1 Maxim um Signal Level, Distortion, and Source Im pedance
Because these parameters are inextricably inter-dependent, they must be discussed as a group. Although transformer operating
level is often specified in terms of power such as dBm or watts, the only thing that affects distortion is the equivalent driving
voltage. Distortion is caused by excitation current in the primary winding which is proportional to primary voltage, not power.
Referring to Figure 8, recall that RC represents the distortion producing mechanisms of the core material. Consider that, if both
RG (driving source impedance) and RP (internal winding resistance) were zero, the voltage source (by definition, zero impedance)
would effectively “short out” RC resulting in zero distortion! But in a real transformer design there is a fixed relationship between
signal level, distortion, and source impedance. Since distortion is also a function of magnetic flux density, which increases as
frequency decreases, a maximum operating level specification must also specify a frequency. The specified maximum operating
level, maximum distortion at a specified low frequency, and maximum allowable source impedance will usually dictate the type of
core material which must be used and its physical size. And, of course, cost plays a role, too.
The most commonly used audio transformer core materials

are M6 steel (a steel alloy containing 6% silicon) and 49%
nickel or 84% nickel (alloys containing 49% or 84% nickel
plus iron and molybdenum). Nickel alloys are substantially
more expensive than steel. Figure 17 shows how the choice
of core material affects low-frequency distortion as signal
level changes. The increased distortion at low levels is due
to magnetic hysteresis and at high levels is due to magnetic
saturation. Figure 18 shows how distortion decreases
rapidly with increasing frequency. Because of differences in
their hysteresis distortion, the fall-off is most rapid for the
84% nickel and least rapid for the steel. Figure 19 shows
how distortion is strongly affected by the impedance of the
driving source (the plots begin at 40 Ù because that is the
resistance of the primary winding). Therefore, maximum
operating levels predicated on higher frequencies, higher
distortion, and lower source impedance will always be
higher than those predicated on lower frequencies, lower
distortion, and lower source impedance. Figure 17 - Measured THD at 20 Hz and 40 Ù Source vs
Signal Level for Three Types of Core Material
As background, it should be said that THD or total harmonic

distortion is a remarkably inadequate way to describe the
perceived awfulness of distortion. Distortion consisting of
low-order harmonics, 2 nd or 3 rd for example, is dramatically
less audible than that consisting of high-order harmonics, 7 th
or 13 th for example. Consider that, at very low frequencies,
even the finest loudspeakers routinely exhibit harmonic
distortion in the range of several percent at normal listening
levels. Simple distortion tests whose results correlate well
with the human auditory experience simply don’t exist.
Clearly, such perceptions are far too complex to quantify
with a single figure.
One type of distortion which is particularly audible is inter-

modulation or IM distortion. Tests frequently use a large
low-frequency signal and a smaller high-frequency signal
and measure how much the amplitude of the high frequency
is modulated by the lower frequency. Such inter-modulation
Figure 18 - Measured THD at 0 dBu and 40 Ù Source vs
creates tones at new, non-harmonic frequencies. The classic
Frequency for the Cores of Figure 16
SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers) IM distortion test mixes 60 Hz and 7 kHz signals
in a 4:1 amplitude ratio. For virtually all electronic amplifier
circuits, there is an approximate relationship between
harmonic distortion and SM PTE IM distortion. For example,
if an amplifier measured 0.1% THD at 60 Hz at a given
operating level, its SM PTE IM distortion would measure
about three or four times that, or 0.3% to 0.4% at an
equivalent operating level. This correlation is due to the fact
that electronic non-linearities generally distort audio signals
without regard to frequency. Actually, because of negative
feedback and limited gain-bandwidth, most electronic
distortions become worse as frequency increases.
Distortion in audio transformers is different in a way which

makes it unusually benign. It is caused by the smooth
symmetrical curvature of the magnetic transfer characteristic
or B-H loop of the core material shown in Figure 9. The
non-linearity is related to flux density which, for a constant
voltage input, is inversely proportional to frequency. The Figure 19 - Measured THD at 0 dBu and 20 Hz vs
resulting harmonic distortion products are nearly pure third Source Impedance for the Cores of Figures 16 and 17
harmonic. In Figure 18, note that distortion for 84% nickel
cores roughly quarters for every doubling of frequency, dropping to less than 0.001% above about 50 Hz. Unlike that in
amplifiers, the distortion mechanism in a transformer is frequency selective. This makes its IM distortion much less than might be
expected. For example, the Jensen JT-10KB-D line input transformer has a THD of about 0.03% for a +26 dBu input at 60 Hz.
But, at an equivalent level, its SMPTE IM distortion is only about 0.01% — about a tenth of what it would be for an amplifier
having the same THD.
1.3.2 Frequency Response
The simplified equivalent circuit of Figure 20 shows the high-pass RL filter formed by the circuit resistances and transformer
primary inductance LP. The effective source impedance is the parallel equivalent of RG + RP and RS + RL. When the inductive
reactance of LP equals the effective source impedance, low-frequency response will fall to 3 dB below its mid-band value. For
example, consider a transformer having an LP of 10 Henries and winding resistances RP and RS of 50 Ù each. The generator
impedance RG is 600 Ù and the load RL is 10 kÙ. The effective source impedance is then (600 Ù + 50 Ù ) in parallel with (10 kÙ
+ 50 Ù) which computes to about 610 Ù. A 10 Henry inductor will have 610 Ù of reactance at about 10 Hz, making response 3 dB
down at that frequency. If the generator impedance RG were made 50 Ù instead, response would be !3 dB at 1.6 Hz. Lower
source impedance will always extend low-frequency bandwidth. Since the filter is single-pole, response falls at 6 dB per octave.
As discussed earlier, the permeability of most core material steadily increases as frequency is lowered and typically reaches its
maximum somewhere under 1 Hz. This results in an actual roll-off rate less than 6 dB per octave and a corresponding
improvement in phase distortion (deviation from linear phase). Although a transformer cannot have response to 0 Hz or dc, it can
have much less phase distortion than a coupling capacitor chosen for the same cutoff frequency. Or, as a salesperson might say
“it’s not a defect, it’s a feature.”
Figure 20 - Simplified Low Frequency Figure 21 - Simplified High-Frequency

Transformer Equivalent Circuit Transformer Equivalent Circuit
The simplified equivalent schematic of Figure 21 shows the parasitic elements which limit and control high-frequency response.
Except in bi-filar wound types discussed below, leakage inductance LL and load capacitance are the major limiting factors. This is
especially true when Faraday shields because of the increase in leakage inductance. Note that a low-pass filter is formed by series
leakage inductance LL with shunt winding capacitance CS plus external load capacitance CL. Since this filter has two reactive
elements, it is a two-pole filter subject to response variations caused by damping. Resistive elements in a filter provide damping,
dissipating energy when the inductive and capacitive elements resonate. As shown in the figure, if damping resistance R D is too
high, response will rise before it falls and if damping resistance is too low, response falls too early. Optimum damping results in
the widest bandwidth with no response peak. It should
be noted that placing capacitive loads CL on
transformers with high leakage inductance not only
lowers their bandwidth but changes the resistance
required for optimum damping. For most transformers,
RL controls damping. In the time domain, under-
damping manifests itself as ringing on square-waves as
shown in Figure 22. W hen loaded by its specified load
resistance, the same transformer responds as shown in
Figure 23. In some transformers, source impedance
also provides significant damping.
Figure 22 - Undamped Response Figure 23 - Proper Damping
In bi-filar wound transformers, leakage inductance LL
is very low but inter-winding capacitance CW and winding capacitances CP and CS are quite high. Leakage inductance must be
kept very small in applications such as line drivers because large cable capacitances CL would otherwise be disastrous to high-
frequency response. Also note that a low-pass filter is formed by series RG and shunt CP plus CS. Therefore, driving sources may
limit high-frequency response if their source impedance RG is too high. In normal 1:1 bi-filar output transformer designs, CW
actually works to capacitively couple very high frequencies between windings. Depending on the application, this can be either a
defect or a feature.
1.3.3 Insertion Loss
The power output from a transformer will always be slightly less than power input to it. As current flows in its windings, their dc
resistance causes additional voltage drops and power loss as heat. Broadly defined, insertion loss (or gain) is that caused by
inserting a device into the signal path. But, because even an ideal lossless transformer can increase or decrease signal level by
virtue of its turns ratio, the term insertion loss is usually defined as the difference in output signal level between the real
transformer and an ideal one with the same turns ratio.
The circuit models,

Thevenin equivalent
circuits, and equations for
both ideal and real
transformers are shown in
Figure 24. For example,
consider an ideal 1:1 turns
ratio transformer and RG =
RL = 600 Ù. Since N s/N p is
1, the equivalent circuit
becomes simply E i in series
with RG or 600 Ù. W hen
RL is connected, a simple
voltage divider is formed
making E o = 0.5 E i (or a
6.02 dB loss). For a real
transformer having RP = RS
= 50 Ù, the equivalent
circuit becomes E i in series
Figure 24 - Insertion Loss Compares the Outputs of Real and Ideal Transformers
with RG + RP + RS or 700 Ù.
Now, the output E o = 0.462 E i (or a 6.72 dB loss). Therefore, the insertion loss of the transformer is 0.70 dB.
Calculations are similar for transformers with turns ratios other than 1:1, except that voltage is multiplied by the turns ratio and
reflected impedances are multiplied by the turns ratio squared as shown in the equations. For example, consider a 2:1 turns ratio
transformer, RG = 600 Ù, and RL = 150 Ù. The ideal transformer output appears as 0.5 E i in series with RG/4 or 150 Ù. W hen RL
is connected, a simple voltage divider is formed making E o = 0.25 E i (or a 12.04 dB loss). For a real transformer having RP = 50
Ù and RS = 25 Ù, the equivalent circuit becomes 0.5 E i in series with (RG + RP)/4 + RS or 187.5 Ù. Now, the output E o = 0.222
E i (or a 13.07 dB loss). Therefore, the insertion loss of this transformer is 1.03 dB.
1.3.4 Sources with Zero Im pedance
One effect of using negative feedback around a high-gain amplifier is to reduce output impedance. Output impedance is reduced
by the feedback factor which is open-loop gain in dB minus closed-loop gain in dB. A typical op-amp with an open-loop gain of
80 dB, set for closed-loop gain of 20 dB (feedback factor is 80 dB ! 20 dB = 60 dB or 1000) will have its open-loop output
impedance of 50 Ù reduced by the feedback factor to about 0.05 Ù. W ithin the limits of linear operation, i.e., no current limiting
or voltage clipping, the feedback around the amplifier forces the output to remain constant regardless of loading. For all practical
purposes this can be considered a true voltage source.
As seen in Figure 19, the distortion performance of ANY transformer is significantly improved when the driving source
impedance is less than the dc resistance of the primary. However, little is gained below about 10% of the winding dc resistance.
For example, consider a typical line output transformer with a primary dc resistance of 40 Ù. A driving source impedance well
under 4 Ù will result in lowest distortion. The line drivers shown in Figure 28 and Figure 29 use a paralleled inductor and resistor
to isolate or decouple the amplifier from the destabilizing effects of load (cable) capacitance at very high frequencies. Because its
impedance is well under an ohm at all audio frequencies, it is much preferred to the relatively large series or “build-out” resistor
often used for the purpose. It is even possible for an amplifier to generate negative output resistance to cancel the winding
resistance of the output transformer. Audio Precision uses such a patented circuit in their System 1 audio generator to reduce
transformer-related distortion to extremely low levels.
1.3.5 Bi-Directional Reflection of Im pedances
The impedances associated with audio transformers seems to confuse many. Much of the confusion probably stems from the fact
that transformers can simultaneously reflect two different impedances. One is the impedance of the driving source, as seen from
the secondary, and the other is the impedance of the load, as seen from the primary. Transformers simply reflect impedances,
modified by the square of their turns ratio, from one winding to another. However, because of their internal parasitic elements,
transformers tend to produce optimum results when used within a specified range of external impedances.
There is essentially no intrinsic impedance associated with the transformer itself. W ith no load on its secondary, the primary of a
transformer is just an inductor and its impedance will vary linearly with frequency. For example, a 5 H primary winding would
have an input impedance of about 3 kÙ at 100 Hz, 30 kÙ at 1 kHz,

and 300 kÙ at 10 kHz. In a proper transformer design, this self-
impedance, as well as those of other internal parasitics, should have
negligible effects on circuit operation. The following applications
will illustrate the point.
A 1:1 output transformer application is shown in Figure 25. It has a

winding inductance of about 25 H and negligible leakage inductance.
The open circuit impedance, at 1 kHz, of either winding is about
150 kÙ. Since the DC resistance is about 40 Ù per winding, if the
primary is short circuited, the secondary impedance will be 80 Ù. If
we place the transformer between a zero-impedance amplifier (more
on that later) and a load, the amplifier will "see" the load through the
transformer and the load will "see" the amplifier through the
transformer. In our example, the amplifier would "look like" 80 Ù to
the output line or load and the 600 Ù load would "look like" 680 Ù
to the amplifier. If the load were 20 kÙ, it would "look like" slightly
less than 20 kÙ because the open circuit transformer impedance (150
kÙ at 1 kHz) is effectively in parallel with it. For most loads, this Figure 25 - Impedance Reflection in a 1:1 Transformer
effect is negligible.
A 4:1 input transformer example is shown in Figure 26. It has a

