Aspects of Context and Harmony in The Mu

ASPECTS OF CONTEXT AND HARMONY
IN THE MUSIC OF CLARE FISCHER
Michael Kahr
A thesis submitted in fulfilment

of requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Sydney Conservatorium of Music

University of Sydney
2009
ii
I declare that the research presented here is my own original work and has not been
submitted to any other institution for the award of a degree.
Signed:
Date: 15.03.2009
iii
Abstract
This study presents socio-cultural and harmonic analyses of Clare Fischer’s

compositional approach. It incorporates not only the results of interviews with
Fischer himself, family members and long-time colleagues, but also introduces a
large collection of private letters, used exclusively in this study by permission of
Fischer’s wife Donna. The harmonic component includes detailed comparative
analyses of one composition and one solo piano performance, which reveal aspects
of influence and considerable detail regarding Fischer’s idiosyncratic harmonic
style.
Various methodological and theoretical considerations are outlined and a pragmatic

approach towards the examinations of both Fischer’s socio-cultural context and
distinctive harmonic process proposed. The study discusses aspects of Fischer’s
status and influence within the jazz community, his stylistic network, his work in
the popular music sector, the concept of emotion in his music, and his relationship
in socio-cultural and musical terms with Dimitri Shostakovich and Bill Evans. The
work continues with comparative examinations of harmony in Fischer’s
composition ‘The Early Years’, which shows parallels to passages from
Shostakovich’s first symphony and Fischer’s solo piano interpretation of the folk
song ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, which reveals significant differences from the
mainstream in tonal jazz as exemplified by Bill Evans’ harmonic treatment of the
folk tune ‘Danny Boy’.
A more precise definition of the relationship between Fischer’s harmonic techniques

and his contextual background emerges from these analyses. The study concludes
with a summary and analysis of Fischer’s harmonic choices as expressions of
personal experiences and general socio-cultural matters, and offers perspectives for
future investigations of jazz music utilizing interdisciplinary methodologies.
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the generous assistance and support of several people
during the course of this work. My advisors Jennifer Shaw and Bill Motzing guided
this research from its beginning. Kathleen Nelson provided much useful information
towards the preparation of the final version. Marcus Hartstein helped with editorial
matters. Many thanks also to the librarian Jackie Luke for chasing up that article.
I owe a strong debt of gratitude to Harald Neuwirth and Bill Dobbins, who stirred
my interest in Clare Fischer’s music. Our discussions gave me a deeper
understanding of the theoretical framework in jazz. Many thanks also to Franz
Kerschbaumer who has always supported my endeavours.
The work would not have been possible without the generous support from the
Fischer family. Donna, Clare, Stewart and, in particular, Brent helped me to conduct
my research in the best possible way. Thanks to Kim Richmond, Don Shelton, Gary
Foster, Steve Huffsteter and Morris Repass for their participation in the interview
sessions.
This research was supported through an Endeavour International Postgraduate

Research Scholarship by the Australian Government and an International
Postgraduate Award by the University of Sydney.
Last not least I would like to express my love and gratitude for my amazing wife
Maryam and I dedicate this work to my mother who would have been so happy to
see this work in her lifetime.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Illustrations vii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Overview of Methodology 4
2 METHOD AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Functional Analysis and Chromatic Resolutions 12
2.2 Current Tendencies in Jazz Theory 17
2.3 Semiotics in Music 29
2.4 Interrelation of Jazz Improvisation and Composition 33
2.5 The Fundamental Structure and its Basic Elaborations in
Jazz Harmony 41
2.6 Burnett and Nitzberg’s ‘New Theory of Tonality’ 73
2.7 Notes on Musical Transcriptions in Jazz 82
2.8 Nomenclature for Chord Symbolization 89
2.9 The Voice-Leading Graph: Technical Notes and Method 103
3 CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES
3.1 Fischer’s Status in the Jazz Community and a Stylistic
Categorization 106
3.2 Fischer – Shostakovich 125
3.3 Fischer – Evans 146
3.4 Fischer’s Use of Harmony in his Popular Music 153
3.5 Harmony, Emotion and Meaning 165
vi
4 COMPARATIVE MUSICAL ANALYSIS

4.1 Dimitri Shostakovich’s 1st Symphony 183
4.2 Clare Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 205
4.3 Technical Comparison of Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1
and Fischer’s Composition ‘The Early Years’ 241
4.4 ‘Danny Boy’ and ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’: Historical
Information and Harmonic Analysis 249
4.5 Bill Evans’s Two Recordings of ‘Danny Boy’ 255
4.6 Clare Fischer’s Performance of
‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ 270
4.7 Statistical Comparison of Fischer’s and Evans’s Versions of
the Folk Tunes ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and
‘Danny Boy’ 289
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary 301
5.2 Conclusions 304
5.3 Implications for Further Research 310
Bibliography 312
Appendix 325
vii
ILLUSTRATIONS
EXAMPLES
2.1: Voice-leading graph of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’,

bars 95–96 12
2.2: Melodic variation in Evans’s piano improvisation 35
2.3: Keith Jarrett’s improvised ending of the standard

‘Mona Lisa’ by Ray Evans and Jay Livingston 36
2.4: Diatonic three-part chords and scale degree assignment

in the key of C major 52
2.5: Diatonic four-part chords and scale degree assignment

2.6: I – IV – V – I in the key of C major 56
2.7: Guide tone lines of a VI – II – V – I progression

2.8: Guide tone lines of IV – V and II – V progressions

2.9: Guide Tone Lines of a full diatonic cadence

(I – IV – VII – III – VI – II – V – I progression
in the key of C major) 59
2.10: V7 and its tritone substitution bII7 in the key of C major 62
2.11: IIm7 – V7, (related) IIm7 – subV7 in the key of C major 62
2.12: V/V – V progressions including tritone substitutions

and related IIm7 chords 63
2.13: The ‘bebop-cross’ 63
2.14: Ascending and descending passing diminished chords 64
2.15: Bo7 as a variant of four different V7-9 chords

(G7-9, E7-9, Db7-9, Bb7-9) 64
2.16: Two line clichés in the key of A minor 65
2.17: ‘On Green Dolphin Street’ by Bronislau Kaper, Lyrics by

Ned Washington. A-section, bars 1 – 8 66
viii
2.18: Close and open position jazz piano voicings of a Cma7 chord 68
2.19: Conventional open position voicing of Cma7 and Cma7+11 69
2.20: Upper structure triads in V7 – I progressions 69
2.21: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, bars 1 – 8 78
2.22: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, bars 9 – 16 80
2.23: Bar 2 in Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ 91
2.24: Scale degree assignation of the seventh mode

of the C melodic minor scale 95
2.25: Triads based on the root C 99
2.26: Full representations of conventional four-part chords 99
2.27: Representations of conventional five-part chords 100
2.28: Representations of conventional six-part chords 101
2.29: Representations of conventional seven-part chords 101
2.30: Diminished chords 102
3.1: Passus Duriusculus 138
3.2: ‘Te Amo Corazon’, score reduction of bars 2–3 of

Fischer’s arrangement 162


4.1: Score reduction of Figures 36–37 in Shostakovich’s

Symphony No. 1, 4th movement 184
4.2: Bar 5 of Figure 36 in Shostakovich’s

4.3: Voice-leading graph of the last bar of Figure 36 to the first

bar of Figure 37 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,
4th movement 185
ix
4.4: Transposed melodic comparison chart of the first part of

the cello solo in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,
4th movement 187
4.5: Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement 189
4.6: Last two bars of Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony

No. 1, 4th movement 190
4.7: Figures 20 to 21 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement 191
4.8: Voice leading graph of bars 4 to 5 of Figure 20 in

Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement 192
4.9: Voice-leading graph of bars 7 to 9 of Figure 20 in

4.10: Score reduction of Figure 43 in Shostakovich’s

4.11: Voice-leading reduction showing the melodic line

and accompaniment at Figure 43 in Shostakovich’s
4.12: Score reduction of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s Symphony

No. 1, 4th movement 198
4.13: Voice-leading graph of the first seven bars of Figure 22 199
4.14: Voice-leading graph of bars 4–5 of Figure 22 in

4.15: Voice-leading graph of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s

4.16: First theme of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 205
4.17: Main motive in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 206
4.18: Second theme in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 206
4.19: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’,

bars 1–11 207

bars 110 to the end 209
x

bars 57–71 210

bars 30–41 212

bars 72–83 214

bars 109 to the end 215

bars 11–12 216

bars 98–100 217

bars 5–6, type one II–V–I progressions 218

bars 27–28, type two II–V–I progressions 220

bars 103–104 220

bars 36–37 221

bars 37–38 222

bars 57–59 223
4.33: Chromatic melody line in bars 57–59 224

bars 15–16 225

bars 14–15 225

bars 95–96 226

bars 95–96 227
xi

bars 46–47 227

bars 54–55 228

bars 13–14 229

bars 20–21 230

bars 3–10 231

bars 3–5, chromatically planing structures 232

bars 3–5, inner voices 233

bars 21–22 234

bar 92 235

bar 92 235

bar 27 236

bars 11–12 236

bars 100–101 237

bars 98–100 238

bars 100–101 238
4.53: First theme of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 244
4.54: Cello solo in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement 244
xii

bars 3–5, chromatically planing structures 245
4.56: Figures 18–19 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement 246

bars 100–101 247

bars 3–10 247
4.59: Voice-leading graph of the first seven bars of Figure 22

in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement 248
4.60: Simple sheet music arrangement of ‘Danny Boy’

by David Bruce 251
4.61: ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, in an arrangement by

G. Wilhelm Fink, published in 1843 254
4.62: ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ as played by Clare Fischer,

transcribed by Bill Dobbins, bars 1–4 272







transcribed by Bill Dobbins, comparison of bars
14 and 22 282

xiii


transcribed by Bill Dobbins, comparison of bars 18–20 and
26–28 286

FIGURES
3.1: Fischer’s engagement with four generalized musical genres 123
3.2: Fischer’s musical idiolect, consisting of various overlaps

between the four generalized musical genres 124
TABLES
2.1: All chromatic resolutions towards an F major triad 13
2.2: All chromatic resolutions towards an F minor triad 13
2.3: All possible combinations of triadic chromatic resolutions

towards an F major triad given that no voice is sustained 14

towards an F minor triad given that no voice is sustained 14
2.5: Reproduction of Harrison’s Assemblies of Scale Degrees 53
2.6: Reproduction of McGowans’ Assemblies of Scale Degrees

including Full Extensions 54
2.7: Full cycle of eleven-pitch-class systems in ascending minor

thirds as outlined in the first 8 bars of Fischer’s interpretation
of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ 80
2.8: Legend of voice-leading beams and ties 104
4.1: Voice leading between bars 5 and 6 192
4.2: Comparative vertical analysis of all examined sections,

bars 1–4 (transposed into the key of C) 203

xiv

4.5: All chromatic resolutions towards an F major triad 201
4.6: All chromatic resolutions towards an F minor triad 201

towards an F major triad given that no voice is sustained 201

towards an F minor triad given that no voice is sustained 202
4.9: Harmonic comparison of Evans’s two versions of

‘Danny Boy’, bars 1–4 258

‘Danny Boy’, bars 1–2 and 5–6 260

‘Danny Boy’, bar 7 261







4.19: Chord changes in ‘Waltz for Debby’, bars 1–6 284
4.20: Statistics of vertical structures in Fischer’s and Evans’s

performances 294
4.21: Statistics of dissonance within the vertical structures in

Fischer’s and Evans’s performances 296
xv
4.22: Statistics of fundamental functional entities 297
4.23: Comparative analysis of voice-leading events 299
5.1: Basic dyadic model 305
5.2: Dyadic model of context and harmony 306

5.3: Contextual issues within the opposition of
convention – idiosyncrasy 307
5.4: Technical issues within the opposition of

convention – idiosyncrasy 307
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
The originality of Clare Fischer’s harmony, its historical under-representation in the

field of jazz studies and its rising significance have been addressed previously by
scholars, established jazz performers and music experts alike.1 These investigations,
including a Master of Music thesis by the current author, have shown that the
complex interrelation of vertical and linear events in Fischer’s harmonic approach
defines his musical originality.2
While the technical insights provided by the analyses in previous Fischer studies
have revealed much about his compositional methods, little attention has been paid
so far to the study of Fischer’s harmony within its socio-cultural context. The
relevance of culture and society to the analysis of music has been stressed during
the past twenty years by a number of prominent music theorists including Raymond
Monelle, Richard Middleton, Robert Walser and Ingrid Monson.3 Statements such
as ‘music is more than notes’ represent a consistent belief among these theorists.4
The aim of this study is to fill the gap in Fischer scholarship by placing a particular
emphasis on an investigation of his harmonic approach within a socio-cultural
context.
Fischer’s socio-cultural context comprises the myriad issues of his life in relation to
society and culture. In order to draw together within the scope of this dissertation a
1
Fischer’s music is examined in academic theses by Steve Zegree, Robert Kurtis Hinz and
Michael Kahr. Musicians and researchers such as Bill Dobbins, Barbara Bleij, Jerry Coker,
Herbie Hancock, Steve Kahn and Gary Foster have mentioned Fischer’s influence and
significance. See the attached bibliography for further details regarding the publications of
these authors.
2
Michael Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony and Voice Leading in the Clare Fischer Composition
In Memoriam’, (MMus. thesis, University of Sydney, 2004).
3
See the bibliography of this dissertation with regard to selected publications by these
authors.
4
Richard Middleton, ‘Music Studies and the Idea of Culture’, in The Cultural Study of
Music: A Critical Introduction, ed. Martin Clayton, Trevor Herbert and Richard Middleton
(London: Routledge, 2003), 2.
1
representative sample of sources, a variety of aspects and materials will be analysed
here. These are assembled from Fischer’s personal statements, as well as from
discussions with his family members, long-time colleagues and experts on his
music.5 This thorough evaluation of Fischer’s life includes the examination of new
sources, in particular a large collection of his personal letters, and a series of
interviews conducted by the author.
From the preliminary period of research, five broad contextual perspectives

crystallized into research areas appropriate for examination in this dissertation:
1. Fischer’s status within the jazz community, which includes a stylistic

categorization of his work
2. his influence by the music of Russian composer Dimitri Shostakovich
3. his relationship to the jazz pianist Bill Evans, one of Fischer’s greatest
rivals regarding wider recognition as a pianist
4. his work and status in the pop music industry
5. the idea of emotion and meaning in Fischer’s music, as represented by
his harmonic choices in works covering the course of his composing
life.6
While these five areas are, of course, intrinsically related, their presentation in this
thesis is largely twofold. Chapter 3 focuses specifically on a detailed examination of
each of the contextual perspectives, discussing their interrelation to various aspects
of Fischer’s music in general and harmonic style in particular. Various shorter
musical analyses are also used throughout this chapter in order to illustrate specific
contextual issues such as Fischer’s integral and commercially successful work in the
pop industry for pop artists including Prince.
5
Among Fischer’s family members consulted were his wife Donna, son Brent and older
brother Stewart. Fischer’s long-time colleagues comprise Gary Foster, Steve Huffsteter,
Don Shelton, Morris Repass and Kim Richmond. Bill Dobbins is the foremost expert on
Fischer’s music. Besides his publication of transcriptions of Fischer’s solo piano
performances, he has edited two publications of Fischer’s original compositions (as shown
in the bibliography of this dissertation). Discussions with other experts regarding Fischer’s
music involved Prof. Dr. Harald Neuwirth at the University of Music and Dramatic Arts in
Graz and William Motzing at Sydney University. Further information was provided by
Marteen de Haan and Barbara Bleij.
6
Fischer has reached his 80th birthday at the time of submission of this dissertation.
2
Chapter 4 contains two comprehensive comparative analyses from different periods
in Fischer’s life. These examine his musical relationship to, and influence by,
specific works of Dimitri Shostakovich and Bill Evans. These harmonic analyses
comprise comparisons of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ with selected excerpts from
Shostakovich’s first symphony, and a comparison of the harmonic language in
Fischer’s improvised solo piano performance of the folk song ‘Du, Du liegst mir im
Herzen’ with two of Evans’s interpretations of the folk song ‘Danny Boy’. These
analyses reveal remarkable harmonic similarities and differences, and in
combination provide a more refined and coherent argument regarding issues of
influence, meaning and emotion in Fischer’s music.
A thorough background to both the contextually and harmonically based analyses is

vital. Chapter 2 provides an overview of historical and current jazz theoretical
trends, and discussions of important issues including transcription and nomenclature
methodologies and analytical models.
Chapter 5 presents a summary and conclusions regarding the interrelation of

Fischer’s harmonic approach and its socio-cultural context. This section illuminates
the intricate relationships between context and technical forms of musical
expressions as developed in Chapters 3 and 4 respectively.
The study of context and harmony requires an interdisciplinary method that draws
on a number of diverse analytical approaches in musicology, jazz analysis,
semiotics and music aesthetics. Chapter 1.2 discusses these areas, and explains the
organization of the many aspects of Fischer’s life and harmony in this study.
3
1.2 Overview of Methodology
An analysis concerned only with demonstrating organic unity was a closed system,
ultimately self-supporting and self-justifying … a work of art does not just exist to
justify itself; it participates in social and cultural formation … In the end, what
really matters is not the adherence to particular theoretical orthodoxies but whether
we actually have anything useful to say about the music and its contexts. Analysis,
like art, is profoundly human.7
According to Jim Samson’s passionate statement regarding analysis and the

relationship between a work of art and its socio-cultural components, the analytical
methods used for this study draw from a variety of sources in musicology, jazz
theory, linguistics and semiotics, as well as music aesthetics. The methods were
researched and designed in an interdisciplinary way and they build upon three
stages, each of which represents a specific strategy and goal. Stage one describes
the preliminary studies that were prerequisite for this thesis, while the results from
the procedures of stages two and three are presented in this text. The stages may be
described as follows:
1. the formation of a broad knowledge base regarding Fischer’s music,

personality and socio-cultural status, and the identification of relevant
musical examples for a contextualized analysis
2. the review of conventional analytical jazz theory and the consideration
of previous methods used in Fischer studies, which has led towards the
formulation of a pragmatic ‘bottom-up’ approach for comparative
analyses of Fischer’s complex structures in his compositions and
improvisations in the context of tonal jazz
3. the consideration of established methods in linguistics and semiotics for
the depiction of Fischer’s socio-cultural environment and its interrelation
with his musical output.
The following three sections sum up the methodological strategies used in this study
according to the three stages mentioned above. The methodological processes and
their analytical applications are described in more detail throughout the dissertation.
7
Jim Samson, ‘Analysis in Context’, in Rethinking Music, ed. Nicholas Cook and Mark
Everist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 54.
4
1.2.1 Strategies towards the Identification of Significant Aspects
in Fischer’s Music and Life
Fischer’s music is well documented by numerous recordings. Although many of

these albums are out of print, a large number of his recordings, including his early
albums, can be examined at the library of the Institute of Jazz Research at the
University of Music in Graz. Other recordings have been obtained through the
Fischer family. Since 1998, Fischer has begun to release recordings on his own
record label ‘Clare Fischer Productions’, which is run collaboratively by himself,
his wife Donna and son Brent. For his own label, Fischer has produced new albums
and re-released some of his earlier recordings, including previously unreleased
recordings as well as albums that were out of print for many years. A substantial
number of pop recordings that featured Fischer’s arrangements are still available
commercially.
The thorough listening process that lies at the base of the present study was begun
in 2000, prior to the start of this PhD research. It has led to a considerable
knowledge of Fischer’s music, as demonstrated previously in the current author’s
Master’s thesis.8 In the course of the current doctoral study, this knowledge has led
to the identification of relevant music for the examination of significant aspects
regarding the relationship between Fischer’s music and socio-cultural background.
Due to the insufficiency of published information about Fischer’s life, the formation
of a broad knowledge base in this area required personal contact with Fischer, his
family and long-time colleagues and friends. This contact was established about
four years prior to the beginning of this PhD research by attending a Fischer
masterclass at the University of Music and Dramatic Arts in Graz in Austria. This
first meeting was followed by private conversations during Fischer’s concert tour in
Austria, regular email contact and two invitations for visits to Fischer’s house in
Los Angeles. During these visits, the Fischer family allowed open access to their
private collection of his original scores, manuscripts and recordings, including a
substantial amount of unpublished material. For instance, most of Fischer’s musical
8
Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
5
scores have never been commercially available and they could only be obtained
through personal contact with Fischer. Based on the research in Fischer’s private
library, the most appropriate musical examples for a representative depiction of
Fischer’s harmonic approach for this study were selected.
Fischer’s biographical data was gathered not only through several private
conversations and a series of formal interviews with Fischer, his family and long-
time colleagues and friends, but also from a large collection of personal letters and
biographical notes assembled by his wife Donna. She has granted permission for the
use of this material in this study and all of the participants in the interview series
have granted permission to use their comments for this study. None of this material
has been published or applied by any other researchers at the date of submission of
this thesis. This new biographical material is presented as a contextual component
in various sections throughout the thesis.
The first interview series took place in October 2006 at Fischer’s house in Los
Angeles, and subsequently at the Eastman School of Music in Rochester. The
second, longer series of interviews took place in February 2008 at various locations
in Los Angeles. The formal interviews were recorded on a digital audio recorder
and transcribed for their further use.9
The first series included interviews with Clare, his brother Stewart and Bill
Dobbins. The interview questions were related to biographical data in Fischer’s life,
and to his conception of music in general and harmony in particular. This data
proved useful in understanding some of the most significant aspects of Fischer’s
sometimes provocative personality and its ramifications concerning his status in the
jazz scene.
The second series of interviews involved Fischer, his wife Donna, brother Stewart
and son Brent, as well as his long-time colleagues Gary Foster, Don Shelton, Morris
Repass, Steve Huffsteter and Kim Richmond. All interviews of the second series
9
The recordings and transcripts of all interviews are archived at the current author’s
personal library. Only the most relevant quotes are included in this thesis, the full
transcripts can be obtained by contacting the author.
6
were designed to gather information regarding the idea of emotion in Fischer’s
music. The participants were confronted with a selection of his recordings
encompassing a wide range of emotions in combination with complex musical
structures, and dating from different periods of his compositional life. The
information gathered during these second interview sessions is used primarily here
in the discussion of emotion in Fischer’s music in Chapters 3.5.1 through to 3.5.8.
1.2.2 Strategies towards a Pragmatic Bottom-up Approach regarding

two Comparative Analyses of Fischer’s Complex Structures
The development of an appropriate method for the technical analysis of Fischer’s

harmony has required a thorough preliminary literature review. A modified and
condensed version of this review was presented at the 8th Conference for Jazz
Research at the University of Music and Dramatic Arts in Graz and is published in
volume 40 of the book Jazzforschung/Jazz Research.10 The review spans Chapters
2.2, 2.5 and 2.6 in this thesis and includes a consideration of Henry Burnett and Roy
Nitzberg’s recently published A New Theory of Tonality, which provides additional
insight into the tonal organization of Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir
im Herzen’, a work which is analysed in detail here in Chapters 4.6 and 4.7.
It is apparent that the common jazz theories under review predominantly focus on
the structures found in the core repertoire of the jazz canon, particularly as
represented by the music of Bill Evans. In this specific context, a significant number
of Fischer’s vertical structures appear highly unconventional and defy most
categorizations and rules in tonal jazz. Previous specialized Fischer studies,
including the dissertation by Hinz and the MMus thesis by Kahr, suggested the
consideration of linear events for the explanation of Fischer’s unconventional
vertical structures.11 The method for the analysis of vertical structures used in this
study expands upon Hinz’s and Kahr’s methods concerning voice-leading analysis
10
Michael Kahr, ‘Current Tendencies in Jazz Theory’, Jazzforschung/Jazz Research 40
(Graz: 2008), 113-123.
11
Robert K. Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony and Voice Leading in Four Solo Piano
Performances by Clare Fischer’, (Ph.D. diss., University of New York Press, 1998); Kahr,
‘Aspects of Harmony’.
7
of Fischer’s music. An extensive voice-leading analysis is incorporated into the
comparative study in Chapter 4.7.12
Additionally, this study suggests an original method for the analysis of the vertical
structures in the music of Evans, Fischer and Shostakovich, based on a pragmatic,
bottom-up approach. This method builds upon the basic procedures in conventional
jazz analysis and is largely developed from the harmonic practices of the
improvising jazz musician, as well as on Fischer’s salient perception of jazz theory,
as expressed in personal statements and essays.13 Fischer’s theoretical ideas reveal
important aspects of musical context, and so constitute a pivotal component of this
study’s aim for a contextual analysis.
The suggested analytical method permits the symbolization and explanation of

Fischer’s complex vertical structures through the extensions of conventional means
in jazz analysis. The fundamentals of this pragmatic analytical approach are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.5. The depiction of these analytical procedures
in the form of chord symbols and graphs has been specifically developed for this
study in Chapters 2.8 and 2.9.
The suggested pragmatic bottom-up approach is documented as an element of Bill

Evans’s generative harmonic technique in a much-cited radio conversation with
pianist-colleague Marian McPartland in 1978. Here, the highly influential pianist
Evans explained his perception of a fundamental harmonic structure and the various
harmonic techniques that may be applied in order to extend this fundamental
12
Regarding the voice-leading graph of Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im
Herzen’ refer to Appendix 8.
13
The majority of jazz theories developed historically from the pedagogical aim to structure
and pass on information about the art of improvising in the style of jazz. Most authors of
jazz theories have been active improvisers. Mark Levine’s ‘Jazz Theorie Buch’, for
instance, reinforces its practical purposes throughout the text. With regard to an analytical
method towards Fischer’s music, Bill Dobbins has suggested a pragmatic approach: ‘if you
listen to the music mainly from the point of view of [how] the basic principle of tension and
resolution is used and how that relates to the large sections of the compositions and also
how it relates to the more small level of one vertical sonority to the next … then it gets a
very clear way of analysing any of Clare’s music’. Dobbins’s statement is taken from an
interview with the current author on September 30, 2006 in Rochester, New York. For a
detailed discussion of various branches in jazz theory, see Chapters 2.2 and 2.5.
8
structure.14 Evans’s musical conception as represented in his two versions of ‘Danny
Boy’ is discussed in more detail in Chapters 4.5 and 4.7. His approach of
elaborating upon a simple fundamental harmonic structure is used as an underlying
principle of the suggested analytical method in this study: upon the identification of
the underlying fundamental structure, the more complex relationships can be
revealed and assessed.
Due to the interrelation of composition and improvisation in jazz, as discussed in

Chapter 2.4, the same analytical terminology developed as part of the
aforementioned methodology applies for the comparative analysis of Fischer’s
orchestral composition ‘The Early Years’ and excerpts of Shostakovich’s first
symphony in Chapters 4.1 to 4.3. As neither Fischer’s, nor Shostakovich’s
compositions are based upon a pre-determined set of chord changes, the analytical
bottom-up approach only applies to the identification of basic principles, such as II-
V and V-I relationships. Nevertheless, the combination of vertical and horizontal
analysis contributes surprising details to the discussion of influences concerning
Fischer’s linear-derived harmonic techniques.
General notes regarding the analytical use of transcriptions of recorded

performances in jazz are presented in Chapter 2.7. The nomenclature for chord
symbolization used in this study, based on Fischer’s own approach to illustrating
vertical structures in his music, is presented in Chapter 2.8.
Both of the substantial analytical sections in this study, Fischer – Shostakovich and
Fischer – Evans, are incorporated into a single comparative approach. The results of
this comparative analysis contribute to the larger discussion in the key areas of
stylistic and personal influences respectively idiosyncratic expression.
14
The radio conversation between jazz pianist Marian McPartland and Bill Evans appeared
on November 6 in 1978, broadcast on the National Public Radio series Marian
McPartland’s Piano Jazz: with guest Bill Evans (Audio CD, Jazz Alliance TJA-12004:
1978). Steve Larson transcribed and analysed parts of the interview and of Evans’
performance of the tune ‘The Touch of Your Lips’. The analysis is published in: Steve
Larson, ‘Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz: Questions about Method’, Music Theory
Spectrum 20/2 (1998), 219-223. Larson described Evans’s influential analytical remarks as
articulations of the ‘kinds of relationships shown in a Schenkerian analysis’. However, the
analytical method in this study does not resemble the techniques of Schenkerian analysis,
despite the obvious similarity with regards to the concept of the fundamental structure.
9
1.2.3 Review of Established Methods and the Terminology drawn from
Linguistics and Semiotics in Music Studies
The examination of the socio-cultural background to Fischer’s music and

personality makes use of the most prominent terminology and methodology
suggested by the so-called ‘new musicology’ movement. This analytical strategy is
used in discussion of each of the five broad socio-cultural perspectives outlined in
the Chapter 1.1.
The terminology of linguistics and semiotics as propounded by the new musicology

movement is also used throughout the contextual discussion in this thesis. With
regard to Fischer’s status within the jazz community, this terminology refers in
particular to Richard Middleton’s assignment of Jean-Jacques Nattiez’s semiotic
levels of code in relation to popular music.15 According to this terminology, tonal
jazz is regarded as the American ‘dialect’ within the ‘sub-norm’ of the jazz-age,
lying within the ‘norm’ of the mainstream conventions of the post-1900 period and
situated within the ‘langue’ (language) of functional tonality. According to this
concept, the common harmonic features of tonal jazz may be described as a musical
dialect, whereas the harmonic procedures inherent in Fischer’s work appear as a
specific idiolect.16
Of course, Middleton’s interpretation of Nattiez’s semiotic levels of code is not a

clear-cut equation. Many points of cross reference and intersection may be found
however; for this study the terms as mentioned above fulfil a sufficient role
regarding the contextualization of Fischer’s music.
In Middleton’s work, these terms describe three significant phenomena in a more or

less distinctive order, which resembles the way in which tonal jazz is currently
being taught at university level and therefore perceived by an ever-expanding
audience: that is, a significant but rather recent musical dialect (tonal jazz) that is
15
Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music (Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1990),
174.
16
James John McGowan offers a recent and more detailed discussion of the view of tonal
jazz as a dialect in his dissertation: James McGowan, ‘Dynamic Consonance in Selected
Piano Performances of Tonal Jazz’, (Ph.D. diss., Eastman School of Music, 2005).
10
highly influenced by the structural rules and laws of European musical language
(Western tonal music) represented by the musical idiolects of outstanding
individuals, such as Fischer. Fischer’s stylistic network includes the popular, which
involves ramifications such as reputation and financial security. These issues are
discussed in detail throughout Chapter 3.2 (in relation to Shostakovich) and in
Chapter 3.4 (in relation to Fischer’s long-standing involvement in the pop industry).
Musical topic theory, in particular the discussion of the ‘pianto’ by Raymond

Monelle, serves as a useful tool for the purpose of investigating Fischer’s influence
by the music and personality of Russian composer Dimitri Shostakovich.17 This
influence is discussed throughout the large Chapter 3.2. The musical topic of the
‘pianto’ also offers potential for the identification and discussion of dysphoric
meaning in Fischer’s music in Chapters 3.2.6 to 3.2.8.
During the formative phase of Fischer’s career, some music critics perceived an
overall similarity between his piano style and that of Bill Evans which, according to
Fischer, has contributed to preventing him being recognized as an individual jazz
pianist by a broader audience. Chapters 3.3 and the detailed analyses in Chapters 4.4
to 4.7 examine Fischer’s claim and his relationship both musically and contextually
to the music of Evans.
The idea of emotion has played a crucial and consistent role in Fischer’s life and
music since his childhood. The large Chapter 3.5 elaborates on this intricate aspect,
shedding additional light on the role of harmony both in terms of Fischer’s life and
music.
17
Raymond Monelle, The Sense of Music: Semiotic Essays (Princeton and Oxford:
Princeton University Press, 2000), 17; 66-76.
11
CHAPTER 2: METHOD AND THEORETICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Functional Analysis and Chromatic Resolutions
The use of a high degree of chromaticism in combination with functional harmonies

has been described as a salient feature of Fischer’s harmonic language in the context
of tonal jazz.1 This involves a challenge for the analyst. Example 2.1 illustrates a
typical progression in Fischer’s music that consists of functional and, at the same
time, chromatically altered structures. The solid lines indicate chromatic voice
leading (linear and registrally transferred) and the beams show sustained notes.
Example 2.1: Voice-leading graph of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 95–96
As the chord symbols suggest, the section is based on a basic V – Im progression.

