Magnetite

Magnetite is a mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the
chemical formula Fe3 O4 . It is one of the oxides of iron, and is
Magnetite
ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can be magnetized to
become a permanent magnet itself.[5][6] It is the most magnetic of all
the naturally occurring minerals on Earth.[5][7] Naturally magnetized
pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron,
which is how ancient peoples first discovered the property of
magnetism.[8]

Magnetite is black or brownish-black with a metallic luster, has a

Mohs hardness of 5–6 and leaves a black streak.[5] Small grains of
magnetite are very common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.[9]

The chemical IUPAC name is iron(II,III) oxide and the common

Magnetite from Bolivia
chemical name is ferrous-ferric oxide.[10]
General
Category Oxide minerals
Contents Spinel group

Properties Spinel structural

Crystal structure group
Crystal morphology and size Formula iron(II,III) oxide,
Reactions (repeating Fe2+Fe3+2O4
Magnetic properties unit)

Distribution of deposits Strunz 4.BB.05

classification
Biological occurrences
Human brain Crystal Isometric
system
Applications
Magnetic recording Crystal class Hexoctahedral
Catalysis (m3m)
Magnetite nanoparticles H-M symbol: (4/m 3
Coal mining industry 2/m)
Space group Fd3m
Gallery of magnetite mineral specimens
Unit cell a = 8.397 Å; Z = 8
See also
Identification
References
Color Black, gray with
Further reading
brownish tint in
External links reflected sun
Crystal habit Octahedral, fine
Properties granular to massive
Twinning On {Ill} as both twin
and composition
In addition to igneous rocks, magnetite also occurs in sedimentary plane, the spinel
rocks, including banded iron formations and in lake and marine law, as contact
sediments as both detrital grains and as magnetofossils. Magnetite twins
nanoparticles are also thought to form in soils, where they probably
Cleavage Indistinct, parting
oxidize rapidly to maghemite.[11]
on {Ill}, very good
Fracture Uneven
Crystal structure
Tenacity Brittle
The chemical composition of magnetite is Fe2+(Fe3+)2 (O2-)4 . This Mohs scale 5.5–6.5
indicates that magnetite contains both ferrous (divalent) and ferric hardness
(trivalent) iron, suggesting crystallization in an environment Luster Metallic
containing intermediate levels of oxygen.[12][13] The main details of
Streak Black
its structure were established in 1915. It was one of the first crystal
structures to be obtained using X-ray diffraction. The structure is Diaphaneity Opaque
inverse spinel, with O2− ions forming a face-centered cubic lattice and Specific 5.17–5.18
iron cations occupying interstitial sites. Half of the Fe3+ cations gravity
occupy tetrahedral sites while the other half, along with Fe2+ cations,
Solubility Dissolves slowly in
occupy octahedral sites. The unit cell consists of 32 O2− ions and unit
cell length is a = 0.839 nm.[13][14] hydrochloric acid
References [1][2][3][4]
As a member of the inverse spinel group, magnetite can form solid
Major varieties
solutions with similarly structured minerals, including ulvospinel
(Fe2TiO4) and magnesioferrite (MgFe2O4).[15] Lodestone Magnetic with
definite north and
Titanomagnetite, also known as titaniferous magnetite, is a solid south poles
solution between magnetite and ulvospinel that crystallizes in many
mafic igneous rocks. Titanomagnetite may undergo oxyexsolution
during cooling, resulting in ingrowths of magnetite and ilmenite.[15]

Crystal morphology and size

Natural and synthetic magnetite occurs most commonly as octahedral

crystals bounded by {111} planes and as rhombic-dodecahedra.[13]
Twinning occurs on the {111} plane.[2]

Hydrothermal synthesis usually produces single octahedral crystals Unit cell of magnetite. The gray
which can be as large as 10 mm (0.39 in) across.[13] In the presence spheres are oxygen, green are
of mineralizers such as 0.1 M HI or 2 M NH4 Cl and at 0.207 MPa at divalent iron, blue are trivalent iron.
Also shown are an iron atom in an
416–800 °C, magnetite grew as crystals whose shapes were a
octahedral space (light blue) and
combination of rhombic-dodechahedra forms.[13] The crystals were
another in a tetrahedral space (gray).
more rounded than usual. The appearance of higher forms was
considered as a result from a decrease in the surface energies caused
by the lower surface to volume ratio in the rounded crystals.[13]