primary inductance of about 300 H and negligible winding
capacitance. The open circuit impedance, at 1 kHz, of the primary is
about 2 MÙ. Because this transformer has a 4:1 turns ratio, therefore
16:1 impedance ratio, the secondary open circuit impedance is about
125 kÙ. The DC resistances are about 2.5 kÙ for the primary and
92 Ù for the secondary. Since this is an input transformer, it must be
used with the specified secondary load resistance of 2.43 kÙ for
proper damping (flat frequency response). This load on the
secondary will be transformed by the turns ratio to "look like" about
42 kÙ at the primary. To minimize the noise contribution of the
amplifier stage, we need to know what the transformer secondary
"looks like," impedance wise, to the amplifier. If we assume that the
primary is driven from the line in our previous output transformer
example with its 80 Ù source impedance, we can calculate that the
secondary will "look like" about 225 Ù to the amplifier input.
Actually, any source impedance less than 1 kÙ would have little
Figure 26 - Impedance Reflection in a 4:1 Transformer
effect on the impedance seen at the secondary.
Transformers are not "intelligent" — they can’t isolate, in the loading sense, outputs from one
another or magically couple signals in one direction only. Magnetic coupling is truly
bi-directional. For example, Figure 27 shows a three-winding 1:1:1 transformer connected to
drive two 600 Ù loads. The driver “sees” the loads in parallel or, neglecting winding
resistances, 300 Ù. Likewise, a short on either output will be reflected to the driver as a short.
Of course, turns ratios and winding resistances must be taken into account to calculate actual
driver loading. For the same reason, stereo L and R outputs driving two windings on the same
transformer are effectively driving each other, possibly causing distortion or damage.
Figure 27 - Multiple Loads
1.3.6 Transformer Noise Figure
are Effectively Paralleled
Although the step-up turns ratio of a transformer may provide “noise-free” voltage gain, some 20 dB for a 1:10 turns ratio, it’s
important to understand that improvements in signal-to-noise ratio are not solely due to this gain. Because most amplifying
devices generate current noise as well as voltage noise, their noise performance will suffer when turns ratio is above the optimum
(see Chapter 21 on mic preamps). Noise figure measures, in dB, how much the output signal-to-noise ratio of a system is degraded
by a given system component. All resistances, including the winding resistances of transformers, generate thermal noise.
Therefore, the noise figure of a transformer indicates the increase in thermal noise or hiss when it replaces an ideal noiseless
transformer having the same turns ratio, i.e., voltage gain. The noise figure of a transformer is calculated as follows:
1.3.7 Basic Classification by Application
Many aspects of transformer performance, such as level-handling, distortion, and bandwidth, depend critically on the impedance
of the driving source and, in some cases, the resistance and capacitance of the load. These impedances play such an important role
that they essentially classify audio transformers into two basic types. Most simply stated, output transformers are used when load
impedances are low, as in line drivers, while input transformers are used when load impedances are high, as in line receivers. The
conflicting technical requirements for output and input types make their design and physical construction very different. Of course,
some audio transformer applications need features of both input and output transformers and are not so easily classified.
Output transformers must have very low leakage inductance in order to maintain high-frequency bandwidth with capacitive loads.
Because of this, they rarely use Faraday shields and are often multi-filar wound. For low insertion loss, they use relatively few
turns of large wire to decrease winding resistances. Since they use fewer turns and operate at relatively high signal levels, output
transformers seldom use magnetic shielding. On the other hand, input transformers directly drive the usually high-resistance, low-
capacitance input of amplifier circuitry. Many input transformers operate at relatively low signal levels, frequently have a Faraday
shield, and are usually enclosed in at least one magnetic shield.
2 Audio Transformers for Specific Applications

Broadly speaking, audio transformers are used because they have two very useful properties. First, they can benefit circuit
performance by transforming circuit impedances, to optimize amplifier noise performance for example. Second, because there is
no direct electrical connection between its primary and secondary windings, a transformer provides electrical or galvanic isolation
between two circuits. As discussed in Chapter 37, isolation in signal circuits is a powerful technique to prevent or cure noise
problems caused by normal ground voltage differences in audio systems. To be truly useful, a transformer should take full
advantage of one or both of these properties but not compromise audio performance in terms of bandwidth, distortion, or noise.
2.1 Equipment-Level Applications
2.1.1 Microphone Input
A microphone input transformer is driven by the

nominal 150 Ù (or 200 Ù in Europe) source
impedance of professional microphones. One of its
most important functions is to transform this
impedance to a generally higher one more suited to
optimum noise performance. As discussed in chapter
21, this optimum impedance may range from 500 Ù
to over 15 kÙ, depending on the amplifier. For this
reason, microphone input transformers are made with
Figure 28 - Microphone Pre-Amplifier with 40 dB Overall Gain
turns ratios ranging from 1:2 to 1:10 or higher. The
circuit of Figure 28 uses a 1:5 turns ratio transformer, making the microphone appear as a 3.7 kÙ driving source to the IC
amplifier, which optimizes its noise. The input impedance of the transformer is about 1.5 kÙ. It is important that this impedance
remain reasonably flat with frequency to avoid altering microphone response by loading it excessively at frequency extremes.
In all balanced signal connections, common-mode noise can exist due to ground voltage differences or magnetic or electrostatic
fields acting on the inter-connecting cable. It is called common-mode noise because it appears equally on the two signal lines, at
least in theory. Perhaps the most important function of a balanced input is to reject (not respond to) this common-mode noise. A
figure comparing the ratio of its differential or normal signal response to its common-mode response is called common-mode
rejection ratio or CM RR. An input transformer must have two attributes to achieve high CM RR. First, the capacitances of its two
inputs (to ground) must be very well matched and as low as possible. Second, it must have minimal capacitance between its
primary and secondary windings. This is usually accomplished by precision winding of the primary to evenly distribute
capacitances and the incorporation of a Faraday shield between primary and secondary. Because the common-mode input
impedances of a transformer consist only of capacitances of about 50 pF, transformer CMRR is maintained in real-world systems
where the source impedances of devices driving the balanced line and the capacitances of the cable itself are not matched with
great precision [3].
Because tolerable common-mode voltage is limited only by winding insulation, transformers are well suited for phantom power
applications. The standard arrangement using precision resistors is shown in Figure 28. Resistors of lesser precision may degrade
CMRR. Feeding phantom power through a center tap on the primary requires that both the number of turns and the dc resistance
on either side of the tap be precisely matched to avoid small dc offset voltages across the primary. Normal tolerances on winding
radius and wire resistance make this a less precise method than the resistor pair in most practical transformer designs. Virtually all
microphone input transformers will require loading on the secondary to control high-frequency response. For the circuit in the
figure, network R1, R2, and C1 shape the high-frequency response to a Bessel roll-off curve. Because they operate at very low
signal levels, most microphone input transformers also have magnetic shielding.
2.1.2 Line Input
A line input transformer is driven by a balanced line and, most

often, drives a ground-referenced (unbalanced) amplifier
stage. As discussed in Chapter 37, modern voltage-matched
interconnections require that line inputs have impedances of
10 kÙ or more, traditionally called “bridging.” In the circuit of
Figure 29, a 4:1 step-down transformer is used which has an
input impedance of about 40 kÙ.
High common-mode noise rejection or CMRR is achieved in

line input transformers using the same techniques as those for
microphones. Again, because its common-mode input
impedances consist of small capacitances, a good input Figure 29 - Low-Noise Unity-Gain Balanced Line Input Stage
transformer will exhibit high CM RR even when signal sources
are real-world equipment. Electronically-balanced stages, especially simple differential amplifiers, are very susceptible to tiny
impedance imbalances in driving sources. However, they usually have impressive CMRR figures when the signal source is a
laboratory generator. The pitfalls of measurement techniques will be discussed in section 3.1.
As with any transformer having a Faraday shield, line input transformers have significant leakage inductance and their secondary
load effectively controls their frequency response and roll-off characteristics. The load resistance or network recommended by the
manufacturer should be used to achieve specified bandwidth and transient response. Input transformers are intended to
immediately precede an amplifier stage with minimal input capacitance. Additional capacitive loading of the secondary should be
avoided because of its adverse effect on frequency and phase response. For example, the capacitance of two feet of ordinary
shielded cable, about 100 pF, is enough to significantly degrade performance of many input transformers.
2.1.3 Moving-Coil Phono Input
Moving-coil phonograph pickups are very low-impedance, very

low-output devices. Some of them have source impedances as low
as 3 Ù, making it nearly impossible to achieve optimum noise
performance in an amplifier. The transformer shown in Figure 30
has a three-section primary that can be series-connected as a 1:4
step-up for 25 Ù to 40 Ù devices and parallel-connected as a 1:12
step-up for 3 Ù to 5 Ù devices. In either case, the amplifier sees a
600 Ù source impedance that enables low-noise operation. The
transformer is packaged in double magnetic shield cans and has a
Faraday shield. The loading network R1, R2, and C1 tailor the
high-frequency response to a Bessel curve.
Figure 30 - Preamp for 25 Ù to 40 Ù Moving-Coil Pickups
2.1.4 Line Output
A line-level output transformer is driven by an amplifier

and typically loaded by several thousand pF of cable
capacitance plus the 20 kÙ input impedance of a
balanced "bridging" line receiver. At high frequencies,
most driver output current is actually used driving the
cable capacitance. Sometimes, terminated 150 Ù or
600 Ù lines must be driven, requiring even more driver
output current. Therefore, a line output transformer must
have a low output impedance that stays low at high
frequencies. This requires both low resistance windings
and very low leakage inductance, since they are
effectively in series between amplifier and load. To
maintain impedance balance of the output line, both
driving impedances and inter-winding capacitances must
be well matched at each end of the windings. A typical
bifilar-wound design has winding resistances of 40 Ù
Figure 31 - Typical Line Output Application Circuit
each, leakage inductance of a few micro-henries, and a
total inter-winding capacitance of about 20 nF matched to within 2% across the windings.
The high-performance circuit of Figure 31 uses op-amp A1 and current booster A2 in a feedback loop setting overall gain at 12
dB. A3 provides the high gain for a dc servo feedback loop used to keep dc offset at the output of A2 under 100 ìV. This prevents
any significant dc flow in the primary of transformer T1. X1 provides capacitive load isolation for the amplifier and X2 serves as a
tracking impedance to maintain high-frequency impedance balance of the output. High-conductance diodes D1 and D2 clamp
inductive kick to protect A2 in case an unloaded output is driven
into hard clipping.
The circuit of Figure 32 is well suited to the lower signal levels

generally used in consumer systems. Because its output floats, it
can drive either balanced or unbalanced outputs, but not at the
same time. Floating the unbalanced output avoids ground loop
problems that are inherent to unbalanced interconnections.
In both previous circuits, because the primary drive of T1 is

single-ended, the voltages at the secondary will not be
symmetrical, especially at high frequencies. THIS IS NOT A Figure 32 - Universal Isolated Output Application
PROBLEM. Contrary to widespread myth and as explained in Chapter 37, signal symmetry has absolutely nothing to do with
noise rejection in a balanced interface! Signal symmetry in this, or any other floating output, will depend on the magnitude and
matching of cable and load impedances to ground. If there is a requirement for signal symmetry, the transformer should be driven
by dual, phase-inverted drivers.
The circuit of Figure 33 uses a cathode follower circuit which

replaces the usual resistor load in the cathode with an active current
sink. The circuit operates at quiescent plate currents of about 10 mA
and drives the transformer with a source impedance of about 60 Ù,
which is less than 10% of its primary dc resistance. C2 is used to
prevent dc flow in the primary. Since the transformer has a 4:1 turns
ratio (or 16:1 impedance ratio), a 600 Ù output load is reflected to the
driver circuit as about 10 kÙ. Since the signal swings on the primary
are four times as large as those on the secondary, high-frequency
capacitive coupling is prevented by a Faraday shield. The secondary
windings may be parallel connected to drive a 150Ù load. Because of
the Faraday shield, output winding capacitances are low and the
output signal symmetry will be determined largely by the balance of
line and load impedances.
Figure 33 - Double Cathode-Follower Line Driver
2.1.5 Inter-Stage and Power Output
Inter-stage coupling transformers are seldom seen in contemporary equipment but were once quite popular in vacuum-tube
amplifier designs. They typically use turns ratios in the 1:1 to 1:3 range and, as shown in Figure 34, may use a center-tapped
secondary producing phase-inverted signals to drive a push-pull output stage. Because both plate and grid circuits are relatively
high impedance, windings are sometimes section-wound to reduce capacitances. Resistive loading of the secondary is usually
necessary both to provide damping and to present a uniform load impedance to the driving stage. Although uncommon, inter-stage
transformers for solid-state circuitry are frequently bifilar wound units similar to line output designs.
The classic push-pull power output stage, with

many variations over the years, has been used in
hi-fi gear, PA systems, and guitar amplifiers.
The turns ratio of the output transformer is
generally chosen for a reflected load at the tubes
of several thousand ohms plate-to-plate. A
typical 30:1 turns ratio may require many
interleaved sections to achieve bandwidth
extending well beyond 20 kHz.
If the quiescent plate currents and the number of

turns in each half of the primary winding are
matched, magnetic flux in the core will cancel at
dc. Since any current-balancing is temporary at
best, these transformers nearly always use steel Figure 34 - Push-Pull Vacuum-Tube Power Amplifier
cores. The relatively high driving impedance of
the tube plates results in considerable transformer related distortion. To reduce distortion, feedback around the transformer is often
employed. But to achieve stability (freedom from oscillation), very wide bandwidth (actually low phase shift) is required of the
transformer when a feedback loop is closed around it. As a result, some of these output transformer designs are very sophisticated.
Some legendary wisdom suggests “as a rough guide” that a good-fidelity output transformer should have a core weight and volume
of at least 0.34 pounds and 1.4 cubic inches respectively per watt of rated power [4].
A “single-ended” power amplifier is created by removing the lower tube and the lower half of the transformer primary from the
circuit of Figure 34. Now plate current will create a strong dc field in the core. As discussed in section 1.2.1, the core will likely
require an air gap to avoid saturation. This reduces inductance (limiting low-frequency response) and increases even-order
distortion products. Such a single-ended pentode power amplifier was widely used in 5-tube table radios of the fifties and sixties.
2.1.6 Microphone Output
There are two basic types of output transformers used in microphones, step-up and
step-down. In a ribbon microphone, the ribbon element may have an impedance of
well under 1 Ù, requiring a step-up transformer with a turns ratio of 1:12 or more to
make its nominal output impedance around 150 Ù. Typical dynamic elements have
impedances from 10 Ù to 30 Ù, which require step-up turns ratios from 1:2 to 1:4.
These step-up designs are similar to line output transformers in that they have no
Faraday or magnetic shields, but are smaller because of lower signal levels.
A condenser microphone has integral circuitry to buffer and/or amplify the signal
Figure 35 - Condenser Microphone
from its extremely high-impedance transducer. Since this low-power circuitry
Output Transformer
operates from the “phantom” supply, it may be unable to directly drive the 1.5 kÙ
input impedance of a typical microphone preamp. The output transformer shown in Figure 35, which has an 8:1 step-down ratio,
will increase the impedance seen by Q1 to about 100 kÙ. Due to its high turns ratio, a Faraday shield is used to prevent capacitive
coupling of primary signal to the output.
2.2 System-Level Applications
2.2.1 Microphone Isolation or “Splitter”
The primary of a transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio can