Whereas the destination chord Ab minor and the Ebsus9 do not propose analytical
difficulties, it is the second chord, which, instead of the expected representation as
Eb7, defies any conventional chord symbolization.2 Previous Fischer studies have
shown, that these unusual chromatic structures need to be explained through a
combination of functional analysis and an examination of chromatic voice leading.
This requires an understanding of both, the functional progressions in tonal jazz, as
well as the interfering chromatic voice-leading possibilities.
As opposed to previous Fischer studies, the method suggested in this dissertation

involves the identification of all possible chromatic connections of triads and four-
1
Refer to the attached bibliography regarding analytical writings on Fischer’s music by
Bleij, Dobbins, Hinz, Kahr and Zegree.
2
Example 2.1 is discussed within its musical context in Chapter 4.2.2.4.
12
part chords. Possible analytical explanations within Fischer’s musical context occur
throughout the dissertation, in particular in Chapter 4. In combination with the
extensive examination of literature and theoretic concepts in relation to a
contextualized study of Fischer’s work, this Chapter 2 offers a large methodological
and theoretic background.
Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show all possible chromatic resolutions towards major and minor
triads considering that all voices resolve chromatically and that no voice is
sustained.
Table 2.1: All chromatic resolutions towards an F major triad
Db C
B
Bb A
G#
Gb F
E
Table 2.2: All chromatic resolutions towards an F minor triad
Db C
B
A Ab
G
Gb F
E
Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show vertical analyses and chord assignations of all possible
triadic chromatic resolutions towards F major and F minor triads given that all
voices resolve chromatically and that no voice is sustained.
13
Table 2.3: All possible combinations of triadic chromatic resolutions towards
an F major triad given that no voice is sustained
Db C B
Bb Gb A ? Bb
Gb F Gb
Db C B
G# Gbadd2 A (Gbsusadd2no5) Ab
Gb F Gb
Db C B
Ab Dbm A E Ab
E F E
Db C B
Bb Bbo A ? Bb
E F E
Table 2.4: All possible combinations of triadic chromatic resolutions towards

an F minor triad given that no voice is sustained
Db C B
A Gbm Ab ? A
Gb F Gb
Db C B
G ? Ab ? G
Gb F Gb
Db C B
G Dbo Ab Em G
E F E
Db C B
A A Ab Bsus7 A
E F E
The progressions Gb–F, E–F, Gbm–Fm and Em–Fm can be explained as chromatic
planing.3 The progressions Bbo–F and Dbo–Fm can be seen as fragmentary V7-9–I
progressions. The progressions Gbadd2–F, Bsus7–F and Dbm–F cannot be explained
functionally. The leading tone resolution E–F can be found in the progressions
Bsus7–F and Dbm–F. The chord symbol Gbsusadd2no5 may capture the simultaneous
appearance of the three notes Gb, Ab and B, but the symbol is too long and complex
to symbolize any functional relationship to the F major triad, apart from the
chromatic proximity of the chord roots Gb and F. The question marks (?) indicate
vertical structures that cannot be illustrated by common chord symbols at all.
3
Refer to Chapter 2.5 regarding a discussion of the term ‘planing’.
14
I propose to use the term ‘linear dominant chord’ to describe the functional
relationship of these ambiguous chords within the tonal reference system.4 Chapters
4.2 and 4.2.2.4 in particular involve a contextualized analysis of Fischer’s use of
chromatic resolutions, including ‘linear dominant chords’.
The examination of chromatic resolutions into four-part chords also reveals some
interesting results (see Tables 1 - 4 in Appendix 1). First, it is noteworthy, that there
is only a small number of chords, which resolve entirely chromatically into the
category of major seventh and minor-major seventh chords. The majority of
chromatically resolving chords in this category involves a common tone with the
destination chord. All chords that resolve entirely chromatically into Fmaj7 and
Fmmaj7 can be successfully described by conventional chords symbols. Nevertheless,
it seems surprising that G#m7, G#sus7, Bmaj7 and D#m7 show a close linear
proximity towards Fmaj7. Similarly, the close connection of G+maj7, D#7+9, B7 and
Gbm6 to Fmmaj7 is not too obvious. As a shared characteristic, all of these chords
involve the note Gb, which constitutes the resolving force into the root F of the
destination chord.
The study of chromatic neighbor chords to Fm7 reveals eight chords, which share
the leading note E (Em7, Em7add13, Esus7, Esus7add13, G6maj7, Dboadd5, Bsus7and Gbm7).
The chords Dboadd5, Esus7add13, Gbmadd-13 and Gbm7 include the note Db, which aims
to resolve into C, the fifth of the destination chord. The chords Gmaj7, G6maj7,
Dboadd5, Bm7, Bsus7, Gbmadd-13 and Gbm7 involve the note Gb as a binding element
towards the root of the destination chord Fm7. The vertical structure consisting of
the notes Gb, G, Db and D also belongs to that category. However, this structure
cannot be described by any conventional chords symbol.
The chromatic resolutions into F7 can be analyzed in a similar way regarding the
inclusion of the leading note E, the harmonic leading note Bb and Gb, the chromatic
upper neighbor of the chord root F. E7, Dbmmaj7, Bmmaj7add11, BboaddD, E6, Dbmadd11,
Bsusmaj7 and Gb7 include the note E. Bb is part of Bmmaj7add11, BboaddD, Bmmaj7,
4
Refer to Daniel Harrison’s Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1994) for a thorough discussion of the functional power of certain
chromatic tones found in common practice music.
15
Bsusmaj7, D+maj7 and Gb7. The note Db belongs to Dbmmaj7, BboaddD, Dmaj7add+11,
Dbmadd11, D+maj7 and Gb7.
Besides Gb7 and, at least, the lower structure of BboaddD, none of the chords show an
obvious tendency to resolve into F7. Similarly, the majority of chromatic neighbors
of Fm7 does not reveal their close linear proximity. As introduced in the discussion
of chromatic resolutions towards triads, the use of the term ‘linear dominant chord’
will be useful in the analytical discussion.
The analyses throughout this dissertation, in particular in Chapter 4, show that

Fischer makes use of chromatic proximity in combination with functional
tonicizations throughout his musical work. The analytical tools for the analysis of
functional relationships in Fischer’s complex music are discussed in the remainder
of Chapter 2, subsequent to the following examination of current tendencies in jazz
theory.
16
2.2 Current Tendencies in Jazz Theory
2.2.1 Theory – Classical Music Theory and Jazz Theory
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of current streams in jazz

theory and to discuss selected branches thereof. These theories develop models for
the explanation of the vast variety of musical elements and the forces that govern
them. And on occasions, music theories may also take philosophical and aesthetic
thoughts, as well as ideas concerning music cognition into account. Jazz theorists
approach these issues in relation to jazz performance and composition.
There is an intricate correlation between jazz and classical music as well as between
classical music theories and jazz theory. As jazz development was, of course,
innately influenced by classical music, there are many fundamental structures to be
found in jazz music that are similar to those in classical music. Many of the
prominent writers of jazz theories have been trained in classical music and its
theories, which has led to the formulation of jazz theories using much of the
terminology and the methodology of classical music theories.5 This, in turn, has
contributed to the canonisation of a certain jazz repertoire and to the acceptance of
jazz as an art form – a process most welcomed by jazz theorists and musicians alike.
On the other hand, as there are also significant differences between classical music
and jazz, the theories of jazz music differ in various ways from those of classical
music. The most significant idiosyncrasies of jazz music and jazz theory are the
result of a combination of influences including, but by no means restricted to,
European, African and Afro-American music practices.6 The oral tradition of
disseminating the elements of jazz music is significant in the formulation of both
jazz practice and theories. This tradition will be discussed in more detail below.
It is particularly notable that the most influential theories in both classical music and
jazz, have tended to emphasize the roles of melody, harmony and form above
5
Seminal writers of jazz theories, such as Gunther Schuller, Mark Levine, Bill Dobbins and
Henry Martin share a profound knowledge of classical music and earned university degrees
in the field.
6
Examples may be the use of blue notes, as well as the rhythmic conception in jazz.
17
aspects of rhythm and socio-cultural implications. This latter aspect has only
recently attained greater significance in music theory (particularly over the last
twenty-five years).
Jazz harmony has developed some idiosyncratic elements that are difficult to
explain from the perspective of Western music theory. Basically, these jazz-specific
elements include: the functional concept of four-part chords as opposed to the
triadic basis of traditional structural models; a specific perception of
consonance/dissonance; the frequent parallel motion of intervals and more complex
vertical structures; and a colourful treatment of cadences in minor tonalities that
cannot be derived from the simple II–V–I scale degree models as used in major
tonalities.
In 1996, Henry Martin, one of the most prominent jazz theorists, published an
article in the journal ‘Jazz Studies’ that was concerned with an overview of jazz
theory.7 In 2005, he published a short introduction to the same subject in the journal
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Musiktheorie.8 The following categorization and
historical overview of jazz histories up to the year 1996 is based upon Martin’s
articles. I will discuss and expand upon some of the areas in his research in the
course of this essay.
Martin describes three major groups within jazz theory. The first category he refers
to is called ‘pedagogical’ and ‘speculative jazz theory’, which takes the viewpoints
of the practising performer and composer into account. Pedagogical jazz theory
aims to describe simplified rules and models and concentrates on rudiments,
designed for the aspiring performer or composer. Speculative jazz theories can be
regarded as the higher level of pedagogical jazz theories. The speculative character
of jazz theories becomes apparent in their attempt to propose creative concepts for
jazz improvisation or composition.
Martin refers to the second category as ‘analytical jazz theories’. It takes a position
7
Henry Martin, ‘Jazz Theory: An Overview’, Annual Review of Jazz Studies 8 (1996), 1-17.
8
Henry Martin, ‘Jazz Theory and Analysis: An Introduction and Brief Bibliography’,
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Musiktheorie 2/2 (2005) at
http://www.gmth.de/www/artikel/2005–04–11_08–23–22_7/ (accessed 23.04.2008).
18
from the outside, from the listener’s point of view, aimed at the detailed analytical
study of the musical content. This takes a profound knowledge of the musical
rudiments for granted. Analytical jazz theory deals primarily with aspects of form,
rhythm, harmony and melody, without considering the immediate applicability of its
findings by the improviser or composer. Occasionally, jazz theorists tackle aspects
of music perception, aesthetics and philosophical issues as well as the definition of
jazz in relation to its historical background.
The third group, known as ‘jazz critics’, comprises music fans, journalists and other
writers with clear subjective goals. They had a particular impact on most of the
writing about jazz before 1950. Since then, jazz critics seem to have focused more
on the popular media, whereas jazz analysts have taken over the evaluation of jazz
with long-term goals in mind.
Martin acknowledges that the differentiation between these three categories reflects
a generalization only and that overlaps between these groups occur frequently.
However, I argue that, besides these three groups, there is a large fourth category in
jazz theory. Thinking of the many idiosyncratic approaches of improvising or
composing musicians in jazz, there must be a profound body of theoretical
knowledge that has never been put into words. It exists solely in the minds of these
musicians and its only expression is abstract, presented in their recordings,
compositions and teaching methods. Their theories are vague in the sense that they
are not formulated into a coherent system utilizing any non-abstract means of
expression. Therefore these theories are not easy to identify. It is difficult to assign
these theories to one of the previous three categories, simply because we cannot
evaluate their nature. On the other hand, these theories prove coherence and
existence by their consequent application in musical practice.
The significance of this additional group of jazz theorists becomes even more
valuable when we consider the oral tradition of disseminating knowledge in jazz.
We will see later that this tradition played a crucial role in the early history of jazz
theory. But even today there are many fine musicians who have developed their
own original theories about how to play or compose certain things. Considering
their ability to reproduce their distinct approach every time they play, we must come
19
to the conclusion that these musicians have formulated their own speculative and
analytical theories which they use in order to generate their original music. This
theoretical framework may be a combination of musical facts, such as chord
voicings and motoric gestures, for instance.
The notion of this ‘abstract jazz theory’, defies any categorization, but it might well
be included in Martin’s concept of the jazz theorist as being generally concerned
with ‘the music as music, that is, on the details of the technical issues raised by the
notes themselves’ as opposed to the approaches of ‘humanistically inclined scholars
investigating from other viewpoints’.9 By pointing out this opposition, Martin raises
a delicate issue among music theorists: the rise of the so-called ‘new musicology’,
which also has had an impact on jazz theory. The claims of the new musicologists
have often been perceived as an attack on music theorists, a group which obviously
includes Martin. In his article he acknowledges the relevance of ‘social, historical,
commercial and other issues’, but he expresses his viewpoint very clearly: that jazz
theorists simply prefer ‘applying their expertise: attempting to fathom what is
happening sonically, to the extent that it can be pinned down’.10
In the midst of Martin’s coherent description of the work of music theorists, he

provides a somewhat surprising statement: ‘If nothing else, I would like to point out
that what leads most listeners and players to jazz is its music, not its connections to
other disciplines’.11 This phrase can be understood in two ways. Most apparently, it
expresses a fundamental fascination with the music itself. But Martin’s statement
can also be seen as an excuse on the part of the jazz theorist for any negligence in
interdisciplinary matters. The statement is also extremely general, and is not
supported by more objective arguments such as statistical data. Martin’s statement
implies the exclusion of most reasons, other than the pure interest in the music, to
draw people seriously to jazz. Interestingly, he acknowledges the ‘cultural
interactions and the thought processes involved in learning to play jazz’ much more
directly in his 2005 article on jazz theory than in the 1996 article, which may be
accounted for by the growing significance of socio-cultural factors in jazz theory.12
9
Martin, ‘Jazz Theory: An Overview’, 2.
10
Martin, ‘Jazz Theory: An Overview’, 4.
11
Ibid.
12
Martin, ‘Jazz Theory and Analysis’.
20
2.2.2 Early Jazz Theory
In the early years of jazz, until about 1945, when jazz was generally conceived as
entertainment rather than as art music, jazz theory existed primarily within the oral
tradition of passing on musical knowledge from the more experienced to the less
experienced player. Most players of that time played and improvised by ear or else
had had some training in classical music theory. Many salient characteristics of jazz
music that are now described thoroughly by modern jazz theories were conceived
and developed rather intuitively at that time. However, we must not underestimate
the knowledge of classical theory possessed by early jazz musicians such as Jelly
Roll Morton, James P. Johnson, Duke Ellington and Fletcher Henderson. While
there is no accurate method of gauging to what extent those musicians used this
knowledge in the creation of their music, analysts can identify many formal,
harmonic and melodic similarities between classical music and early jazz. The
expressions of early theoretical knowledge were limited to music reading and chord
identification, as represented by leadsheets and notated compositions of that time.
The oral tradition in jazz theory has contributed to develop a specific terminology in
jazz theory, especially with regards to the conception of improvisation and group
interaction in jazz. For instance, the jazz-idiomatic term ‘comping’ implies complex
strategies regarding the harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment of a soloist or
singer.
2.2.3 Pedagogical and Speculative Jazz Theory
The pedagogy of early jazz was represented mainly by the oral tradition among jazz
players, the learning of recorded licks and solos by ear, a few published
transcriptions of jazz solos and classical music theory. Since the 1950s, modern jazz
has started to become recognized as an art form and its success among younger
players has created a higher demand for pedagogical material.
John Mehegan’s Jazz Improvisation series and George Russell’s The Lydian-
Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation were early milestones
21
in pedagogical and speculative jazz theory.13 These publications initiated an
increasing awareness of jazz-specific knowledge regarding the interrelation of
vertical and horizontal musical elements. Mehegan’s books in particular have
continued to be widely used in the many jazz courses that have developed in
secondary and tertiary institutions since the 1960s all over the Western world. Other
prominent authors of pedagogical literature in jazz include David Baker, Andrew
Jaffe, Joe Viera and Jamey Aebersold.
The inception of international associations of jazz pedagogues and jazz schools such
as the IAJE (International Association for Jazz Education) and IASJ (International
Association of Schools of Jazz) have also had a significant impact upon the spread
of pedagogical material designed for jazz music. Unfortunately the IAJE had to file
for bankruptcy in 2008 and the future of this organization is, at best, uncertain.
2.2.4 Analytical Jazz Theory
Analytical jazz theory is essentially a rather recent phenomenon that, despite its
overlaps with other categories within jazz scholarship, focuses more on the inner
mechanisms of music than on their pedagogical distribution. It has always addressed
a comparably small audience, which becomes obvious through the fact that, after
Winthrop Sargeant’s Jazz Hot and Hybrid in 1938 there was no significant
publication that dealt with analytical jazz theory until André Hodeir’s Jazz, Its
Evolution and Essence in 1956, followed closely by several substantial publications
by Gunther Schuller and the founding of the magazines Jazzforschung/Jazz
Research at the University of Music and Dramatic Arts in Graz in 1969 and Journal
of Jazz Studies (now Annual Review of Jazz Studies) at the Rutgers University in
Newark in 1973.14 In the early 1970s the first dissertations appeared; these focused
on analytical and theoretical issues in jazz music. Jazz theory had started to become
a serious research area in universities.
13
John Mehegan, Jazz Improvisation Vol. 1–4 (New York: Watson-Guptill Publications,
1962–1965); George Russell, The Lydian-Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for
Improvisation (New York: Concept Publishing Corp, 1959 [1964]).
14
Winthrop Sargeant, Jazz Hot and Hybrid 3rd ed., (New York: Da Capo Press 1975; 1st ed.
1938); André Hodeir, Hommes et Problèmes du Jazz: Suivi de la Religion du Jazz (Paris:
1954; Eng. Trans., rev., as Jazz: its Revolution and Essence, 1956); Jazzforschung/Jazz
Research (Graz: 1969-); Journal of Jazz Studies (New Jersey: 1973-1981). Annual Review
of Jazz Studies (Newark, New Jersey: 1982-).
22
2.2.5 Traditional Theories of Western Classical Music and their Adaptation
for Contemporary Jazz Analysis
Much of the terminology for most analytical as well as pedagogical jazz theory is
derived from classical Western music theories, developed from Jean Philippe
Rameau through to Hugo Riemann. For instance, both scale degree definitions and
the concept of functional harmonic hierarchies in tonal jazz harmony have been
borrowed from existing classical music theories. The application of traditional
analytical methods by jazz scholars to jazz has accelerated the recognition of jazz as
art music. Gunther Schuller’s early analyses, for instance, were very important in
this respect.15
However, given the idiosyncrasies of jazz harmony, the application of traditional

analytical methods also has its problems. Most pedagogical jazz theories do not
even mention these theoretical insufficiencies; in fact many of them tend to declare
themselves as both, theoretical and, at the same time, formulaic instructions for jazz
improvisation and composition. Sometimes, the pedagogical approach becomes an
excuse for underdeveloped theoretical concepts.16 Recent publications in the field of
analytical jazz theory are more seriously concerned with these theoretical
discrepancies.
For instance, the American researcher James McGowan examined the treatment of
consonance and dissonance in tonal jazz in his dissertation ‘Dynamic Consonance
in Selected Piano Performances of Tonal Jazz’ in 2005 and in some other
15
Gunther Schuller, ‘Sonny Rollins and the Challenge of Thematic Improvisation’, ed.
Robert Walser (New York: Oxford University Press: 1999), 212-222 (orig. published in
Jazz Review 1, 1958); Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1968); Gunther Schuller, The Swing Era: The
Development of Jazz. 1930-1945 (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
16
‘Lassen Sie sich von der Theorie leiten, aber nicht in eine Zwangsjacke stecken’. Mark
Levine, Das Jazz Theorie Buch (Rottenburg am Neckar: Advance Music, 1996), 440.
Levine’s text was critizised for its theoretical incoherence by: Robert Rawlins, ‘Review of
Mark Levine: The Jazz Theory Book’, Music Theory Online 6/1 (2000) at
www.societymusictheory.org/mto/issues/mto.00.6.1/mto.00.6.1.rawlins.html (accessed
23.04.2008). Other teaching methods for jazz theory, such as Robert Rawlins’s Jazzology
and Frank Sikora’s Neue Jazztheorie aim for more theoretic coherence, and yet claim to be
understood as workbooks for the classroom. Others include: Robert Rawlins and Nor
Eddine Baha, Jazzology: The Encyclopedia of Jazz Theory for All Musicians (Milwaukee:
Hal Leonard, 2005); Frank Sikora, Neue Jazz-Harmonielehre: verstehen, hören, spielen:
Von der Theorie zur Improvisation (Mainz: Schott, 2003).
23
publications.17 He argued for a pluralistic understanding of consonance in tonal jazz
and he identified stable tones beyond the triad. McGowan’s theory of dynamic
consonance is partly influenced by theories of linguistics and psycho-acoustics and
it extends and is based upon the theory developed by another American scholar,
Daniel Harrison, who identified the functional meaning that is conveyed by each
individual tone within a triad or four-note chord.18 Studies like these may help to
develop theories that remain based upon traditional approaches while containing a
particular relevance to the inherent features of tonal jazz.
Steven Strunk, another established American jazz scholar, examined linear interval
patterns within the standard jazz repertoire in a statistical study.19 Strunk used a
method that draws on Schenkerian approaches to music theory, which have been
extremely influential in the USA since the English translations of Heinrich
Schenker’s publications during the 1960s and 1970s. Currently, Steve Larson is one
of the most active Schenkerian analysts in the field of jazz. Several published
articles, his dissertation and two forthcoming book releases around this research
area will stimulate an even greater awareness of the possibilities of Schenkerian
analysis in jazz.20
Schenkerian theory puts forward the idea of coherence as a proof for artistic value,
but, as the theory was developed around the tonal classical repertoire, its
applicability to the jazz repertoire recalls the previously mentioned discrepancies
concerning certain inherent harmonic features of jazz. Nevertheless, Larson used
this approach quite convincingly to illustrate the structural layers and the underlying
harmonic progressions of jazz music. But he must surely admit that there are certain
harmonic phenomena in tonal jazz that, from the viewpoint of Schenkerian analysis,
can only be described as ‘non-standard phenomena’ such as the functional four-part
chord system, the characteristic treatment of consonance and dissonance, the
simultaneous appearance of dissonance and resolution, the resolution of a
17
McGowan, ‘Dynamic Consonance‘; James John McGowan, ‘Consonance in Tonal Jazz:
A Critical Survey of Its Semantic History’, Jazz Perspectives 2/1 (2008), 69-102.
18
Daniel Harrison, Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1994).
19
Steven Strunk, ‘Linear Interval Patterns in Jazz Repertory’, Annual Review of Jazz
Studies 8 (1996), 63–115.
20
For a selected list of Larson’s work see the sources of this thesis.
24
dissonance into a new dissonance and frequent parallel motion.21 According to
Schenker, the frequent appearance of such non-standard phenomena can easily be
regarded as an aesthetic weakness.
Despite this apparent discrepancy, Schenkerian analysis of jazz often reveals

successfully the underlying harmonic progressions, which mirrors precisely how
many musicians think in the act of melodic and harmonic improvisation in tonal
jazz. Bill Evans illustrates this concept in the famous radio interview with pianist
Marian McPartland in 1978: ‘I always have, in anything I play, an absolutely basic
structure in mind. Now I can work around that differently, or between the strong
structural points differently, but I find the most fundamental structure, and then I
work from there’.22
Besides Schenkerian analysis, there are other methods derived from traditional
theories, which are used for the analysis of jazz. Neo-Riemannian theories, based
upon the theories of Hugo Riemann, have been used to illustrate chromatic music
that moves between different tonal centres. Recently, the American scholar Guy
Capuzzo, for instance, has noted obvious parallels between Neo-Riemannian
theories and the pedagogical material of jazz guitarist Pat Martino.23 Another
prominent contemporary theoretical approach, pitch-class-set theory, designed for
the analysis of atonal music, has been used to analyze harmonic structures in atonal
jazz styles such as free jazz.24
2.2.6 Critical Jazz Theories
Alongside the struggles of adapted traditional theories for jazz and the experiments
of theories that were developed for bitonal, chromatic or atonal jazz, the same
critical voices which have shattered the formalist theories of classical music within
the last twenty years, have called for a totally new, critical look at jazz theories that
21
Larson, ‘Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz’, 217.
22
Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz: with guest Bill Evans.
23
Guy Capuzzo, ‘Pat Martino’s The Nature of the Guitar: An Intersection of Jazz Theory
and Neo-Riemannian Theory’, Music Theory Online 12/1 (2006). Among others, Dimitri
Tymocko is a prominent theorist who works with Neo-Riemannian methods in jazz
analysis.
24
Steven Block, ‘Pitch-Class Transformation in Free Jazz’, Music Theory Spectrum 12/2
(1990), 181-202.
25
should take more of the socio-cultural aspects into account. Often, these new
approaches completely abandon the traditional theories and methods of analysis.
Robert Walser, one of the leading ‘new musicologists’ in the field of popular music,
wrote in an essay in 1995: ‘Prevalent methods of jazz analysis … are clearly
inadequate to the task of helping us to understand jazz, and to account for its power
to affect many people deeply’.25 ‘I have no illusions about the capacity of musical
notation to represent musical performances completely or accurately’.26
Walser and others with formalist theories and methods also look towards the
theorists and analysts themselves. One of their main points of criticism is the so-
called canonization of certain musicians and their music through their theoretical
approaches, which, in turn, would canonize the theorists and analysts of that music
as well. Here, I would like to mention a collection of critical and sometimes even
polemical essays, edited by Krin Gabbard, entitled Jazz Among the Discourses.27
Although most of these critics do not offer revolutionary alternatives to the

examination of the inner mechanics of the actual music, their call for an
interdisciplinary approach that considers the socio-cultural context of music has led
to interesting publications by several jazz scholars. Prominent figures include Paul
Berliner, known for his book Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation and
Ingrid Monson, author of Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation and Interaction.28
Both of these scholars use approaches from ethnomusicology, linguistics, semiotics
and analytical jazz theory in combination with discussions of historical and socio-
cultural context. In their research they juxtapose analyses of transcriptions of jazz
solos and compositions to more social aspects of jazz music. These books have
become quite popular and their interdisciplinary studies have reached a wide
audience.
25
Robert Walser, ‘Out of Notes: Signification, Interpretation, and the Problem of Miles
Davis’, Jazz Among the Discourses, ed. Krin Gabbard (Durham: Duke University Press,
1995), 179.
26
Ibid., 185.
27
Krin Gabbard ed., Jazz Among the Discourses.
28
Paul F. Berliner, Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation (Chicago: Chicago
University Press, 1994); Ingrid Monson, Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation and
Interaction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
26
Interdisciplinary approaches to jazz analysis have also inspired theorists in areas
other than jazz; in fact, in areas other than music, such as management, marketing,
planning and organization science.29 These theorists use the concepts of
improvisation in jazz and its various theories in other, non-musical contexts to
explain social phenomena. The journal Organization Science, which covers
theoretical aspects in various areas such as economics, put out a special edition in
1989 concerning the interrelation of jazz improvisation and the mechanisms of
organization.30 Berliner’s publication is cited frequently with regard to jazz in this
special issue.
Finally, in reconsidering the significant current trends in jazz theory, it becomes

clear that there is no single cohesive method. For instance, not even the terminology
for chord symbolization is unified at this stage. It will be interesting to watch new
tendencies in jazz theory as they arise to deal with the complexities of improvised
jazz music.
2.2.7 Publications of Jazz Theories
With regard to pedagogical jazz theories, there is a steadily increasing body of