Reactions

Magnetite has been important in understanding the conditions under which rocks form. Magnetite reacts with
oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control how oxidizing its
environment is (the oxygen fugacity). This buffer is known as the hematite-magnetite or HM buffer. At lower
oxygen levels, magnetite can form a buffer with quartz and fayalite known as the QFM buffer. At still lower
oxygen levels, magnetite forms a buffer with wüstite known as the MW buffer. The QFM and MW buffers
have been used extensively in laboratory experiments on rock chemistry. The QFM buffer, in particular,
produces an oxygen fugacity close to that of most igneous rocks.[16][17]

Commonly, igneous rocks contain solid solutions of both titanomagnetite and hemoilmenite or titanohematite.
Compositions of the mineral pairs are used to calculate oxygen fugacity: a range of oxidizing conditions are
found in magmas and the oxidation state helps to determine how the magmas might evolve by fractional
crystallization.[18] Magnetite also is produced from peridotites and dunites by serpentinization.[19]

Magnetic properties

Lodestones were used as an early form of magnetic compass. Magnetite has been a critical tool in
paleomagnetism, a science important in understanding plate tectonics and as historic data for
magnetohydrodynamics and other scientific fields.[20]

The relationships between magnetite and other iron oxide minerals such as ilmenite, hematite, and ulvospinel
have been much studied; the reactions between these minerals and oxygen influence how and when magnetite
preserves a record of the Earth's magnetic field.[21]

At low temperatures, magnetite undergoes a crystal structure phase transition from a monoclinic structure to a
cubic structure known as the Verwey transition. Optical studies show that this metal to insulator transition is
sharp and occurs around 120 K.[22] The Verwey transition is dependent on grain size, domain state,
pressure,[23] and the iron-oxygen stoichiometry.[24] An isotropic point also occurs near the Verwey transition
around 130 K, at which point the sign of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant changes from positive to
negative.[25] The Curie temperature of magnetite is 580 °C (853 K; 1,076 °F).[26]

If magnetite is in a large enough quantity it can be found in aeromagnetic surveys using a magnetometer which
measures magnetic intensities.[27]

Distribution of deposits
Magnetite is sometimes found in large quantities in beach sand. Such
black sands (mineral sands or iron sands) are found in various places,
such as Lung Kwu Tan of Hong Kong; California, United States; and
the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand.[28] The magnetite,
eroded from rocks, is carried to the beach by rivers and concentrated
by wave action and currents. Huge deposits have been found in
banded iron formations.[29][30] These sedimentary rocks have been
used to infer changes in the oxygen content of the atmosphere of the
Earth.[31] Magnetite and other heavy minerals
(dark) in a quartz beach sand
Large deposits of magnetite are also found in the Atacama region of (Chennai, India).
Chile (Chilean Iron Belt);[32] the Valentines region of Uruguay;[33]
Kiruna, Sweden;[34] the Tallawang Region of New South Wales;[35]
and in the Adirondack region of New York in the United States.[36] Kediet ej Jill, the highest mountain of
Mauritania, is made entirely of the mineral.[37] Deposits are also found in Norway, Romania, and the
Ukraine.[38] Magnetite-rich sand dunes are found in southern Peru.[39] In 2005, an exploration company,
Cardero Resources, discovered a vast deposit of magnetite-bearing sand dunes in Peru. The dune field covers
250 square kilometers (100 sq mi), with the highest dune at over 2,000 meters (6,560 ft) above the desert floor.
The sand contains 10% magnetite.[40]
In large enough quantities magnetite can affect compass navigation. In Tasmania there are many areas with
highly magnetized rocks that can greatly influence compasses. Extra steps and repeated observations are
required when using a compass in Tasmania to keep navigation problems to the minimum.[41]

Magnetite crystals with a cubic habit are rare but have been found at Balmat, St. Lawrence County, New
York,[42][43] and at Långban, Sweden.[44] This habit may be a result of crystallization in the presence of
cations such as zinc.[45]