“bridge” the output of a 150 Ù to 200 Ù microphone
feeding one pre-amp and the secondary of the
transformer can feed a duplicate of the microphone
signal to another pre-amp. Of course, a simple “Y” cable
could do this but there are potential problems. There are
often large and noisy voltages between the grounds of
two pre-amplifiers. The isolation provided by the
transformer prevents the noise from coupling to the
balanced signal line. To reduce capacitive noise Figure 36 - A 3-W ay Microphone “Splitter” Box
coupling, Faraday shields are included in better designs
and double Faraday shields in the best. As discussed in section 11.1.3.5, the input impedances of all the pre-amps, as well as all
the cable capacitances, will be seen in parallel by the microphone. This places a practical upper limit on how many “ways” the
signal can be split. Transformers are commercially available in 2, 3, and 4-winding versions. A 3-way splitter box schematic is
shown in Figure 36. Since the microphone is directly connected only to the “direct” output, it is the only one that can pass
phantom power to the microphone. To each preamp, each isolated output "looks like" a normal floating (ungrounded) microphone.
The ground lift switches are normally left open to prevent possible high ground current flow in the cable shields.
2.2.2 Microphone Im pedance Conversion
There are some legacy dynamic microphones which are high-impedance (about 50 kÙ) and have two-conductor cable and
connector (unbalanced). W hen such a microphone must be connected to a standard balanced low-impedance microphone pre-amp,
a transformer with a turns ratio of about 15:1 is necessary. Similar transformers can be used to adapt a low-impedance microphone
to the unbalanced high-impedance input of a legacy pre-amplifier.
2.2.3 Line to Microphone Input or “Direct Box”
Because its high-impedance input accepts line-level signals and its output
drives the low-level, low-impedance microphone input of a mixing
console, the device shown in Figure 37 is called a “direct box.” It is most
often driven by an electric guitar, synthesizer, or other stage instrument.
Because it uses a transformer, it provides ground isolation as well. In this
typical circuit, since the transformer has a 12:1 turns ratio, the impedance
ratio is 144:1. W hen the microphone input has a typical 1.5 kÙ input
impedance, the input impedance of the direct box is about 200 kÙ. The Figure 37 - A Transformer-Isolated “Direct Box”
transformer shown has a separate Faraday shield for each winding to
minimize capacitively coupled ground noise.
2.2.4 Line Isolation or “Hum Eliminators”
There are a remarkable number of “black boxes” on the market

intended to solve “ground loop” problems. This includes quite a
number of transformer-based boxes. W ith rare exception, those
boxes contain output transformers. Tests were performed to
compare noise rejection of the original interface to one with an
added output transformer and to one with an added input
transformer. The tests accurately simulated typical real-world
equipment (see the definitions at the end of this section).
Figure 38 shows results of CM RR tests on a balanced interface

using the IEC 60268-3 test procedure (discussed in section 3.1.2).
This test recognizes that the impedances of real-world balanced
outputs are not matched with the precision of laboratory
equipment. W hile the output transformer reduces 60 Hz “hum” by
over 20 dB, it has little effect on “buzz” artifacts over about 1
kHz. The input transformer increases rejection to over 120 dB at Figure 38 - Balanced Output to Balanced Input
60 Hz and to almost 90 dB at 3 kHz, where the human ear is most Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input
sensitive to faint sounds.
Figure 39 shows results of ground noise rejection tests on an

unbalanced interface. By definition, there is 0 dB of inherent
rejection in an unbalanced interface (see Chapter 37).W hile the
output transformer reduces 60 Hz “hum” by about 70 dB, it
reduces “buzz” artifacts around 3 kHz by only 35 dB. The input
transformer increases rejection to over 100 dB at 60 Hz and to
over 65 dB at 3 kHz.
Figure 40 shows results of CMRR tests when an unbalanced

output drives a balanced input. A two-wire connection of this
interface will result in zero rejection (see Chapter 37). Assuming a
three-wire connection, the !30 dB plot shows how CM RR of
typical electronically-balanced input stages is degraded by the 600
Ù source imbalance. Again, the output transformer improves 60
Hz “hum” by over 20 dB, it has little effect on “buzz” artifacts
over about 1 kHz. The input transformer increases rejection to
Figure 39 - Unbalanced Output to Unbalanced Input
over 120 dB at 60 Hz and to almost 90 dB at 3 kHz.
Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input
Figure 41 shows results of ground noise rejection tests when a
balanced output drives an unbalanced input. Because our
balanced output does not float, the direct connection becomes an
unbalanced interface having, by definition, 0 dB of rejection.
W hile the output transformer reduces 60 Hz “hum” by about 50
dB, it reduces “buzz” artifacts around 3 kHz by less than 20 dB.
The input transformer increases rejection to over 105 dB at 60 Hz
and to almost 75 dB at 3 kHz. In this application it is usually
desirable to attenuate the signal by about 12 dB (from +4 dBu or
1.228 volts to !10 dBV or 0.316 volts) as well as provide ground
isolation. This can be conveniently done by using a 4:1 step-down
input transformer such as the one in Figure 29, which will
produce rejection comparable to that shown here.
One might fairly ask “W hy not use a 1:4 step-up transformer when
an unbalanced output drives a balanced input to get 12 dB of
signal gain?” Because of the circuit impedances involved, the
answer is because it doesn’t work very well. Recall that a 1:4 Figure 40 - Unbalanced Output to Balanced Input
turns ratio has an impedance ratio of 1:16. This means that the Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input
input impedance of the “pro” balanced input we drive will be

reflected back to the “consumer” output at one-sixteenth that.
Since the source impedance (usually unspecified, but not the same
as load impedance) of a consumer outputs is commonly 1 kÙ or
more, the reflected loading losses are high. A 1:4 step-up
transformer would have its own insertion losses, which we will
rather optimistically assume at 1 dB. The table below shows
actual gain using this transformer with some typical equipment
output and input impedances (Z is impedance).
Consumer Pro Balanced Input Z

Output Z 10 kÙ 20 kÙ 40 kÙ
(625 Ù) (1.25 kÙ) (2.5 kÙ)
200 Ù 8.6 dB 9.7 dB 10.3 dB
500 Ù 5.9 dB 8.1 dB 9.4 dB
1 kÙ 2.7 dB 5.9 dB 8.1 dB
Not only will gain usually be much less than 12 dB, the load Figure 41 - Balanced Output to Unbalanced Input
reflected to the consumer output (shown in parentheses) may Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input
cause headroom loss, increased distortion, and poor low-
frequency response. Often the only semi-technical description of a consumer output is “10 kÙ minimum load.” It is futile to
increase the turns ratio of the transformer in an attempt to overcome the gain problem — it only makes the reflected loading losses
worse! In most situations, a 1:1 transformer can be used because the “pro” equipment can easily provide the required gain. Of
course, a 1:1 input transformer will provide far superior noise immunity from ground loops.
The point here is that the noise rejection provided by an input transformer with a Faraday-shield is far superior to that
provided by an output type. But the input transformer must be used at the receiver or destination end of an interface cable. In
general, input transformers can drive no more than two feet of typical shielded cable — the capacitance of longer cables will erode
their high-frequency bandwidth. Although output type (no Faraday shield) transformers are not as good at reducing noise, their
advantage is that they can be placed anywhere along an interface cable, at the driver end, at a patch-bay, or at the destination end,
and work equally well. In all the test cases discussed in this section, results of using both an output and an input transformer
produced results identical to those using only an input transformer. For example, an unbalanced output does not need to be
“balanced” by a transformer before transmission through a cable (this is a corollary of the balance versus symmetry myth), it needs
only an input transformer at the receiver. There is rarely a need to use both types on the same line.
Definitions:
“Balanced Output” means a normal, non-floating source having a differential output impedance of 600 Ù and common-mode
output impedances of 300 Ù, matched to within ± 0.1%;
“Balanced Input” means a typical electronically-balanced stage (an “instrumentation” circuit using 3 op-amps) having a
differential input impedance of 40 kÙ and common-mode input impedances of 20 kÙ, trimmed for a CM RR over 90 dB when
directly driven by the above “Balanced Output”;
“Unbalanced Output” means a ground-referenced output having an output impedance of 600 Ù. This is representative of typical
consumer equipment;
“Unbalanced Input” means a ground-referenced input having an input impedance of 50 kÙ. This is representative of typical
consumer equipment;
“No Transformer” means a direct wired connection;
“Output Transformer” means a Jensen JT-11-EMCF (a popular line output transformer); and
“Input Transformer” means a Jensen JT-11P-1 (our most popular line input transformer).
2.2.5 Speaker Distribution or “Constant Voltage”
W hen a number of low-impedance speakers are located far from a power amplifier, there are no good methods to interconnect
them in a way that properly loads the amplifier. The problem is compounded by the fact that power losses due to the resistance of
the inter-connecting wiring can be substantial. The wire gauge required is largely determined by the current it must carry and its
length. Borrowing a technique from power utility companies, boosting the distribution voltage reduces the current for a given
amount of power and allows smaller wire to be used in the distribution system. Step-down “matching” transformers, most often
having taps to select power level and/or speaker impedance, are used at each location. This scheme not only reduces the cost of
wiring but allows system designers the freedom to choose how power is allocated among the speakers. These so-called “constant-
voltage” speaker distribution systems are widely used in public address, paging, and background music systems. Although the
most popular is 70-volt, others include 25-volt, 100-volt, and 140-volt. Because the higher voltage systems offer the lowest
distribution losses for a given wire size, they are more common in very large systems. It should also be noted that only the 25-volt
system is considered “low-voltage” by most regulatory agencies and the wiring in higher voltage systems may need to conform to
ac power wiring practices.
It is important to understand that these nominal voltages exist on the distribution line only when the driving amplifier is operating
at full rated power. Many specialty power amplifiers have outputs rated to drive these lines directly but ordinary power amplifiers
rated to drive speakers can also drive such lines, according to the following table:
Amplifier Rated Output, W atts Output

at 8 Ù at 4 Ù at 2 Ù Voltage
1,250 2,500 5,000 100
625 1,250 2,500 70.7
312 625 1,250 50
156 312 625 35.3
78 156 312 25
For example, an amplifier rated to deliver 1,250 watts of continuous average power into an 8 Ù load
could drive a 70-volt distribution line directly as long as the sum of the power delivered to all the Figure 42 - Step-Up
speakers doesn’t exceed 1,250 watts. Although widely used, the term “rms watts” is technically Auto-Transformer
ambiguous [5]. In many cases, the benefits of constant-voltage distribution are desired, but the total
power required is much less. In that case a step-up transformer can be used to increase the output voltage of an amplifier with less
output. This is often called “matching” it to the line because such a transformer is actually transforming the equivalent line
impedance down to the rated load impedance for the amplifier. Most of these step-up transformers will have a low turns ratio. For
example, a 1:1.4 turns ratio would increase the 50-volt output to 70 volts for an amplifier rated at 300 watts into 8 Ù. In such low-
ratio applications, the auto-transformer discussed in section 11.1.2.2 has cost and size advantages. Figure 42 is a schematic of an
auto-transformer with taps for turns ratios of 1:1.4 or 1:2 which could be used to drive a 70-volt line from amplifiers rated for
either 300 or 150 watts respectively at 8 Ù. Several power amplifier manufacturers offer such transformers as options or
accessories.
A “line to voice-coil” transformer is usually necessary to step-down the line voltage and produce the desired speaker power:
Speaker Power in W atts Speaker Transformer Step-Down Turns Ratio Required

16 Ù 8Ù 4Ù Volts 100 V 70 V 35 V 25 V
32 64 128 22.63 4.42 3.12 1.56 1.10
16 32 64 16 6.25 4.42 2.21 1.56
8 16 32 11.31 8.84 6.25 3.12 2.21
4 8 16 8 12.5 8.84 4.42 3.12
2 4 8 5.66 17.7 12.5 6.25 4.42
1 2 4 4 25 17.7 8.84 6.25
0.5 1 2 2.83 35.3 25 12.5 8.84
0.25 0.5 1 2 50 35.3 17.7 12.5
0.125 0.25 0.5 1.41 71 50 25 17.7
These step-down transformers can be designed several ways.