printed works distributed in most developed nations. Compared with the situation in
1996, the target market for pedagogical jazz theories has expanded rapidly,
especially since the extension of the European Union into countries of eastern
Europe including Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and several states newly
independent of the former USSR. Every year there is a growing output of new
teaching materials concerning jazz pedagogy. And yet, as was the case at the time of
Martin’s article in 1996, there is still the need for a serious study that would
evaluate available instructional materials.
In the field of speculative jazz theories, not much has changed since Martin’s article
in 1996. There is still no recent theoretical treatise even close to the impact of
29
Frank J. Barrett, ‘Managing and improvising: lessons from jazz’, Career Development
International 3/7 (1988), 283-286; Noel Dennis and Michael Macaulay, ‘Jazz and
marketing planning’, Journal of Strategic Marketing 11/3 (2003), 177-185.
30
Linda Argote, ed. ‘Special Issue: Jazz Improvisation and Organization’, Organization
Science 9/5 (1998).
27
George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept or Gunther Schuller’s work on the
‘third stream’ movement half a century ago. Interestingly, successful jazz
composers tend to publish the scores of their music rather than explanations, or even
theories about their musical conception. Maria Schneider comes to mind here, as
well as Clare Fischer and Bill Dobbins.31
With regard to analytical jazz theories, the target market is considerably smaller. As
a result, only a few books have been published in this area. Analytical journal
articles, however, reach their target audience much more efficiently and, indeed,
there has been a continuous publication process across journals and in academic
dissertations. Most notably, the new peer-reviewed journal Jazz Perspectives has
emerged.32 This publication welcomes all areas of jazz studies, such as jazz analysis,
cultural studies and historical inquiries.
Besides the printed publications of jazz theory, the internet has had a rapidly
expanding impact upon the information exchange and the research procedures in
jazz theory during recent years. Many prominent journals in the field of jazz studies
offer full citations or even full text issues of their articles online. Furthermore, the
internet has significantly contributed towards the global dissemination of scores and
recordings, as well as towards the world-wide access to videos of performances,
conference presentations, clinics and interviews through ‘YouTube’ or other web-
based file-sharing systems.33 In the future, new multi-media technologies may even
challenge our linguistic conventions in relation to the presentation of aspects of jazz
theory, and the internet may also be useful in increasing the significance of issues
related to jazz theory within our society.
31
Maria Schneider, Evanescence: Complete Scores, ed. Fred Sturm (Vienna [et al.]:
Universal Edition, 1998); Clare Fischer, eds. Bill Dobbins and Brent Fischer, The Music of
Clare Fischer Vols 1–2 (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 2000); Bill Dobbins, The
Contemporary Jazz Pianist Vols 1–4 (New York: Charles Colin, 1985).
32
Jazz Perspectives (Newark, New Jersey: Routledge, 2007-).
33
www.youtube.com (accessed 04.09.2008).
28
2.3 Semiotics in Music
This section defines and discusses the basic terminology and the interpretative
strategies used for the examination of relationships between aspects of Fischer’s
harmonic language and its socio-cultural context. The literature which deals with
semiotics in music offers both a theoretical background, and a broad palette of
interpretative strategies regarding an analysis of the relationship between Fischer’s
salient musical expression and its socio-cultural context. This specific context
comprises aspects of Fischer’s family life, his musical education and various forces
within American society in the second half of the twentieth century, in particular the
diverse musical styles of that period.
2.3.1 Basic Terminology
The stylistic categorization in this study draws from Jean-Jacques Nattiez’s levels of
code and Richard Middleton’s assignment of these codes with regard to popular
music. Jazz music is situated within the contexts of both popular music and
common Western music. As mentioned previously, according to Nattiez and
Middleton’s terminology, the notion of ‘langue’ (language) refers to the broad field
of functional tonality in which tonal jazz represents the American ‘dialect’ within
the jazz-age ‘sub-norm’, which is in turn within the ‘norm’ of mainstream
conventions of the post-1900 period.34 As the borders between these semiotic levels
of code are not clear-cut, many cross-relations and intersections can be found;
however, for the scope of this study, the terminology will be limited to the terms
‘langue’, ‘dialect’ and ‘idiolect’.
Middleton describes these three terms in a more or less distinctive order which
mirrors the way in which tonal jazz is currently being taught at university level and
therefore perceived by a growing audience: Jazz, as represented by various musical
‘idiolects’ or outstanding individuals, represents a significant if rather recent
34
Richard Middleton, Popular Music, 174. The technical features of tonal jazz as a musical
dialect have been recently discussed by James McGowan, whose findings are considered in
more detail in Chapters 2.2 and 2.5. A more detailed examination of the stylistic context of
Fischer’s music is presented throughout Chapter 3 in general and in Chapter 3.1.5 in
particular.
29
musical ‘dialect’ that is highly influenced by structural rules and laws of the older
European musical ‘langue’.
2.3.2 Interpretative Strategy
The interpretative strategy used in this study draws on the semantic approach
developed by Raymond Monelle for the study of music in general and by Richard
Middleton for the study of popular music.35 Both of these theories are based upon
the most influential, yet basic, models of semiology in Ferdinand de Saussure’s and
Charles S. Peirce’s works on signs.36 The theory of the linguist Saussure offers a
dyadic model of the sign, which makes a distinction between the form of the sign
(the signifier) and the concept it represents (the signified). The triadic model of the
philosopher Peirce uses the definitions ‘representamen’ and ‘object’ for Saussure’s
dyad and introduces a third element of the sign, the ‘referent’, which represents the
physical thing, mental concept, or whatever the sign stands for. In summary, the
following concepts will be used in this study: the sign, as the whole meaningful
concept; the signifier; the signified and the referent.37
Semiotics in music commonly acknowledges that the variable relationships between

the sign and the referent refer to three modes of sign as introduced by Peirce: the
symbol, the icon and the index. The notion of the symbolic refers to learned
relationships, such as traffic lights. In music, the acoustic picture of train, for
instance, is regarded as an icon and the embedded reference to motion in that
acoustic picture would be referred to as indexicality.
2.3.3 Context
Symbols, icons and indexes may be more or less interrelated in a network of signs
that constitute codes, which can be defined as conventions or agreed relationships
35
Both authors, Monelle and Middleton discuss the semantic approach for music analysis in
a variety of publications. For instance, please refer to Monelle, Sense of Music and
Middleton, Popular Music.
36
Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Roy Harris (Chicago and La
Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1986); Charles S. Peirce, The Essential Peirce: Selected
Philosophical Writings Vols 1-2, ed. The Peirce Edition Project (Bloomington and
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998).
37
This use represents a combination of Saussure’s and Peirce’s terminologies.
30
within a particular social context. For example, the inclusion of a flattened seventh
in the tonic chord can be regarded as conventional code in tonal jazz. In this
context, the code conveys a blues connotation, also referred to as the blues dialect.38
Within the context of classical music in the style of Joseph Haydn, the same
harmonic choice may be perceived simply as a weak harmonic choice. In the broad
context of Western music as a whole, including jazz, the flattened seventh in the
tonic chord, regardless of its occurrence in an orchestral symphony or in a jazz tune,
may be regarded as a conscious reference to the blues tonality and consequently it
may be interpreted as an index to the lament of the African slaves in America.
In his book The Sense of Music, Monelle discusses the semiotic analysis of music
and notes the current distance from a dated view of music as ‘uniquely iconic’.39 He
offers a detailed examination of the rather complex differentiation between symbols
and indices in music and he stresses the importance of the context for the semiotic
analysis of music.
With regard to the example of the flattened seventh in the tonic chord (b7–code)
Monelle’s acknowledgement of the context leads to a variety of possible areas for
interpretations. For instance, the b7-code can evoke the problems of the African
diaspora in a performance by an African American artist for a white audience in
Europe. It can mean the musical embedding of the general differences or similarities
of European and tribal communities and cultures to a theorist, listening to a specific
recording in his office, or it can convey a specific post-modern perception of multi-
stylistic approaches to a group of young music students.
Due to these dynamic interpretative possibilities within the varying contextual

settings, the definition of Fischer’s socio-cultural context becomes important for
this study. Chapter 3 includes a detailed discussion of relevant aspects concerning
Fischer’s contextual perspectives.
38
McGowan, for instance, identifies the inclusion of the flattened seventh in a tonic chord
as a blues dialect. For a more detailed discussion please refer to McGowan, ‘Dynamic
Consonance’, 76-132.
39
Monelle, The Sense of Music, 14.
31
2.3.4 Primary Signification – Secondary Signification
Peirce’s theory also describes the process of interpreting a sign, which stresses the
interpreter as an active part in semiotic relationships. In Middleton’s study of
popular music, the competence of the interpreter, or in other words, the listening
practice of the analyst plays an important role too.40
Regarding the semantic analysis of music, Middleton makes a distinction between

secondary signification, also known as connotation, and primary signification,
partly referred to as denotation.41 Primary signification is found in the form of
musical quotations, which are a common feature in jazz. This happens, for instance,
whenever jazz musicians quote an excerpt of a famous solo, or of a popular tune in
their own improvisation. With regard to the types of secondary signification,
Monelle refers to a list by Gino Stefani, of which emotive and stylistic connotations
represent the most useful for this study.
Interpretative semiotics on the secondary level as used in the example above (b7-
code) is employed in this study. It involves the procedure of linking musical events
to extra-musical concepts according to the basic semiotic principles described
above. Chapter 3 is built upon this approach and it discusses significant extra-
musical concepts in relation to Fischer’s complex harmonic choices.
The methodology regarding the analysis of Fischer’s musical conception in Chapter

3 is outlined in the following sections, starting with an investigation of
compositional and improvisational strategies in jazz.
40
The author of this dissertation, in the role of the interpreter, is conscious of the active part
regarding the selection and examination of examples of context in Fischer’s music. The
examples in this study were selected according to their significance, as credited by experts
such as Dobbins, Gay Foster and Fischer himself. Much new information was gathered in
interviews sessions with Dobbins, Fischer, family members and long-time colleagues.
41
As rare examples of denotation in music Middleton mentions ‘direct imitations of natural
sounds’, such as animal or motorbike sounds; Middleton, Popular Music, 220.
32
2.4 Interrelation of Jazz Improvisation and Composition
This section examines the close interrelation of composition and improvisation in

jazz and the consequences for the analytical method in this study. Of particular
interest in the literature is Paul Berliner’s discussion of ‘improvisation as
composition’, which makes a strong point regarding improvisation being dependent
on specific strategies for melodic developments, as well as on formulaic melodic
and harmonic material.42 Berliner argues that improvisations in jazz not only rely on
procedures, which are similar to compositional processes, but also comprise a
wealth of pre-composed material, shaped during practice routines. Computer-aided
cognitive studies regarding jazz improvisation support the view that harmonic
formulas in jazz improvisation are particularly pre-conceived.43 Consequently,
improvisation in jazz can be seen as a generative process that draws from a myriad
of learned principles and conventions related to different styles of music.
Based on the ‘compositional’ aspects in jazz improvisation, this study proposes a

bottom-up approach towards the analysis of both improvised and composed music,
which simulates the generative developments of a fundamental harmonic structure.
This fundamental harmonic structure was described by the jazz pianist Evans and is
part of the conception of the ‘Ursatz’ in Schenkerian analysis.44
In the Western world, improvisation is an integral factor of jazz music, but it is

certainly not an invention of jazz. Throughout the history of classical Western
music, improvisation was an important element, particularly, but not exclusively,
evident in the practice of improvising harmonic accompaniments according to the
basso continuo. Although this improvisatory practice had widely ceased in art music
by the beginning of the twentieth century, improvisation has remained in various
styles of popular music in the Western world. The elements of chance or
randomness constitute a part of the improvisatory process. As such, contemporary
42
Paul Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 492-498.
43
Barry Kenny, ‘Structure in Jazz Improvisation: A Formulaic Analysis of Improvisations
of Bill Evans’, Annual Review of Jazz Studies 10 (1999), 163-194.
44
See Chapters 2.2 and 2.5 with regard to a detailed discussion of the fundamental structure
in jazz and its appearance in Bill Evans’s musical conception and with regard to its
similarity to the Schenkerian ‘Ursatz’.
33
composers and interpreters have used this element sporadically, for instance, in
aleatoric music and in John Cage’s indeterminate music. In recent times,
improvisation has often been regarded as ‘real-time composing’ by contemporary
composers and jazz musicians alike.45 Composers like Cage or Terry Riley, for
example, have integrated an element of chance into their compositions.46 Beyond
the practices of Western music, improvisation is inherently involved in a variety of
folkloric music practices throughout the world.
2.4.1 Pre-conceived Material in Jazz Improvisation
In jazz, improvisation is often described as happening instantaneously or ‘in the

moment’, but, in fact, it often relies on preconceived formulas and structures.
Berliner states that ‘improvisation perpetually shifts between pre-composed musical
ideas and those conceived in the moment’.47 These pre-composed ideas may
comprise short motivic elements or more substantial thematic material. In jazz
parlance, these shorter formulas are described as ‘licks’.
Musicians learn to play various licks in various keys in order to apply these licks in
improvisation. Licks often derive from recordings of famous jazz players. For
example, numerous melodic motives from recordings of alto saxophonist Charlie
Parker and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, who are commonly regarded as the creators
of, and earliest virtuosos in, the bebop style, have been used by many musicians in
their own improvisations. Depending on the cultural context of the audience and on
the intention of the performer, well-known riffs may appear as iconic expressions of
irony or homage. Ingrid Monson describes such examples in her study of interaction
in jazz bands, for instance.48
45
For instance, the Austrian jazz guitarist Harry Pepl uses a creative method called ‘real-
time composing’. See Martin Schuster, ‘Man könnte Klavierspielen müssen’, Concerto 2/98
(1998), at http://www.concerto.at/98_2/Pepl.htm (accessed 29.03.2006). Similarly, the
Austrian contemporary composer Karl-Heinz Essl describes his computer-based method of
composing as ‘real-time composition’. See Karl-Heinz Essl and Bernhard Günther,
‘Realtime Composition: Musik diesseits der Schrift, in Positionen: Beiträge zur Neuen
Musik 36, ed. Gisela Nauck (Mühlenbeck: Verlag Positionen, 1998), 4-9.
46
Terry Riley’s composition ‘in C’, for instance, allows each performer to determine the
number of repetitions of each of the fifty-three short phrases which were notated by Riley.
47
Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 495.
48
Monson, Saying Something, 106-125.
34
The use of such preconceived formulas is not only limited to melodic elements, but
may also refer to harmonic material. The term ‘voicing’ is used to describe a
specific choice in the ordering of notes within a vertical sonority. Jazz pianists such
as Bud Powell, Wynton Kelly, Bill Evans, George Shearing, McCoy Tyner and
Kenny Barron are known for their use of specific types of voicings that have
subsequently become part of the standard voicing repertoire of many pianists and
consequently may be regarded in the same sense as melodic licks.49
The use of preconceived musical ideas in improvisation is evident not only in the
form of melodic and harmonic formulas but also in the generative strategies in jazz
improvisation as such. The technique of variation, for instance, which is widely
used in improvisation, implies generative strategies, such as transposition,
sequencing and rhythmic alteration of melodic and harmonic content. Melodic
variation by means of sequencing, for instance, is a significant feature of Bill
Evans’s jazz piano improvisations (see Example 2.2).
Example 2.2: Melodic variation in Evans’s piano improvisation50
Within the first bar of this example, the notes E – C# – A outline an A major triad.
The following bars consist of sequenced variations of the first motif. Bar two shows
a D major triad, bar three a G major triad and bar four another D major triad. Dan
Papirany analyses the sequence with regard to its dramatic content:
49
Bud Powell: root, third and seventh; Bill Evans: four part close position; George
Shearing: locked hands style, block chords with both hands in octaves or tenths; McCoy
Tyner: stacked intervals of fourths; Kenny Barron: stacked intervals of fifths.
50
Reproduction of Dan Papirany, Bill Evans: Improvisation Concepts,
http://www.jazzpianist.org/billevans.htm (accessed 29.03.2006).
35
Bar 1 displays a typical motif, being manipulated in the following bars, the
rhythm is similar in the treble stave, and that makes the change in harmony
more noticeable. In bar 4 the rhythm gets more complicated in both staves
and the pitch also changes, creating a more dramatic affect by using the
high register of the keyboard.51
Other jazz piano improvisations show variations of melodic as well as harmonic

material. Many solo piano introductions or endings to jazz standard tunes performed
by pianists such as Keith Jarrett or Brad Mehldau are fine examples of this
technique.
Example 2.3: Ending of Keith Jarrett’s improvised ending of the standard ‘Mona
Lisa’ by Ray Evans and Jay Livingston52
In the example above, the improvisational aspect refers to the way in which Keith
Jarrett develops a melodic fragment of the song’s final phrase by using the
technique of sequencing. In addition, the bass progression of the final cadence (Cm7
– F7) is sequenced as well. This ending is not part of the original composition by
Ray Livingston and Ray Evans and is played by Jarrett instead of the expected final
tonic chord Bb major. It could have been either pre-arranged or freely improvised
by Jarrett and his trio. However, taking into account the many statements of Keith
Jarrett, which confirm that his trio does not rehearse, the freely improvised character
of this passage can be strongly assumed.53
51
Dan Papirany, Bill Evans.
52
The song Mona Lisa was recorded by the Keith Jarrett Trio in March 1996 and released
by ECM on Keith Jarrett Trio, Tokyo ’96 (ECM 1666, 1996). The excerpt represents
Jarrett’s improvised ending starting on the expected tonic Bb major and was transcribed by
the author.
53
In 1996 Keith Jarrett stated in an interview with Ted Rosenthal: ‘As often as I've said
this, it's true – we do not know what we're going to play (until the moment).’ Ted
Rosenthal, ‘Keith Jarrett: The Insanity of Doing More than One (Musical) Thing’ (1996),
http://www.tedrosenthal.com/tr-kj.htm (accessed 28.03.2006).
36
Either way, the arrangement or improvisation of an extended song ending like this
requires a pre-existing understanding of musical structure at a deep level. Both
Jarrett’s, and Evans’s examples illustrate the improvisational application of pre-
determined generative strategies to melodic and harmonic material. These examples
show how improvisation, as spontaneous musical invention, correlates with
compositional ideas in the form of preconceived musical material and structural
relationships.
Recent studies of the cognitive processes of jazz musicians have revealed

interesting facts regarding the use of pre-conceived material in improvisation. For
instance, Barry Kenny’s study of formulaic elements in the improvisations of Bill
Evans builds upon these findings:
In a computer program simulating the cognitive processes employed by

jazz musicians, P.N. Johnson-Laird (1991) found that jazz structure
(prearranged chord sequences, song form, and jazz harmony) required
more computational processing power than the melodic responses
generated by it. From this Johnson-Laird hypothesizes a hierarchy of
cognitive processes, where higher level functions (i.e., harmony), which
require greater processing power, are worked out prior to a performance.54
According to Kenny’s analysis, the harmony of an improvised jazz performance

may well be preconceived in large part, due to its greater processing demands on the
musician’s cognitive system. If the harmonies used in improvisation are worked out
prior to the performance, the treatment of harmony in jazz compositions and jazz
improvisations must be very similar. The same harmonic techniques, which are
discovered and acquired in the slow and time-consuming process of composing can
be used in the moment of improvisation, when there is no time and not enough
‘processing power’ available in order to construct and carry out new harmonic
strategies. And the reverse may apply; the same intuitive and emotional approach,
characteristic of improvisatory music making, can flow back into the process of
composing.
Fischer himself tackles the relationship of composition and improvisation in the

popular radio show ‘Piano Jazz’, hosted by pianist-colleague Marian McPartland in
54
Barry Kenny, ‘Structure in Jazz Improvisation: A Formulaic Analysis of Improvisations
of Bill Evans’, Annual Review of Jazz Studies 10 (1999), 163-194.
37
2001: ‘I am not a player who writes, I am a writer who plays’.55 Fischer explains
that, as opposed to many other jazz improvisers such as Charlie Parker, who have
turned their improvisations into compositions, he has developed specific musical
devices in his compositional attempts, which have eventually formed a source of
new musical material for his improvisations.
2.4.2 Conclusions for the Analytical Method
The close interrelation of composition and improvisation in jazz leads to several

conclusions. Regarding the analytical approach in this study, these conclusions are
threefold:
First, the method of harmonic analysis which has been developed to shed light on
improvised jazz must also be appropriate for the analysis of jazz compositions if the
composer/performer, such as Fischer, is proficient and experienced in both areas.
Second, this method must be appropriate to reveal interesting details in music

written by jazz composers, even if the music appears unusual in the context of tonal
jazz. This refers to Fischer’s symphonic compositions such as his orchestral piece
The Early Years.56 I argue that the analytical process used for both jazz
improvisation and composition will also be able to show specific features of
Fischer’s symphonic music, such as its relationship to jazz harmony in general and
Fischer’s idiosyncratic approach in particular. Within this dissertation’s primary aim
for a contextualized analysis of Fischer’s harmony, I argue that the single method in
question here will reveal significant aspects of Fischer’s harmonic conventions and
idiosyncrasies in both his jazz improvisations and his symphonic compositions.
Third, the same method must be appropriate to the analysis of music which has
influenced a jazz composer. For example, Shostakovich’s music, which has been
described as highly influential by Fischer himself, must, through analysis, be able to
55
Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz with Clare Fischer (2001) – unreleased recording from
a radio show, originally broadcast on February 20, 2001. The recording is archived by
David Lyon, the production coordinator of South Carolina ETV and Radio.
56
The analysis of the composition The Early Years reveals interesting details regarding
Fischer’s relationship to the Russian composer Dimitri Shostakovich. The Early Years is
examined in detail in Chapter 4.2.
38
be experienced on a deeper level, closer to Fischer’s own perception, by means of
the suggested analytical method.57
The analytical method employed in this study takes these three conclusions into
account. It follows and illustrates the generative process of the practice of jazz
improvisation and jazz composition as illustrated in the examples mentioned above.
It builds upon the concept of the fundamental harmonic structure, which is found in
the background of any performance or composition in tonal jazz, as well as upon the
common strategies for its harmonic expansion.
Often the fundamental structure is represented by an underlying cyclic, repeated set

of chord changes. Frequently these chord changes are derived from popular songs
such as the Tin Pan Alley repertoire, originally intended for other purposes than jazz
interpretations. Original jazz compositions are equally often built on cyclic forms.
The fundamental structure is usually constant throughout a jazz performance with
the exception of possible formal extensions, such as introductions, interludes or
endings. Jazz musicians use the fundamental structure of a piece as the basis for
melodic, harmonic and rhythmic improvisations. Similarly, a jazz composer
develops musical material based upon a fundamental harmonic structure.
Through its account of the musician’s practice, this method naturally takes a
position in the debate regarding the so-called ‘composer’s intention fallacy’. This
popular debate has evolved around the two opposing views of whether the analyst
should keep a distance from the composer’s own perception of the work, in order to
provide an objective analysis, or conversely, consider the composer’s perspective in
order to gain insight concerning the ‘truth’ of the work. Taking into account the
potential of the many differing arguments regarding this issue, Ethan Haimo
observes: ‘Given the intractability of the debate, it is unacceptable to invoke the
intentional fallacy (pro or con) as if it were an axiom’.58 This study takes a clear
position in this debate which is pro the inclusion of the composer’s intention into
the analytical process. The study then goes a step further and inquires into the
57
Regarding Fischer’s relationship to Shostakovich see the large Chapter 3.2 and Chapters
4.1 to 4.3.
58
Ethan Haimo, ‘Atonality, Analysis and the Intentional Fallacy’, Music Theory Spectrum
18/2 (1996), 177.
39
composer/improviser’s theoretical conception, which is, implicitly or explicitly, part
of his non-verbal musical statements, as well as of his verbal statements regarding
theoretical and generally conceptional aspects.
In this study, the analytical method involves the composer/improviser’s intention

concerning the concepts of the fundamental structure, its harmonic development,
socio-cultural factors in relation to the music, and theoretical aspects in relation to
the construction of an analytical method. The forces and the major harmonic
devices used to elaborate upon the fundamental structure in tonal jazz are described
in the following section.
40
2.5 The Fundamental Structure and its Basic Elaborations
in Jazz Harmony
This section will identify the terminology and the main features of the fundamental
harmonic structure and its elaborations in tonal jazz. The theoretic explanations of
these features will be discussed, taking into account the prominent theories of
common practice Western tonal music as well as important literature in the field of
jazz theory and jazz pedagogy, which was reviewed in Chapter 2.2. Much of the
functional harmonic system of tonal jazz derives from common practice Western
music. However, there are significant differences and discrepancies, which will be
discussed in detail.
The intention of this section is to develop resources towards a pragmatic analytical

approach for tonal jazz harmony. It takes into account the practices of improvising
and composing jazz musicians, and aims to provide a source of ‘what to look for’ in
tonal jazz in order to identify the key harmonic functions. It will also provide a
terminology for these harmonic features as used in the analytical section of this
study.
The concept of elaborating a fundamental harmonic structure in jazz has been

identified by several scholars, including Larson in his Schenkerian approach to jazz
analysis and, more recently, Robert Hodson in his new book Interaction,
Improvisation and Interplay in Jazz.59 Hodson describes this approach, which is
based on Chomskian linguistic theory, in his ‘generative theory of jazz harmony’.
In this context, a significant statement by Fischer himself leads to the conclusion

that his idiosyncratic harmonic choices evolve from the knowledge about an
underlying fundamental structure:
If the original melody and bass lines are well represented and apparent to the
listener, then the inner voices can be handled more freely, without risking loss of
intent.60
59
Robert Hodson, Interaction, Improvisation and Interplay in Jazz (New York, London:
Routledge, 2008).
60
Clare Fischer, quoted by Jerry Coker in Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol. 1, 10.
41
Fischer’s notion of the ‘intent’ of music can be seen as a reference to his personal
conception of a fundamental structure which defines the piece of music. The ‘free
handling’ of the inner voices refers to his individual linear expression of harmony.
The following subsections describe the features and forces of the fundamental
structure and of the devices used for its elaboration. These refer to aspects of form,
tonality, functional entities, structural functions, cadences, guide-tone-lines,
modulations, tonicizations, sequential dominants, diminished chords, the so-called
‘bebop cross’, line clichés, parallel motion, the two-layered concept of voicings and
harmonic patterns.
2.5.1 Form
The formal basis for most tonal jazz is the chorus.61 Usually it comprises the
underlying harmonic framework of a melody from the Tin Pan Alley repertoire.
Many original jazz compositions are based upon the choruses of well-known tunes.
For instance, the choruses of ‘I Got Rhythm’ by George Gershwin and ‘What Is
This Thing Called Love’ by Cole Porter have served as the basis for numerous
original jazz compositions, such as ‘Oleo’, by Sonny Rollins, ‘Anthropology’, by
Charlie Parker, and ‘Hot House’ by Tadd Dameron.
Usually the first and last choruses of an improvised performance or a written jazz
arrangement comprise a statement of the melody including the underlying harmony,
which is called the ‘head’ in jazz parlance. In between the heads, the chorus is
repeated several times to serve as the harmonic basis for improvised or composed
musical material. The underlying harmony of the head is used as a source for
melodic and/or harmonic elaborations that show the stylistic references and
technical abilities of an improvising musician or a jazz composer/arranger. The
cyclic repetition of the chorus in variation form can be regarded as the main formal
characteristic in tonal jazz.
61
Compare Gerhard Bickl, ‘Chorus und Linie: Untersuchung zur harmonischen Flexibilität
in der Bebopimprovisation’, (Ph.D. diss., Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, 1997).
42
The most commonly used formula for the chorus is the AABA form. Each A
segment consists of eight bars, containing the main musical statement, which is
contrasted to the eight-bar B segment. Other formulas are used as well, such as
AABC, ABAC, and ABCD forms. The chorus is often preceded by an introduction
at the beginning of a song, divided by one or several interludes during the song,
and/or followed by a postlude at the end, which is referred to as an ‘outro’ in jazz
parlance. Occasionally, short elaborations may occur which are based on repeated
fragments of the chorus or inserted harmonic patterns; these are referred to as
‘vamps’ or ‘tags’. Often a tag consists simply of a repeated deceptive cadence. The
usage of harmonic vamps as the basis for improvisations is a common stylistic
feature of those compositions in tonal jazz which are inspired by Cuban music.
The shortest independent formula is the twelve-bar blues form, subdivided into
three segments of four bars each. The first segment typically represents the tonic,
the second comprises the subdominant followed by a return to the tonic, while the
third segment usually consists of a simple V – IV – I or II – V – I cadence. This
threefold subdivision of the form also evokes associations of the call and response
principles, as well as the Hegelian thesis-antithesis-synthesis paradigm.62
2.5.2 Tonality in Western music
The term ‘tonality’ describes a musical space comprised of pitches that are
structured in hierarchical relation to a tonal centre. In common-practice Western art
music, as well as in tonal jazz, the tonal centre is usually determined by the tonic
root and the tonic chord. The foundation of Western tonal music is the diatonic
scale and its related modes. The diatonic scale system, through its interrelation with
the hierarchic system of chord functions, forms the basis of the prominent theories
of Western music.
62
The three four-bar segments of the blues can be regarded as a harmonic three-part
argument, which resembles the triad thesis, antithesis and synthesis. This concept is
commonly associated with the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
Regarding the blues, the first four bars on the tonic state a proposition, which is reacted to
on the fourth scale degree in the second segment. The third segment, the cadence, re-
confirms the tonic and resolves the tension between tonic and subdominant.
43
In these theories, minor tonalities are commonly regarded as descendants of major
tonalities. This view is grounded in historical attempts to describe a hierarchy of
musical events inclined by the theory of natural law. According to this theory, the
acoustical phenomena of the overtone series set the standards for music.
For instance, the interval of a major third appears prior (between the fourth and fifth
division of the series) to the minor third (between the fifth and sixth division) in the
harmonic series. For that reason, natural law theory proposes the minor third as
appearing weaker and less consonant than the major third.
Prominent music theorists, such as Arnold Schoenberg and Heinrich Schenker

based their theories upon these natural laws.63 Schenker, for instance, regarded any
tones above the sixth division as inaudible and the major triad as superior due to the
full perception of its components in the harmonic series. He describes the tonal
system in minor as ‘artificial’, whereas the major system appears as ‘natural’ in his
theories.64 Hugo Riemann, on the other hand, tried to create logical explanations
towards the equal appearance of the minor and major thirds as consonances.
Riemann’s theory of ‘dualism’ is based upon the existence of an undertone series,
which favours the minor thirds, just as the major third is superior in the overtone
series.65
Over the centuries the significance of natural law theory for music perception and
consequently for music theories has become equally evident in the practice of
instrument tuning. In particular, the preference for natural resonances plays an
important role. In the eighteenth century the invention of instruments in equal
temperament, such as the piano, caused inconsistencies between those theories and
musical practice.
Belgian musicologist François-Joseph Fétis, who was among the first to use the
term tonality, did not entirely believe in natural law theory; instead he regarded
63
See the bibliography with regards to a list of relevant writings of Schoenberg and
Schenker.
64
Heinrich Schenker, Harmony, ed. Oswald Jonas, Engl. trans. Elisabeth Mann Borgese
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972).
65
For a recent discussion of Riemann’s dualism refer to Daniel Harrison, Harmonic
Function in Chromatic Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
44
tonality as a cultural phenomenon that may differ from one social group to
another.66 However, although even Schoenberg recognized these discrepancies,
natural law theory has been continuously used for the justification of hierarchical
structures in Western music.67
2.5.3 Tonality in Jazz
The perception of tonality in compositions and improvisations of tonal jazz music

relies heavily on principles found in common-practice Western music. However,
some noteworthy differences and extensions account for Fétis’s notion regarding the
culturally inclined perception of the laws of tonal pitch space.
Significant differences can be observed in the historical developments of jazz music

and Western classical music: jazz developed in a comparably short time and musical
knowledge was passed on from one generation of musicians to the following, which
resulted in a strong oral tradition. Many key musicians such as Louis Armstrong,
Charlie Parker and Chet Baker had no formal music education and it can be
assumed that there was no wide-spread knowledge or even interest in theoretical,
philosophical or aesthetic concerns that could have influenced the stylistic
development of the music directly.
The influence of Western classical harmony in jazz music is evident, but I argue
here that the theoretical perception of tonality in jazz is less dependent on natural
law theory when compared with its significance in the history of Western classical
music. Current jazz theories represent theoretical conventions of common practice
Western music theories in combination with observations from the practice of
66
François-Joseph Fétis, Complete Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Harmony, trans.
Peter M. Landey, vol. 13 of Harmonologia: Studies in Music Theory (Hillsdale, New York:
Pendragon Press, 2008), 166.
67
‘From this point of view it is thus of little importance for the explanation of harmonic
problems, whether science has already refuted the function of overtones or only raised some
doubts. ... I can make the attempt with so much the more confidence since, as far as I know,
no one has yet refuted the theory beyond all doubt; and since no man is able to examine and
prove everything himself, I, too, have to get along with the existing knowledge as long as I
may and can believe in it. Therefore, I will proceed in my study from the possibly uncertain
overtone theory because what I can deduce from it seems to agree with the evolution of the
harmonic means’. Arnold Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, trans. Roy E. Carter (London:
Faber and Faber Limited, 1978), 20.
45
musicians concerning tonality and functional harmony. The following sub-
subsections discuss the three essential precepts for the culturally shaped theoretical
perception of tonality in tonal jazz in comparison with some influential theories of
Western music.
2.5.3.1 Precept One: The Role of the Piano and its Equal Temperament in Jazz
One precept essential for the perception of tonality in jazz music is the equal
temperament of the piano, which is the predominant harmonic instrument in jazz
music. From the early jazz styles onwards, with the exceptions of marching brass
bands, blues/gospel singing and guitar playing, the piano has been used in the
ensembles of most influential ensemble leaders. Many of these were pianists
themselves, such as Jelly Roll Morton, Art Tatum, Duke Ellington, Count Basie,
Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell, Horace Silver, Bill Evans and Clare Fischer.
Considering the diachronic model of harmonic evolution in jazz, all these pianists
have gradually extended the functional harmony in their music based upon the equal
temperament provided by their instrument. Other band instruments such as the
double bass, guitar or wind instruments that would allow different tunings, have had
to adjust to the fixed temperament of the piano. The perception of tonality in written
arrangements and compositions for large sections of wind instruments (such as big
bands), is also influenced by the equal tempered piano tunings, as many influential
big band arrangers were pianists themselves.68
2.5.3.2 Precept Two: The Influence of the Blues Tradition
Another precept essential for the perception of tonality in jazz, the influence of the
blues tradition, is equally important for the development of functional harmony in
jazz music. The blues tonality is characterized by so-called blue notes, which derive
from the oral tradition of blues singing. These notes cannot be produced adequately
by equal tempered instruments, such as the piano. In an equal tempered pitch space,
the flattened third, flattened fifth and flattened seventh approximate these blue
notes. Much of the improvised or composed material in tonal jazz shows elements
68
Some examples for influential pianists/arrangers are: Duke Ellington, Bob Brookmeyer,
Gil Evans and Clare Fischer.
46
of the blues tonality, however there is no distinct functional harmonic system
derived from the blues tonality. Indeed, the fundamental harmonic structure of most
compositions of tonal jazz, including the blues form, derives from common-practice
Western art music. The interfluent blues tonality in equal tempered pitch space
involves the occurrence of approximated blue notes. The resulting harmonies,
especially the simultaneous occurrence of major and minor thirds, may seem
unusual from the perspective of common-practice Western music but they should be
seen as derivations of the interfluent blues tonality.
2.5.3.3 Precept Three: Minor Tonalities in Jazz
The third precept essential for the perception of tonality in tonal jazz is the
pragmatic approach of jazz musicians of treating minor tonalities in a jazz-specific
way as being more or less independent from their related major tonalities. This
performance practice has led to speculations and inconsistencies with regard to a
theory of structural functions in minor tonalities in jazz. These speculations and
inconsistencies become obvious in the attempt of prominent publications of jazz
theories to reflect both, the jazz-specific attributes of minor tonalities, as well as the
theoretic implications of prominent Western music theories.
The analytical method of most influential theorists of Western music such as