Magnetite can also be found in fossils due to biomineralization and are referred to as magnetofossils.[46] There
are also instances of magnetite with origins in space coming from meteorites.[47]

Biological occurrences
Biomagnetism is usually related to the presence of biogenic crystals of magnetite, which occur widely in
organisms.[48] These organisms range from magnetotactic bacteria (e.g., Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum)
to animals, including humans, where magnetite crystals (and other magnetically sensitive compounds) are
found in different organs, depending on the species.[49][50] Biomagnetites account for the effects of weak
magnetic fields on biological systems.[51] There is also a chemical basis for cellular sensitivity to electric and
magnetic fields (galvanotaxis).[52]

Pure magnetite particles are biomineralized in magnetosomes, which

are produced by several species of magnetotactic bacteria.
Magnetosomes consist of long chains of oriented magnetite particle
that are used by bacteria for navigation. After the death of these
bacteria, the magnetite particles in magnetosomes may be preserved in
sediments as magnetofossils. Some types of anaerobic bacteria that are Magnetite magnetosomes in
not magnetotactic can also create magnetite in oxygen free sediments Gammaproteobacteria
by reducing amorphic ferric oxide to magnetite.[53]

Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for
magnetoreception,[54] which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the ability to sense
the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.[49][55]

Chitons, a type of mollusk, have a tongue-like structure known as a radula, covered with magnetite-coated
teeth, or denticles.[56] The hardness of the magnetite helps in breaking down food.

Biological magnetite may store information about the magnetic fields the organism was exposed to, potentially
allowing scientists to learn about the migration of the organism or about changes in the Earth's magnetic field
over time.[57]

Human brain

Living organisms can produce magnetite.[50] In humans, magnetite can be found in various parts of the brain
including the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, brainstem, cerebellum and basal ganglia.[50][58]
Iron can be found in three forms in the brain – magnetite, hemoglobin (blood) and ferritin (protein), and areas
of the brain related to motor function generally contain more iron.[58][59] Magnetite can be found in the
hippocampus. The hippocampus is associated with information processing, specifically learning and
memory.[58] However, magnetite can have toxic effects due to its charge or magnetic nature and its
involvement in oxidative stress or the production of free radicals.[60] Research suggests that beta-amyloid
plaques and tau proteins associated with neurodegenerative disease frequently occur after oxidative stress and
the build-up of iron.[58]
Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense,[61] proposing that this could allow
certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation.[62] The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well
understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the
study of biomagnetism.[63]

Electron microscope scans of human brain-tissue samples are able to differentiate between magnetite produced
by the body's own cells and magnetite absorbed from airborne pollution, the natural forms being jagged and
crystalline, while magnetite pollution occurs as rounded nanoparticles. Potentially a human health hazard,
airborne magnetite is a result of pollution (specifically combustion). These nanoparticles can travel to the brain
via the olfactory nerve, increasing the concentration of magnetite in the brain.[58][60] In some brain samples,
the nanoparticle pollution outnumbers the natural particles by as much as 100:1, and such pollution-borne
magnetite particles may be linked to abnormal neural deterioration. In one study, the characteristic
nanoparticles were found in the brains of 37 people: 29 of these, aged 3 to 85, had lived and died in Mexico
City, a significant air pollution hotspot. A further eight, aged 62 to 92, came from Manchester, and some had
died with varying severities of neurodegenerative diseases.[64] Such particles could conceivably contribute to
diseases like Alzheimer's disease.[65] Though a causal link has not been established, laboratory studies suggest
that iron oxides like magnetite are a component of protein plaques in the brain, linked to Alzheimer's
disease.[66]

Increased iron levels, specifically magnetic iron, have been found in portions of the brain in Alzheimer's
patients.[67] Monitoring changes in iron concentrations may make it possible to detect the loss of neurons and
the development of neurodegenerative diseases prior to the onset of symptoms[59][67] due to the relationship
between magnetite and ferritin.[58] In tissue, magnetite and ferritin can produce small magnetic fields which
will interact with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creating contrast.[67] Huntington patients have not
shown increased magnetite levels; however, high levels have been found in study mice.[58]