Figure 43 shows a design where the line voltage is selected at the
primary side and the power level is selected at the secondary while
Figure 44 shows a design where power level is selected on the
primary side and speaker impedance is selected at the secondary.
As clear from the repeating patterns in the table above, there are
many combinations of line voltage, speaker impedance, and power
level that result in the same required turns ratio in the matching
transformer.
Figure 43 - Transformer Figure 44 - Transformer
Since the constant-voltage line has a very low source impedance, with Secondary Taps for with Primary Taps for
and the transformer is loaded by a low-impedance loudspeaker, Power Selection Power Selection
transformer high-frequency response is usually not a design issue.
As in any transformer, low-frequency response is determined by primary inductance and total source impedance, which is
dominated by the primary winding resistance since the driving source impedance is very low. W inding resistances of both primary
and secondary contribute to insertion loss. In efforts to reduce size and cost, the fewest turns of the smallest wire possible are often
used, which raises insertion loss and degrades low-frequency response. Generally, an insertion loss of 1 dB or less is considered
good and 2 dB is marginally acceptable for these applications.
It is very important to understand that, while the frequency response of a transformer may be rated as !1 dB at 40 Hz, its rated
power does NOT apply at that frequency. Rated power, or maximum signal level is discussed in section 1.3.1. In general, level
handling is increased by more primary turns and more core material and it takes more of both to handle more power at lower
frequencies. This ultimately results in physically larger, heavier, and more expensive transformers. W hen any transformer is driven
at its rated level at a lower frequency than its design will support, core saturation is the result. The sudden drop in permeability of
the core effectively reduces primary inductance to zero. The transformer primary now appears to have only the dc resistance of its
winding, which may be only a few ohms. In the best scenario, some ugly-sounding distortion will occur and the line amplifier will
simply current limit. In the worst scenario, the amplifier will not survive the inductive energy or “kick” fed back to it as the
transformer comes out of saturation. This can be especially dangerous if large numbers of transformers saturate simultaneously.
In 1953, the power ratings of “speaker matching transformers” were based on 2% distortion at 100 Hz [6]. Traditionally, the
normal application of these transformers has been speech systems and this power rating standard assumes very little energy will
exist under 100 Hz. The same reference recommends that transformers used in systems with “emphasized bass” should have
ratings higher than this 100-Hz “nominal power” rating and those used “to handle organ music” should have ratings of at least four
times nominal. Since the power ratings for these transformers is rarely qualified by a specification stating the applicable frequency,
it seems safe to assume that the historical 100 Hz power rating applies to most com m ercial transform ers available today.
If a background music system, for example, requires good bass response, it is wise to use over-rated transformers. Reducing the
voltage on the primary side of the transformer will extends its low-frequency power handling. Its possible, using the table above,
to use different taps to achieve the same ratio while driving less than nominal voltage into the transformer primary. For example, a
70-volt line could be connected to the 100-volt input of the transformer in Figure 33 and, for example, the 10-watt secondary tap
used to actually deliver 5 watts. In any constant-voltage system, saturation problems can be reduced by appropriate high-pass
filtering. Simply attenuate low-frequency signals before they can reach the transformers. In voice-only systems, problems that arise
from breath pops, dropped microphones, or signal switching transients can be effectively eliminated by a 100-Hz high-pass filter
ahead of the power amplifier. In music systems, attenuating frequencies too low for the speakers to reproduce can be similarly
helpful.
2.2.6 Telephone Isolation or “Repeat Coil”
In telephone systems it was sometimes necessary to

isolate a circuit which was grounded at both ends. This
“metallic circuit” problem was corrected with a “repeat
coil” to improve “longitudinal balance.” Translating
from telephone lingo, this balanced line had poor
common-mode noise rejection which was corrected with
a 1:1 audio isolation transformer. The W estern Electric
111C repeat coil was widely used by radio networks and
others for high-quality audio transmission over 600 Ù
phone lines. It has split primary and secondary windings Figure 45 - “Repeat Coil” Ground Isolation for 600 Ù Lines
and a Faraday shield. Its frequency response was 30 Hz to 15 kHz and it had less than 0.5 dB insertion loss. Split windings allow
them to be parallel connected for 150 Ù use.
Figure 45 shows a modern version of this transformer as a general purpose isolator for low-impedance circuits, such as in a
recording studio patch-bay. Optional components can be useful in some applications. For example, network R1 and C1 will flatten
the input impedance over frequency, R2 will trim the input impedance to exactly 600 Ù, and R3 can be used to properly load the
transformer when the external load is high-impedance or “bridging.”
2.2.7 Telephone Directional Coupling or “Hybrid”
Telephone “hybrid” circuits use bridge nulling principles to separate signals

which may be transmitted and received simultaneously on a 2-wire line. This
nulling depends critically on well-controlled impedances in all branches of
the circuits. This nulling is what suppresses the transmit signal (your own
voice) in the receiver of your phone while allowing you to hear the receive
signal (the other party).
A two-transformer hybrid network is shown in Figure 46. The arrows and

dashed lines show the current flow for a signal from the transmitter TX.
Remember that the dots on the transformers show points having the same
instantaneous polarity. The transformer turns ratios are assumed to be 1:1:1.
W hen “balancing network” Z N has an impedance that matches the line
impedance Z L at all significant frequencies, the currents in the Z L loop
(upper) and Z N loop (lower) will be equal. Since they flow in opposite Figure 46 - Two-Transformer “Hybrid”
directions in the RX transformer (right), there is cancellation and the TX
signal does not appear at RX. A signal originating from the line rather than TX is
not suppressed and is heard in RX. A common problem with hybrids of any kind is
adjusting network Z N to match the telephone line, which may vary considerably in
impedance even over relatively short time spans.
If the transmitter and receiver are electrically connected, the single transformer
method, shown in Figure 47, can be used. Any well-designed transformers with
accurate turns ratio can be used in hybrid applications.
Figure 47 - Single-Transformer “Hybrid”

2.2.8 Moving-Coil Phono Step-Up
Outboard boxes are sometimes used to adapt the output of low-output,

low-impedance moving-coil phono pickups to pre-amplifier inputs
intended for the more ordinary high-impedance moving-magnet pickups.
These pre-amplifiers have a standard input impedance of 47 kÙ. Figure 48
shows a 1:37 step-up transformer used for this purpose. It has a voltage
gain of 31 dB and reflects its 47 kÙ pre-amplifier load to the pickup as
about 35 Ù. This keeps loading loss on the pickup to about 1 dB. The
series RC network on the secondary provides proper damping for smooth
frequency response. Double magnetic shield cans are used because of the
very low signal levels involved and the low-frequency gain inherent in the
Figure 48 - Step-Up Transformer for
RIAA playback equalization. In these applications, it is extremely
Moving Coil Phono Pickup
important to keep all leads to the pickup tightly twisted to avoid hum from
ambient magnetic fields.
3 Measurements and Data Sheets

3.1 Testing and M easurements
3.1.1 Transmission Characteristics
The test circuits below are the basic setups to determine the signal transmission characteristics of output and input type
transformers, respectively, shown in the diagrams as DUT for “device under test.” In each case, the driving source impedance
must be specified and is split into two equal parts for transformers specified for use in balanced systems. For example, if a 600 Ù
balanced source is specified, the resistors Rs/2 become 300 Ù each. The generator indicated in both diagrams is understood to
have symmetrical voltage outputs. The buffer amplifiers shown are used to provide a zero source impedance, which is not
available from most commercial signal sources. The generator could be used in an unbalanced mode by simply connecting the
lower end of the DUT primary to ground. The specified load impedance must also be placed on the secondary. For output
transformers, the load and meter are often floating as shown in Figure 49. For input transformers, a specified end the secondary is
generally grounded as shown in Figure 50.
Figure 49 - Transmission Tests for Output Types Figure 50 - Transmission Tests for Input Types
These test circuits can be used to determine voltage gain or loss (turns ratio when R L is infinite), frequency response, and phase
response. If the meter is replaced with a distortion analyzer, distortion and maximum operating level may be characterized. Multi-
purpose equipment such as the Audio Precision System 1 or System 2 can make such tests convenient. Testing of high-power
transformers usually requires an external power amplifier to boost the generator output as well as some hefty power resistors to
serve as loads.
3.1.2 Balance Characteristics
Tests for common-mode rejection are intended to apply a common-mode voltage through some specified resistances to the
transformer under test. Any differential voltage developed then represents undesired conversion of common-mode voltage to
differential mode by the transformer. In general terms, CMRR or common-mode rejection ratio, is the ratio of the response of a
circuit to a voltage applied normally (differentially) to that same voltage applied in common-mode through specified impedances.
This conversion is generally the result of mismatched internal capacitances in the balanced winding. For output transformers, the
most common test arrangement is shown in Figure 51. Common values are 300 Ù for RG and values from zero to 300 Ù for Rs/2.
Resistor pairs must be very well matched.
Figure 51 - Common-Mode Test for Output Types Figure 52 - IEC Common-Mode Test for Input Types
Traditionally, CMRR tests of balanced input stages involved applying the common-mode voltage through a pair of very tightly-
matched resistors. As a result, such traditional tests were not accurate predictors of real-world noise rejection in some very widely
used electronically-balanced inputs. The IEC recognized this a number of years ago and solicited help to revise the test. The
problem arises from the fact that the common-mode output impedances of “balanced” sources in typical commercial equipment
are not matched with laboratory precision. Imbalances of 10 Ù are quite common. This author, through an educational process
about balanced interfaces in general, suggested a more realistic test which was adopted by the IEC in their document 60268-3
“Testing of Amplifiers” in August, 2000. The “Informative Annex” of this document is a concise short-course explaining the
nature of a balanced interface. The method of the new test, as shown in Figure 52, is simply to introduce a 10 Ù imbalance, first in
one line and then in the other. The CMRR is then computed based on the highest differential reading observed.
3.1.3 Resistances, Capacitances, and Other Data
Other data which can be very helpful to an equipment or system designer includes resistances
of each winding and capacitances from winding to winding or winding to Faraday shield or
transformer frame. Do not use an ohmmeter to check winding resistances unless you are able
to later demagnetize the part. Ordinary ohmmeters, especially on low-ohm ranges, can
weakly magnetize the core. If an ohmmeter simply must be used, use the highest ohm range
(where the test current is least).
Figure 53 - Impedance Tests
Capacitances are usually measured on impedance bridges and, to eliminate the effects of
winding inductances, with all windings shorted. Total capacitances can be measured this way, but balance of capacitances across a
winding must be measured indirectly. CMRR tests are effectively measuring capacitance imbalances.
As shown in Figure 53, sometimes the input impedance of a winding is measured with specified load on other windings. This test
includes the effects of primary resistance, secondary resistance, and the parallel loss resistance RC shown in Figure 8 and Figure
13. If specified over a wide frequency range, it also includes the effects of primary inductance and winding capacitances.
Breakdown voltages are sometimes listed as measures of insulation integrity. This is normally done with special equipment,
sometimes called a “hi-pot” tester, which applies a high voltage while limiting current to a very low value.
3.2 Data Sheets
3.2.1 Data to Impress or to Inform?
As with other products, many data sheets and other product specifications are designed to impress rather than inform.
Specifications offered with unstated measurement conditions are essentially meaningless, so a degree of skepticism is always
appropriate before comparisons are made. A few examples:
“Hum Eliminator” and “Line Level Shifter” products with no noise rejection specs of any kind!
“Line Level Shifter” products with no gain spec at all! Section 2.2.4 explained why you likely never see one.
“Maximum Power” or “Maximum Level” listed with no frequency and no source impedance specified!
Other specifications, while true, may mislead those not wise in the ways of transformers.
“M aximum Level” and “Distortion” are commonly specified at 50 Hz, 40 Hz, 30 Hz, or 20 Hz. Be careful, the 50 Hz specs will
always be much more impressive than those at 20 Hz! There is an approximate 6 dB per octave relationship at work here. A
transformer specified for level or distortion at 40 Hz for example, will handle about 6 dB less level at 20 Hz and have at least
twice the distortion!
Seen in advertising copy: “Frequency response 10 Hz to 40 kHz ±1 dB into 10 kÙ load” and “Distortion less than 0.002% at
1 kHz.” W hat about the source impedance? Response at 10 Hz and low distortion is a lot easier from a 0 Ù source than from a
1 kÙ source — and 1 kHz is not a very revealing frequency for distortion tests. Section 1.3.1 explains.
3.2.2 Com prehensive Data Sheet Exam ple
For reference, the following is offered as a sample of a data sheet that has been called truly useful and brutally honest.
JT-11P-1
LINE INPUT TRANSFORMER

1:1 FOR "BALANCED BRIDGING" INPUTS
M Ideal for balancing any high-impedance unbalanced input

M Wide bandwidth: !3 dB at 0.25 Hz and 100 kHz
M Recommended for levels up to +20 dBu at 20 Hz
M High input impedance: 13 kÙ with 10 kÙ load
M High common-mode rejection: 107 dB at 60 Hz
This transformer is designed for use in wideband line input stages. Distortion
remains very low and CMRR remains high, even when driven by high source
impedances. The primary is fully balanced and its leads may be reversed to
invert polarity, if required. A 30 dB magnetic shield package is standard.
TYPICAL APPLICATION
JT-11P-1 SPECIFICATIONS (all levels are input unless noted)
PARAMETER CONDITIONS MINIMUM TYPICAL MAXIMUM
Input impedance, Zi 1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1 12.3 kÙ 13.0 kÙ 13.7 kÙ
Voltage gain 1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1 !2.6 dB !2.3 dB !2.0 dB
Magnitude response, 20 Hz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù !0.15 dB !0.04 dB 0.0 dB
ref 1 kHz 20 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù !0.15 dB !0.05 dB 0.0 dB
Deviation from linear phase (DLP) 20 Hz to 20 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù +0.6E ±2.0E
1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù <0.001%
Distortion (THD)
20 Hz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù 0.025% 0.10%
Maximum 20 Hz input level 1% THD, test circuit 1, Rs=600 Ù +18 dBu +20 dBu
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 60 Hz, test circuit 2 107 dB
50 Ù balanced source 3 kHz, test circuit 2 65 dB 73 dB
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 60 Hz, test circuit 3 100 dB
600 Ù unbalanced source 3 kHz, test circuit 3 68 dB
Output impedance, Zo 1 kHz, test circuit 1, Rs=50 Ù 2.34 kÙ
primary (RED to BRN) 1.45 kÙ
DC resistances
secondary (YEL to ORG) 1.55 kÙ
primary to shield and case 98 pF
Capacitances @ 1 kHz
secondary to shield and case 110 pF
Turns ratio 0.999:1 1.000:1 1.001:1
Temperature range operation or storage 0E C 70E C
Breakdown voltage primary or secondary to shield and case, 60 Hz,
250 V RMS
(see IMPORTANT NOTE below) 1 minute test duration
All minimum and maximum specifications are guaranteed. Unless noted otherwise, all specifications apply at 25EC. Specifications subject to change
without notice. All information herein is believed to be accurate and reliable, however no responsibility is assumed for its use nor for any infringements of
patents which may result from its use. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of Jensen Transformers, Inc.
IMPORTANT NOTE: This device is NOT intended for use in life support systems or any application where its failure could cause injury or death. The
breakdown voltage specification is intended to insure integrity of internal insulation systems; continuous operation at these voltages is NOT recommended.
Consult our applications engineering department if you have special requirements.
JENSEN TRANSFORMERS, INC., 7135 Hayvenhurst Avenue, Van Nuys, CA 91406-3807, USA
1/01 (818) 374-5857 • FAX (818) 374-5856 • www.jensen-transformers.com
4 Installation and Maintenance