Schenker and Riemann would not allow the identification of a structurally
independent minor tonality. Instead these theories usually explain minor tonic
chords as direct descendants of their related and superior major tonalities, as
described in Chapter 2.5.2. The majority of jazz theories avoid thorough discussions
of the structural functions in minor tonalities and offer alternative theoretic
methods, which involve the analysis of complex progressions in minor derived from
the theoretical explanations of the prominent theories of Western music.69
Nevertheless, most jazz theories acknowledge the jazz-specific treatment of minor
regarding its basic constituents at least.
69
Even the authors of current jazz theories, such as Frank Sikora, try to evade the ‘minor
problem’ by focussing on the basic progressions only. Compare Sikora, Jazz-
Harmonielehre, 316.
47
For instance, in Jerry Coker’s well-known treatise on jazz improvisation, Complete
Method for Improvisation, published in 1980, the author uses the term ‘tonic minor’
in the chord symbol chart of his book and continuously refers to it throughout the
text.70 Coker does not go into detail with regard to the structural functions within a
minor tonality, but he identifies a basic cadence type (IIm7-5 – V7-9-13 – Imma7) and
three scales (harmonic minor, ascending melodic minor and Dorian) with reference
to the minor tonic chord.
From the 1980’s onwards, numerous books about jazz theory and improvisation
have spread the same information in a more or less detailed manner. In the recent
publication Jazzology – The Encyclopedia of Jazz Theory for All Musicians, the
authors provide the natural minor scale as a fourth option in connection to the minor
tonic chord. The authors of this book also refer to the basic II – V – I cadence in a
minor key and add a table of four-part harmonies built on each scale degree for all
of the four minor scales.71 The authors of Jazzology as well as Wolf Burbat in his
book Die Harmonik des Jazz discuss minor scale diatonic harmony and recognize
its complexities due to the different scale possibilities.72 Burbat, whose theory is
influenced by the complexity of Riemannian functional theory, goes a step further
and constructs a hypothetical minor tonic scale (Molltonikaleiter) that comprises all
notes found in the four minor scales.
However, neither Burbat’s minor tonic scale nor the concepts of other authors
provide a consistent theoretical backbone for a systematic conception of diatonic
minor harmony in jazz. Considering the four different minor scales described in the
literature, it is impossible to create one consistent functional hierarchy compared
with the coherent diatonic system in major tonality that derives from a single parent
scale. Western music theories have attempted to construct separate functional
hierarchies for each minor scale, but in much Western music in minor tonality there
are numerous exchanges of chords between the different parent scales and modes.
In jazz parlance, this approach is called ‘modal interchange’.73 It is necessary in
70
Jerry Coker, Complete Method for Improvisation (Lebanon, IN: Studio P/R: 1980), 15.
71
Rawlins, Jazzology, 25-29.
72
Wolf Burbat, Die Harmonik des Jazz, 7th ed. (München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag,
2005).
73
The concept of modal interchange (modal mixture) refers to the borrowing of chords and
pitches between parallel minor and major scales.
48
order to explain the harmonic representations of the basic IIm7-5 – V7-9-13 – Imma7
progression. For instance, the occurrence of the IIm7-5 chord in combination with a
tonic chord that is derived from the melodic minor scale represents a modal
interchange from the harmonic minor scale.
The theoretic approach of mixing functional chords from different scale degrees of
several different minor scales in order to explain the most basic functional chord
progressions in minor stands in opposition to the simplicity of the functional
hierarchy in major tonalities.
This is somewhat surprising, since many authors of modern jazz theories

acknowledge one predominant scale for tonic chords in minor. For instance, the
authors of Jazzology describe the melodic minor scale’s ‘fundamental importance in
jazz improvisation’.74 Similarly Mark Levine’s Jazz Theory Book recognizes the
melodic minor scale as typical of the sound of modern jazz, and offers a discussion
of its diatonic modes and chords as well as their application in jazz performance
practice.
However, none of these theories build a consistent functional hierarchy based upon
the melodic minor scale, which is able to reflect the treatment of minor harmony in
jazz in a similar way as in a major mode. Furthermore, the preference for the
melodic minor scale somehow defies the deduction of minor from the related major
tonality.
The jazz-specific treatment of minor tonalities is not only reflected in the

performance practice and the subsequent theoretic discrepancies, but also in the
repertoire. Minor tonalities play an important role in the jazz repertoire. Despite the
large number of jazz compositions and jazz standards that contain elements of both
a major tonality and its related minor tonality, there is also the strong evidence of
independent minor tonalities in jazz compositions which show little or no harmonic
reference to a related major tonality. Examples are Kenny Dorham’s ‘Blue Bossa’,
Horace Silver’s ‘Nica’s Dream’ and Wayne Shorter’s ‘Black Nile’. Blues
compositions in minor keys include John Coltrane’s ‘Blue Train’ and ‘Mr. P.C.’ and
74
Rawlins, Jazzology, 25.
49
Oliver Nelson’s ‘Stolen Moments’. Other compositions in minor tonalities for
musical theatre or film that have become jazz standards include ‘Invitation’ by
Bronislau Kaper, ‘Angel Eyes’ by Earl Brent and Matt Dennis, and ‘You Don’t
Know What Love Is’ by Gene de Paul and Don Raye.
The perception of tonality lies at the bottom of any theoretical and analytical
deconstruction of harmony. The theory of tonality in jazz involves a foundation in
common practice Western music theory as well as jazz-specific issues which have
been shaped by the cultural implications of jazz performance practice. Jazz theories
have attempted to take these issues into account, but there are several
inconsistencies and even discrepancies to be observed. Considering the previously
described notion by Fétis, these discrepancies result from the attempt to describe
jazz-specific aspects by means of culturally unrelated theoretic concepts, which
were originally developed for the repertoire of classical music. While tonal jazz
shows similar features as subsumed by the Western conception of structural
functions in major tonalities, it shows major dissimilarities with regards to minor
tonalities. The concept of tonality in jazz is shaped by the aforementioned cultural
factors equal temperament, blue notes and performance practice in minor tonalities.
In summary, I would argue that jazz theory needs further considerations of

performance practices and their cultural temporalities in jazz in order to reflect
theoretical consistency. For instance, a closer examination of the performance
practice regarding functional relationships in minor may lead towards the separation
into stylistically defined theories, as opposed to the use of a single theory derived
from Western music theories.
Despite the theoretical deficiencies, jazz theory provides efficient tools for the
analysis of the fundamental structures and its most basic harmonic elaborations in
jazz. This involves the examination of jazz-specific aspects with regard to structural
harmonic functions, as presented in the following sub-chapters.75
75
Much of the deficiencies of jazz theories refer to the correlation of chords and scales. For
instance, all publications avoid the discussion of scales of secondary dominants in minor
tonalities. However, as this dissertation is more concerned with the harmonic relationships,
the theoretical implications of chord/scale theory are omitted in the following discussion.
50
2.5.4 The Four-Part Chord versus the Triad as a Structure Defining Entity in
Jazz
Music is often broadly understood to be sound in time that is governed by musical

forces which create motion. In order to describe these forces, music theorists from
Rameau to Riemann have created theoretical models that use vertical sonorities,
described as chords, as structure-defining entities. The hierarchy of chords in jazz
derives from the Western perception of tonality. The structure-defining entity in
common-practice Western art music theory is the triad. Triads also appear
frequently in the earlier styles of tonal jazz that dominated the scene until the realm
of modern jazz in the early 1940s. In much jazz music since the 1940s, however, the
structure-defining entity has become the four-part chord.
Although four-part chords are the building blocks for a theoretical understanding of
the structural functions of tonal jazz, extended chords are also used in practice.
Chords containing seven or more pitch-classes are common practice among jazz
pianists, composers and arrangers.76 However, the functional system of tonal jazz is
governed by the structural relationships of four-part chords within a tonality, which
is acknowledged in the literature of jazz theory mentioned above. The hierarchical
relationships within all chords and all tones of the chords in relation to the tonic
define the structural functions within a piece of music.
2.5.5 Analytical Models of Structural Functions
The analytical model of structural functions involves the application of Roman

numerals to the chords built on each scale degree within the tonality. This technique
goes back to theorists of the early nineteenth century, Gottfried Weber and Hugo
Riemann.
In jazz, chord symbols are used to guide the improviser through the structural
functions of a composition. Examples 2.4 and 2.5 illustrate the chord symbolization
76
Diminished chords allow the inclusions of up to eight different notes. For a more detailed
discussion of jazz voicings see the relevant section below.
51
and Roman numerals of triads, respectively four-part chords, built upon each note of
the C major scale.
Example 2.4: Diatonic three-part chords and scale degree assignment in the
key of C major
I II III IV V VI VII
Example 2.5: Diatonic four-part chords and scale degree assignment in the
key of C major
I II III IV V VI VII
Chord symbols are also used for the analysis of transcribed jazz improvisations.
However, the chord symbolization in jazz is not consistent and varies according to
the individual musician, theorist or analyst’s preference. The nomenclature chosen
for this study reflects the usage of Clare Fischer, whose music is the subject of
examination in this study. Chapter 2.8 discusses the discrepancies regarding chord
symbolization in jazz and develops the nomenclature used for the harmonic
analyses in Chapter 3.
Jean-Philippe Rameau identified and described the chords on the 1st, 4th and 5th scale
degrees as the three main structural elements; tonic, subdominant and dominant.
Greatest stability is designated to the tonic, greatest instability and tendency to
move towards the tonic is ascribed to the dominant. The subdominant stands
between tonic and dominant, more stable than the dominant but less stable than the
tonic. It inherits a tendency to move towards both the tonic and the dominant.
The use of the four-part chord in the theoretical model of structural functions
implies some significant differences to that of the structural model of triads; these
will become clear in the cadence models which are described later in this study.
52
American music theorist Daniel Harrison has presented an innovative perspective
on Riemann’s dualist theory by examining the role of the individual chord tones of a
triad in a functional harmonic situation.77 Harrison argues that each of the
constituents of structural chords perform particular functions rather than a single
function being performed by the larger entities, such as chords and progressions.
This view is particularly convenient for the analysis of complex chromatic music.
Harrison labels the root, third and fifth of a triad as ‘base’, ‘agent’ and ‘associate’.
Table 2.5 shows Harrison’s assemblies of scale degrees within the tonic,
subdominant and dominant chords.
Table 2.5: Reproduction of Harrison’s Assemblies of Scale Degrees78
1 5 2 associates
6 3 7 agents
4 1 5 bases
Subdominant Tonic Dominant
In his dissertation, Robert McGowan adapted Harrison’s approach for the functions
of extended chords beyond the triad.79 McGowan puts forward strong arguments
towards the identification of consonance beyond the triad. Although his theory of
‘dialects of consonance’ focuses on moments of consonance in tonal jazz rather than
on the structural functions, it implies a theoretical explanation that accounts for the
four-part chord as the structure defining entity in tonal jazz.
77
Harrison, Harmonic Function.
78
Harrison, Harmonic Function, 45.
79
McGowan, ‘Dynamic Consonance’.
53
Table 2.6: Reproduction of McGowan’s Assemblies of Scale Degrees Including
Full Extensions80
(2) 3 “13th”
(7) #4 #1 Lydian associate
(5) 2 6 suffix associate
3 6/7 4 defining agent
1 5 2 triadic associate
6 3 7 modal agent
4 1 5 bases
S T D
Table 2.6 reproduces McGowan’s assemblies of scale degrees including full

extensions of tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. According to McGowan,
bases and agents ‘communicate their functional meaning and modal orientation’,
whereas ‘associates communicate very little functional attitude’.81 The identification
of the defining agent accounts for the functional significance of the seventh scale
degree according to each chord base. McGowan’s communicators of functional
meaning (bases and agents) resemble the guide tones (root, third and fifth) as
described in the prominent literature of jazz theory.82
McGowan’s application of Harrison’s theory for tonal jazz allows speculation

regarding its ramifications for the study of Fischer’s complex vertical structures.
Harrison’s theories regarding specific chromatic step connections that convey
dominant functions will, in particular, prove useful.83 However, this dissertation is
primarily concerned with a discussion of the interrelation between Fischer’s
harmony and socio-cultural context. The methods of harmonic analysis in this study
reflect the broader issues of jazz theory, Fischer’s own theoretical observations, and
the discussion of theoretical interrelations and discrepancies. The search for detailed
theoretical explanations of Fischer’s chromatic chords leads beyond the scope of
this dissertation, but may be involved in future studies.84
80
McGowan, ‘Dynamic Consonance’, 158.
81
Ibid., 155.
82
Rawlins, Jazzology, 43.
83
Refer to Chapter 2.1 and see Harrison’s discussion of the ‘characteristic semitones’, their
cadential power and relationship to the tonic, as well as the chromatic behaviour of
functions, in Harmonic Function, 26; 45-72; 91-102.
84
See Chapter 5 for a summary of the findings and conclusions of this dissertation, and
their possible applications in future studies.
54
2.5.6 The Fundamental Structure, the Basic Cadence, the Subdominant and
Guide Tone Lines in Jazz
Although the functional system in jazz music draws heavily on Western classical
music, the usage of structural knowledge in jazz practice is characterized by a
pragmatic tendency towards simplicity. This is most effectively expressed by pianist
Bill Evans’s statements in the course of the interview with Marian McPartland.85
Evans talks about his improvisatory strategy and he describes his harmonic
perception of the tune ‘The Touch of your Lips’. Evans reduces the harmony of the
piece to its most basic harmonic functions, the tonic and the dominant, before he
starts to impose new chords in the course of his improvised interpretation.
Evans identifies those two most basic types of chord which define the fundamental
structure of ‘The Touch of your Lips’ in particular and of most compositions within
the standard repertoire of tonal jazz in general: the tonic chord, built on the first
scale degree and dominant chord, built on the fifth scale degree. According to
common practice music theory, the tendency of the unstable dominant to resolve to
the stable tonic chord defines the main structural function of tonal harmony.
In comparison with Western music theories, Evans’s concept evokes heavy

associations regarding the influential conception of the ‘Ursatz’, as put forward by
Heinrich Schenker.86 Both Evans’s conception and Schenker’s Ursatz involve the
exclusion of the subdominant, which is commonly described as a third major
functional element in tonal music. Its role in jazz is accompanied by voice-leading
issues and re-harmonization events, which will be discussed within the following
paragraphs.
In common practice music theory, the subdominant plays a crucial role within the
basic cadence. The cadence is the harmonic cell that defines the tonality by
confirming the hierarchical predominance of the tonic over the other chords within a
85
Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz with guest Bill Evans.
86
Steve Larson is one of the most active promoters of Schenkerian analyses in jazz. In his
article ‘Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz: Questions about Method’, he proposes
justifications for this analytical approach in jazz. Furthermore, he correlates Evans’s
conception to Schenker’s ‘Ursatz’. Larson, ‘Schenkerian Analysis’, 209-241.
55
tonality. Several types of cadence are discussed in Western classical music theory.
Example 2.6 shows the most commonly described type I – IV – V – I (tonic –
subdominant – dominant – tonic).
Example 2.6: I – IV – V – I in the key of C major
I IV V I
The subdominant is commonly described as more stable than the dominant but less
stable than the tonic. As in common practice Western music, the subdominant plays
an important role in tonal jazz, but, its function is typically fulfilled as a IIm7 chord,
as opposed to a IV triad. The most common cadential type in jazz is II – V – I (IIm7
– V7 – Ima7), which is acknowledged throughout the literature of jazz theory. For
instance, Jerry Coker, a jazz saxophonist and well-known jazz educator, has
identified the subdominant (IIm7) chord as on of the three basic chords in the
repertoire of tonal jazz:
‘Fortunately, perhaps, most or even all of the chords in a given be-bop or

standard tune are likely to be a II, V or I chord, in one key or another.
…Harmonic motion and interest is usually achieved in the be-bop and
standard vehicles by moving through other keys, rather than by utilizing
the other Roman Numerals (III, IV, VI, and VII) ...’87
Coker’s statement confirms the jazz musician’s pragmatic approach towards

theoretical simplicity, as introduced by Evans’s statement, mentioned earlier: By his
use of the word ‘fortunately’, Coker expresses relief regarding the predominance of
only three structural chord types in the repertoire of most tonal jazz.
One plausible reason for the designation of the IIm7 as the typical subdominant
chord in jazz is found in the voice-leading between the four-part chords within the
basic cadence. According to McGowan’s theory, the motion of bases, ‘modal’
agents and ‘defining’ agents are of particular interest, as they convey the functional
meaning in a progression. In jazz theory, bases, modal agents and defining agents
87
Coker, Improvisation, 14.
56
would be described as ‘guide tones’ (roots, thirds and sevenths) and the structural
lines that result from observing their movements within a piece of music or a
cadential fragment are described as ‘guide tone lines’.
Between adjacent chords in cadential situations in tonal jazz, the guide tone lines
created by the thirds and sevenths descend by half steps or remain on the same note.
Example 2.7 illustrates the guide tone lines within a VI – II – V – I progression in
the key of C major. Ties indicate sustained voices, straight lines show diatonic
connections by half-steps and arrows mark diatonic voice leading by whole steps.
Example 2.7: Guide tone lines of a VI – II – V – I progression in the key of C

major88
The IV chord does not convey a clear subdominant function within the typical
cadences in tonal jazz. Due to the functional four-part chord system, the progression
IV – V offers a less prominent root progression (by ascending step instead of by
descending fifth) and a weaker voice leading (the modal agent as well as the
defining agent ascend by step) than the II – V progression (the modal agent of Dm7
is sustained as it becomes the defining agent of G7, whereas the defining agent of
Dm7 descends by half step into the modal agent of G7). The occurrence of one
sustained voice and one step progression (II – V) as opposed to two step
connections (IV – V) accounts for a closer proximity between the guide tones of II –
V than between IV – V. Example 2.8 shows both of these, the less effective voice
leading of guide tones between IV and V, as well as the typical voice leading
between the guide tones of II and V within the four-part chord system of tonal jazz.
88
See Chapter 2.8 for a definition of all analytical symbols, used in the analytical voice
leading graphs in this study. Examples 2.7 – 2.9 use a slightly altered approach in order to
visualize the difference between diatonic leading note resolutions by half steps and diatonic
progressions by whole steps. Here the ties refer to sustained voices, the arrow marks a
whole step progression, while a straight line indicates a chromatic step connection.
57
Example 2.8: Guide tone lines of IV – V and II – V progressions in the key of C
major
2.5.7 The sus7 Chord, the II – V Relation and the Full Cadence in Jazz
The chord symbol ‘sus7’ indicates a suspended fourth instead of the major third
within a dominant chord. The superscript seventh denotes the flattened seventh in
relation to the chord root.89 While this explanation draws upon the triadic theories in
classical music, many jazz theories provide another pragmatic discussion, which
derives from performance practice in jazz.
The Vsus7 dominant chord can be seen as the marriage of a subdominant with a
dominant chord. It combines the root of a dominant chord with the guide tones of
the subdominant chord. In fact, any voicing of a subdominant chord can be placed
upon the root of a dominant chord within a functional II – V situation. In the key of
C the seventh of the subdominant Dm7 (C) placed upon the dominant root (G)
serves as the suspension of the third (B) of the dominant chord G7. Often the
suspension (C) is later resolved into the dominant third (B) as expected by the ear.
In a conventional II – V progression the subdominant seventh can also be regarded

as a suspension of the dominant third supported by the bass motion by descending
fifth. The close connection and functional affiliation between II and V explains the
occurrence of many II – V progressions that seem outside the conventional diatonic
functional relationships. In the repertoire of tonal jazz, many V7 chords, including
non-diatonic V7 chords, are preceded by related IIm7 chords, forming II – V
progressions.90
89
Refer to Chapter 2.8 regarding a discussion of the nomenclature used in this study.
90
This phenomenon is explained in Chapter 2.5.10 in more detail.
58
The chord that is built upon the fourth scale degree is not used to prepare the V – I
progression in a cadential situation within the core repertoire of jazz music. Instead,
the IV chord is frequently employed in more substantial passages to support
structural or sequential motion. Examples of compositions of the jazz repertoire that
make use of such events include ‘Fly Me To The Moon’ by Bart Howard, ‘St.
Thomas’ by Sonny Rollins, the B-section of ‘Take Five’ by Dave Brubeck and
‘Autumn Leaves’ by Joseph Kosma. The voice leading between IV and VII follows
the same voice-leading pattern as between all other chords in the diatonic cadence,
which provides a sense of overall coherence to this progression. Example 2.9 shows
the voice leading between the guide tones of a full cadence in the key of C major.
Noteworthy is the fact that the only chromatic step connection appears within the
final II – V – I cadence.
Example 2.9: Guide Tone Lines of a full diatonic cadence (I – IV – VII – III – VI –
II – V – I progression in the key of C major)
The theories of Western classical music consider the four-part chord system in
cadential situations only occasionally. The music theory book ‘Handbuch der
funktionellen Harmonielehre’ by Hermann Grabner is a rare example thereof.91
According to Grabner, the well-known composer and teacher Anton Bruckner
described three main cadence types within the three-part as well as the four-part
chord systems:92
1. Example: I – IV – II – V – I
2. Example: I – III – VI – IV – II – V – I
3. Example: I – IV – VII – III – VI – II – V – I
91
Hermann Grabner, Handbuch der funktionellen Harmonielehre, 13th ed. (Kassel: Gustav
Bosse Verlag, 2005).
92
Bruckner’s cadence types, which are found in his study books, reproduced in Auer-
Göllerich’s Bruckner biography, are cited in Hermann Grabner, Harmonielehre, 93.
59
According to Bruckner, the third cadential type is the most important one.93 It
includes all structural functions available in a diatonic pitch space and is
characterized by chord root movements in descending fifths. These extended
cadence types all imply this root movement, which, according to Schoenberg,
represents the strongest progressions in music.94 The motion through the cycle of
fifths is also significant for tonal jazz, as many compositions of the jazz repertoire
are based upon the third cadence type or upon segments thereof, as mentioned
earlier.
2.5.8 The Plagal Cadence in Jazz
The plagal cadence, IV – I, which is common in Western classical music, can also
be found in blues-influenced styles and compositions of tonal jazz, usually in its
triadic form. The triadic IV obtains a clear subdominant function. In the functional
four-part chord system of tonal jazz the plagal progression IV – I appears frequently
as IV7 – I7 in the blues form and occasionally as IVmaj7 - Imaj7. The latter is usually
found in repeated form in endings or introductions that resemble the sound of
Impressionistic composers such as Erik Satie.
IVmaj7 also appears in diatonic stepwise patterns such as I – II – III – IV – III or IV

– III – II – I. The IV chord in the functional four-part chord system of tonal jazz
provides motion away from the tonic but does not participate in cadences that imply
a sense of closure, as it shows neither by a tendency to move towards the dominant,
nor to the tonic.
The IV chord in a major tonality can also appear as IVm6, IVmma7, or IVm7. In this
case the definition ‘subdominant minor’ is still in use, neglecting the different
meaning of the subdominant within the four-part chord system of tonal jazz. The
term stems from the theories of Western classical music that have regarded the
minor triad of the fourth scale degree as a minor version of the subdominant. In
Western classical music as well as in tonal jazz the subdominant minor chord is
93
Grabner, Harmonielehre, 94.
94
Arnold Schoenberg, Structural Functions of Harmony, 2nd ed. (London: Faber and Faber,
1969), 6.
60
often used in a plagal cadence situation. In many jazz theories, the chords IVm6,
IVmma7 and IVm7 are often described as forms of ‘modal interchange’ chords. As
described in Dick Lowell and Ken Pulling’s Arranging for Large Jazz Ensemble,
‘modal interchange chords and their chord scales are borrowed from a parallel
tonality (one having the same pitch axis) for use in the primary tonality’.95
Regardless of the theoretical explanation of the IVm6, IVmma7 and IVm7

phenomenon, of primary interest with regard to the current discussion of harmonic
elaborations of the fundamental structure in tonal jazz is these chords’ introduction
of chromaticism by the inclusion of the flattened sixth or third scale degree within a
major tonality.
2.5.9 Tonicization, Secondary Dominant Chords and Sequential Dominant

Chords
Other harmonic procedures that introduce chromaticism within the diatonic

fundamental structure include the technique of tonicization. A tonicization appears
as a similar process to modulation, but occurs for only a very short time within a
piece of music. Any chord or note may be treated as a new tonic for a brief period
simply by being preceded by its dominant chord or a chord that carries a dominant
function.
Tonicizations appear on three levels. The first level refers to the tonicizations of
diatonic chords. The dominant chords which are involved in this type of tonicization
are described as ‘secondary dominant chords’, as opposed to the ‘primary’ dominant
chord, which is, of course, built entirely diatonically. Second level tonicizations are
referred to as ‘sequential dominants’, or ‘chains of dominants’, as they involve
dominant chords which occur within a chain-like pattern of secondary dominant
chords. The first chord in the B-section of the so-called ‘Rhythm Changes’ chorus is
a prominent example thereof. In the key of B flat, the chord D7 functions as the
tonicization of the subsequent G7 chord. G7 tonicizises C7, which can be analysed as
a secondary dominant chord, resolving into the primary dominant chord F7. The
95
Dick Lowell and Ken Pulling, Arranging For Large Jazz Ensemble (Boston: Berkley
Press, 2003), 18.
61
third level of tonicizations includes all dominant resolutions that may not be
analysed as primary, secondary or sequential dominants.
2.5.10 Tritone Substitutions – Bebop Cross
Tritone substitutions are frequently found in tonal jazz original compositions as well
as in arrangements and improvisations. The reason for this phenomenon is the
existence of alternate dominant chords, which are closely related to each dominant
chord. These alternate dominant chords share the same two pitches that function as
agents or defining agents (the guide tones major third and minor seventh). The roots
of these dominant chords are a tritone (six semitones) apart, which accounts for the
name of this phenomenon (see Example 2.10). Any dominant chord can be replaced
by its tritone substitution.
Example 2.10: V7 and its tritone substitution subV7 in the key of C major
The dominant function remains the same, but the chord colour changes and the root
movement changes from descending fifth to descending minor second. Just as any
V chord can be preceded by a II chord to form a II – V progression within a
tonality, any tritone substitution can be preceded by a related IIm7 chord to form a II
– V progression that is a tritone away from the home tonality (see Example 2.11).
Example 2.11: IIm7 – V7, (related) IIm7 – subV7 in the key of C major
62
In the case of a cadence consisting of a dominant chord preceded by its secondary
dominant chord, the tritone substitutions and their related II chords may occur for
the dominant as well as for the secondary dominant (see Example 2.12).
Example 2.12: V/V – V progressions including tritone substitutions and related