Applications
Due to its high iron content, magnetite has long been a major iron ore.[68] It is reduced in blast furnaces to pig
iron or sponge iron for conversion to steel.[69]

Magnetic recording

Audio recording using magnetic acetate tape was developed in the 1930s. The German magnetophon utilized
magnetite powder as the recording medium.[70] Following World War II, 3M Company continued work on the
German design. In 1946, the 3M researchers found they could improve the magnetite-based tape, which
utilized powders of cubic crystals, by replacing the magnetite with needle-shaped particles of gamma ferric
oxide (γ-Fe2 O3 ).[70]

Catalysis

Approximately 2–3% of the world's energy budget is allocated to the Haber Process for nitrogen fixation,
which relies on magnetite-derived catalysts. The industrial catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder,
which is usually obtained by reduction of high-purity magnetite. The pulverized iron metal is burnt (oxidized)
to give magnetite or wüstite of a defined particle size. The magnetite (or wüstite) particles are then partially
reduced, removing some of the oxygen in the process. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of
magnetite, encased in a shell of wüstite, which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of iron metal. The
catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high-surface-area
material, which enhances its effectiveness as a catalyst.[71][72]
Magnetite nanoparticles

Magnetite micro- and nanoparticles are used in a variety of applications, from biomedical to environmental.
One use is in water purification: in high gradient magnetic separation, magnetite nanoparticles introduced into
contaminated water will bind to the suspended particles (solids, bacteria, or plankton, for example) and settle to
the bottom of the fluid, allowing the contaminants to be removed and the magnetite particles to be recycled and
reused.[73] This method works with radioactive and carcinogenic particles as well, making it an important
cleanup tool in the case of heavy metals introduced into water systems.[74]

Another application of magnetic nanoparticles is in the creation of ferrofluids. These are used in several ways,
in addition to being fun to play with. Ferrofluids can be used for targeted drug delivery in the human body.[73]
The magnetization of the particles bound with drug molecules allows “magnetic dragging” of the solution to
the desired area of the body. This would allow the treatment of only a small area of the body, rather than the
body as a whole, and could be highly useful in cancer treatment, among other things. Ferrofluids are also used
in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology.[75]

Coal mining industry

For the separation of coal from waste, dense medium baths were used. This technique employed the difference
in densities between coal (1.3–1.4 tonnes per m³) and shales (2.2–2.4 tonnes per m³). In a medium with
intermediate density (water with magnetite), stones sank and coal floated.[76]

Gallery of magnetite mineral specimens

Octahedral crystals of Magnetite with super- Alpine-quality Magnetite with a rare

magnetite up to sharp crystals, with magnetite in cubic habit from St.
1.8 cm across, on epitaxial elevations contrasting Lawrence County,
cream colored on their faces chalcopyrite matrix New York.
feldspar crystals,
locality: Cerro
Huañaquino, Potosí
Department, Bolivia

See also
Bluing (steel), a process in which steel is partially protected against rust by a layer of magnetite
Buena Vista Iron Ore District
Corrosion product
Ferrite
 Greigite
Magnesia (in natural mixtures with magnetite)
Mill scale
Magnes the shepherd
Rainbow lattice sunstone

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Further reading
Lowenstam, Heinz A.; Weiner, Stephen (1989). On Biomineralization. USA: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504977-0.
Chang, Shih-Bin Robin; Kirschvink, Joseph Lynn (1989). "Magnetofossils, the Magnetization of
Sediments, and the Evolution of Magnetite Biomineralization" (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~jkir
schvink/pdfs/AnnualReviews89.pdf) (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences.
17: 169–195. Bibcode:1989AREPS..17..169C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989AREP
S..17..169C). doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.17.050189.001125 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.e
a.17.050189.001125).

External links
Mineral galleries (http://www.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/magnetit/magnetit.htm)
Bio-magnetics (http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/ask/a11651.html)
Magnetite mining in New Zealand (https://web.archive.org/web/20121119180010/http://www.nz
pam.govt.nz/cms/minerals/overview/overview?searchterm=ironsand) Accessed 25-Mar-09

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