4.1 A Few Installation Tips
! Remember that there are very tiny wires inside an audio transformer. Its wire leads should never be used like a handle to pick
it up. The internal bonds are strong, but one strong tug might result in an open winding.
! Be careful with sharp tools. A gouge through the outer wrapper of an output transformer can nick or cut an internal winding.
! Use either the supplied screws or ones no longer than recommended to mount transformers in shield cans. If the screws are
too long, they’ll bore right into the windings — big problem!
! Be careful about using magnetized tools. If a screwdriver will pick up a paper clip, it shouldn’t be used to install an audio
transformer.
! Don’t drop a transformer. It can distort the fit of the laminations in output transformers and affect their low-frequency
response. Mechanical stress (as in denting) of the magnetic shield can of an input transformer will reduce its effectiveness as a
shield. For the same reason, don’t over-tighten the clamp on transformers mounted with them.
! Twisting helps avoid hum pickup from ambient ac magnetic fields. This is especially true for mic level lines in splitters, for
example. Separately twist the leads from each winding — twisting the leads from all windings together can reduce noise
rejection or CMRR.
4.2 De-M agnetization
Some subtle problems are created when transformer cores and/or their shield cans become magnetized. Generally, cores become
magnetized by having dc flow in a winding, even for a fraction of a second. It can leave the core weakly magnetized. Steel cores,
because of their wider hysteresis loops, are generally the most prone to such magnetization. The only way to know if the core has
some permanent magnetization is to perform distortion measurements. A transformer with an un-magnetized core will exhibit
nearly pure third harmonic distortion, with virtually no even order harmonic distortion while magnetized ones will show
significant even order distortion, possibly with 2nd harmonic even exceeding 3rd. A test signal at a level about 30 or 40 dB below
rated maximum operating level at 20 or 30 Hz is typically the most revealing because it maximizes the contribution of hysteresis
distortion.
Microphone input transformers used with phantom power are exposed to this possibility whenever a microphone is connected or
disconnected from a powered input. However, distortion tests before and after exposure to the worst-case 7 mA current pulses
have shown that the effects are indeed subtle. Third harmonic distortion, which normally dominates transformer distortions, is
unaffected. Second harmonic, which normally is near the measurement threshold, is typically increased by about 20 dB but is still
some 15 dB lower than the third harmonic. Is it audible? Some say yes. But even this distortion disappears into the noise floor
above a few hundred Hz. In any case, it can be prevented by connecting and disconnecting microphones only when phantom
power is off. However, such magnetized transformers can be de-magnetized.
Demagnetizing of low level transformers can generally be done with any audio generator having a continuously variable output It
may take a booster of some sort to get enough level for output transformers (be sure there’s no dc offset at its output!). The idea is
to drive the transformer deeply into saturation (5% THD or more) and slowly bring the level down to zero. Saturation will, of
course, be easiest at a very low frequency. How much level it takes will depend on the transformer. If you’re lucky, the level
required may not be hazardous to the surrounding electronics and the de-magnetizing can be accomplished without disconnecting
the transformer. Start with the generator set to 20 Hz and its minimum output level, connect it to the transformer, then slowly (over
a period of a few seconds) increase the level into saturation — maintain it for a few seconds — then slowly turn it back down to
minimum. For the vast majority of transformers, this process will leave them in a demagnetized state.
Shield cans are usually magnetized by having a brief encounter with a strongly magnetized tool. Sometimes, transformers are
unknowingly mounted on a magnetized chassis. W hen the shield can of an input transformer becomes magnetized, the result is
microphonic behavior of the transformer. Even though quality input transformers are "potted" with a semi-rigid epoxy compound
to prevent breakage of very fine wires, tiny movements between core and can activate what is essentially a variable reluctance
microphone. In this case, a good strong tape head de-magnetizer can be used to de-magnetize the can. At the end of the production
line, most transformers are routinely demagnetized with a very strong de-magnetizer just prior to shipment. Although I haven't
tried it, I would expect that something like a degausser for 2" video tape (remember that!) would also de-magnetize even a large
steel-core output transformer.
References
[1] Magnetic Shield Corporation, Frequently Asked Questions, www.magnetic-shield.com/faq.html.
[2] Sowter, G.A.V., Soft Magnetic Materials for Audio Transformers: History, Production, and Applications, Journal of the
Audio Engineering Society, October 1987, www.sowter.co.uk/pdf/GAVS.pdf.
[3] W hitlock, Bill, Balanced Lines in Audio: Fact, Fiction, and Transformers, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, June
1995, pp 454-464.
[4] Smith, F. Langford, Radiotron Designer’s Handbook, W ireless Press, Sydney, 4 th Edition, 1953, p 208.
[5] W oolf, Lawrence, RMS Watt, or Not?, Electronics W orld, December 1998, pp 1043-1045.
[6] Smith, F. Langford, op. cit., p 227.
Co-Netic® is a registered trademark of Magnetic Shield Corp.

HyMu® is a registered trademark of Carpenter Technology Corp.
Mumetal® is a registered trademark of Telcon Metals, Ltd.
Permalloy® is a registered trademark of B & D Industrial & Mining Services, Inc.
PAPERS
Soft Magnetic Materials for Audio Transformers:

History, Production, and Applications*
G. A. V. SOWTER
Sowter Audio Transformers, Ipswich IP1 2EL, Suffolk, UK
The history of soft magnetic materials is traced from 1000 B.C. to the present time. This
includes a description of the work of Oersted and Faraday who invented the first
transformer, and the gradual improvements in core material over the last 150 years. These
cover soft iron, silicon iron, grain orientation, Hi-B steels, domain control by lasers, and
spark ablation. Amorphous metallic glasses are also detailed. Finally the design and
characteristics of a wide range of audio transformers and magnetic shields are discussed, in
particular with regard to Mumetal, which with other nickel-iron alloys has been the author's
lifetime occupation.
0 INTRODUCTION who had also studied electrostatics, a science dating back

to about 600 B.C., when Thales, by rubbing amber with
The term "soft" relates to that class of metals or alloys fur, gave the amber the power of picking up certain
which can be easily magnetized and demagnetized as objects. The Greek word for amber was "elektron," and
opposed to "hard" magnetic materials used for permanent from this our word "electricity" is derived. Over the
magnets. This paper deals exclusively with soft materials, centuries considerable experimentation and the production
particularly for audio applications. of friction machines to generate electrostatic charges were
As far back as 1000 B.C. certain iron ores were found, completed and included capacitors and spark discharge
mainly in Magnesia, a district of Macedonia, pieces of devices. It was not until 1796 that Volta evolved the
which attracted and repelled each other. These contained voltaic pile to generate a continuous flow of electricity.
Fe304 (magnetite) and became known as lodestone, from This consisted of copper and zinc disks placed alternately
the Saxon "loeden," to lead or direct. Lodestones as found in column form but prevented from touching each other
were permanently magnetized and their power was named by means of pieces of moist cloth. This was later replaced
"magnetism." Around 55 B.C. Lucretius wrote "I have by the voltaic cell which consisted of a copper and a zinc
seen Samothracean iron rings even jump up, and at the strip placed in dilute sulfuric acid and capable of being
same time filings of iron rave within brass basins when joined externally by copper wires to feed a load. As is
the magnet stone has been placed under." Later Pliny known, hydrogen gathers on the surface of the copper
observed that iron which has been well touched and strip and polarization takes place, limiting the current
rubbed with lodestone is able to take hold of other pieces output.
of iron.
The first use of lodestone as a mariner's compass is 1 OERSTED'S DISCOVERY
attributed to the Chinese. Even before then, it was known OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
that a piece of lodestone freely suspended always turns to
the North. The first compasses were magnetized iron Before we consider transformers, the production of a
needles on floating straws, but pivoted devices were magnetic field by the presence of current is fundamental.
developed. While visiting the Chinese National Museum In early 1820 the Danish physicist Oersted gave a series of
in Peking some 20 years ago, the author was shown the lectures on magnetism and electricity. He made the
whole range of early Chinese compasses. current from a galvanic trough (voltaic cells in series) pass
The first authentic treatise on the science of magnetism through a platinum wire to illustrate the heating effect
was written in Latin by William Gilbert of Colchester (forerunner of modern electric heaters). Adjacent was a
compass covered with glass, and in the course of the
* Presented at the 82nd Convention of the Audio Engineering demonstration, on making the circuit, in the presence of
Society, London, 1987 March 10-13. the audience, a slight flick of
760 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10, 1987 October
PAPERS SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS FOR AUDIO TRANSFORMERS
the compass needle was noticed. It was not considered to 2 FARADAY'S DISCOVERY
be of very great significance, but months later, in 1820 OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
July, he resumed the research and confirmed that the
needle did actually move. By putting the compass, above, In the years 1821-1831 Michael Faraday became deeply
below, and on the sides of the wire carrying current he interested in experimentation with electrically produced
established that the wire was surrounded by a magnetic magnetic fields and in November 1825 came very close to
field. He immediately published a fourpage quarto discovering electromagnetic induction. He had five
document in Latin, describing this epochmaking discovery, separate wires, each 5 ft long, adjacent to each other, and
and sent it to all learned bodies and distinguished he passed a current through one of them trying to detect
scientists. any effect on any of the neighboring wires. Unfortunately
When several turns of wire were wound on a his galvanometer was not a delicate one and no effect was
magnetizable core, such as iron, the field was greatly observable. At that time a galvanometer, or
enhanced, and in 1825 Sturgeon produced the first current-measuring device, was no more than a crude
electromagnet. A typical example is the Royal Institution's compass near a coil of wire.
great electromagnet illustrated in Fig. 1. Electromagnets On 1828 February 15, at the usual Friday evening
were constructed by Franklin in the United States and G. I. gathering at the Royal Institution in London, there was
Moll of Utrecht, Holland. Magnetizable materials known held what could have been the first meeting of our Audio
at that time were various steels, wrought iron, nickel, and Engineering Society. The subject of the lecture was
cobalt. (It is interesting to note that the nickel-cobalt alloy "Resonance or the Reciprocation of Sound." Music was
Permendur, a 20th-century U.S. discovery now in demonstrated on instruments from Java, the jew's harp, and
production, has the highest saturation induction of all whistles, and a second meeting included sirens and
well-used commercial alloys, particularly for pole pieces. stringed instruments. At the first lecture resonances were
Some rare earth alloys with even higher saturations exist produced by the then well-known method of strewing sand
but are too expensive to come into general use. on a circular disk and drawing a violin bow across the
edge. The Chladni (1785) figures showed the natural
resonances of the disk. A second disk of similar
dimensions was placed under the energized one, which was
similarly lightly covered with sand. It was then shown that
the sand on the unenergized disk exhibited the same
pattern of Chladni figures.
Michael Faraday was present at these demonstrations
and he perceived that the mechanical work of bowing had
been converted into sound energy and then reconverted
into work on the second disk. This gave him a germ of
inspiration to determine whether electrical energy might
be converted into magnetism and then reconverted into
electricity.
Incidentally N. W. McLachlan and the author, in 1930,
made Chladni figures with sand and lycopodium powder
on disks and wide-angled metal and paper cones to
discover the natural resonances of loudspeakers by
bowing. Subsequently energization of cones of many sizes
and materials was made by passing audio frequency
current through the moving coil attached to the cone and
the sand studied. The frequencies at which these occurred
were confirmed by bridge measurement of the variations
of impedance and radiation resistance at each resonance
[1]. It is worth recording that even the resonances of the
actual moving coils were found to be audible by bowing,
and the frequencies were measured.
Faraday, in 1831 August, did confirm that electric
energy could be converted to magnetism and back to
electricity by the following entry in his diary [2]:
Have had an iron ring made (soft iron) round and inches '1/8
thick and ring 6 inches in external diameter. Wound many

coils of copper wire round one half, the coils being
separated by twine and calico-there were 3 lengths of wire
about 24 feet long and they could be connected as one
length or used as separate lengths. By trial with a trough,
Fig. 1. The Royal Institution's great electromagnet. each was insulated from the other. Will call this side of the
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10, 1987 October
761
SOWTER PAPERS
side of the ring, but separated by an interval, was wound in two research was being carried out on so many magnetic
pieces together amounting to about 60 feet in length, the direction materials.
being as with the former coils; this side call B. Since the coil on A Another reason for mentioning this treatise is that
intensified the effect of the current it was logical to presume that
Ewing, Hopkinson, and others almost anticipated the
coil B would intensify the effect of the forces in the ring. Coil A
discovery of modern high-permeability alloys such as
was capable of being connected to a trough and coil B was
connected to a Galvanometer. When all was ready, connected the Mumetal and Permalloy, so widely used in audio
ends of one of the pieces on A side with battery; immediately a transformers. At that time tests were made on nickel-iron
sensible effect on the needle. It oscillated and settled at last in the alloys containing 4.7% Ni, 25% Ni, 30% Ni, and 33% Ni.
original position. On breaking connection of A side with battery Even the effects of annealing were observed, and had
again a disturbance of the needle wave apparently short and sudden. the nickel contents been increased further up to 80%, there
would have been created elementary forms of Invar (35%
This is exactly what Faraday wrote in his diary. NiFe), Radiometal (50% NiFe), and Mumetal and
The discovery of electromagnetic induction resulted Permalloy (73-80% NiFe).
from many months of experimental research which he After leaving the university in 1922, the author's first
continued for almost 30 years. laboratory work was to measure the magnetic properties of
Faraday's induction ring was the first transformer ever nickel-iron rods about 5 ft long and 0.25
made, and his description of the toroidal core and
windings does not differ greatly from that of a modern
toroidal mains transformer now so extensively used in
audio equipment (Fig. 2). He even had some idea of the
effect of the turns ratio but suffered from the fact that
covered insulated wire was not then available.
During the nineteenth century wire coverings of silk or
cotton in single or double layers, impregnated papers,
Gutta Percha for submarine cables, and rubber were
utilized, to be followed eventually by enamel coatings.
It is worth recording that Faraday also invented the first
dynamo, which gave a supply of direct current from a
rotating disk (Fig. 3). This greatly enhanced the use of
direct current for experimental and other purposes and
basically led to the manufacture of highpower commercial
generators.
Toward the end of that century considerable research
was undertaken on soft magnetic materials for generators
and power transformers. The latter, in some instances,
consisted of toroidal copper windings with as many
small-diameter iron wires as possible, forced through the
central aperture and bent back on themselves to complete
a magnetic core. Similar construction was used for small
communication transformers for telephones. For power
transformers an alternative construction was the use of
soft iron plates bolted together, but these had appreciable
losses and suffered from deterioration due to aging.
3 PRODUCTION OF NICKEL-IRON ALLOYS