IIm7 chords
In C: V/V – V = D7 – G7 = Am7 – D7 – Dm7 – G7

= D7 – Db7 = Am7 – D7 – Abm7 – Db7
= Ab7 – Db7 = Ebm7 – Ab7 – Abm7 – Db7
= Ab7 – G7 = Ebm7 – Ab7 – Dm7 – G7
In a typical cadence type consisting of sequential dominant chords, various

possibilities for tritone substitutions can be found as illustrated in the chart below.
The resulting structure is often referred to as the ‘bebop cross’ in jazz parlance. The
graphic below shows all possibilities within a III – VI – II – V progression in the
key of C, consisting of sequential dominant chords and all possible tritone
substitutions. Each dominant chord may also be preceded by a related IIm7 chord,
forming II – V progressions as shown in Example 2.13.
Example 2.13: The ‘bebop-cross’
E7 A7 D7 G7
Bb7 Eb7 Ab7 Db7
2.5.11 Diminished Chords
In the early styles of jazz, chromaticism was mainly implied by the blues tonality,
by the basic harmonic phenomena described earlier, and by passing diminished
chords. These diminished chords occur between the chords on diatonic scale
degrees, as illustrated in Example 2.14. Passing diminished chords appear within
ascending, and descending progressions and they connect the adjacent diatonic
chords.
63
Example 2.14: Ascending and descending passing diminished chords
Ascending:
I6 – #Io7 – IIm7 – #IIo7 – IIIm7 – #IIIo7 – IVmaj7 – #IVo7 – I/5 – #Vo7 – VIm7
Descending:
IIIm7 – bIIIo7 – IIm7 – bIIo7 – I6
In jazz theory and in the practice of jazz performance, diminished chords are usually
analysed and often played as dominant chords. For instance, the structure of the Bo7
chord comprises the two tritones b – f and d – a flat, which represent the guide tones
of four different dominant chords, as shown in Example 2.15.
Example 2.15: Bo7 as a variant of four different V7-9 chords (G7-9, E7-9, Db7-9, Bb7-9)
Within the diatonic framework, those dominant chords that fulfil the role of a
secondary dominant chord may be used. In the key of C major, the progression I6 –
#Io7 – IIm7 appears as C6 – A7-9 – Dm7. Consequently, related IIm7 chords can be
applied in front of the resulting dominant seventh chords. The previous chord
progression results in: C6 – Em7-5 – A7-9 – Dm7. A prominent example for the
application of this harmonic technique is the tune ‘It Could Happen To You’ by
Jimmy Van Heusen.
An example for the descending progression III – bIIIo – II – V is found in the tune
‘Someday my Prince will come’ by Frank Churchill. Bars nine to twelve show the
progression Dm7 – Dbo7 – Cm7 – F7. The diminished chord can be analysed as the II
– V progression Dbm7 – Gb7. The chord Gb7 functions as tritone substitution of the
primary dominant F7 in the key of B flat major.
64
The analysis of the Io7 chord leads to a similar result: In the key of C major, the
chord Co7 can be regarded as a rootless B7-9, and as such it can be analysed as the
secondary dominant of the tonic substitution Em7 or the tonic chord inversion
Cmaj7/E. In practice the Io7 chord usually resolves to the tonic. This progression (Io
– I) is used in interpretations of the composition ‘Misty’ by Erroll Garner as well as
by improvising musicians in the course of re-harmonizing existing chord
progressions.96
2.5.12 Line Clichés
In jazz parlance, the term ‘line cliché’ can frequently be heard in the context of
minor tonalities. Generally the term implies two different things: first, the reference
to a musical line or melody and, second, the negative associations of a cliché that
refers to an overused idea or phrase. In a jazz context, the general negative
implications of clichés have to be seen in relation to the importance of formulas in
jazz improvisation.97 Structure in jazz improvisation is often achieved by the use of
pre-conceived formulas and patterns on different levels. Line clichés can be found
on a level above the fundamental functional harmony in tonal jazz. They occur
typically within minor tonic chords as contrapuntal lines of either the moving fifth
in relation to its static root, or of the root in relation to the other static chord tones.
Example 2.16 shows a typical example of a line cliché in the key of A minor.
Example 2.16: Two line clichés in the key of A minor
96
The technique of re-harmonizing implies the knowledge of chord substitutions and
alterations that are freely applied by the improvising musician and the composer or arranger
to their individual taste. Pianists such as Bill Evans, Herbie Hancock and Clare Fischer are
known for their ability to re-harmonize well-known compositions of the jazz repertoire
according to their idiosyncratic harmonic approach.
97
Some Authors have stressed the structural importance of formulas in jazz improvisations.
See Kenny, Structure in Jazz Improvisation, 163-194, and Strunk, Linear Intervallic
Patterns, 63-115.
65
2.5.13 Parallel Motion of Vertical Structures (Parallel Planing)
Parallel planing may appear within the functional framework of tonal music as a
merely acoustic effect that implies the process of modulation. Within the core
repertoire of tonal jazz, chromatic planing appears infrequently. A rare example is
the very popular tune ‘On Green Dolphin Street’ by Bronislau Kaper, which
contains chromatically shifting major seventh chords on top of an ostinato bass
figure, as shown in Example 2.17.
Example 2.17: ‘On Green Dolphin Street’ by Bronislau Kaper, Lyrics by Ned
Washington.98 A-section, bars 1 – 8
Certain chord progressions in functional music can easily be misinterpreted as

chromatic parallel sequences of chord structures: the chains of II – V progressions
that occur as a result from tritone substitutions may appear as chromatically planing
II – V progressions. As explained earlier, these sequences are commonly referred to
as the ‘bebop cross’. As opposed to the parallel planing chords, those sequences do
convey clear functional reason and should be considered as such in harmonic
analysis.
2.5.14 Chromaticism
In the styles of tonal jazz from the mid-1940s onwards, chromaticism has become
an integral element. The complexity of the modern chromatic approach has reached
a level similar to that of post-Romantic classical music. Frequently, individual jazz
98
The New Real Book, Vol. 3, ed. Chuck Sher (Petaluma: Sher Music, 1995), 273.
66
improvisers and composers have developed their own chromatic concepts.
However, the harmonic basis for much tonal jazz, the chorus, remains easily
identifiable, as the standard repertoire has remained unchanged. Many musicians of
the so-called modern jazz era, such as Hancock, Shorter and Fischer, have
developed their own approach to using notes from ‘inside’ or ‘outside’ the tonality.
Just as a performer or composer, such as Bill Evans, has the fundamental structure
in mind while generating chromatic material, the analyst needs to uncover the
fundamental structure first, before understanding, or at least describing, the
chromatic material adequately.
Saxophonist and educator Dave Liebman, who is an experienced and established

improviser in modern jazz styles, writes in the foreword to his book A Chromatic
Approach to Jazz Harmony and Melody:
… Chromatic means the construction of melodies and harmonies, which

can coexist with, or replace given key centres. It implies setting up contrary
tonalities, thus creating a heightened degree of tension and release in order
to expand one’s expressive palette.99
Liebman’s statement implies the two-layered approach of a jazz musician who

creates musical material in reaction to pre-existing structures (given key centres).
2.5.15 The Two-Layer Approach in Jazz Voicings
The term ‘voicing’, as used in jazz parlance, refers to the exact vertical order of the
pitches of a chord. Different concepts of jazz voicings have been developed during
the history of tonal jazz by pianists, guitarists and players of other harmonic
instruments as well as by composers and arrangers. A comprehensive discussion of
the different types of voicings is not relevant for this study and consequently it will
not be provided in this text.100 However, an examination of the main characteristics
99
Dave Liebman, A Chromatic Approach to Jazz Harmony and Melody (Rottenburg:
Advance Music, 1991), 7.
100
Information about jazz voicings is given in countless published transcriptions of piano
solos and scores of compositions for jazz ensembles, summarized by experienced musicians
in pedagogic or theoretic texts about jazz improvisation. Examples thereof include Jim
McNeely, The Art of Comping (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 1992); Mark Levine, Das
Jazzpianobuch (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 1992); Philipp Moehrke, Jazz Piano: Voicing
Concepts, (Brühl: AMA Verlag, 1997).
67
of jazz voicings will lead to the concept of the twofold perception and application of
harmony in tonal jazz, which is crucial to this study. The dualism regarding jazz
voicings is discussed in the following paragraphs.
In general, a jazz voicing is a specific vertical order of chord tones and additional
notes. The different concepts of jazz voicings assign rules for the register and
possible doublings of tones. As with any chord in common-practice Western art
music, jazz voicings may appear in close or open position. A voicing may describe
the vertical solution applied by a single musician in the course of improvisation or it
may describe the vertical sonority that results from several instruments of an
ensemble. Most voicings in tonal jazz are built upon the chord root as the lowest
voice. Inversions are comparatively rare in tonal jazz. Example 2.18 shows
conventional voicings of a C major seventh chord in open and close position.
Example 2.18: Close and open position jazz piano voicings of a Cma7 chord
The most important general aspect of jazz voicings is the dualism found in the
divergent organization of guide tones (bases, modal agent and defining agent, or,
root, third and seventh) and of all other notes. The guide tones convey functional
meaning and they describe the functional framework of a piece of tonal jazz. Within
the majority of jazz voicings the guide tones are placed below all other notes.
Doublings of guide tones in a higher register appear rather infrequently. Other chord
tones and non-chord tones appear usually above the guide tones. Close position
voicings comprise either the modal or the defining agent as the lowest voice above
the chord root. Within open position voicings the notes in the lower structure
usually include base, modal agent and defining agent. Example 2.19 shows various
conventional open position voicings. All voicings show the guide tone in the lower
register.
68
Example 2.19: Conventional open position voicing of Cma7 and Cma7+11
Within open position voicings and extended voicings that include note doublings,
the second layer is generally referred to as ‘upper structure’. Although the term
upper structure is mostly used in conjunction with the triad (upper structure triad),
other formations besides the triad are frequently found within the upper structures.
The term upper structure refers to any structure that is placed in an upper register,
above the guide tones (lower structure).
It is common practice among improvising musicians and composer/arrangers to use

chromatic alterations of tones within the upper structures to change the timbre (or
colour) of a voicing without disturbing the functional meaning of the chord. This
twofold organizational concept within jazz voicings leads to the clear differentiation
between a lower register and an upper register and consequently to a logical
terminology that assigns a lower functional layer in opposition to an upper colour
layer. Example 2.20 illustrates some conventional upper structure formations within
common V – I progressions.
Example 2.20: Upper structure triads in V7 – I progressions
Considering the improvisational freedom and creative developments of musicians

and composers, both layers may be altered depending on personal taste. It can be
assumed that experienced musicians with a distinct harmonic language, such as
Clare Fischer, have developed sensitivity for the functional harmonic framework as
69
well as for the colour layer. Previous studies of Fischer’s harmony have revealed the
use of voice leading techniques as effective instruments for harmonic alterations of
constituents of both, lower and upper structure. These techniques have been
described as an integral element of his personal musical style. 101
2.5.16 Rootless Voicings
Rootless voicings also occur in performances of jazz pianists. Although pianists of

traditional jazz styles have used such voicings occasionally, the conceptual
development of rootless voicings in a jazz band performance is generally credited to
the pianists Bill Evans and Wynton Kelly. In the case of jazz performances
accompanied by a double bassist or guitarist, the application of rootless voicings
avoids doublings of chord roots and consequently allows more harmonic and
melodic flexibility and freedom for the bass instrument. For instance, in the course
of improvisations, this concept enables the bass player to use tritone substitutions
for dominant chords freely without interfering with the pianist’s bass note.
Occasionally, pianists use rootless voicings in solo performances. Vertical

sonorities may appear fragmentary, which may lead to misinterpretations about a
chord’s root and functional meaning. In such cases, the harmonic analysis requires
knowledge of the fundamental structures of tonal jazz harmony. As discussed
earlier, tonal jazz performances are often based upon the choruses of well-known
tunes of the standard repertoire. An experienced listener will be able to make
assumptions about the harmony based on an understanding of cadences, chord
patterns and voicings typically found in tonal jazz. The theoretical concept of the
functions of tones within a chord, as developed by Harrison and extended by
McGowan, also provides useful tools for the identification of functional content
within rootless voicings.102
101
The authors of previous Fischer studies including Dobbins, Hinz, Bleij and the current
author, have acknowledged the significance and originality of Fischer’s voice leading
techniques. For instance, compare Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’. See Chapter 4 in this
dissertation for a detailed investigation of Fischer’s harmonic techniques in comparison to
the harmonic approach of composer Dimitri Shostakovich, respectively pianist Bill Evans.
102
See the previous Chapter 2.5.5.
70
Rootless voicings occur less frequently in compositions or arrangements of tonal
jazz. Their analysis follows the same assumptions based upon experience and
knowledge as described above.
2.5.17 Summary and Perspective for a Pragmatic Harmonic Analysis of Tonal

Jazz
This extended section has examined the main features of functional harmony in
tonal jazz, particularly regarding the fundamental structure and its harmonic
elaboration. Prominent theories found in the literature of common practice Western
music as well as in jazz music, have been discussed and tested against the pragmatic
approach suggested in this study. Theoretical discrepancies have been highlighted
and discussed.
This examination has explained the strong argument towards a pragmatic, bottom-
up approach in harmonic analysis, based on the perspective of the improvising or
composing musician. According to statements by the influential pianist Bill Evans,
jazz musicians tend to favour a pragmatic attitude towards functional harmonic
relationships, as well as the existence of a fundamental harmonic structure. Fischer
himself refers to an abstract underlying harmonic structure in music, which,
according to Fischer’s quote at the beginning of this chapter 2.5, provides musical
‘intent’.
The aspects discussed in this chapter form a pragmatic basis of ‘what to look for’ at
the start of a harmonic analysis of tonal jazz in general and of Fischer’s music in
particular. Upon the identification of these fundamental relationships, the more
detailed and complex idiosyncratic harmonic devices can be revealed and assessed
in relation to the basic structure. The fundamental relationships appear as
conventions, which are opposed by Fischer’s idiosyncrasies. The identification of
these fundamental harmonic structures considers the musician’s own perception of
jazz harmony and it reflects this dissertation’s aim for a contextualized analysis of
Fischer’s harmonic approach, as Fischer’s music is widely situated within the
context of tonal jazz.103
103
For a more detailed discussion of the wider context of Fischer’s music, see Chapter 3.
71
This method does not aim to provide a detailed ‘step-by-step’ set of guidelines for
the harmonic analysis of music as it can be found in analytical methods developed
from Schenker’s or Riemann’s theories. This seems impossible considering the
wide range of individual styles of jazz improvisers and composers. Even Schenker’s
and Riemann’s analytical methods, which were carefully designed for the
examination of specific musical styles, have led to discourse and arguments that
have revealed theoretical and analytical incoherencies. The acceptance of
incoherence in music, or in other words, the post-modern view of music, is
important here and it is particularly relevant for the analysis of an art form as hybrid
as jazz. The current methodology reveals the most consistent features of tonal jazz
and provides a comprehensive discussion thereof. The identification of the
fundamental structures will help to discover the significant ‘rest’ of the music, the
part that is idiosyncratic of the individual improviser or composer.
Despite the significance of conventional jazz theories for the analysis of

fundamental harmonic structures, several unconventional analytical methods have
found their way into jazz analysis, as discussed in Chapter 2.2. Most of these
analytical theories are based upon theoretical conceptions of Western classical
music including Neo-Riemannian and Schenkerian theory. One of the most recent
theoretic treatises which shows potential regarding the harmonic analysis of basic
underlying principles in complex jazz music, including Fischer’s work, is discussed
in the following section.
72
2.6 Burnett and Nitzberg’s ‘New Theory of Tonality’
Composition, Chromaticism and the Developmental Process: A New Theory of

Tonality,104 by Henry Burnett and Roy Nitzberg, represents one of the most
interesting current contributions to music theory with a special emphasis on
chromaticism and tonality. Due to the recency of this publication and its potential
significance regarding the analysis of chromatic music, including Fischer’s, this
section focuses on a review of Burnett and Nitzberg’s new theory, as well as on its
applicability to jazz analysis in general and Fischer studies in particular.
The book, published in 2007, covers a quite different perspective of tonality

compared with the postulates of conventional music theories, which regard
chromaticism as an embellishing factor of the diatonic background. Contrary to this
belief, Burnett and Nitzberg claim that tonal Western music is based upon a
chromatic background. Consequently, the authors regard the chromatic backbone
and its governing principles as a unifying compositional concept that can be found
in all tonal Western art music from the sixteenth century to the present. This
perspective strengthens the perception of an evolutionary development of musical
styles. The following paragraphs discuss the postulates of this ‘new theory of
tonality’, followed by an investigation of possible ramifications regarding the study
of tonal jazz in general and regarding the current study of aspects of chromaticism
in Fischer’s music in particular.
Henry Burnett, a Professor of Music at the Queens College of the City University in
New York, describes the postulates of this ‘new theory of tonality’ as being
developed by an inductive process throughout the course of his teaching career
since the 1970s. In the course of his analytical lectures he has discovered specific
processes within the interplay of chromatic and diatonic musical events. As a result,
Burnett and the co-author, his former student Roy Nitzberg, describe the backbone
of Western art music as ‘eleven pitch class fields’ rather than diatonic, seven-note
key centres. The twelfth, missing pitch class that exists alongside each eleven-pitch-
class system carries the crucial title of ‘system-shift-motivator’; in other words, it
104
Henry Burnett and Roy Nitzberg, Composition, Chromaticism and the Developmental
Process: A New Theory of Tonality (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007).
73
initiates a system modulation. The missing pitch class is found on the b3 or #2 scale
degree, designated as pc 3 in this new theory’s terminology. As enharmonic
equivalence is not allowed in this theory, the occurrence of pc 3 in a composition
provokes a system modulation of either up (provoked by b3) or down (provoked by
#2) a minor third from the tonic. Consequently, each key involves four eleven-pitch-
class systems. Despite their chromatic nature, eleven-pitch-class systems are
defined according to the common twelve diatonic major scales. For instance, the 1#
system denotes the eleven-pitch-class system that unfolds above the root G; the 2b
eleven-pitch-class system is rooted on the note Bb and so forth.
According to Burnett and Nitzberg the minor modes derive from their relative major
system and share the same conditions. They argue further that the system of minor
thirds and augmented seconds operates underneath the conventional representation
of the tonic key. The authors propose that ‘tonality … is ultimately derived from a
chromatic gamut of all available pitch classes that is partitioned into diatonic scales
… thus the chromatic aggregate actually underlies all tonal types and keys’.105
This emphasis on minor third relationships recalls another approach for the analysis
of chromaticism in tonal music, namely the Neo-Riemannian approach.106 However,
the ‘new theory of tonality’ describes minor third relationships as derivatives of the
even more significant ‘consonant tritone’ and its complementary ‘dissonant tritone’
within each eleven-pitch-class-system. The consonant tritone divides the octave of
the tonic pitch (pc 0 – pc 6) and the dissonant tritone is based upon the missing
pitch (b3/#2) (pc 3 – pc 9).
Burnett and Nitzberg’s new theory of eleven-pitch-class analysis is not informed by

the principles of diatonicism and voice leading and ‘as a result, individual pitch
classes designated as structurally significant in eleven-pitch-class analysis may
seem unusual choices to those conversant with diatonic theories’.107 Despite all
these postulates of the ‘new theory of tonality’, the authors continue to use certain
105
Burnett and Nitzberg, Composition, 27.
106
Burnett and Nitzberg themselves acknowledge the contribution of ‘Neo-Riemannian’
theory towards the identification of ‘structurally significant third relationships’. Burnett and
Nitzberg, Composition, 14.
107
Ibid., 17.
74
concepts for musical analysis as derived from common practice music theories, such
as the triadic scale degree assignation and the terminology for functional analysis.
Furthermore, the Schenkerian idea of musical layers (Schichten) plays an important
role in the new theory’s perception of the eleven-pitch-class-system operating in the
musical background. The analytical examples in the book make use of these
conventional concepts in combination with the newly introduced postulates and
their terminology.
2.6.1 Burnett and Nitzberg’s New Theory and its Application to Jazz
One of the authors’ most significant observations, through numerous analyses of

tonal works from various stylistic periods, accounts for a developmental process
that can be found within single compositions as well as within the stylistic evolution
from the modal music of the sixteenth century up until early twentieth-century
compositions that cross the border into atonality. However, considering the
significance of jazz music during the twentieth century in general, and the influence
of Western harmony on jazz harmony, there are no comments to be found with
regard to the new theory’s applicability to the analysis of the tonal jazz repertoire.
As tonal jazz is commonly examined by means of modified analytical methods
derived from Western common practice music theories, including more specialized
analytical routines such as Schenkerian or Neo-Riemannian approaches,108 it seems
logical that the current ‘new theory of tonality’ could also be used to explain tonal
jazz, and yet the impact of African music onto jazz blurs such attempts. In
particular, the use of blue notes common to the style, notably the b3/#2, #4 and b7
scale degrees, requires the re-consideration of the new theory’s postulates in the
context of tonal jazz.
Blue notes, which play a significant role in jazz melody and harmony, have
challenged Western common practice music theories and seem to challenge this
new theory just as thoroughly. While the inclusion of the flattened seventh b7 in the
tonic chord of a blues may be explained as the introduction of a dissonance that
occurs within the eleven-pitch-class-system and the #4 can be interpreted as part of
the ‘system-consonant tritone’ C – F# (in the key of C major), the inclusion of the
108
See Chapter 2.5 for a detailed discussion of jazz harmony.
75
scale degree b3/#2 in the tonic chord of a blues, for instance, causes much more
analytical trouble.
Enharmonic equivalence plays a pragmatic, as opposed to dogmatic, role in the

notation of jazz music, which causes a certain theoretical inconsistency. The altered
tension #9 in dominant chords, for example, is often notated as a b10 for practical
reasons, although the chord symbol usually shows the #9. Thad Jones’s well-known
big band composition ‘Three and One’ provides such an example at the end of its
very first bar.109 While the chord symbol shows a tonic Eb7#9 chord, the four
trombones outline a clear Eb7b10 chord by the notes Eb, G, Db and Gb.110 In the ‘flat’
key of E flat major it is just easier for musicians to read G flat instead of F sharp.111
As a matter of consequence, the analysis of the notated Gb as the b3 system-shift-
motivator cannot be clearly justified.
Alternatively, I propose that the note G flat in the key of E flat major as well as the
other blue notes #4 (A) and b7 (Db) should be seen as adding a second layer above
the structural chord functions. These second-layer-notes are perceived as colour
tones that do not interfere functionally with the lower, structural layer. This
perception of the blue notes as a layer of colour above the structural harmonic layer
is grounded in the historical emergence of jazz music as an amalgam of Western
music and African music practices.112 Just as blues harmonies can be analysed as
plagal and regular V – I cadences, blues-inflected melodies can be regarded as a
specific colour that functions independently of its accompanying harmonies.
Generally, tonal jazz shows a high degree of chromaticism within its harmonic
structural layer, primarily resulting from the common practice of altering chord
109
See Rayburn Wright’s analysis and score reduction of Thad Jones’s big band
composition ‘Three and One’ in Rayburn Wright, Inside the Score (New York: Kendor
Music, 1982), 58.
110
Although the chord symbol shows Eb7#9, the b9 as well as the #11 are also present in the
spread voicings of the trumpets and the saxophones.
111
The chord assignation of Eb7b10 is used only rarely in jazz, for instance in big band scores
by the German big band leader and arranger Peter Herbolzheimer. However, this chord
assignation does not contribute to theoretical consistency, as almost all current jazz theories
regard the inclusion of the minor third in a chord as an altered representation of the ninth
(#9), due to the jazz chord concept of stacked thirds.
112
For a more detailed discussion of jazz tonality and its interrelation with blues tonality see
Chapter 2.5.3.2.
76
tensions. Other reasons are to be found in the practice of chromatic re-
harmonizations, such as tritone-substitutions, parallel motion, passing diminished
chords and the frequent appliance of tonicizations. A systematic analysis of the jazz
repertoire utilizing Burnett and Nitzberg’s new theory’s analytical procedures has
yet to be undertaken, but, considering the close relationship between jazz harmony
and Western harmony, its successful application may be assumed, with the
exception of the aforementioned phenomena of blue notes and the problematic issue
of enharmonic equivalence in jazz.
The new theory expresses a strong emphasis on the chromatic pre-compositional

material in combination with a functional diatonic framework, rather than regarding
chromaticism purely as embellishment of the diatonic structure. Furthermore, the
theory contributes to a holistic view of compositional development over the
centuries of Western music and through stylistic change. Tonal jazz falls within this
development and it should be considered as an analytical playground for this new
theory of tonality. In particular, it should be noted that the unusual and highly
chromatic styles within tonal jazz, which sometimes bare explanatory detail through
conventional analysis including common practice jazz theory, may receive more
successful theoretical explanations by means of this new theory. The theory may
also account for the transformation of advanced compositional strategies of classical
music into compositions of tonal jazz. The following subsection shows how this
new theory can be used to explain the advanced chromatic harmony in an
improvised example of Fischer’s music, which shows a strong connection to tonal
jazz as well as chromatic devices that are unusual in tonal jazz.
2.6.2 Burnett and Niztberg’s New Theory of Tonality Applied to Fischer’s

Music
As mentioned in Chapter 2.5 in this study, improvised performances and

compositions in tonal jazz are often based upon a repeated cycle of chord changes.
These chord changes often represent the altered harmonies of a harmonically quite
simple Broadway tune or folk song, as in the case of Fischer’s improvised
77
interpretation of the folk tune ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’.113 Here, the analytical
interest refers to the interpreter’s harmonic alteration of the simple harmonic
background. In Fischer’s case, these harmonic alterations advance the use of
chromaticism within a tonal framework. As I will demonstrate in a detailed analysis
in Chapter 4.2.3, Fischer strays away from the tonic centre often during the piece,
but manages to return to the original tonic frequently enough to maintain a strong
sense of tonality. Perhaps the most interesting aspects of this performance are the
questions of whether there is a deeper significance behind Fischer’s harmonic
excursions and why certain non-tonic key centres become, albeit briefly, a focus; it
must be said that most of the vertical structures maintain a high degree of
dissonance and instability that does not allow the identification of a proper
modulation, or new tonic centre.
As early as the second bar, Fischer introduces the pc 3, namely the note B flat
(Example 2.21). Given the flat accidental, the new theory proposes a system-shift
up a minor third into a 2b system, rooted on B flat. As assumed, Fischer reaches an
augmented Bb major chord by bar four, which may be perceived as a temporary
tonic, although the augmented chord is too unstable to be seen as a functional tonic
centre.
Example 2.21: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im

Herzen’, bars 1 – 8114
113
Clare Fischer, Alone Together – Just Me: Solo Piano Improvisations, transcr. Bill
Dobbins (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 9709003, 1997). Fischer’s interpretation is analysed
in more detail in Chapters 4.2.3 and 4.2.4.
114
This example is based on a reproduction of Bill Dobbins’s transcription, which is
published by Advance Music and used with permission in this dissertation. Clare Fischer,
Alone Together, 20.
78
At this point, the analysis must be delayed briefly in order to discuss Fischer’s
preference for notation without any key signatures in the context of the new
theory’s applicability. Although it was not Fischer himself, but his transcriber, the
Fischer-expert Bill Dobbins, who notated this example, no key signature is given,
following Fischer’s own preference. Due to the chromatic harmonies, it is extremely
difficult to judge whether the scale degree #2 or b3 has been introduced. In this
case, I propose the consideration of the vertical chord structures and of their
functional situation. This procedure is explained in the following paragraph.
Bar two shows a C7+9-13 dominant chord with the inclusion of the major seventh B
natural. The unusual simultaneous occurrence of the major seventh and the flattened
seventh can be explained as the vertical interrelation of a horizontal, diatonic
melodic layer and a chromatically inflected harmonic layer.115 Despite the melodic
B natural, the note B flat (b7 in C7) is the only possible choice within the chord, due
to the regular dominant quality of the vertical structure. Other identifications of pc 3
are verified in a similar way throughout the following analysis.
In bar five, immediately after the 2b system has been introduced, the occurrence of
the note D flat (pc 3 in the 2b system) provokes another system shift. Here, the flat
accidental is the only choice, as this note occurs as the flattened seventh of an
Eb7#9#11 chord. As a matter of consequence, the piece slips into a 5b eleven-pitch-
class system with D flat as its root. In bar seven the note E (pc 3 in the 5b system)
motivates another system shift into a 4# eleven-pitch-class system rooted on the
note E. Here the note appears as the regular sharp nine in a Db7+9-13 dominant chord.
By the following bar, the note G in the bass marks the return of the initial 1#
system. This home eleven-pitch-class system is not only supported by its root in the
bass and its octave doubling in the middle voices, but also by its system-consonant-
tritone, the note C sharp.
115
See Chapters 2.5.14 and 2.5.15.
79
Table 2.7: Full cycle of eleven-pitch-class systems in ascending minor thirds as
outlined in the first 8 bars of Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du
liegst mir im Herzen’
1# System 2b System 5b System 4# System 1# System

Root G Root Bb Root Db Root E Root G
Considering the long harmonic progressions in classical music, these eight bars of
Fischer’s improvised interpretation appear comparably dense and unsteady.
However, the full cycle through four eleven-pitch-class systems, each one a minor
third above last, provides structure and cohesiveness, as illustrated in Table 2.7.
This structure cannot be discovered through the conventional harmonic analysis,
which regards G major as the only stable harmonic tonic in this context. Perhaps the
augmented Bb major in bar four may be regarded as a temporary and yet quite
unstable tonic, but the eleven-pitch-class-systems rooted on D flat and E cannot be
perceived as such at all.
Example 2.22: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im

Herzen’, bars 9 – 16
Throughout the following eight bars, which represent a re-harmonized version of

the same melody as the first eight bars, there is little similar structural material to be
found (see example 2.22). On the contrary, Fischer stays very close to the initial 1#
eleven-pitch-class system, despite the introduction of all chromatic notes besides the
missing pitch until the transition from bar fourteen to fifteen. Here the system-shift-
motivator pc 3 (B flat) introduces a 2b system, immediately succeeded by the note
D flat (pc 6), which, by itself, functions as the system-shift-motivator of a 2b
system. Burnett and Nitzberg, who describe similar incidents in the music of Johann
80
Sebastian Bach, note that the almost simultaneous occurrences of a system-shift-
motivator with its own system-shift-motivator both destabilizes and re-stabilizes the
music at the same time.116 In other words, both system-shift-motivators serve to
cancel each other out.
Clearly, Burnett and Nitzberg’s new theory provides useful tools for the analysis of
complex harmonic music such as that shown in the Fischer example. For instance,
no traditional method in jazz analysis can lead to the identification of the minor
third relationships during the first eight bars of Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du
liegst mir im Herzen’.
However, the harmonic analyses in Chapter 4 of this dissertation aim to identify

more fundamental aspects in Fischer’s music in order to explain his idiosyncratic
harmonic elaborations as outlined so far in this study. Chapters 2.7. to 2.9 will
outline the analytical tools that have been specifically developed for this study by
considering issues arising from the discussion above, Fischer’s own perception and
observations regarding harmonic analysis and its nomenclature.117 The following
section discusses the role of and the problems involved with transcriptions of jazz
performances as the basis for harmonic analyses in jazz.
116
Burnett and Nitzberg, Composition, 22-24.
117
Fischer’s own observations are discussed in Chapter 2.8.
81
2.7 Notes on Musical Transcriptions in Jazz
The art of transcription has become one of the most common and useful tools in
jazz analysis and jazz education.118 Several transcriptions by the author as well as by
other transcribers are used in the analytical examinations throughout this
dissertation. The following paragraphs will discuss the notion of transcription as
used in jazz, the problems that are involved with the process of transcribing music
from a recorded performance using the Western standard system of musical
notation, and the indirect critique by the so-called ‘new musicology’ regarding
score-centred analysis.
In jazz parlance, the term ‘transcription’ is usually used to describe the musical
notation of a recorded improvised performance. The standard system of Western
musical notation permits the visualization of certain parameters of a recorded
performance, including instrumentation and musical form, to a high degree of
accuracy. Other parameters, such as melodic and harmonic values, overall
dynamics, articulations and rhythmic subdivisions can be approximated to a
relatively high degree. The degree depends on the complexity of the music, the
quality of the recording and playback equipment, and the listening competency of
the transcriber.
Usually, a transcription that meets high standards in terms of these parameters can
be used for insightful musical analysis of the recorded performance. However, the
differing sensibility of various transcribers towards different aspects in the music
can lead to a variety of transcriptions of the same recorded performance, even if
transcribed by means of the same playback equipment. Paul Berliner addressed
these issues in the introduction to section V of his book Thinking in Jazz: The
Infinite Art of Improvisation: ‘Details that some players hear in the music simply
elude other players’.119
118
Jazz pianist and educator Bob Hinz describes the benefits of transcriptions as educational
tools in the following article: Hinz, ‘Transcribing for Greater Musicality’, Music Educators
Journal 82/1 (1995), 25.
119
Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 508-511.
82
Despite the problem of selective listening in the process of transcribing, the system
of standard Western music notation itself is not capable of capturing all facets of a
recorded performance. Some musical parameters, such as dynamic level, rhythm,
articulation and, to some extent, intonation and pitch designation appear as
indefinite entities, which cannot be accurately described by the Western standard
notation system at all. These indefinite dynamic parameters appear within a range
from the smallest or softest to the highest or loudest degree. The accurate
visualization of the full range of dynamics of a recorded performance is impossible
using the common symbols of the system of standard Western music notation such
as pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff and so on. These symbols can only offer approximate values of
the full dynamic range that is experienced by listening to the recording.
But even the endeavour for an accurate visual replication of dynamics utilizing the
aforementioned symbols will result in an unreadable document: For instance, if each
note within a single chord is played with a slightly different volume, it has to be
assigned with a symbol for dynamics. It is easy to imagine the difficulty of any
reader making sense of a notated piece of music that contains symbols for dynamics
and articulations for each of the notes, not to mention the complexity that arises
from the use of common rhythmic subdivisions much smaller than sixteenth notes in
attempting to show all notes that fall slightly before or after the beat as well as slight
shifts in tempo.120
A recorded performance transcription intended for musical analysis can only

compromise between the accuracy regarding the visualization of a recorded sonic
reality and the pragmatic decisions needed for the analysis of certain musical
phenomena.121 The most common indefinite parameters that occur in recorded
performances of tonal jazz and the most commonly used solutions for pragmatic
120
Despite the extreme difficulties imposed on the performers, certain Wesern art music
composers in the mid-twentieth century such as Anton Webern and Pierre Boulez have
assigned dynamics to each note in some of their pieces. However the concept of serialism in
music represents a specific artistic attitude which differs fundamentally from the analytical
aims of a transcription of a jazz performance, as described in this section.
121
As Berliner states in his book Thinking in Jazz, ‘the painstaking process of transcription
provides interpretative pictures of improvisers’ thought’. See Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 11.
As it is one of the primary goals of this dissertation to analyse Fischer’s harmonic approach
in a contextualized setting, transcriptions will be considered as an effective tool throughout
the dissertation, particularly in Chapter 4.
83
harmonic and voice-leading analyses in jazz are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
2.7.1 Indefinite Parameters in Jazz and their Treatment in Transcriptions
Micro-rhythmic values that reflect the notion of ‘swing’ or ‘jazz-feeling’ occur

throughout the tonal jazz oeuvre.122 Most transcribers neglect the exact notation of
the triplet ‘feel’ inherent in recordings of tonal jazz and choose a straight notation
using eighth or sixteenth notes.123 Tempo changes that occur during reflective solo
piano renderings of ballads are also neglected at times in order to maintain the
visual representation of the overall form of the piece. Drastic tempo alterations such
as the change from a rubato passage to a section with a steady beat, or passages that
are stretched or sustained in comparison to the average tempo of the performance,
are usually indicated by an annotation or may be marked by signs such as a fermata,
or by an expression mark (ritardandi, accelerandi). All of these methods are also
used in common practice Western music. Indications of general issues of volume
and dynamic changes are usually reduced to the most dramatic effects or left out
completely in order to avoid visual distraction from melodic, harmonic and
rhythmic content and their analysis. For the same reasons, the marking of
articulations is equally often minimized or even omitted entirely.
In addition, unstable intonation and microtonal pitch shifting of certain instruments

may cause difficulties for accurate transcriptions. In tonal jazz, the system of equal
temperament is a point of reference for the performances of many singers and
players of all instruments other than those with fixed tunings such as keyboards.
Alterations of pitch by means of slides and falls, and microtonal pitches such as
blue notes, are common features of much tonal jazz music. Pitches that are not
perfectly in tune with the well-tempered tuning system, which includes blue notes
as well as intended or unintended flattened or sharpened notes, are usually
approximated within the well-tempered system. Little arrows above the notes may
indicate the flatness or sharpness of these notes. Other appropriate signs which are
122
For a detailed discussion of these terms, see Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 244-247.
123
Often, the jazz feel is indicated by annotations, such as ‘even, but loose 8th’. See Fischer,
Alone Together, 6.
84
used in both jazz composition and arranging can also be used to indicate slides and
falls.
The same problem of precise pitch designation that affects melodic analysis does, of
course, also affect harmonic analysis, when two or more lines are used
simultaneously in a performance of tonal jazz. For instance, the tuning issues of the
second trumpet in a big band recording may cause problems to the transcriber when
notating precise harmonic motion. In order to transcribe harmonies in tonal jazz that
are created by polyphonic sonorities of two or more independent lines, played by
two or more musicians, the same procedure of approximation that was discussed for
the transcription of melodic lines is applicable here. However, significant as the
issue of dynamic intonation in melodies and polyphonic harmonies undoubtedly is,
it will not cause any problems in the present study, as all musical transcriptions
discussed in this study originate in piano performances.
Transcriptions of piano performances raise other problems. They require a high

listening competence and a sound knowledge of pianistic techniques. In comparison
with single voice instruments, such as trumpets or saxophones, the piano allows
homophonic sonorities that are not always easily identifiable. Usually the highest
and the lowest pitches can be recognized without great difficulty, but the
identification of middle voices can be more problematic. The reason for this is that
most improvising jazz pianists tend to play the middle voices lower in volume than
the highest and the lowest pitch of a vertical sonority. A good knowledge of voice-
leading techniques allows the transcriber to follow and identify the development or
resolutions of all voices. However the occurrence of note doublings, register
transfers, unconventional voice-leading and very soft tones within a cluster of
louder tones may cause difficulties for even an experienced transcriber.
The acoustic properties of the instrument also add some difficulty to the process of
transcribing piano performances. Especially evident in solo piano recordings are the
overtones of lower notes, mostly the bass notes, which are usually played louder
than the middle voices. The overtones, in particular the first and second overtones
(the octave and twelfth) are very prominent within the sonic spectrum and
sometimes can hardly be distinguished from notes that are actually played. Another
85
issue that may create problems is the use of the pedals in piano performances. If a
pianist holds down the right (sustain) pedal after a chord change, it can become
unclear which tones are repeated and which tones are sustained from the previous
chord. When a chord is played while the pedal is down, even more overtones are
audible, as the pedal completely releases the damper that prevents other strings from
resonating when a single note is played. The combination of the rich sonority of
overtones resonating on various strings with the notes actually being played may
result in a jumbled sound that can easily distract the transcriber.
The problem of transcribing the musical parameters of a recorded performance by

means of the Western system of musical notation, as described throughout the
previous paragraphs, refers only to general aspects of the performance that are able
to be notated such as rhythm, harmony and melody. All other acoustic properties of
recorded musical performances such as the tone quality or timbre of the specific
instruments that were used for the recording, as well as the personal touch and tone
of the performers, cannot be captured adequately by the Western system of musical
notation.
2.7.2 Criticism Regarding Score-centred Analysis
A transcription of a recorded performance represents a textual reduction, which

excludes the contextual elements of a performance. Recent jazz studies by Ingrid
Monson have successfully shown how the extension of a transcription analysis by a
discussion of contextual issues can provide particular insight into various
performance aspects which cannot be shown by the transcription alone, such as
group interaction.124
Monson’s contextual analytical approach is rooted in the critique of so-called ‘new

musicologists’, such as Richard Middleton and Raymond Monelle. The ‘new
musicology’ has appeared as a reaction to the ideologies and limitations of the
‘mainstream musicology’ of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and it has
pointed out the importance of signification towards a meaningful examination of
124
For instance, compare Monson’s analysis of a recording of ‘Bass-ment Blues’ by the Jaki
Byard Quartet. Monson, Saying Something, 137-177.
86
music. Middleton comments that conventional musicological methods ‘tend to
foreground those musical parameters which can be easily notated’.125
According to Middleton, these conventional procedures derive from a ‘notation-

centric training’, which ‘induces particular forms of listening, and these then tend to
be applied to all sorts of music, appropriately or not’.126 Middleton’s critique is
directed towards the use of those conventional methods for the study of popular
music, although they were originally developed for the analysis of the classical
music repertoire, which differs fundamentally from the repertoire of popular music
forms including jazz.
Middleton also notes the ‘tendency to encourage reification: the score comes to be
seen as the music, or perhaps the music in an ideal form’.127 This tendency might not
be such a problem in jazz analysis or jazz education where transcriptions of
recorded performances play an important role. Most jazz educators and analysts
seem to be aware that a transcription can only serve as a sketch of certain rhythmic,
harmonic and melodic elements of a performance. These can then be studied in
detail in conjunction with the other nuances that are captured on the recording. For
instance, Bill Dobbins states in the foreword to his publication of transcriptions of
Fischer’s music, that ‘… the recordings themselves provide the clearest
reference.’128 In that sense, Middleton’s statement that ‘clearly the application of
notation-centric methods to popular music may be problematic’,129 also refers to the
analysis of jazz transcriptions as well.
Similarly, and perhaps polemically, Raymond Monelle notes that ‘like some
conductors, many analysts are unable to get their heads out of the score’, which
points out another critique regarding the analytical approach of conventional score-
centred analysis.130 Monelle observes signification that is latent in music, and argues
that we need to develop a theory of signification in order to gain insight into what
he calls the ‘sense’ of music. His statements are intended mainly for the analysis of
125
Middleton, Popular Music, 104.
126
Ibid., 105.
127
Ibid.
128
Fischer, Alone Together, 6.
129
Middleton, Popular Music, 106.
130
Monelle, Sense of Music, 10.
87
notated music, but the same issues regarding the revelation of sense through musical
analysis are applicable to recorded performances and their notated transcriptions.
Consequently, the transcribed examples of recorded jazz performances analysed in

this study are situated within a contextualized analysis of Fischer’s harmony. As
such, the analyses focus on differing aspects of Fischer’s harmony and, in doing so,
provide a bigger picture of various aspects of Fischer’s harmony for the first time in
an academic study.
88
2.8 Nomenclature for Chord Symbolization
The nomenclature used in this study takes into account Fischer’s personal viewpoint
concerning chord symbolization and is based on the nomenclature developed in a
previous study of Fischer’s music by the current author.131 Fischer’s personal
analytical approach reflects a specific aspect of his socio-cultural context.
Furthermore, he has expressed strong arguments regarding his personal usage of
chord symbolization. In relation to the aim of this thesis concerning the contextual
analysis of Fischer’s music, his viewpoint was carefully considered when
developing the contextually based, analytical methodology.
The nomenclature discussed in this section differs from the chord symbols
commonly used in jazz by its descriptive, rather than prescriptive, purpose.
Typically, chord symbols in jazz represent a rough harmonic guideline for the
improvising musician. This prescriptive nomenclature presents the basic
information regarding the chord/scale relationships of the jazz repertoire to the
musician. However, in terms of the accurate analytical description of vertical
structures found in transcriptions, this prescriptive nomenclature is too simplified.
This section will point out the general discrepancies regarding chord symbolization
and chord-scale theory in tonal jazz, and it will analyse Fischer’s preferences
regarding chord symbolization. On this basis, under consideration of the capabilities
of the notation software ‘Sibelius 4’, Chapter 2.7.4 develops a specialized
nomenclature for analytical use in this thesis. The method may also be used for
other analytical studies of music in general and jazz music in particular.
2.8.1 Discrepancies in Chord Symbolization and Chord-Scale Theory
The practices of improvisation and jazz composition, and the diverse analytical
methods of jazz theory, involve a specialized nomenclature for chord symbolization
131
Michael Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’. This study has shown that Fischer’s complex
linear harmony can be understood through a combinatory analytical method, which reveals
a number of fresh aspects of the interrelation of vertical and horizontal structures in
Fischer’s composition ‘In Memoriam’. Based on the analytical experience through this
close reading of ‘In Memoriam’, the nomenclature has been developed further for its
analytical use on the music selected for analysis in the present dissertation.
89
in a variety of forms. Despite, or maybe due to the wealth of publications in the
field of jazz pedagogy, jazz theory and jazz analysis and, undoubtedly, due to the
oral tradition in jazz, there is no standardized nomenclature for chord symbolization
in jazz.
For instance, a C major seventh chord is symbolized in several ways, such as Cmaj7,
CΔ, CM7, Cma7 and CΔ7. These inconsistencies can led to misinterpretations,
especially in handwritten scores and music fonts in notation software that imitate
handwritten styles. For instance, in a handwritten style, the capital M may appear
very similar to a lower case m; a C minor seventh chord (Cm7) can easily be
misinterpreted as a C major seventh chord (CM7) and vice versa.132
Other problems derive from the various uses of the symbols minus (–) and plus (+).
These symbols are sometimes used to signify raised, or lowered scale degrees such
as in a C7-9 chord. Here, the minus (–) in front of the ninth (9) denotes a ninth
lowered by a half step. Consequently, the minus in front of a seventh in a symbol
commonly used for a C minor seventh chord (C-7) could be interpreted as denoting a
lowered seventh. However, in this case the minus (–) often represents a minor third,
whereas the symbol (7) refers to a lowered seventh without any need of the minus
symbol.
However, it is not only the inconsistencies of the nomenclature, but also the
interpretative freedom of jazz improvisers and composers that challenges the
analytical potential of common chord symbols. It needs to be considered here that
chord symbols were initially developed as a rough guideline for the jazz musician’s
choice of chord arpeggios and scales in the process of improvisation, whereas jazz
theory and analysis aim for a more consistent perspective of the correlation of scales
and chords in jazz. The prescriptive character of the typical chord symbolization in
jazz implies basic chord/scale relationships; these can be interpreted freely,
according to the improviser’s personal taste and conventions.
132
The font ‘Inkpen2 Script’, which was used in this example is also implemented in the
music notation software Sibelius. Indeed, the symbols in this font may easily confuse
musicians in the course of improvising.
90
In extreme cases, the improvisatory freedom taken by pianists can lead to vertical
structures that challenge the descriptive capabilities and theoretical consistency of
common chord symbols in fundamental ways. For instance, the vertical structure in
the second bar of Fischer’s improvised interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im
Herzen’ cannot be explained and illustrated using conventional chord-scale theory.
Example 2.23 shows clearly that, although the lower structure represents a C7+9-13
chord, the inclusion of the top note B natural defies any conventional scale, such as
the altered scale, which is commonly associated with this chord symbol.
Example 2.23: Bar 2 in Fischer’s improvised interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst

mir im Herzen’
2.8.2 Fischer’s Particularities concerning Chord Symbolization
The investigation of Fischer’s personal letters to his music publishers reveal several
interesting issues regarding his harmonic particularities and his personal use of
chord symbolization. The following subsection presents two examples of Fischer’s
disputes with publishing companies over the appropriate use of chord
symbolization.
The first example refers to an excerpt from Fischer’s letter to Chuck Sher, the head
of Sher Music, a leading publishing company in the field of jazz. Fischer expresses
a strong dislike concerning possible alterations to his music and chord notation,
obviously suggested by the company:
91
The chord symbols I use are not “mine”, but the system that existed prior
to today’s usage. I object and do not give you permission to use your
symbols on my music … Again, I emphatically say, use my music as it is
written or do not use it at all.133
The company did not follow the composer’s request. However, with the help of
legal advice, Fischer prevented the company from publishing his music in any form
that differed from his original scores.
Prior to this incident, Sher Music had already published Fischer’s compositions
‘Morning’ and ‘Pensativa’ in The World’s Greatest Fake Book in 1983, and
‘Gaviota’ in The New Real Book Vol. 1 in 1988.134 The published versions of these
three compositions do not use Fischer’s preferred nomenclature for chord
symbolization, and the compositions ‘Morning’ and ‘Pensativa’ also contain several
differences regarding the actual chord progressions. By comparison, Fischer has
approved the subsequent publication of the same pieces using his method of chord
symbolization in The Music of Clare Fischer Vol. 1 by the music publishers
Advance Music.135
By the year 2000, Fischer had established a successful collaboration with Advance
Music which led to the publication of a series of his compositions including some
for various ensembles such as string orchestra, clarinet choir and saxophone
quartet.136 However, during the early stages of this collaboration, Fischer
experienced similar problems to those with Sher Music. In 1994, Fischer wrote to
Hans Gruber, the founder of Advance Music, regarding alterations to his scores that
had been proposed by the music copyist of the company:
133
Personal letter written by Fischer and addressed to Chuck Sher, Sher Music Co., P.O.
Box 445, Petaluma, CA 94953 on 5 September 1996. The excerpt is used with the kind
permission of Clare and Donna Fischer.
134
Chuck Sher, ed. The World’s Greatest Fake Book (San Francisco: Sher Music, 1983).
Chuck Sher, ed. The New Real Book (Petaluma: Sher Music, 1988).
135
Clare Fischer, ed. Bill Dobbins, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol. 1 (Germany: Advance
Music, 2000).
136
A complete list of Fischer scores published by Advance Music is available on the
company website www.advancemusic.com (accessed 10.09.2008).
92
One of the constant labors in all of this work has been dealing with
copyists who, instead of copying what they see, spend much time
“correcting” what they perceive to be “errors” - but in fact, they are
rewriting my music, including nomenclature for chord symbols. This I can
not accept! If Advance Music will publish my music as it has been written,
we will have a productive future together.137
Here, Fischer is referring to the complexity and unorthodoxy of his music which has
misled the copyist to perceive certain notes in his score as errors. He also refers to
the inappropriateness of nomenclature substitution for chord symbols, as proposed
by the publisher.
2.8.3 Fischer’s Observations of Chord Practices and some Theoretical

Discrepancies concerning Altered Dominant Chords and Scales
Such problems with publishing companies and their conventions led Fischer to
write the polemical essay ‘Some Observations of Current Chord Practices’, which is
part of Donna Fischer’s private collection of her husband’s private letters and
essays.138 Here, he heavily criticizes the inconsistency with regard to chord
symbolization and links a critique of educational processes with theoretical issues in
order to explain the logic in his preferred nomenclature for chord symbolization.
Fischer mentions the ‘erroneous’ usage of chord symbolization, which, in his view,
has reached ‘linguistic and musical absurdity’.139 Indeed, the application of flats (b)
and sharps (#) to denote altered scale degrees shows some theoretical
inconsistencies:
Saying C7b9, F7b9, Bb7b9, and Eb7b9 work in that in each case the
lowered ninths are Db, Gb, Cb, and Fb. But at this point (continuing
through the circle of 5ths) ambiguity sets in because on Ab the ninth is
already a Bb. When we lower this ninth we need Bbb. Do we now say
Ab7bb9, Db7bb9, or Gb7bb9? Absolutely no one does. Now let’s go on. B
has C# as it’s natural ninth. Do we flat a sharp to make it natural as in
B7b9?140
137
Personal letter written by Fischer and addressed to Hans Gruber, Advance Music,
Maierackerstrasse 18, D-72108 Rottenburg, Germany on July 20, 1994. The excerpt is used
with the kind permission of Clare and Donna Fischer.
138
Clare Fischer, Some Observations Of Current Chord Practices, private collection of
Donna Fischer, undated.
139
Ibid., 1.
140
Ibid.
93
Fischer suggests the use of minus (–) and plus (+) to denote lowered and raised
degrees within a chord, a practice which originated in the period prior to the big
band era. Referring to that historical scope, Fischer also insists on the use of the
capital M for a Major triad and the small m for minor triad. Fischer also mentions
his preference regarding the depiction of the individual alterations in a chord, as
opposed to the unspecific term Alt. (altered), which commonly refers to the altered
scale and the altered chord which in turn refers to that scale.
Fischer also discusses the confusion regarding the raised fifth and the lowered
thirteenth within a dominant chord that consists of the notes C – E – Bb – Db – Ab.
He criticizes the chord symbol C7b9b13 and argues that the note Ab represents an
enharmonic for G#, the raised fifth. Consequently he prefers the chord symbol C7+5-
9
. According to Fischer’s understanding, only if the chord voicing includes the
perfect fifth (G in the chord based on the note C), would the note Ab represent the
lowered thirteenth. If the perfect fifth is not present, the note Ab may serve as the
enharmonic for G sharp, the raised fifth of the dominant chord based on C.
Most prominent modern publications in jazz negate the concept of +/– for the
denotation of altered scale degrees. However, some well-known publications, such
as Chuck Sher’s The New Real Book series, prefer to show raised or lowered fifths
instead of altered elevenths and thirteenths in their representations of altered
dominant chords. Prominent jazz theory books, on the other hand, such as Mark
Levine’s Das Jazztheorie Buch, Robert Rawlins’s Jazzology and Frank Sikora’s
Neue Jazzharmonielehre, consistently use the symbols ‘Alt’ or ‘alt’.141
In the literature of these authors, there is no consistent theoretical basis regarding

the explanation of the enharmonic spellings of #4/b5/#11 and #5/b6/b13. The
authors provide several differing definitions regarding the relationship between the
‘altered’ chord and the seventh mode of the melodic minor scale, which is
commonly called ‘altered’ scale, ‘superlocrian’ or ‘diminished whole tone’ scale.
Example 2.24 shows all scale degree assignations for the seventh mode in C
141
Levine, Jazztheorie Buch; Rawlins, Jazzology; Sikora, Neue Jazz-Harmonielehre.
94
melodic minor used by the three authors. Interestingly, Sikora provides three and
Rawlins mentions two different versions.
Example 2.24: Scale degree assignation of the seventh mode of the C melodic
minor scale
1 b2 b3 3 b5 #5 b7 Rawlins 1
1 b2 b3 3 #4 b6 b7 Rawlins 2
tonic b9 #9 third #11 b13 seventh Levine
1 b9 #9 3 #11 b13 b7 Sikora 1
1 b2 #2 3 #4 b6 b7 Sikora 2
1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 Sikora 3
These significant differences regarding the definition of the altered scale in

prominent publications of jazz theory denote severe discrepancies in chord scale
theory. In his polemical essay, Fischer also criticizes these discrepancies, which, in
his perception, are due to a faulty education process:
The so called “progressive education” process began in the early fifties with the
educational premise that education should be tailored to the individual rather than
the individual being tailored to a universal goal where we all learned and shared a
uniformity of consistent cultural values.142
Fischer’s polemic continues by implying that the education process, which includes
the publications of jazz theory books, has led to the ‘educational production of
“semi-literates or semi-illiterates” depending on one’s view’.143
2.8.4 Nomenclature for the analytical chord symbolization used in this study
The nomenclature for chord symbolization in this study is based on the pragmatic
approach to common chord scale theory described in Chapter 2.5, as well as on
Fischer’s own method of assigning chord symbols to the vertical structures in his
music. As Fischer has stated that his compositions ‘contain chord voicings that are
unusual and defy nomenclature of standardized chord symbol ... therefore most
142
Fischer, Observations, 1.
143
Ibid.
95
chord symbols are inadequate’, a system for the illustration of these unusual chords
is suggested in this section; this system is based on the results of previous analyses
of the unorthodox vertical structures in Fischer’s music.144 The proposed
nomenclature represents the result of the review of conventional chord-scale theory
in jazz, its theoretic inconsistencies and Fischer’s own preferences and critique.
The resulting nomenclature involves a certain compromise, since the music notation
software Sibelius 4 puts certain limits on the representation of certain symbols.145
These limits refer in part to the inabilities of the software to denote the superscript
version of the capital letter in ‘M7’, as well as to represent a capital letter ‘M’ that
can easily be distinguished form the lower case ‘m’. Both the capital ‘M’, and the
lower case ‘m’ appear with rounded edges in the Sibelius jazz font. As a
consequence, this symbolization cannot be used to denote major (M) or minor
chords (m) with any degree of certainty. As a compromise, major seventh chords,
including minor major seventh chords are symbolized by the symbol ‘ma7’ in the
Sibelius scores, as well as in the text. Minor chords are symbolised by the lower
case ‘m’.
Capital letters denote chord roots, bass notes and major triads, depending on the
context. The capital letter C, for instance, represents the C major triad, as well as the
C chord root of the chord C6/9, for instance. If the bass notes differ from the chord
roots, such as in the case of an inversion, the bass root is shown after a dash. For
instance, Cm7/Bb shows a C minor seventh chord, placed on the bass note Bb. In the
text, a double dash (//) indicates a polychord such as a D minor triad which is
superimposed over a Db minor triad. In the scores, a horizontal line divides the
upper and the lower structure of a polychord. In harmonic analyses using Roman
numerals, the dash indicates either an inverted chord such as I/3 (Tonic triad with
third in the bass), or a functional relation such as subV7/III (subV7 of the chord on
the third scale degree).
144
Personal letter written by Fischer and addressed to Chuck Sher, Sher Music Co., P.O.
Box 445, Petaluma, CA 94953 on 5 September 1996. The excerpt is used by kind
permission of Clare and Donna Fischer. The previous experiences and analyses of Fischer’s
unorthodox vertical structures include preliminary studies, as well as the MMus thesis by
the current author: Michael Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
145
Even after consulting musicians who use the notation software Sibelius professionally, it
was not possible to find a more satisfying solution than the one presented in this chapter.
96
Superscript numbers indicate the inclusion of the scale degrees seventh, ninth,
eleventh and thirteenth, according to the concept of superimposed thirds, with one
exception: the inclusion of the sixth defies the concept of the stacked thirds;
however, it is also represented by the superscript number 6. The common
6/9
combination of sixth and ninth scale degree is shown by the symbol . The first
superscript number after the chord root denotes all chord tones and unaltered
tensions up to the stated number, such as 7, 9, 11, and 13, according to the concept of
stacked thirds. For instance, Cm13 includes the triadic base, as well as the flattened
seventh, the major ninth and the perfect eleventh. If there is a second superscript
number, it indicates an alteration to this scheme. Alterations are listed in a row from
left to right. For instance, C13-9+11 stands for the C dominant thirteenth chord,
including the triadic base, the flattened seventh, with a lowered ninth and raised
eleventh.
Raised or lowered scale degrees are shown by the superscript symbols minus (–),
for lowered by a half step, and plus (+), for raised by a half step. The raised or
lowered fifth of any chord is represented by the symbols minus (–) and plus (+)
themselves, placed after the chord root. C+, for instance stands for an augmented C
7
major triad. The lowered seventh is not signified by a minus, as the number
already represents a lowered seventh. The major seventh is shown by the symbol
‘ma7’, as described earlier.
In the case of extended chords, the symbol ‘add’ denotes the inclusion of one or
more tensions that do not imply the existence of any unaltered lower tension other
than the ones shown in the chord symbol. For instance, C7add13 symbolizes a C
dominant chord with the addition of the unaltered thirteenth. The ninth and eleventh
would not be represented in this chord. Incomplete representations within the lower
structure (roots, thirds) are denoted by the symbol ‘no’, followed by the omitted scale
degree. For instance, the chord Cma7no3 denotes an incomplete C major seventh
chord, without a third. The analysis of fragmentary chords is dependent on the
harmonic context of the composition. For instance, the analytic reference Cma7no3
implies that the context of the composition assumes the appearance of a major chord
97
at this particular place. Furthermore, the addition no may be used to refer to the lack
of any important chord tone.
The omission of the perfect fifth represents a special case in tonal jazz. Jazz
voicings of dominant chords in particular, but also voicings of major seventh and
minor seventh chords frequently lack the inclusion of the perfect fifth. This aspect is
usually not considered by the common chord symbolization in jazz. Commonly, the
notes F – A – Eb represent the same chord symbol F7 as the full four-part chord F –
A – C – Eb. Although the nomenclature developed for this study aims for analytical
accuracy, the frequency of the omitted fifth in tonal jazz in general and the relative
insignificance of the fifth in the functional context accounts for a revised strategy in
order to avoid overloaded chord symbols that overshadow more important analytical
aspects. Consequently, three-part chords, consisting of root, third and seventh
account for the common chord symbols of tonal jazz in this study. The missing
fifths in major, minor/major and dominant chords are not symbolized in this study.
Considering the two-layer approach in jazz voicings, as described in Chapter 2.5,

and considering the concept of stacked thirds, raised fourths, raised fifths and
flattened sixths will be analysed as raised elevenths or flattened thirteenths if they
appear in the colour layer above the guide tones. If these notes appear within or in
close proximity to the structural layer, they will be assigned as raised fourths or
raised fifths.
Exceptions include flattened sixths in diatonic minor seventh chords on the sixth
and third scale degrees (VIm7, IIIm7). According to chord/scale theory, these chords
represent Aeolian and Phrygian scales respectively, which contain flattened sixths.
Other exceptions may appear whenever Fischer employs his salient technique of
placing tensions and alterations within the structural layer.146 A prominent example
appears in bar fourteen of his solo piano interpretation of the folk tune ‘Du, Du
liegst mir im Herzen’.147
146
Harald Neuwirth has referred to this technique as Fischer’s concept of ‘wrong voicings’
in informal conversations. Barbara Bleij has also acknowledged irregularities of Fischer’s
vertical organization in comparison to the conventions of jazz theory. Compare Barbara
Bleij, ‘On Harmony and Meaning in Clare Fischer’s Music’, Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie
9/3 (2004), 210-216.
147
See Chapter 4.6.2 for a detailed analysis of this chord.
98
2.8.5 Analytical chord symbolization - Tables
The following examples show the basic triadic chord types. As described above,
add
additional tensions and alterations are shown after the symbol , uncommon
omissions of chord tones other than the frequently omitted perfect fifth are shown
after the symbol no and notes identified as second layer tensions (such as 9, 11 and 13)
are shown with their alterations (such as -9, +9, +11
and -13
). The basic triadic chord
types are shown in Example 2.25:
Example 2.25: Triads based on the root C
C capital letter denotes the root of a chord, as well as a major triad