In about 1890 J. A. Ewing had published a book entitled
Magnetic Induction in Iron and Other Metals [3]. This is a
most comprehensive study covering various magnetic
measurements, including Weber's ballistic method,
magnetization of iron rings and long wires, steel, cast iron,
nickel, cobalt, and wrought iron wires. A chapter deals
with hysteresis and the effects of vibration, together with
magnetizing in weak and strong fields. He also studied
effects of temperature and stress, torsion and twisting, with
a final chapter on practical magnetic testing. Considering
that the period was 1890-1900, it is astonishing that such
comprehensive Fig. 2. Page from Faraday's diary describing experiment and
showing his induction ring the first toroidal transformer.
in diameter, containing 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, creased, there was first an improvement in permeability
70%, 80%, and 90% Ni. These had previously been heated and then a decline. It is interesting to note that on modern
to about 1000°C and slow cooled. The test equipment Hi-B transformer steel a small tensile stress is obtained by
employed, invented by Weber, is illustrated in Fig. 4, using a glass surface coating applied at high temperature
where a. ballistic galvanometer is used to measure flux. and then cooling. This reduces the losses and raises the
These tests quickly indicated that as the nickel content permeability.
was increased, there was an enormous improvement in 4 DISCOVERY OF IRON ALLOYED
magnetic properties around about 78% Ni content, which WITH SILICON FOR TRANSFORMER CONES
gave the optimum permeabilities. During the latter half of the nineteenth century
High permeability is closely allied with low considerable research on magnetic materials had been
magnetostriction, and some years later the author made carried out by such persons as Ewing, Rowlands, S. P.
magnetostriction tests on a Mumetal rod, again using the Thomson, Steinmetz, and many others, and measurement
Weber ballistic equipment. A 6-ft length of annealed thin techniques became well established. Many properties of
Mumetal rod was inserted in the magnetizing solenoid, and wrought iron, steels, nickel, cobalt, and even some
one end was securely fixed in a large lead block. At the nickel-iron alloys were determined, and it is to be
other end a 2000x linear magnification Reichert measuring regretted that the full import of the results was not
microscope with oil immersion was focused on the grain realized.
boundary of a crystal exposed by etching with nitric acid. In the early 1900s that first major improvement in
The first observations showed that the whole laboratory, materials for transformers took place when Sir Robert
situated within the works, was in a state of vibration due to Hadfield introduced iron alloyed with silicon which gave
the operation of hot and cold rolling mills and particularly higher permeabilities and appreciably less loss than earlier
a steam hammer. The result was that the measurements had steels. Various percentages of silicon were utilized and the
to be made in the middle of the night when all was quiet. alloys were sold under a variety of trade names. These
The magnetostriction movement on the grain boundary were produced from hot-rolled sheets and had
was on the order of one-millionth of its length for that omnidirectional properties. Strain-relieving annealing was
particular specimen (Fig. 5). It is interesting to observe that sometimes employed, and various coatings were used to
had magnetostriction measurements been made on the reduce eddy current loss.
aforementioned series of rods, the optimum composition These sheets were used in the form of butt lapped strips
for high permeability might have been confirmed. for the magnetic cores or power transformers and had only
Another test carried out by the author was to measure about half of the previous iron losses. The most popular
the permeability of a vertically suspended annealed alloy was 3-4% SiFe. Larger values of silicon content
Mumetal wire when various loads were applied to the were investigated even up to 7%, which was found to
lower end. This clearly showed that as loads were in have superior magnetic properties, but the material was
brittle and not easily machinable or stamped.
As an indication of the quality of silicon iron available
in 1915, reference is made to an IEE paper by N. W.
McLachlan on Stalloy plates 0.5 mm thick for instrument
transformers [4]. He found by measurement at 50 Hz that
at 0.01 T the complex permeability was 780 and at 0.1 T,
2760. At 0.5 T the value was only 3000.
Fig. 3. Page from Faraday's diary showing sketch of first Fig. 4. Connections for testing iron rods by search coil
dynamo. method due to Weber.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10, 1987 October
763
SOWTER PAPERS
5 GRAIN-ORIENTED SILICON IRON feature to obtain high inductance with the smallest number
of turns. The latter is required to minimize the capacity
Silicon irons with a number of improvements were effects, as described later.
utilized for transformers until the late 1930s when a
breakthrough occurred due to the introduction of 7 METALLIC GLASS OR AMORPHOUS SOFT
grainoriented silicon iron. This was the important MAGNETIC ALLOYS
invention of N. P. Goss, who termed the product Goss One final development in magnetic materials over tile
iron [5]. last 20 years has been the production of metallic glass, or
This was achieved by altering the silicon content in the amorphous soft magnetic alloys: These are like glass and
steel, cold rolling the strip to the desired thickness, have no crystalline structure. They are produced by
followed by high-temperature annealing at 1200°C to continuous casting and rapid continuous quenching, which
evolve secondary recrystallization. Large grains were results in a quick transition from the fluid to the solid
produced, oriented in the rolling direction and resulting in phase. The virtue of these materials is that thin strips, such
greatly improved magnetic properties along the strip. More as 0.05 mm thick (and up to 1 m wide in one instance), can
loss, however, arose across the strip, and this led to be made directly from the casting line, thus avoiding the
considerable research on mitered joints, butt joints, and usual hot rolling, cold rolling, and intermediate annealing
methods of utilizing as far as possible constructions where processes. Unfortunately, like glass, they are hard and very
the flux went along the grains. Obviously toroids here had brittle which makes handling and cutting uneconomic.
a big advantage, and subsequently C cores and E cores The composition of metallic glasses may consist of
were introduced, particularly for small transformers. some of the following: iron (Fe), boron (B), phosphorus
While improvements were taking place prior to the (P), nickel (Ni), carbon (C), copper (Cu), and molybdenum
1960s such as making thinner Goss material to reduce (Mo), a few of these elements constituting a particular
eddy currents, research was continuing to produce better brand. Table 1 gives the properties of metallic glasses that
steels. Japan came to the fore and patented their Hi-B existed a few years ago, but research continues [7].
Steel which is extensively used today. Here larger grains Amorphous metal has been employed in small
are evolved and a small tensile stress is imparted to the distibution transformers, and a 16-kVA unit which has
steel by using a glass surface coating applied at high only 20% of the loss of normal oriented silicon steels has
temperature and resulting in reduced electrical loss. been constructed. Amorphous metal is unlikely to be used
in large power transformers owing to its low saturation
induction, but in due course there is a possibility for its
6 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS use in audio transformers if it can be considerably
reduced in price as compared even with Mumetal.
Even in the last few years significant improvements in
electrical steel production have been obtained. As is well
known, magnetic losses in a core consist partly of
hysteresis, which varies linearly with frequency, and eddy
current loss, which is proportional to the squares of sheet
thickness, frequency, and induction, but inversely 8 THE ORIGIN OF MUMETAL
proportional to resistivity. There is however a third loss,
mentioned by the author in 1941 [6], which was termed In the early 1920s Mumetal was developed to act as a
disaccommodation loss or Nachwirkung loss. It has been loading material for submarine telegraph cables. It was
found that this loss depends on the distance between produced in high-frequency induction furnaces (the
domain walls, and recently by a process of scribing and original microwave oven principle), and the 20-lb ingots
laser treating the surface of the strip, losses can be reduced were used to make wire 0.010 in diameter. In 1926 for the
by as much as 10%. Richardson [5] gives further details of Pacific submarine cable between Bamfield and Fanning,
these treatments and states that electrical steels developed 3370 nautical miles in length, thousands of miles of this
today give a 40% improvement on the Goss 0.35-mm strip. Mumetal wire were drawn for wrapping around the central
British steels are now using spark ablation to give the same copper conductor to increase its inductance. This involved
results as laser scribing. So far, for use in audio subsequent annealing to develop the high permeability
transformer cores, several grades of oriented strip are required. The effect of the Mumetal wire was to reduce
available, termed M grades, from M2 to M7, and these are greatly the attenuation of the signals and increase the
utilized for the production of small toroids and word-handling capacity. By passing the loaded copper
laminations. For these purposes the aforementioned very through a continuous furnace at about 900°C in a nitrogen
high grade materials are not available yet, possibly for atmosphere it also meant continuous measurements of
economic reasons. inductance by the author and others on a definite length of
It is noted that all efforts to improve steel materials are conductor after passage through the furnace.
concerned with reducing losses. Fortunately low loss 1 Mumetal is a registered trademark of Telcon Metals
usually means higher magnetic permeability, which in the Ltd., Crawley, Sussex, UK.
case of audio transformers is a most desirable
It is worthy of mention that since so much Mumetal Garnett, and Randall, 1930) and subsequently sold to the
wire was required, quite a number of firms were engaged U.S. company engaged in the production of oriented
in its production. It was found that the wire from one firm silicon iron.
always had higher permeabilities than any other, and it In the early 1930s the demand for loaded submarine
transpired that they used fewer passes between cables slackened and fresh fields for the utilization of
intermediate softenings. It was thus proved that cold Mumetal were explored. Magnetic shields began to be
working or work hardening produced better magnetic required and Mumetal toroids for precision instrument
qualities, the forerunner of grain orientation. transformers soon became the fashion. In addition a
To cover the improvement in permeability a world demand arose for shielding cathode-ray tubes, particularly
patent was taken out (British Patent 366523, Smith, for oscilloscopes and eventually radar equipment.
Fig. 5. Longitudinal magnetostriction effect in nickel-iron alloys.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10, 1987 October 765
It is worthy of mention that since so much Mumetal Garnett, and Randall, 1930) and subsequently sold to the
wire was required, quite a number of firms were engaged U. S. company engaged in the production of oriented
in its production. It was found that the wire from one firm silicon iron.
always had higher permeabilities than any other, and it In the early 1930s the demand for loaded submarine
transpired that they used fewer passes between cables slackened and fresh fields for the utilization of
intermediate softenings. It was thus proved that cold Mumetal were explored. Magnetic shields began to be
working or work hardening produced better magnetic required and Mumetal toroids for precision instrument
qualities, the forerunner of grain orientation. transformers soon became the fashion. In addition a
To cover the improvement in permeability a world demand arose for shielding cathode-ray tubes, particularly
patent was taken out (British Patent 366523, Smith, for oscilloscopes and eventually radar equipment.
Fig. 5. Longitudinal magneto striction effect in nickel-iron alloys.
Table 1. Properties of metal glasses.
SOWTER PAPERS
9 HISTORY OF AUDIO FREQUENCY transformers) were obtained by measurements made by the

TRANSFORMERS author and given in British Patent 304710.
The input transformer with a Mumetal core operated at
The author's first experience with audio transformers such a low level that "noise" had to be minimized and the
was in 1919 when he examined a war surplus audio winding resistances were reduced by immersing this
amplifier which used "R" bright emitter valves and transformer in liquid air. Due to the Wall Street crash, the
contained three kinds of audio transformers. These were transatlantic telephone cable could not be financed, but the
inlet, intervalve, and output types and were all about 2 in 3 project worked well in the laboratory using artificial lines
with Stalloy (4% silicon iron) cores. It is of interest to note which corresponded to the proposed cable.
that a small brass plate on the amplifier case stated "made
by Captain Mullard" with a South London, Streatham,
address. It is believed that subsequently he was the founder 10 TONE COMPENSATOR FOR PHONOGRAPH
of the firm of Mullard. RECORDS
In the 1920s Ferranti Ltd. produced much improved Based on the experience gained with resonant
types of intervalve and output transformers, termed the transformers, it was decided to design a tone compensator
"AF series," which persisted for many years. The for use with a pickup for phonograph records. This became
transformer cores were Armco iron, where the initial known as the Novotone, which correctly compensated for
permeability was about 600 and the maximum less than the low-note loss due to groove limitations by the use of a
4000. The advantage of these transformers was that the carefully designed transformer resonating at about 30 Hz.
core section was generous, the windings sandwiched to A second transformer resonating at 4000 Hz and having a
give good magnetic coupling and spaced for minimum tertiary winding loaded with a variable resistor permitted
capacitance. This led to a respectable frequency response variable high-note compensation as shown in Fig. 7. This
from 50 Hz to 8 kHz or slightly above, which was instrument was patented and became a commercial
adequate for the various types of loudspeakers then being success. It is interesting to note that when the two
manufactured. transformers in the Novotone were first connected up so
In the early 1930s N. W. McLachlan and the author that the primaries and the secondaries were in series, the
were engaged in research for a proposed transatlantic author's measurements showed an unexpected reduction of
telephone cable, to be 2300 nautical miles in length. The voltage in the midfrequency band. After pondering about
frequency range was 250 Hz to 2500 Hz, with the received this for some time, it was realized that the output voltage
signal strength at the highest frequency only about 1 uV from the 30-Hz transformer, being above the resonant
The transmitter with a shaped frequency characteristic, frequency, was capacitive and that from the 4-kHz
emphasizing highest frequency, had an input of 200 W. transformer, being below the resonant frequency, was
Due to cable attenuation the signal strength on the cable inductive. When the two secondaries were connected in
falls as the operating frequency is increased, and the ratio opposition,
between 250 and 2500 Hz was as indicated in Table 2.
The frequency characteristic of the receiving amplifier
was designed to offset this by the aid of Mumetal-cored
resonant transformers fed from the then newly invented Table 2. Voltage amplification.
screened grid valves (Tetrodes). British Patent 304710 Frequency (Hz) Voltage amplification
gives the circuit of this amplifier, as shown in Fig. 6.
250 2.4 x 102
Elaborate precautions had to be taken to decouple the 500 2.3 x 103
feeding supplies and screen the transformers. In its final 1000 5.8 x 104
form the amplifier had six stages, and the following 1500 6.8 x 105
2000 5.4 x 106
amplification figures (which include amplification due to 2500 1.1 x 10'
the input and output
Fig. 6. Amplifier with "resonant intervalve transformers" to give voltage amplification of 240 at 250 Hz and 11 million at 2500 Hz (British
Patent 304710).
PAPE SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS FOR AUDIO
the performance curve in Fig. 7 was achieved. It should established as materials for audio frequency transformers.
perhaps be stated that to get the exact frequency A very large variety of sizes of laminations became
characteristics of the resonant transformers, a considerable available and eventually led to the formation of a
amount of research was required. committee which produced a document giving the
By the early 1930s, nickel-iron alloys such as Mumetal, preferred types, particularly for government departments.
Permalloy C, Radiometal, and others were firmly Many of these sizes are still being manufactured.
Fig. 7. McLachlan Novotone compensator for electrical reproduction of disk records using resonant audio transformers
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10,