Cm minor triad
C+ augmented triad
C0 diminished triad
Csus triad with suspended fourth
The conventional four-part chords in major and minor are illustrated in Example
2.26. Although Fischer prefers to symbolize the augmented triad base within four-
and more-part chords as +5, this nomenclature uses the triadic basis + in order to
represent raised fifths in all three- and more-part chords.
Example 2.26: Full representations of conventional four-part chords
Cma7 major seventh chord

C6 major sixth chord
Cmma7 minor major seventh chord
Cm6 minor sixth chord
Cm7 minor seventh chord
Cm7-5 minor seventh flattened fifth chord
C7 dominant chord
C+7 augmented dominant chord
C7-5 dominant flattened fifth chord
Cdim7 diminished seventh chord
Csus7 dominant chord with suspended fourth
99
A selection of the most used conventional five-part chords is shown in Example
2.27:
Example 2.27: Representations of conventional five-part chords
Cma9 major ninth chord

Cmma9 minor major ninth chord
C6/9 major sixth/ninth chord
Cm6/9 minor sixth/ninth chord
Cm9 minor ninth chord
Cm9-5 minor ninth flattened fifth chord
C9 dominant ninth chord
C+9 augmented dominant ninth chord
C9-5 dominant ninth flattened fifth chord
C7-9 dominant flattened ninth chord
C+7-9 augmented dominant flattened ninth chord
C7-5-9 dominant flattened fifth flattened ninth chord
C7+9 dominant raised ninth chord
C+7+9 augmented dominant raised ninth chord
C7-5+9 dominant flattened fifth raised ninth chord
Csus9 dominant ninth chord with suspended fourth
Csus-9 dominant flattened ninth chord with suspended fourth
Conventional six-part chords are shown in example 2.28:
100
Example 2.28: Representations of conventional six-part chords
Cma9+11 major ninth raised eleventh chord

C6/9+11 major sixth/ninth raised eleventh chord
Cmma11 minor major eleventh chord
Cm6/911 minor sixth/ninth eleventh chord
Cm11 minor eleventh chord
Cm11-5 minor eleventh flattened fifth chord
C11 dominant eleventh chord
C9+11 dominant ninth raised eleventh chord
C+9+11 augmented dominant ninth raised eleventh chord
C7-9+11 dominant minus ninth raised eleventh chord
C+7-9+11 augmented dominant flattened ninth raised eleventh chord
C7+9+11 dominant raised ninth raised eleventh chord
C+7+9+11 augmented dominant raised ninth raised eleventh chord
Csus11 dominant eleventh chord with suspended fourth
Csus11-9 dominant eleventh flattened ninth chord with suspended fourth
Example 2.29 illustrates selected seven-part chords:
Example 2.29: Representations of conventional seven-part chords
Cma13+11 major thirteenth raised eleventh

Cmma13 minor major thirteenth
Cm13 minor thirteenth
C13 dominant thirteenth
C11-13 dominant eleventh minus thirteenth
C13-9 dominant thirteenth flattened ninth
C7-9-13 dominant seventh flattened ninth minus thirteenth
C13+9 dominant thirteenth raised ninth
C11+9-13 dominant eleventh raised ninth
C13-9+11 dominant thirteenth flattened ninth raised eleventh
C7-9+11-13 dominant seventh flattened ninth raised eleventh flattened thirteenth
C13+9+11 dominant thirteenth raised ninth raised eleventh
C7+9+11+13 dominant seventh raised ninth raised eleventh raised thirteenth
Csus13 dominant thirteenth with suspended fourth
Csus13-9 dominant thirteenth flattened ninth with suspended fourth
101
Diminished chords can appear as four-part chords, or with the inclusion of one or
more tensions, based upon the material of the symmetrical whole step – half step
scale, as shown in Example 2.30.
Example 2.30: Diminished chords
The analytical nomenclature for chord symbolization presented in this section has
been discussed in relation to conventional jazz theory and it has been developed
from Fischer’s personal observations of chord practice in jazz. It is used as the
predominant tool for the vertical examination in the large comparative analyses in
Chapter 4. Additionally, specific voice-leading graphs illustrate the linear processes
in these analyses. These graphs are discussed in the following sub-chapter.
102
2.9 The Voice-Leading Graph: Technical Notes and Method
As discussed in Chapter 2.7, transcriptions of recorded performances of tonal jazz

represent a reduced visualization of the musical events within the recording. Voice-
leading reductive graphs function as further reductions and are used as simplified
maps that aim to bring voice-leading principles and harmonic relationships of a
musical passage to the surface. In the transcriptions, these principles are sometimes
covered or fragmented by complex textures or melodic embellishments.
Voice-leading graphs show no time signature. The same subdivisions as are used in
the transcriptions are also shown in the voice-leading reductions. However, these
reductions attempt to visualize the harmonic motion rather than an accurate
rhythmic representation of the music. As a matter of consequence, the bars in the
voice-leading graphs may include irregular numbers of metric subdivisions,
according to the complexity of the harmonic motion in the music. The graphs use
predominantly whole notes, half notes and quarter notes for the notation of vertical
structures. Eighth notes are used occasionally, whenever one or more structural
voice-leading events take place within the duration of a quarter note of the
transcription.
Notes without stems illustrate rhythmically independent voices, or parts thereof,

which fulfill a specific role in the voice leading, such as passing tones, anticipations
or destinations of structural voices. These independent voices may be examined as
ornamental lines and their impact on the discussion of vertical sonorities depends on
the duration of each note and on its rhythmic placement.
Doublings of any notes in a higher register are usually avoided. If they are
necessary for the voice leading discussion, or if they indicate the melody line, these
notes are given in brackets. In the voice-leading graph, these notes in brackets may
serve as destinations or passing tones within a higher structural line, if their lower
representations are sustained from a previous beat.
The graphs usually attempt to show pitch classes in the same register as in the actual
music. Accidentals are valid for the duration of the bar and register in which they
103
appear. Additional bass notes, played by the double bass in version two of Evans’s
‘Danny Boy’, are added in the voice-leading graph. A small notehead in brackets
indicates a prominent overtone, which may serve as the source or destination of a
voice. Voices that end within the musical texture, and voices which emerge either as
prominent overtones, or without any preparation, are indicated by a crossed
notehead.
The following table describes the different beams and ties used in the voice-leading
graphs to show the various voice-leading events.
Table 2.8: Legend of voice-leading beams and ties
Sustained voices may appear in the same register or be registrally transferred. The
technique of ‘chromatic voice leading’ includes at least one non-diatonic note.
Chromatic voice leading within the diatonic scale, such as the leading tone
progressions b’ – c’’ and e’ – f’ in the key of C major, is referred to as ‘diatonic
voice leading’. This guideline is in accordance with the analysis of Fischer’s
interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, which takes place within the G
major tonality, although no key signature is given in Dobbins’s transcription.148
Non-chromatic, non-diatonic voice leading usually refers to step-wise motion,

which includes one or more non-diatonic tones. Bass progressions by descending
fifths (or ascending fourths) are not illustrated by any ties or beams. Beams are
usually shown in a straight line; however, twisted beams are employed on occasion
148
In a similar approach to the one employed in this study, Dobbins notates his
transcriptions of Fischer’s solo piano performances without any key signatures. According
to Fischer’s own preference this method appears more pragmatic than the conventional
approach of using key signatures, since Fischer’s music comprises a high degree of
chromaticism. Compare Chapter 3.2.6.
104
in order to avoid the crossing of noteheads which are not involved in the particular
voice-leading event. A twisted beam in the case of a chromatic voice-leading
progression appears thicker than the twisted beam which indicates a leap.
The analytical tools discussed in Chapter 2 are applied in the following analytical
Chapters 3 and 4. The analytical method derived from the combination of
conventional jazz theory and Fischer’s conceptual particularities examines harmonic
relationships in selected musical examples in Chapter 4. The following Chapter 3
presents a comprehensive discussion of contextual perspectives in close relation to
Fischer’s music in general and his harmonic approach in particular, which is
represented by the examined musical examples in Chapter 4.
105
CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES
3.1. Fischer’s Status in the Jazz Community

and a Stylistic Categorization
3.1.1 The Jazz Canon and Fischer’s Under-Representation
It is the aim of this chapter to discuss the forces within the jazz canon and to
examine Fischer’s status. This includes aspects of his influence and recognition, his
musical development, a comparison of his personality and musical oeuvre with
Duke Ellington, and a stylistic categorization of his work. All these aspects are
situated within the context of the jazz community.
The jazz community largely comprises three groups of people. The first group is
formed by the creators of the music, the composers and musicians, while the second
group consists of their audience and the third group is comprised of jazz promoters,
booking managers, jazz critics, historians and journalists. The forces between these
three groups contribute to the formation of the hierarchical system of status and
influence within the jazz community.
Fischer’s music is clearly underrepresented within the jazz community. He shares

this status with other exceptionally talented and original musicians such as pianists
Phineas Newborn Jr., John Lewis, Herbie Nichols and Jimmy Rowles, who have not
reached the status of key personalities in jazz histories, as opposed to their widely
known peers such as Bill Evans, Oscar Peterson and Thelonious Monk.
The reasons for this are many and include, among numerous other factors, certain
economic mechanisms in relation to record sales, social skills such as
106
communication and integration, and the individual artist’s potential for an
audience’s identification with his/her approach.1
Other aspects regarding the formation of the jazz canon comprise the diverse and
influential relationships between the musicians themselves and their approaches.
The complex hierarchies and interdependencies between the different musicians can
hardly be represented to their full extent by the simplified categorizations into
streams, styles and key personalities. Recent studies have attempted to examine
these complex relationships; one such is the examination of pianist Lennie
Tristano’s musical approach by Eunmi Shin.2
Furthermore, the influential musicians have not always been the sole originators of
new ideas that are credited, or at least linked, to them. Miles Davis, for instance, is
known for using the innovations of his band members for the creation of an
influential style. Although the innovative group playing and development of a new
sound by his renowned quintet, including Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, Ron
Carter and Tony Williams, was credited to all band members, it was Davis, who, as
the bandleader, received the lion’s share of the accolades as an influential jazz
musician (in comparison with his bassist, Ron Carter, for example). Davis’s
charisma and personality in conjunction with his musicality encouraged the jazz
media, including jazz historians, to participate in his promotion to a high rank as an
influential and innovative musician commanding a large audience.
Fischer’s status within the jazz community is ambiguous. He is widely unknown

among all three groups within the jazz scene, and yet he has achieved a high
reputation through his compositions, arrangements and recordings for small groups
within the jazz community. Certainly, Fischer does not belong to the canon of the
1
Of course, there is an analogy between artistic influence and acceptance as a key figure
within the jazz canon. Arguably, most jazz pianists would state Evans, Peterson or Monk as
their main influences rather than Newborn, Lewis, Nichols or Rowles. However, the
influence of the former group on other musicians has gone, to a large extent, hand in hand
with the number of distributed records, the amount and quality of promotional material and
frequency of their public appearances. Consequently, there is also an analogy between
publicity and profile, and acceptance as a key figure within the jazz canon. Clearly, Evans’s
music has been much better advertised than Rowles’s music, for example.
2
Eunmi Shin, Lennie Tristano: His Life in Music (Michigan: University of Michigan Press,
2007).
107
most recognized and influential jazz musicians and yet, Bill Dobbins, a well-known
jazz educator and pianist, has referred to him as ‘the best kept secret around’. 3
3.1.2 ‘The Best Kept Secret Around’: Fischer’s Influence and Recognition
The following statement by Herbie Hancock illustrates Dobbins’s perception of

Fischer as ‘the best kept secret around’. Hancock, one of the best known, living jazz
pianists, acknowledges Fischer as a major influence upon his harmonic conception,
particularly in relation to one of his most harmonically advanced and influential
albums, Speak Like a Child.4 Both pianist Hancock and this particular album have
achieved major status in the jazz canon, and yet Fischer’s relevance to this artistic
growth, not to mention his personality, is unrepresented in this context.
... by the time I actually heard the Hi-Lo's, I started picking that stuff out;
my ear was happening. I could hear stuff and that's when I really learned
some much farther-out voicings – like the harmonies I used on 'Speak Like
A Child' – just being able to do that. I really got that from Clare Fischer's
arrangements for the Hi-Lo's. Clare Fischer was a major influence on my
harmonic concept ... He and Bill Evans, and Ravel and Gil Evans, finally
… Almost all of the harmony that I play can be traced to one of those four
people and whoever their influences were.5
Furthermore, Hancock had reportedly studied Fischer’s score for the symphonic
accompaniment of Donald Byrd’s record September Afternoon.6 Besides Hancock’s
statement, there are few sources regarding Fischer’s influence.
Nevertheless, Fischer’s music has also received the recognition of a wider public,
especially his music in Latin styles. Two prestigious Grammy Awards account for
the high appreciation of his recordings as a leader: Salsa Picante Plus 2+2 in 1981
3
Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol.1, 11. The origins of Dobbins’s statement are not
clear. In a private letter, addressed to Jerome Kenny in 1999, Fischer refers to the quote as
his own: ‘I jokingly call myself ‘one of the best kept secrets in jazz’’.
4
Herbie Hancock, Speak Like a Child, (Blue Note Records, B000005H44, 1990, orig.
release 1968).
5
Julie Coryell and Laura Friedman, Jazz-Rock Fusion: The People, The Music (Milwaukee:
Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation, 2000)
6
This information is found in a questionnaire completed by Fischer upon request by Jim
Bridges in 2002. Bridges was researching the career and musical contributions of the vocal
group ‘The Hi-Lo’s’. The questionnaire is archived in the private collection of Donna
Fischer and used with permission in this thesis.
108
and Free Fall in 1986.7 He has also won several Grammy awards as a sideman or
arranger, and been nominated on many other occasions. In addition, he has received
several platinum and gold records for his participation as an arranger in the Pop
industry.
The walls in Fischer’s home in Los Angeles are covered with gold and platinum
records, and Grammy nominations and awards. Fischer himself does not seem to be
overly proud of these tangible signs of recognition; rather, he mentioned his ex-wife
as having been more interested in framing and hanging them. Donna, Fischer’s wife
since 1992, stated in a private conversation, that when she moved into Fischer’s
house, many documents of his achievements, including unclaimed cheques, were
hidden below stacks of scores and unopened letters.
Hancock’s statement and the two Grammy Awards are unambiguous signs of
Fischer’s influence and recognition. There have also been other honours and
activities in recent years that will most likely contribute towards the increasing
recognition of Fischer’s music and personality in the future:
1. commissions for compositions and arrangements in the concert music

scene by artists such as Richard Stoltzman and in the commercial music
scene by artists such as Prince
2. commercial publications of Fischer’s original compositions,
arrangements and transcriptions
3. new CD productions and re-issues of previous recordings including
world-wide distribution
4. journal articles, academic doctoral and master’s theses
5. clinics held by Fischer himself at universities
6. commercial music conferences and lectures about Fischer’s music at
universities.
Fischer has received an honorary doctorate from Michigan State University (1999).
The music publishing company Advance Music has published two volumes of The
7
Clare Fischer, Salsa Picante Plus 2+2 (Discovery DS 817, 1980); Clare Fischer, Free Fall
(Discovery DSCD-921, 1986).
109
Music of Clare Fischer, containing selected original compositions, edited by pianist
and composer Bill Dobbins.8 According to Fischer’s son Brent, two additional
volumes are currently prepared for publication. The company has also published
solo piano transcriptions that were transcribed by Bill Dobbins.9 The well-known
classical clarinettist Richard Stoltzman has commissioned Fischer for compositions
and arrangements which draw from sources in both classical and jazz music.10
Several commercial music artists such as Prince, Robert Palmer and Natalie Cole
have hired Fischer as the arranger for their commercially successful records.11
Several of Fischer’s original compositions and arrangements for a variety of
instrumentations as well as a book containing harmonic exercises for piano have
been published by Advance Music over recent years. Fischer maintained a close
friendship with Hans Gruber, the owner of the publishing house, who passed away
in 2004.
In recent years, Fischer, his wife Donna and his son Brent have released several new
recordings of Fischer’s original music for clarinet choir, orchestra and solo piano
independently on their own record label.12 They have also started to buy back the
rights for previously released albums in order to re-release those records on their
own behalf. In the meantime, many of Fischer’s re-released productions are
available through the family’s own company and distributed via the internet world-
wide.
Recognition of Fischer’s music and personality is also present in the form of articles
in several prominent jazz and keyboard journals such as Down Beat, Jazz Podium,
8
Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vols 1–2.
9
Fischer, Alone Together, transcribed by Bill Dobbins.
10
In 1983, Stoltzman commissioned Fischer to write the symphonic work The Duke,
Swee’pea and Me. Fischer’s Sonatine for Clarinet and Piano was recorded by Stoltzman
for the album Amber Waves (RCA Victor, 090266268528, 1996) and Fischer arranged and
played on Stoltzman’s album Danza Latina (RCA Victor, 0902663281-2, 1998).
11
See Chapters 3.4.1 – 3.4.4 for a discussion of Fischer’s work with commercial music
artists.
12
In September 2006, while the author of this study was staying at Fischer’s house in Los
Angeles, the family prepared for a recording session with a large orchestra that included
one arrangement for Prince as well as one of Fischer’s compositions for orchestra and
saxophone that was composed in the mid-nineteen fifties.
110
Keyboard Magazine and Contemporary Keyboard.13 Academic investigations have
focused on Fischer’s music, and three doctoral studies (including the current text)
and one Master’s thesis on the subject have been written at the current time.14
Fischer has been invited to hold clinics at many universities and jazz schools and to
speak about his music at conferences and music workshops. Through his
participation in the commercial music scene, he has also extended his recognition
beyond the jazz community. This area is covered separately in Chapter 3.4.1 to
3.4.4. The recognition in the field of popular music is not only represented by
awards and other honours, but also by invitations to speak about his work at
institutions such as the Red Bull Academy.15
3.1.3 Fischer’s Musical Education and Early Development
Fischer’s influence and recognition is rooted in his early education and development
as a jazz improviser and composer. Particularly relevant to his musical education is
the interrelation of his formal classical education and the informal ‘street-training’
among jazz musicians.
Fischer was born in 1928 in Durand in the US state Michigan and raised in a
musical family. His father participated actively as a performer and arranger for
barbershop quartets and he sang German folks songs that expressed his cultural
heritage. While Clare admired his father, according to his current wife Donna, a
former school colleague, he grew up without seeing his father much, as he was a
travelling salesman.16 The musical experiences in his family raised Fischer’s
awareness of harmony, fostered an interest in experimenting musically and brought
to his attention a specific repertoire that consisted of popular songs from America
13
See the bibliography for a list of articles regarding Fischer.
14
Zegree, ‘A Comparative and Analytical Study’; Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’; Kahr,
‘Aspects of Harmony’.
15
Fischer was a lecturer at the Red Bull Music Academy 2005 in Seattle. This event is
sponsored by Red Bull, the producer of a very popular energy drink, and it focuses on DJ
culture and music production.
16
The emotional impact of these early childhood experiences of longing and loss and their
effect onto Fischer’s music is discussed in more detail in Chapters 3.5.1 to 3.5.8.
111
and Germany. Fischer recently expressed his memories regarding his early
development as a musician in his family:
My father was a barbershop quartet singer. And when he sat down at the
piano … that’s what came up: These types of harmonic structures. And I
heard that and, so, I witnessed my father composing … My mother started
me with piano lessons somewhere around ten or eleven years old … So the
thing of a composer just seems to come naturally. I just sat down at the
keyboard and whatever notes I played they meant something and so I
composed.17
Throughout his teenage years, Fischer was exposed to classical music as he played
various instruments in the high school band. He considers this experience his first
training in orchestration. While regarding the cello as his principal instrument from
the age of twelve until the early years at the Michigan State University, he also
studied composition and orchestration formally. Fischer mentions his high school
instructor Glenn Litton as an important mentor during the time of his early music
education.
At the age of eighteen Fischer submitted a fully orchestrated composition for solo
cello and string orchestra for his entrance exam to the composition department of
the Michigan State University. In 1999, fifty-two years after its creation, the
composition was recorded as part of the ‘Suite for Cello and String Orchestra’ on
the CD After The Rain, which features Fischer’s compositions for large symphonic
orchestra.18 Throughout his career Fischer has composed several pieces for large
orchestra and for chamber music ensembles; some of these have been
commissioned by arts funding bodies such as the ‘Reader's Digest Meet the
Composer Program’, and others commissioned by individual classical performers
such as clarinettist Richard Stoltzman.
Besides Fischer’s formal education in the field of classical composition, he

developed a rigorous ear training approach that reflected both his interest in
classical music and his passion for improvised music. He transcribed music from
recorded solos by jazz saxophonist Lee Konitz and from recordings of classical
17
Interview with Fischer at his house in Los Angeles on February 28, 2008.
18
Clare Fischer, After The Rain (CFP 012201, 2001).
112
compositions for string quartet by composers such as Stravinsky. I was able to
investigate some of Fischer’s early notebooks during a visit in his house in
September 2006 and I discovered transcriptions of a recording of one of
Stravinsky’s string quartets. Fischer’s son Brent provided further input by
explaining that transcribing classical music from recordings was part of his father’s
demanding ear training regime.
Such ear training is usually found in the education of jazz musicians rather than
classical musicians.19 It requires close and repeated listening to the music of selected
recordings and contributes not only to the development of highly refined general
listening skills but also to the stylistic development of the musician. As a matter of
consequence, several features of Lee Konitz’s linear improvisations can be found in
Fischer’s linear improvisations.
Evidence of Stravinsky’s influence on Fischer can be found in some of his music,

including the composition ‘Igor’. The title implies a reference to Igor Stravinsky
and, as the pianist and composer Bill Dobbins recognizes:
The opening chords of Igor stem, to be precise, from the middle section of
the introduction to part two of Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps (The
Rite of Spring). The humorous second theme is a brilliant combination of a
simple blues-based left hand with a bluesy right-hand melody which is
stated in the keys of D and F simultaneously, a bitonal relationship which
Stravinsky was also fond of.20
In this composition, Fischer transforms a specific element of classical music

(Stravinsky’s chords) into one of his own compositions set in a jazz-related style,
which is symptomatic of much of Fischer’s music. Considering the clear reference
in the title ‘Igor’, Fischer appears rather open, even proud of the origins of the
musical material that he uses.
In the context of the jazz community, Fischer’s multi-stylistic musical approach,

which is evident throughout the body of his work, recalls the music of Ellington in
that it similarly consists of many cross-relations to classical music. At this point it
19
See Chapter 2.7 for a discussion of the method of transcription in jazz.
20
Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol.1, 14.
113
becomes clear that the roots for Fischer’s multi-stylistic approach are to be found in
his early musical practice in both classical music and jazz, which consisted of
formal studies of classical composition, as well as of interdisciplinary ear training.
Other primary aspects concerning the development of Fischer’s approach are to be
found in his early jazz training, which will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
Fischer grew up in the 1930s and 1940s, when there was no formal jazz education
offered at North American music schools or universities. Instead, most of his
knowledge about jazz music and improvisation must have come through oral
transmission by more experienced musicians. For instance, his older brother
Stewart, who is also a musician, had an early impact on Clare’s musical education.
Clare has stated his admiration for his brother’s music on the album Thesaurus,
which features Clare’s arrangements of his brother’s compositions as well as one of
Stewart’s own arrangements.21 Fischer’s professional experience began at the age of
around fourteen in performances in clubs and touring around the United States.22 He
also led his first band at the age of fifteen and provided compositions and
arrangements for his group.23
An important factor during Fischer’s early phase of refining an already firm and
passionately pursued concept of chromatic harmony was his participation in touring
band projects. These were assembled during the holiday period while he was
studying at the Michigan State University in composition and theory between 1947
and his graduation summa cum laude in 1951.
Touring bands had a strong tradition in the USA and they participated significantly
in the entertainment sector from the 1920s through to the 1940s. These so-called
‘territory bands’ worked in clubs, cafes, ballrooms and other venues that provided
live entertainment for the population who lived in the American mid-western
21
Clare Fischer, Thesaurus (Atlantic SD 1520, 1969).
22
In an interview conducted by the author with Clare and Stewart Fischer at Clare Fischer’s
house in Los Angeles on 26.09.2006, Stewart states that his brother started touring at the
age of ‘fourteen and a half’.
23
During the same interview, Clare Fischer tried to remember his first appearance as a band
leader: ‘… how old was I when I played at the Club Seville, fifteen?’
Stewart: ‘Yes, below the age of being legally in there.’
114
territory during that time. A large part of that population was involved in railway
construction. Usually, these bands toured constantly throughout the mid-western
territory of the United States; longer stays in one city were the exception. The
tradition of touring territory bands ended, when the rise of the recording industry
and subsequent spread of recorded performances obviated the need for live bands.
At the time of Fischer’s studies at university, the peak time of touring territory
bands had already passed, but there were still work opportunities for young, aspiring
musicians such as Clare and Stewart. When the Fischer brothers joined these
touring bands during their university holidays, they not only became involved in the
hardship of being ‘on the road’, but also became acquainted with the different music
practices of other touring jazz musicians.
After their performances, Fischer used to attend the so-called late hour ‘jam
sessions’, informal gatherings of musicians, where he could meet and play with
colleagues, exchange ideas and develop his own musical conception of jazz.
According to Stewart, his brother went regularly to these ‘after hour spots’ that
existed in nearly every city of any size.24 At the time when Fischer got involved
with the touring bands, he had already accumulated a broad knowledge of classical
music, jazz, composition and arranging.
It seems clear that Fischer’s early touring experience had a significant impact on his
career. First, it helped to refine and strengthen his idiolect by merging
improvisational strategies used in jazz with compositional techniques found in
classical music, which Fischer was studying formally at that time. Second, it
contributed to building him a place within a professional network that led to his first
professional engagements as a writer for symphonic orchestra in a jazz context.
An example of this latter point was Fischer’s first encounter with trumpeter Donald
Byrd in one of these touring bands. Byrd, who was a soloist with a rising reputation
at that time, became Fischer’s first collaborator in a bigger recording project in
1957. The recording September Afternoon features Byrd as the soloist, supported by
24
Information provided by Stewart Fischer during a private conversation at Clare Fischer’s
house on 26.09.2006.
115
a large symphonic orchestra. This project represented Fischer’s first major
recording as a symphonic arranger, but unfortunately, the album did not get released
until about twenty-five years after its production (in 1982).25
Despite this unfortunate delay, Fischer’s first recording credit came through Byrd’s
personal contact with the well-known trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie. Fischer was
engaged as the orchestral arranger for Gillespie’s album Portrait of Duke
Ellington.26 Although Fischer’s name was not credited on the cover of the album,
this recording established his reputation within the circle of informed musicians as a
competent arranger of strings and symphonic orchestras. The missed credit on
Gillespie’s album and the delayed release of Byrd’s album have both contributed to
the perception of Fischer as a well-kept secret.
3.1.4 Clare Fischer and Duke Ellington: Music Beyond Categories
In addition to his ‘best-kept secret’ comment, Dobbins described Fischer as ‘the

most important jazz composer since Duke Ellington’.27 It is an honourable
placement, right next to the Duke, an iconic figure of jazz. Edward Kennedy
Ellington, whose legacy is commemorated throughout the entire musical world,
produced his magnificent body of work influenced by countless diverse sounds. His
universal musical approach can be exemplified by the examination of a famous
quote.
In Duke Ellington’s own words, the line: ‘there are only two kinds of music, good
and bad’ is transformed into: ‘there are only two kinds of music, good music and the
other kind’.28 These statements imply a subjective and qualitative judgement of
music and yet the simple identification of only two kinds of music, even in such an
apparently throw-away line, neglects any complex hierarchical systems of music
created by issues of style, genre, origin or any other influence, including their many
25
Donald Byrd, September Afternoon (Discovery DS 869, recorded in 1957, released in
1982).
26
Dizzy Gillespie, Portrait of Duke Ellington (Verve MG V-8386, 1960).
27
Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol.2, 11.
28
‘Great Quotes of and about Musicians’, at http://www.worldjazzscene.com/quotes.html
(accessed 23.03.2007)
116
interrelationships and dependencies. The statements also imply an emotional,
generous or even naïve consideration of anything that is good, no matter what it is,
or where it comes from. Ellington’s slight change even eliminates negative and
judgemental associations of any kind and, despite the clear categorization into ‘two
kinds of music’, it does not consider a name or label for the ‘other kind’ that is not
good. This emphasizes Ellington’s orientation towards the ‘good’, whatever it may
be and, simultaneously, it disregards any consideration of the ‘other’: whatever ‘the
other’ may be, it is not worth taking it into account at all.
While the line itself does not tell us who should judge the question of ‘good’, the act
of stating the line equals a commitment to the role of the judge. In other words,
Ellington likes good music but he does not even consider the ‘other’ music,
although he acknowledges its existence. The distinction between ‘good’ music and
the ‘other’ goes beyond any categorization concerning musical styles, formal
features and origins. It goes even beyond any levels of expertise or professionalism
concerning performance. Ellington defies any objective qualitative measurement
and does not clarify even his own qualitative parameters.
Indeed, Ellington’s influences have been described as diverse, ranging from