SOWT PAPE
During World War II, munitions and communications parameters were disclosed. In the thesis the importance of
made great demands on these high-permeability uniform flux density throughout the magnetic circuit was
laminations, but a few unusual types of transformers are shown to be essential if distortion is to be minimized. Fig.
worth mentioning. Thus the Royal Aircraft Establishment 8 illustrates the distortion coefficients of various magnetic
at Farnborough was interested in determining the vibration materials in the form of interleaved assemblies of
frequencies and their amplitudes on the mainly wooden laminations. These coefficients are directly proportional to
aeroplane, the Mosquito, specially designed to avoid radar. the resulting distortion, and the superiority of Mumetal is
In conjunction with the De Havilland Company, which apparent. Fig. 9 gives the distortion coefficients for
built Mosquitos, the author designed and manufactured Mumetal in forms other than laminations and emphasizes
Mumetal-cored transformers operating over the range 4 Hz the low distortion of highpermeability spiral cores.
to 1 kHz, which suited the R. A. E. program. The 11 MAGNETIC CORES FOR AUDIO
transformers handled the small voltages set up by FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
nickel-chromium wire transducers glued to the vibrating The desirable properties for audio frequency magnetic
parts and a six-channel amplifier-recorder was built. cores varies somewhat according to the type of
After this, a similar demand arose from the Wellcome transformer. For those handling voltages over a wide
research laboratories for transformers to operate over 4 Hz frequency band, particularly starting at 20 Hz,
to 1 kHz or above for the encephalograph. This is a device highpermeability cores are essential to restrict the number
for measuring the tiny voltages set up between electrodes of turns and keep the leakage inductance down. High
gummed to the patient's head for the study of brain tumors. resistivity of the magnetic material and low hysteresis and
Today as many as nine electrodes can be utilized. eddy current loss are desirable so that overall core losses
It is amusing to recall that the author was invited to the are minimized. Where actual power handling is small and
laboratories to witness the first demonstration of the low cost is desirable, Mumetal 0.38 mm thick is mostly
equipment utilizing an anesthetized dog, on the head of employed, although thinner laminations can offer certain
which had been fixed electrodes feeding the amplifier and advantages, especially as regards permeability. This is
a recording oscilloscope. Rhythmic signals at low particularly the case for very small transformers required
frequencies were being observed when the doctor in charge for printed circuit board mounting. For this the range of
facetiously asked the author, "Would you like to have your laminations available is somewhat limited but can vary in
brains tested?" Fearing the worst, the author agreed and size from about 10 mm 2 up to a few square centimeters.
was asked to observe the pattern on the screen when he On the Continent DIN standard sizes exist. Fig. 10 gives a
worked out an elementary mathematical calculation. To his few of the lamination sizes in general use, although for
astonishment he found that the record showed a burst of high per
voltages during the calculation, which was immediately
followed by a second similar burst. He was told that
subconsciously he checked his calculations although he
was unaware of this.
Another outstanding device considered during the war
was modified transformers for the Asdic antisubmarine
equipment. Toward 1945 the author was also asked to
redesign the normal transformers so that, without loss of
performance, they could be appreciably reduced in size.
After the war ended in 1945 there began improvements
in recording on disks and tapes and a frequency range
spectrum of 40 Hz to 16 kHz became common, although
some recording companies specified 20 Hz to 20 kHz,
which is normal for many transformers today.
Harmonic generation, today called distortion, then had
become important, and the author made a detailed study
of the properties of the nickel-iron alloys from this aspect.
For this he was awarded an external Ph.D. by London
University, his thesis being entitled "Harmonic Distortion
in Transformers and Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores" [8].
The superiority of Mumetal over other alloys with respect
to low distortion was studied and distortion coefficients
were evolved. These enabled designers to predict
transformer distortion on finished transformers, provided
the associated circuit
Fig. 8. Distortion coefficients of various magnetic materials in the

form of interleaved assemblies of laminations.
768 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10,

performance or appreciable audio output larger sizes are found over a number of batches of laminations, as sold,
available. which shows initial permeability varying from 16 000 to
Laminations are generally in the form of Es and Is (to 27 000 and a comparable divergence over the whole useful
make up a rectangular form) or Ts and Us, and care must range of flux density. This must be taken into account
be taken in assembly to avoid excess compression or when designing. The reason for the limitation of maximum
bending since the permeability is easily reduced thereby. working induction is given in detail in [9], from which
There are advantages in higher permeability by using Figs. 14 and 15 are taken. Basically it is due to the
single E laminations (Fig. 11). Impregnation can have crowding of flux at the imbricated joints in the lamination
undesired effects, and immersion in incorrect grades of assembly, which is discussed in detail in this paper.
wax can lead to microphony, that is, minor voltages set up
in the windings generally due to relative movements-of
windings and cores. 12 DISTORTION IN AUDIO TRANSFORMERS
It will be noticed that generally the core sectional areas
are such that uniform flux density throughout the magnetic Referring to Figs. 8 and 9 it will be noticed that
circuit is obtained. This is most important to minimize distortion increases as the flux density is raised so that
harmonic generation, and the presence of holes for bolts wherever there are flux concentrations, additional
for fixing purposes does cause nonuniform flux distortion is produced. With an audio transformer the
concentration. Laminations are normally interleaved to highest operating flux levels are at the lowest frequency,
form a stack, but when this is the case, a striking and here the maximum distortion occurs. As frequency is
phenomenon is observed. raised, for a definite operating voltage, the flux is
Referring to Table 3, which gives the latest properties of progressively reduced so that harmonic generation falls.
the various grades of Mumetal, it will be observed that the For the higher frequencies in the audio range there is the
saturation flux density is 0.77 T. Now by examining the "skin effect," that is, the flux tends to concentrate on the
manufacturers' curves for Mumetal laminations type 187 outer surface of the laminations, which accounts for the
(Fig. 12) it will be seen that the permeability falls rapidly fall in effective permeability, as shown in Fig. 16.
beyond 0.3 T, or less than half of the ferric induction Obviously for best operation at high audio frequencies
saturation. This obviously limits the practical maximum thin material, such as 0.1 mm thick, has advantages as
induction at which the transformer can operate since high regards both inductance and distortion, but it is expensive.
distortion starts at this density. Fig. 13 shows the wide
range of permeabilities
13 INCREMENTAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
The passage of direct current through winding carrying

audio, frequency currents causes magnetization which
results in a severe diminution in permeability and limits
the audio output. This is of particular importance with
transistor amplifiers where heavy direct current can be
available in the output.
In one case encountered by the author a 300-VA
Fig. 9. Distortion coefficients of Mumetal. O-cut ring

stampings with interleaved joints; x-ring-stampings; 0- Fig. 10. Sizes and types of some of the laminations used for
spiral core; A-high-permeability spiral core. audio frequency transformers.
SOWTER PAPERS
push-pull audio output transformer designed by him and

14 DEMAGNETIZATION OF SOFT MAGNETIC
fed from two transistor amplifiers was said to have been
MATERIALS
balanced to eliminate any direct current. In fact it was
When a transformer has been subjected to large values
found to be unbalanced and passing 2 A direct current
of direct current or has been in the vicinity of a strong
through the primary winding, and the effect on the quality
permanent magnet, such as too near a loudspeaker, it will
of the speech and music, to put it mildly, was most
assume a polarized state or become magnetized.
pronounced. When the unbalance was found, there had
Fortunately this seldom has a permanently harmful effect
never before been such a rush to put two 10 000-RF
on the core material, although in its magnetized state it
capacitors in the lines. Here was a case of enormous
will have higher distortion and reduced audio output. The
distortion, and the author was reminded of a wartime
process of demagnetizing is quite simple and consists of
requirement of a large number of transformers he designed
applying to one winding an alternating current (for
especially to create maximum distortion for radio
example, at 50 Hz) of value appreciably exceeding
transmitters to jam unwanted radio reception.
Fig. 11. Higher permeability of E laminations as compared with E and I of same material.
Table 3. Summary of typical characteristics of modern Mumetal.
Standard Mumetal Mumetal Plus Supermumetal
Magnetic properties
Initial permeability* do 114 60 000 80 000 140 000
Maximum permeability do 240 000 300 000 350 000
Saturation ferric induction Bsat (Tesla) 0.77 0.77 0.77
Remanence, Brem from saturation (Tesla) 0.45 0.45 0.5
Coercivity, H° do (A/m) 1.0 0.8 0.55
Hysteresis loss at Bsat (J/m3 cycle) 3.2 1.3 0.9
Total loss at 0.1 Tesla 50 Hz, 0.1 mm spirated cores (mW/kg) 0.7 0.55 0.35
Curie temperature (°C) 350 350 350
Physical properties (similar for all grades)
Coefficient of linear expansion, per °C 13 x 10-6
Resistivity, uOhm . m 0.6
Specific gravity 8.8
Thermal conductivity, W/m . °C 33
Specific heat, J/kg . °C 440
* u4 is measured at 0.4 A/m.
Fig. 14. Variation of permeability of interleaved laminations with flux density as compared with butted and gapped assemblies. 0-interleave
0-butted; O-with 0.001-in gap in one outer limb and butt joint in the other; x -with 0.001-in gap in middle and in both outer limbs. Note
change of scale of ordinate at [L5-5000.
SOWTER PAPERS
that required for saturation. This current should then be early 1820s, when it was demonstrated that a horseshoe
reduced smoothly and gradually over a period of time, permanent magnet freely suspended and rotated over a
such as one-half to one minute. In its most elementary copper disk caused the latter to rotate. (This is the
form this can be done with a suitable variable resistance, principle of the induction motor.) By interfacing various
such as a potential divider capable of handling the large nonferrous disks between the magnet and the copper disk
current. It is important to spend the bulk of the time on the there was little effect. When, however, an iron disk was
low values of demagnetizing force, which should be interfaced, the copper disk did not move, and this was the
reduced to absolute zero. Another demagnetizing method first evidence of magnetic shielding. Other metals than
is to reverse direct current continuously while reducing its copper were tried instead for the rotatable disk, and it was
value to zero. It should be stressed that Mumetal does not found that silver was comparable but bismuth reacted very
easily acquire unidirectional magnetization under normal weakly. It is now known that electric conductivity is the
operating conditions. Silicon iron, however, can become desideratum for motion of the disk.
polarized to a small extent if low-frequency ac signals or On 1883 November 8 Willoughby Smith, as president
pulses of values approaching saturation are encountered, of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians,
and this increases distortion. read a paper entitled "Volta-Electrical Induction" [10].
This society became the present Institution of Electrical
Engineers (IEE) some years later in 1888.
15 HISTORY OF MAGNETIC SHIELDING AS USED For demonstration purposes he utilized two wooden
FOR AUDIO TRANSFORMERS frames about 36 in 2 in which were supported flat helices
of insulated copper wire, as indicated in Fig. 17. The coils
Nowadays a good proportion of audio transformers are were placed some distance apart, and switches D and E
contained in high-permeability (usually Mumetal) were mechanically controlled and could be synchronized.
magnetic shielding cans where 50-Hz "hum" may exist, Faraday had also experimented with similar coils with
and these are most effective. hand-operated static switches as in Fig. 17(b) and found
The first evidence of magnetic shielding was in the that when the space between the coils was filled with
insulating bodies such as sulfur and shellac, there was no
effect on the galvanometer deflection when the circuit
was made or broken. Copper and other nonmagnetic
materials also had no observable effect, and Willoughby
Smith wrote:
It is to be regretted that so sound a reasoner and so careful

an experimenter had not the great advantage of the assistance of
such suitable instruments for this class of research as the
Mirror-Galvanometer and the Telephone.
It is noteworthy that both these instruments were

available in 1879, Sir William Thomson's mirror re-
flecting galvanometer being described in detail by Wil-
loughby Smith in his paper read before the Society of
Telegraph Engineers on 1879 February 12 [11].
In his presidential paper Willoughby Smith was able to
send interrupted current through coil A and measure the
Fig. 15. Variation of permeability with flux density of Mumetal induced currents in coil B at various frequencies.
spiral cores showing higher possible working densities.
x-high-permeability specimen; O-medium-permeability specimen;
A-low-permeability specimen.
Fig. 16. Curves stressing fall in permeability with increasing frequency and showing advantage of thin laminations.
772 J. Audio Eng. SOC., Vol. 35, No. 10, 1987 October
The results of his tests by placing between the coils sheets some degree of shielding by wrapping a transformer in
of copper, zinc, tin, iron, and lead show wide differences very thin Mumetal tape, 0.05 or 0.1 mm thick, but the uses
in shielding effects and particularly variations as the are limited.
frequency increased. (This author found all this equipment For shielding audio frequency transformers the author,
some 40 years later in his company's stores.) in the 1930s, devised about 10 deep-drawn cylindrical
A more scientific series of shielding tests was carried Mumetal cans, and many of these sizes have persisted up
out by Constable and Aston at the National Physical to the present time. The normal reduction in hum by the
Laboratory some 40 years ago, and results are given in use of these cans is 30-40 dB, but where 50-Hz fields are
Table 4. It will be noted that at 50 Hz Mumetal is easily intense, it is customary to use double shields or even a
the most effective, but while copper 1/32 in thick has a value Mumetal shield encased in a second shield having a higher
of 4 dB at 50 Hz it becomes 26 dB at 3200 Hz. saturation induction, such as Radiometal 50% Ni-50% Fe
With the passage of time and research on the effects of alloy.
impurities in Mumetal, the permeabilities have greatly When low- and high-frequency audio fields are to be
improved, and comparatively thinner thicknesses for minimized it is possible to copper plate Mumetal shields,
shields are employed. It is even possible to obtain although an inner lining of copper foil is preferable.
The usual method of measuring hum reduction is to
Fig. 17. Magnetic shielding measurements by Willoughby Smith in 1882.
Table 4. Screening effects of various materials compared with Mumetal.
SOWT PAPE
create a uniform 50-Hz magnetic field by the use of to a great extent upon the number of sections in the
Helmholtz coils and to measure the voltage setup in a windings and the minimization of capacitance between
transformer first without a shield, then when encased in a coils and other parts of the transformer. The magnetic
shield. coupling between primary and secondary windings is of
For some applications, particularly for electromedical considerable importance since this controls the leakage
purposes or electron-microscope observations or where the inductance, and high permeability of the core material is
earth's field is to be minimized or eliminated, it is possible helpful in effecting this. At high frequencies it can be
to line a room with a Mumetal sheet, or even to make a assumed that the self- and mutual coil capacities, and those
Mumetal cabin capable of housing an operator. between the windings and the core, and electrostatic and
magnetic shields, can be regarded as lumped together to
form capacitance C20 in the equivalent circuit (Fig. 18a).
16 SOME NOTES ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE If L' represents the leakage inductance and R' is the
OF AUDIO TRANSFORMERS generator resistance plus the equivalent resistance of the
The lower register of the frequency response is obtained transformer, this forms a series resonant circuit whose
by the correct selection of the grade and size of the frequency is
magnetic core and by the number of primary turns. The
maximum operating flux density must be chosen to keep
within the acceptable distortion range, and this generally is
quite a straightforward procedure.
The middle register up to about 10 kHz will generally This will have an amplification factor Q whose value will
be acceptable with the above provisos for the bass, be controlled by the resistance R'.
provided that the copper and iron losses are not excessive. An alternative method of controlling the Q, which
The top register from, say, 10 kHz to 20 kHz causes the rise in voltage output at the resonant frequency,
depends is by loading the transformer with a resistor
Fig. 18. (a) Equivalent circuits of audio transformer at high audio frequencies. (b) Simplest form of equivalent circuit of audio transformer at
high audio frequencies.
77 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 10,

or increasing the secondary winding resistance. Fig. 19 is a 10) Flash test at prescribed voltage
series of curves showing the frequency response of a very 11) Permissible distortion or harmonic generation
old (1944) fairly bad input transformer for different loading 12) Balance or common-mode rejection
resistances. With modern transformers the leakage 13) Mechanical size with any limitations for insertion in a
resonance is usually above 20 kHz, but loading the module
secondary gives similar effects. The type of loading on a very 14) Type of mounting, such as printed circuit board,
high grade input transformer can have astonishing effects one-hole fixing, or grommet
where the frequency response can be made to extend from 15) Color-coded leads or terminal blocks
20 Hz up to beyond 100 kHz, as indicated by the curves in 16) Electrostatic interwinding shields if required
Fig. 20. This transformer was designed by the author for 17) Magnetic shielding, usually by Mumetal can and
Dolby Laboratories and was extensively used by them for being of the order of 30-40 dB at 50 Hz
their broadcast equipment. 18) Freedom from microphony
17 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS 19) For large transformers, such as 300 VA, freedom
FOR AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS from acoustic noise generated by core and winding
A specification could include all or a great deal of the 20) For telecommunication transformers, return loss
following, much of which depends on the magnetic core. 21) Isolation test (such as 1500 V rms at 50 Hz for 1
1) Frequency response, for example, 20 Hz to 20 kHz minute), between windings and metal parts with
generally, although 2 Hz to 10 kHz has been specified for subsequent insulation test
vibration study transformers and 320 Hz to 320 kHz for 22) Maximum voltage permissible if core accidently
high-speed cassette-copying equipment saturated.
2) Maximum operating level at the lowest operating A few of the specialized requirements encountered are:
frequency 1) To operate at 90°C at bottom of oil well drilling
3) Turns ratio 2) To operate in liquid nitrogen at 77 K
4) Copper resistance 3) To operate inside diver's helmet with compensation for
5) Inductance of primary or secondary at a specified loss of bass
frequency and value of excitation and sometimes leakage 4) Very low power bridge input transformers
inductance 5) Audiometric transformers to medical specifications
6) Permissible transmission loss and whether correction 6) High-ratio transformer in liquid helium for noise
is to be made by turns adjustment research.
7) Source impedance
8) Load or loads
9) Insulation test on winding to winding and to magnetic 18 RANGE OF AUDIO FREQUENCY
core and housing TRANSFORMERS
It is not normally realized that there is a very large
number of different audio frequency transformers; the
following list covers some of those in general demand:
Frequency, cycles per second
Fig. 19. Frequency and phase characteristics of a circuit containing an input or interstage transformer, showing the effects of varying the
secondary resistance.
SOWTER PAPERS
Fig. 20. Typical performance of wide-band audio transformers showing effects of different secondary loadings.
1) Microphone transformers (all types), including 26) Transformers for electrostatic speakers up to 2000
V do
those for phantom powering
27) Hi-fi output transformers for Compact Disc
2) Transformers for dynamic and moving-coil pickups
reproduction
3) Input transformers (all types)
28) Induction loop transformers (all ratings).
4) Output transformers for mixers
5) Multisecondary output transformers
6) Bridging transformers 19 REFERENCES
7) Line transformers
[1] N. W. McLachlan and G. A. V. Sowter, Philo. Mag.,
8) Line transformers to isolating test specifications
vol. 11, p. 15 (1931 Jan.)
9) Impedance matching transformers, including those
[2] L. P. Williams, Michael Faraday (Chapman & Hall,
for high-power loudspeaker distribution
London, 1965).
10) Balanced transformers, input and output
[3] J. A. Ewing, Magnetic Induction in Iron, etc.
11) Double-screened transformers
(Electrician Printing and Publishing Co., 1890).
12) Experimental transformers (all types) for research
[4] N. W. McLachlan, J. IEE, vol. 53 (1915 Mar.).
projects
[5] B. Richardson, "Transformer Core Losses,"
13) Audio output transformers for power amplifiers
Electronics c& Power (IEE) (1986 May).
up to 1 kW
[6] G. A. V. Sowter, "Magnetic Properties of Nickel Iron
14) 100-V line transformers for audio amplifiers up
Alloys," J. Brit. IRE (1941 Aug.).
to 1kW
[7] R. Boll, Soft Magnetic Materials (Heyden & Sons,
15) Output transformers for valve amplifiers up to
1979).
500 W
[8] G. A. V. Sowter, "Harmonic Distortion in Transformers
16) Hi-fi loudspeaker transformers for all ratings
and Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores," Ph.D. thesis, London
17) Column loudspeaker transformers for plain and
University, 1944.
focused outputs
[9] G. A. V. Sowter, "Characteristics of Soft Magnetic
18) Tapped autotransformers for volume control on
Materials for Instruments," Proc. IEE, vol. 98, p. 11 (1951
loudspeakers
Dec.).
19) Printed circuit board mounting transformers for
[10] W. Smith, "Volta-Electric Induction," presidential
mixing and recording desks
address, Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians
20) Miniature audio transformers for most modules
(1883 Nov.).
21) Microphone split!er/combiner transformers
[11] W. Smith, "Working of Long Submarine Cables,"
22) Antimicrophonic transformers
Society of Telegraph Engineers (1879 Nov. 8).
23) Low-frequency pulse transformers
[12] MIT., Magnetic Circuits and Transformers
24) Vibration study transformers (2 Hz upward)
(Chapman & Hall, London, 1944).
25) Direct injection transformers (for guitars etc )
THE AUTHOR
G. A. V. Sowter was born in London, U.K., and educated and other alloys.
at London University, where he was awarded his B.Sc. in Prior to World War II Dr. Sowter spent several years
engineering in 1922. He then joined the Telegraph teaching at Higher National Certificate level as well as
Construction and Maintenance Co., which made and laid the managing Telcon Metals Ltd. This resulted in the award of
first Atlantic submarine cable, and he was engaged in an external Ph.D. degree at London University, where his
research on magnetic materials. This included the early work thesis was on "Harmonic Distortion in Transformers and
and evolution on Mumetal and kindred alloys by the team. In Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores."
the early 1930s, he worked with N. W. McLachlan, the In the late 1930s he became consultant to Sowter
celebrated pioneer of moving-coil loudspeaker research, and Transformers, Ipswich, U.K., which produces every type of
developed a transmitter and receiver for a projected audio frequency transformer. He is still active in this capacity
transatlantic telephone submarine cable. The economic and has made hundreds of designs resulting in the sale of
world depression of the 1930s terminated this project and thousands of transformers handling from a few microwatts
laboratory work on moving coil loudspeakers was up to a kilowatt. His expertise in the properties and
undertaken. applications of high-permeability magnetic alloys led to the
A number of technical papers were published by Dr. design of transformers for the Royal Shakespeare Co.
Sowter and Dr. McLachlan on loudspeaker articles in the Barbican, Royal Opera House Covent Garden, BBC Studios,
Philosophical Magazine. During this period the standard Dolby Laboratories, plus many others.
textbook Loudspeakers by N. W. McLachlan was published, Dr. Sowter has traveled extensively, including a visit to
based on the extensive measurements carried on by Dr. China 25 years ago. He is treasurer and member of the
Sowter. Dr. Sowter became chairman of the measurements "Dynamicables" Club, which has celebrated its Centenary
division of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, was on recently and consists of the 100 outstanding British Electrical
the council for a number of years, and served on many of Engineers.
their committees. He received a fellowship of the I.E.E. He is also a registered chartered engineer by the British
Previously he had been Chairman of the Council of the Engineering Council. At the 73rd Convention of the Audio
British Institution of Radio Engineers (now I.E.E.I.E.) and Engineering Society in Eindhoven, Dr. Sowter was awarded
still enjoys his ham radio-his callsign G20S being allocated a fellowship in recognition of his achievements in the audio
in the early 20s. He has chaired a number of British field. The citation, approved by Ray Dolby, chairman of the
Standard Committees on magnetic materials and has written AES Awards Committee, reads: "For contributions to audio
several technical papers on this subject. He became Group transformer and loudspeaker design, particularly the optimal
Commercial Director of several Telcon Metals companies employment of magnetic materials."
which included factories producing Mumetal

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Audio Transformers

This work first published by Focal Press in 2001 as

Copyright © 2001, 2006 Bill Whitlock

1 Audio Transformer Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.1 Basic Principles and Term inology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Audio Transformers for Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.1 Equipm ent-Level Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 M easurements and Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.1 Testing and Measurem ents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Installation and M aintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.1 A Few Installation Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1 Audio Transformer Basics

1.1 Basic Principles and Terminology

1.1.1 Magnetic Fields and Induction

As shown in Figure 1, a magnetic field is created around any

1.1.2 Windings and Turns Ratio Figure 4 - Inductive Coupling

1.1.3 Excitation Current

As shown in Figure 5, when there is no load on the

Figure 7 illustrates the relationships between voltage, excitation current,

Figure 7 - Excitation Current and Flux

1.2 Realities of Practical Transformers

A schematic representation of the major low-frequency

1.2.1 Core Materials and Construction

The permeability of magnetic materials varies with flux

Magnetic hysteresis can be thought of as a magnetic

Because high-permeability materials are usually electrical conductors as

1.2.2 Winding Resistances and Auto-Transformers

If zero-resistance wire existed, some truly amazing transformers could be built. In a 60

1.2.3 Leakage Inductance and Winding Techniques

In an ideal transformer, since all flux generated

Figure 14 - Bi-Filar W indings Figure 15 - Layered W indings

1.2.4 Winding Capacitances and Faraday Shields

In some applications, inter-winding capacitances are very

1.2.5 Magnetic Shielding

1.3 General Application Considerations

1.3.1 Maxim um Signal Level, Distortion, and Source Im pedance

The most commonly used audio transformer core materials

As background, it should be said that THD or total harmonic

One type of distortion which is particularly audible is inter-

Distortion in audio transformers is different in a way which

1.3.2 Frequency Response

Figure 20 - Simplified Low Frequency Figure 21 - Simplified High-Frequency

1.3.3 Insertion Loss

The circuit models,

1.3.4 Sources with Zero Im pedance

1.3.5 Bi-Directional Reflection of Im pedances

have an input impedance of about 3 kÙ at 100 Hz, 30 kÙ at 1 kHz,

A 1:1 output transformer application is shown in Figure 25. It has a

A 4:1 input transformer example is shown in Figure 26. It has a

1.3.7 Basic Classification by Application

2 Audio Transformers for Specific Applications

2.1 Equipment-Level Applications

2.1.1 Microphone Input

A microphone input transformer is driven by the

2.1.2 Line Input

A line input transformer is driven by a balanced line and, most

High common-mode noise rejection or CMRR is achieved in

2.1.3 Moving-Coil Phono Input

Moving-coil phonograph pickups are very low-impedance, very

A line-level output transformer is driven by an amplifier

The circuit of Figure 32 is well suited to the lower signal levels

In both previous circuits, because the primary drive of T1 is

The circuit of Figure 33 uses a cathode follower circuit which