Stravinsky, Claude Debussy and Ottorino Respighi to George Gershwin, ragtime,
James P. Johnson and Willie ‘the Lion’ Smith, just to name a few.29 Ellington
merged these diverse influences into his own musical compositions for various
ensembles that include typical jazz and classical groups. The formal features of his
compositions include blues formulas, song forms, oratorios, concertos and others.
Duke Ellington is well known beyond the jazz community. Many people all over the
world are familiar with the melodies of ‘Solitude’, ‘Take the A-Train’ and ‘Satin
Doll’. However, most people, including many musicians, are not familiar with the
greater portion of Ellington’s work, which includes over fifteen hundred
compositions. He is undoubtedly an icon of American culture and yet the
discrepancy between the public recognition of him as an icon and their ignorance of
29
Smith, Hedrick. ‘Duke Ellington’s Washington: Interview with Dr. Billy Taylor’, at
http://www.pbs.org/ellingtonsdc/interviewTaylor.htm (accessed 23.03.2007).
117
most of his music demonstrates the power of the mass media to produce a
musician’s public reputation based on a superficial and perhaps rather trivial
communication of facts.
Moving then from Ellington to Fischer, there is little similarity in the public’s
awareness of Fischer’s music in comparison with Ellington’s. As discussed earlier,
Fischer and his music are not even familiar to many musicians within the jazz
community, let alone a wider audience. The questions arise: how can the obscure
pianist and composer Fischer be ranked next to Ellington in importance with regard
to jazz composition? And how can Fischer be compared with Ellington, whose
historical significance is undisputed? And, in fact, does this ranking of Fischer by
Bill Dobbins reflect simply the opinion of a small number of established jazz
musicians, such as Dobbins in Rochester and Gary Foster in Los Angeles?
It is not the purpose of this thesis to provide any speculative theories about Fischer’s
under-representation or even underestimation in the history of jazz, but to present a
broad historical, socio-cultural context of his music and his personality. The
physical inventory of Fischer’s compositions, his musical devices, his professional
experience as well as of his early musical experiences will lead towards a more
informed background regarding the discussion of the questions above.
Dobbins’s comparison of Fischer and Ellington’s work certainly contributes to the

identification of Fischer as a highly productive, reflective, self-expressing and
emotional musician. His vast output of compositions, arrangements and recorded
improvised performances does recall the quantity of Ellington’s works.
Furthermore, considering the variety of Fischer’s and Ellington’s musical
influences, ranging from classical music to jazz and, in Fischer’s case, to Latin
American music, the distinct individual musical approach of both composers is
beyond categorization. The closer examination of Fischer’s ‘oeuvre’ in this study
will reveal his own perception of the ‘good music’ catalogue and it will uncover
some of his major musical influences and their transformation into his own musical
vocabulary, and will be supported by biographical data throughout the text. Chapter
118
four focuses on detailed analyses of selected compositions and piano performances,
and will provide insight into the musical structures used by Fischer.
Fischer presents himself as a self-confident and outspoken personality, with a keen

awareness of his own musical influences and the sources of his musical
explorations. This may be seen both in his general statements during interviews and
in the commentaries to his own music. In one interview, he mentioned Dimitri
Shostakovich as a major influence early in his life.30 Later during the same
interview, Fischer and his brother Stewart, who shared many of their early
experiences in music, talked more about influences with regard to European
classical composers:
Stewart:
… he (Clare) has already gone through the Bartoks and the fascination with the …
Clare:
Prokofievs and Shostakoviches …(laughs)31
In this statement Clare and Steward confirm Clare’s early absorption in the music
not only of these Russian composers, but also the Hungarian Bartók. Other
important influences included Stravinsky, as mentioned earlier, and Johann
Sebastian Bach.
Other musical influences are evident in the titles of several of Fischer’s

compositions. A number of works are either dedicated to other performers and
composers or their titles create associations with certain musical styles or
personalities. For instance, the piece ‘C.P.’ is dedicated to Latin American pianist
Charlie Palmieri and, ‘Carneval’ is dedicated to Bossa Nova guitarist and singer
Joao Gilberto. The titles ‘Igor’, ‘The Duke’ and ‘Bachlude’ suggest associations
with Igor Stravinsky, Duke Ellington and Johann Sebastian Bach; the title
‘Baroque’ refers to the historical musical style and employs numerous
compositional devices particularly relevant to that period; the titles of several blues
compositions such as ‘Basic Blues’, ‘Blues at Play’, ‘Fuzz Blues’, ‘Hoaky Blues’,
30
Interview conducted with Clare and Stewart Fischer at Clare Fischer’s house in Los
Angeles on 26.09.2006.
31
Ibid.
119
‘Blues for Home’ and ‘The “Blues”’ show Fischer’s strong dedication to the
African-American tradition of music; the titles ‘Samba do Borboleta’, ‘Passacaglia’,
‘Waltz’, ‘Dancing Song’, ‘the Greek’ and ‘Canto Africano’ express diverse musical
styles and forms from a variety of cultural backgrounds. For example, the title
‘Canto Africano’ clearly creates associations with tribal African songs. But,
considering Fischer’s often-expressed love for music from Latin America, the
choice of the Spanish language in the title also expresses some affiliation with
music from that particular culture. An examination of Fischer’s titles alone reveals a
breadth of musical associations that can only be interpreted as representing a wide
range of musical influences.
Fischer’s compositions, arrangements and recordings have not yet been fully
catalogued but, according to the discography published by Advance Music, he has
recorded over forty albums as a leader and has contributed to more than one
hundred albums as an arranger or performer.32 Comparably famous colleagues in the
field of jazz, such as ‘The Hi-Lo’s’, Dizzy Gillespie, Donald Byrd, Cal Tjader,
George Shearing and Natalie Cole, have hired Fischer’s talent as a composer,
arranger and pianist.
Fischer has indeed produced a large oeuvre that resembles Ellington’s work in terms
of quantity, references to classical and other forms of music and stylistic diversity.
However, he has not matched Ellington’s world-wide recognition as one of
America’s most important composers of the twentieth century.
Unlike Ellington, Fischer is not known to a large audience, but he is definitely

known and appreciated by a substantial audience comprising other musicians,
record collectors, critics, journalists and music lovers. Whether Fischer will ever
achieve recognition as the ‘most important jazz composer since Duke Ellington’ in
influential jazz histories remains a matter of speculation.
32
Compare Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vols 1-2.
120
3.1.5 Fischer’s Stylistic Context
Previously in this text, Fischer’s musical approach has been identified as

idiosyncratic and individual. And yet his work is undoubtedly characterized by his
surrounding musical environment. Talking about his stylistic context, Fischer
himself often refers to two large groups: ‘the classical world and my jazz world’.33
On other occasions, such as in the writing of his biography as part of his published
collection of works, he explains: ‘I’m not just jazz, Latin, or classical. I really am a
fusion of all of those, not today’s fusion, but my own fusion.’34 Now the question is,
what exactly is his ‘own fusion’? Without engaging in a broad and general
discussion of style, it is necessary here, to examine Fischer’s musical context more
closely. It clearly comprises a number of diverse elements, ranging from his
childhood experiences through his academic education in classical music, to his
participation in the shaping of the musical language of tonal jazz and in the various
forms of popular music.
Fischer’s early childhood experiences provided the basis, at least on a subconscious

level, for his active involvement in the musical world later in his life. An awareness
of harmony and repertoire was certainly formed on some level early in Fischer’s life
and will be seen here as a backdrop to the activities and structured education later
that actively shaped his musical world. In order to discover more about his own
‘fusion’, the present discussion of his stylistic network will refer to his active
participation in four large musical genres: jazz, classical, Latin American and
popular.
Fischer completed his formal education in classical composition up to Master of

Music level at the Michigan State University. He composed in numerous classical
styles and participated actively as a pianist and composer in the formation of the
jazz style from the late 1940s onwards. As a consequence, both styles, classical and
jazz, are thoroughly grounded in his musical persona.
33
Taken from an interview by the author with Fischer at his house in Los Angeles on
February 28, 2008.
34
Fischer, The Music of Clare Fischer Vol 1, 7.
121
The other two categories, the music of Latin America and popular music, require
more discussion. Latin American music is a hybrid form that draws on authentic
music practices from both southern and northern America, most notably jazz
harmony and improvisation. Of course, both music practices are influenced by
Western classical music, and yet there are a specific repertoire and practices unique
to Latin American music. This music is characterized by a specific rhythmic
concept, which affects the accompanying rhythms as well as the rhythmic
organization of melodic material. Fischer has studied these stylistic idiosyncrasies
in great detail, in part through his work with prominent Latin American musicians
including Cal Tjader, Poncho Sanchez, Laurindo Almeida and Joao Gilberto.
Fischer also participated in the Bossa Nova movement in collaboration with Bud
Shank with the albums Bossa Nova Jazz Samba and Brasamba.35 The winning of
two Grammy awards for this work not only confirms the recognition Fischer gained
at that time, but also suggests that this was a period of considerable significance in
his professional life.
As mentioned earlier, Fischer’s childhood musical memories include much material

from the popular songs of the period, such as the barbershop repertoire, and German
folk songs. Subsequently, he has been actively involved in the dissemination of his
own arrangements of popular song material, including music of the Tin Pan Alley
and Broadway composers and songs of various ethnic backgrounds, such as ‘Du,
Du, liegst mir im Herzen’ and ‘Liebesleid’ of Austro-German source, and songs of
Mexican and Brazilian origin, for instance.36
Fischer’s reputation in the pop industry has been achieved not only through his
collaborations, but also as a string arranger. Various popular music styles have
influenced his use in this area of rhythmic elements including rock and funk
35
Bud Shank and Clare Fischer, Bossa Nova Jazz Samba (Pacific Jazz PJ-58, 1962); Bud
Shank, Brasamba (Pacific Jazz PJ-64, 1963).
36
‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ is a German folk song (by an unknown composer),
‘Liebesleid’ was composed for violin and piano by Fritz Kreisler, and Brazilian and
Mexican songs are contained on a record arranged by Clare Fischer and under the
leadership of Cal Tjader, Cal Tjader Plays The Contemporary Music of Mexico and Brazil
(Verve 8470, 1962).
122
rhythms. These elements also occur in some of Fischer’s own compositions, such as
the tune ‘3/2 Rock’.
Figure 3.1 illustrates Fischer’s engagement with the four generalized musicals
genres: Latin, pop, jazz and classical. The jazz and classical genres clearly represent
Fischer’s main musical output and primary sources of musical information. The
Latin genre has also been of exceptional significance in his work and the Pop genre
serves as a label for a mix of sub-genres of commercial music as well as popular
and ethnic song material.
Figure 3.1: Fischer’s engagement with four generalized musical genres.
Latin Pop
Clare
Fischer
Jazz Classical
The inner circle represents Fischer’s musical work while the four outer circles
symbolize the genres with which he has been engaged. In a more realistic
representation, as shown in Figure 3.2, all of the four musical genres actually
overlap and interrelate with each other. Fischer’s musical approach is formed by the
various overlaps that are produced by the genres. His idiolect, which is represented
through his work, can be regarded as resulting from his engagements with these four
generalized musical genres. The inner circle in the following figure illustrates
Fischer’s idiolect as consisting of various intersections and overlaps of the
surrounding musical genres. However it is important to note here that the figure
does not show the intensity of the different intersections; nor does it account for the
changes in degree and intensity over time.
123
Figure 3.2: Fischer’s musical idiolect, consisting of various overlaps between the
four generalized musical genres
L P
J C
After this general discussion of Fischer’s status and the stylistic categorization of
his work, the following sections in Chapter 3 examine the contextual interrelations
towards the remaining four outstanding areas, which have been revealed in Chapter
1, starting with Fischer’s relationship to the Russian composer Shostakovich.
124
3.2 Fischer – Shostakovich
The purpose of this section is to investigate the contextual relationship between the
works of Fischer and Dimitri Shostakovich. This relationship seems one-sided, with
clear evidence of the influence of Shostakovich on Fischer but none, apparently,
vice versa. Chapter 3.2.1 starts with an examination of the origins of Fischer’s
strong emotional bond to Shostakovich’s music in general and to his first symphony
in particular. Besides this subjective affection, there are surprising objective
parallels to be found within the contextual environments of both composers which
are discussed in this large Chapter 3.2.
3.2.1 Fischer’s Emotional Bond to Shostakovich’s Harmony
From an early age Fischer experimented with four-part harmony, and he has stated
frequently that his early and passionate interest in the slow movement of
Shostakovich’s first symphony led him to study chromatic harmony in great depth.
The following quotes clarify the depth of Fischer’s strong emotions towards
chromatic harmony in general and Shostakovich’s harmony in particular. In a recent
interview by this author, Fischer revealed a close emotional bond to chromatic
harmony:
Kahr:
I have one more question. I would appreciate it if you could talk a bit about
your love of chromatic harmony and chromatic voice-leading.
Fischer:
I have a question about that: How do you get there? How do you become
enamoured about that? What leads you there? I don’t know. Well, I can’t
just say: I got there because da-da-da … I know I got there and I am happy
I did get there. And when I hear a lot of what is being done by other
people, which is non-chromatic … and then very diatonically non-
interesting. I am glad I got there … but all I know is I got there and I am
happy I’m there … and when you talk about chromatic … invariably
involved with what we call … as you’re playing … moving tones within
the harmony … passing tones … I don’t know how I got there but … it just
seemed like the right thing to do and I did it.37
37
Interview by the author with Fischer at his house in Los Angeles on September 26, 2006.
125
Fischer seems to struggle to talk about his feelings. Certainly, he cannot find the
right words to describe the reasons for his interest in chromatic music. However, he
does express his positive emotions towards his musical development. Furthermore
he states a clear disdain for non-chromatic music, which appears ‘diatonically non-
interesting’ to him.
A few years earlier, in 2001, as a guest in Marian MacPartland’s radio show Piano
Jazz, Fischer described Shostakovich as his musical idol: ‘I started out to be a
composer by the age of twelve. And it was my original intention to be a Dimitri
Shostakovich’.38
The following quote expresses Fischer’s emotional bond to the cello solo in the
fourth movement of Shostakovich’s first symphony:
… there is a cello solo in the 4th movement of the Shostakovich 1st

symphony … I remember listening to that…and it’s tearing me up … (he
gets a sentimental expression in his face, seemingly close to tears) … I
don’t know why, but I did respond to it … and I’m glad it was there.39
At that point of the interview, while remembering the music, or this particular event
of listening to it for the first time in his life, Fischer turned very sentimental and his
voice became shaky, as if he were about to start crying. His emotional reaction to
music was also experienced by the author in one of Fischer’s masterclasses held at
the University of Music and Dramatic Arts in Graz in 2001, and on several
occasions at Fischer’s house in October 2006 and in February 2008.
The fact that Fischer cannot state any reasons for the development of his chromatic
ideas other than a broad emotional perspective, may serve as a timely reminder of
the many unconscious procedures that shape a creative musician’s style. It is often
impossible to identify seminal points or reactions that influence and create an
idiosyncratic style.
38
Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz with guest Clare Fischer, October 20, 2001.
39
At the time of the interview, Fischer was very ill, on heavy medications and lying in bed
with his brother sitting next to him. The comments in brackets and italics were added by the
author in order to communicate the emotions that Fischer expressed.
126
However, in terms of the aim of this dissertation, which is to provide a
contextualized study of Fischer’s harmonic language, the previous emotional
statements are crucial as they are outstanding contextual examples of Fischer’s
idiosyncratic use of chromatic harmony. These statements not only confirm
chromatic harmony as one of the key aspects in Fischer’s musical development, but
also show Shostakovich as a significant influence during his musically formative
teenage years.
Besides his emotional and perhaps naïve affection for Shostakovich’s music,
Fischer has also studied the music of Shostakovich’s first symphony formally.
According to an interview with Gerhard Guter in 2003, Fischer bought the score of
the symphony and could play the music on the piano.40
3.2.2 General Parallels
An examination of the lives of Fischer and Shostakovich reveals surprising

parallels. The early musical development of both was characterized by an intriguing
relationship between their formal academic training and numerous informal,
contextually related influences. In both cases, this relationship shaped their musical
work throughout their lives, and the following paragraphs will provide a closer look
at the diverse elements that comprised the balance between their academic and
socio-political influences.
During their time as music students, Shostakovich and Fischer were exposed to
similar academic conventions regarding music education. Their educations,
although different in content and structure, contained similarly conservative
diachronic perceptions of the Western musical tradition. Both composers were
primarily educated as composers and pianists, and both wrote a significant work
40
Fischer was interviewed by Gerhard Guter on 10.24.2003. The interview is part of the
‘Virtual Oral/Aural History Archive’ at California State University, Long Beach. This
archive documents musical developments in Southern California. The information is taken
from: Interview 1a, segment 10 (17:32-21:13), Segkey: ajazz134.
http://www.csulb.edu/voaha (accessed 22.08.2007).
127
around the age of twenty that revealed a largely developed and idiosyncratic
musical approach.41
Both were also exposed to musical influences outside academic conventions.

Shostakovich was forced to work as a pianist in silent movie theatres in order to
support himself and his family. Furthermore, his constant struggle with the
ideological and musical restrictions of the political regime can be seen as a socio-
politically forced effort to combine an academically trained perception of quality
and integrity with the current environment’s need for a certain type of musical
expression. Fischer, too, had to balance his academic quality standards and interests
with those of the commercial world. He also had a generic interest in so-called
street sounds, such as jazz and folk music styles, which stimulated him through his
personal environment. According to Fischer’s wife Donna, Fischer received
classical music tuition and, at the same time, played with local jazz musicians who
had no formal musical training in most cases. Neither jazz nor any other style of
popular music were part of any academic curriculum in the United States in the
early 1950s.
The result of this dual socio-cultural environment in the lives of both composers is
clearly reflected in their multi-stylistic approach. Both composed in popular music
styles for a mass audience as well as so-called serious art music for a more selective
concert audience. For instance, the polkas, waltzes and marches found in
Shostakovich’s jazz suites appeal to a mass audience, while his complex symphonic
works are directed at a critical concert audience. Similarly, Fischer’s arrangements
for the pop industry reach a mass audience, while his music for large jazz orchestra
is known to a small audience only.
41
Although Shostakovich’s first symphony was immediately perceived as a major
achievement that raised the Russian composer to a certain level of national and international
fame, Fischer’s composition ‘The Early Years’ remained undiscovered by a wider audience
until the composer recorded the work decades later. However, ‘The Early Years’ contains
many of the musical elements that have characterized Fischer’s compositional approach,
especially in a harmonic sense, throughout his career. Chapters 4.1 to 4.3 provide a detailed
comparative analysis of these two compositions.
128
Furthermore, the music of both composers consists of passages that mix different
stylistic aspects. This shared compositional trait has led to divergent, even
controversial responses from their audiences. For example, Shostakovich’s use of
popular styles in his symphonies, such as the march-style intermezzo in his fifth
symphony, has led to various interpretations regarding the political nature of his
work.42 Fischer’s use of complex compositional techniques that are derived from the
classical tradition in the context of commercially oriented genres, such as
arrangements for pop songs or in Latin music, has similarly led to controversy
among audience, critics and record producers.43 Another example of Fischer’s
employment of multi-stylistic elements is his use of unusual orchestral settings in
the context of jazz, such as a bugle band, a clarinet choir and even a church organ.
3.2.3 Political and Economic Forces
Like most of his creative peers, Shostakovich had to deal with a degree of artistic
suppression in Russia. His life was characterized by a continuous struggle with the
political regime in order to survive physically and financially as a composer and
metaphorically with regard to the integrity of his artistic expression. He was
denounced in his own country for an unpopular ‘formalist’ approach and criticised
in the West for his apparent affiliation with the Soviet regime and for his
conservatism in conjunction with the pleasant quality of much of his music, which
stood in opposition to the experimental dogma of the avant-garde in the West.
Although Shostakovich has been perceived as a controversial personality in terms of
his relationship to the Soviet regime in Russia, he nevertheless ranks among the
‘most popular composers of serious art music in the middle years of the twentieth
century’.44
It was said of Shostakovich after he joined the Communist party in 1960 that he had
finally conformed to the party line. It was a commonly held view in the Western
world that he had long since abandoned the progressive vein of his earlier works.
42
Please refer to the following Chapter 3.2.4 regarding a more detailed discussion of the
divergent reception of Shostakovich’s fifth Symphony.
43
These issues are discussed in Chapter 3.4.
44
David Fanning, ‘Shostakovich, Dimitry’, at http://www.grovemusic.com ed. Lucy Macy,
(accessed 20.05.2007).
129
After the collapse of the communist regime and especially since the publication of
Solomon Volkov’s biography Testimony, which, according to its author, contains
Shostakovich’s own critical thoughts concerning the political regime, the
composer’s artistic and political status seems to have been reinstated.45 The book
stirred a debate regarding the reliability of sources used by Volkov.46 Despite the
controversy concerning his relationship to the political regime, Shostakovich
undoubtedly was forced to walk a fine line between the freedom of artistic creation
and the inflexibility of a suppressive regime.
Fischer, on the other hand, has spent his life under completely different
circumstances in the United States of America, free from any subversive political
agenda, but heavily affected by the forces of capitalism. During his lifetime, the
commercial music business has emerged to become a powerful economic force. In
an interview conducted by the author in Fischer’s home, Clare’s brother Stewart
emphasized the development of the music business into a money-generating
industry that has changed much since its origins:
… the music has been subjected to big business tactics all over the place
and the greed that is the human condition goes right along with it … and
that comes to the point where all you need is several hundred thousand
dollars to place somebody and run out and give disc-jockeys enough
favours of either prostitution, drugs or whatever the hell it is that turns
them on to promote records. And that part of it is all dirty money business.
… but the thing is, prior to that time, the older record companies in the
entire world were recording what the music, or the creators were doing.
They [companies] were just recording what they [creators] did.47
During this interview, Clare Fischer neither stated his agreement nor disagreement
with his brother’s comments, but taking into account the biographical data, it
becomes clear that his status is somewhat ambiguous between the forces of the
music business and artistic freedom. On the one hand, he has profited through his
own successful involvement in many commercial productions, while on the other
45
Solomon Volkov, ed. Testimony: the Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich, as related to and
edited by Solomon Volkov, 25th ed. (New York: Proscenium Publishers Inc., 2004).
46
Volkov’s book has caused much controversy and has been criticized for containing
unreliable information. Part of the criticism was directed towards Volkov’s claim that
Shostakovich authorized his own statements as used in the book.
47
Interview by the author with Clare and Stewart Fischer at Clare Fischer’s house in Los
Angeles on September 29, 2006.
130
hand he has had great difficulties in promoting his own ideas, either as an arranger
in the studio scene or as a composer of original music.48 In the following quote,
which was taken from a music clinic at the Red Bull Music Academy in Seattle in
2005, Fischer refers to his negative experiences working with producers in the
music business. This negative and rather polemical statement seems to be fuelled by
his experiences as a session musician in the studios of Los Angeles for many years:
… if you allow somebody to doctor your product, it’s like becoming a

whore. It’s not the right thing to do. A producer thinks if he’s going to have
that position, he must say something to justify that position, even if he’s
got nothing to say. And boy they are a pain in the culo [sic] ... They’re
producers, not listeners.49
Fischer’s collaboration with pop artist Prince has been more fruitful in terms of
Prince’s appreciation of Fischer’s artistic freedom:
One of the good features at the beginning especially was that he [Prince]
allowed me freedom and space to make value judgments.50
These two statements clarify the importance of creative freedom and integrity for
Fischer, especially in collaborative working situations in the commercial area. Both
he and Shostakovich managed to adapt to the circumstances in which they found
themselves without relinquishing their artistic idiosyncrasy.
I argue that there are similarities to be found in the two composers’ survival
strategies, as they both agreed to cater to the conventions of their socio-cultural
environment at least in part in order to survive ideologically and financially. They
found similar ways of dealing with their situations which will be described below
using selected examples.
48
The issues of Fischer’s involvement in the popular music sector are discussed in Chapter
3.4.
49
Interview with Clare and Brent Fischer at the Red Bull Music Academy in Seattle in
2005, http://www.redbullmusicacademy.com/TUTORS.9.0.html?act_session=261
(accessed 20.05.2007).
50
Interview with Clare Fischer, held by Sarah Bacon via email and published in an internet
forum on the music of Prince,
http://www.housequake.com/showthread.php?threadid=63884 (accessed 20.05.2007).
131
3.2.4 Shostakovich and the Soviet Regime
As mentioned earlier, Shostakovich’s relationship to the political dogma of the

Soviet regime has been a matter of some controversy in the Western world,
especially in English-speaking parts. The debate around his political standing and
the influence of the regime on his music was reignited by reactions to Volkov’s
Testimony, published in 1979. The defenders of Volkov’s book, who considered the
text an authentic biographical revelation, were soon called revisionists, whereas
those who objected to the book’s arguments, were referred to as anti-revisionists.
In the revisionists’ view, Shostakovich was a secret dissident who conveyed hidden
meaning in his music, criticising the political regime. Anti-revisionists, on the other
hand, object to the revisionists’ arguments and consider the composer a rather weak
personality, although that does not necessarily question his musical ability or
achievements. Both positions interpret Shostakovich’s music in a socio-cultural
context that includes assessments of his personality, music and political attitude.
Revisionist arguments have been put forward by authors such as Volkov, Ian
McDonald and Elizabeth Wilson.51 The view of the anti-revisionists has been
promulgated mainly by Richard Taruskin and Laurel Fay.52
In 1936 Shostakovich was denounced in Pravda for the music of his opera Lady
Macbeth. It is commonly known and accepted that the successful premiere of his
fifth symphony in 1937 reconciled him as a trustworthy representative of
Communist ideals and philosophies in the eyes of the political forces, at least until
his second denunciation in 1948. There has been an ongoing debate concerning the
fifth symphony, which musically appears rather conservative when compared with
previous works. The debate includes arguments about whether Shostakovich used
such an outwardly conservative musical approach in conjunction with encoded
51
Volkov, Testimony; Ian McDonald, The New Shostakovich, new ed., rev. Raymond
Clarke (London: Pimlico, 2006, originally published in 1990); Elizabeth Wilson,
Shostakovich: A Life Remembered, new ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 2006).
52
Richard Taruskin, ‘Public lies and unspeakable truth interpreting Shostakovich’s Fifth
Symphony’, in Shostakovich Studies, ed. David Fanning (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995); Laurel E. Fay, ‘Volkov’s Testimony Reconsidered’, in A
Shostakovich Casebook, ed. Malcolm Hamrick Brown (Indiana: Indiana University Press,
2004), 22-68.
132
dissident meanings, or if the conventional musical content needs to be seen as an
openly expressed apology for his earlier modernist experiments. There is no
particular agreement here among musicologists and, as new documents from this
period are discovered, new arguments for the divergent interpretations are created.
Shostakovich’s fifth symphony serves as a fascinating example of the composer’s
successful integration of politico-cultural conventions with his idiosyncratic musical
approach.
It is a fact that Shostakovich adjusted to politico-cultural conventions at least in part

by writing music that pleased the regime’s ears and philosophy. The reasons for this
decision are diverse and the speculative debate around Shostakovich includes many
interpretations such as the composer being forced to adjust in order to avoid his
purge, or his own free will led him to join the Communist party later in life, or he
strove for an acclaimed career that necessitated a move towards the political party.
In all of these scenarios there are opposing arguments to be found and
Shostakovich’s case can be interpreted in many ways. The ending of the fifth
symphony, for instance, was regarded as an acoustic sign for triumph and heroism
by the political regime, and yet there are other interpretations, as cellist Mstislav
Rostropovich clarifies:
The shrill repetitions of the A at the end of the symphony are to me like a
spear-point jabbing in the wounds of a person on the rack. The hearers of
the first performance could identify with that person. Anybody who thinks
the finale is glorification is an idiot.53
Volkov has noted another interpretation of the finale, similarly divergent from the
political regime’s interpretation:
Alexander Fadeyev, who was present at the work's premiere, noted in his
diary that ‘The end does not sound like an outcome (and even less like a
triumph or victory), but like a punishment or revenge of someone’.54
53
Juliane Ribke, ‘From a Conversation with Mstislav Rostropovich’, liner notes to
Deutsche Grammophon 410 509-2, cited in http://www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/deb/dw.html
(accessed 01.09.2007)
54
Solomon Volkov, St. Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 1997), 425.
133
Musicologist J. Daniel Huband links certain formal and thematic developments in
the fifth symphony to Shostakovich’s previous symphonic works and he explains
the fifth symphony as evolving musically from previous works, rather than as a
drastic musical change in compositional style forced by the threatening political
regime.55 Huband argues that ‘it [the fifth symphony] must be regarded not only as a
reaction to official criticism, but as the result of a musical evolution as well.’56
Similarly, William Hussey observes similarities in the musical material between the
fifth symphony and previous works. Hussey notes that ‘[t]he Fifth Symphony was
hailed as the composer's return to the traditional and optimistic character demanded
by Soviet Realism, but the same chromatic material he had been chastised for
remained’.57 Consequently, the change in musical style of the fifth symphony, if
there is any, must be seen as an idiosyncratic representation of Shostakovich’s
musical approach that is intertwined with socio-culturally imposed conventions.
Regardless of the controversy regarding possible interpretations, the fifth symphony

stands for Shostakovich’s successful strategy of maintaining a high rank as a
composer in his politico-cultural situation. This strategy can also be regarded as a
survival tactic in the hostile environment of the Soviet regime. At the time of his
first denunciation the composer was only thirty years old and it seems
understandable that he aspired to reconciliation rather than run the risk of being
purged as had been the fate of many colleagues and friends. This survival technique
resembles Fischer’s strategy to maintain the financial background necessary to
produce much of his own creative work. The following section will discuss selected
examples of this aspect in Fischer’s life.
55
J. Daniel Huband, ‘Shostakovich’s Fifth Symphony: A Soviet Artist’s Reply..?’, Tempo
173, Soviet Issue (1990), 11-16.
56
Ibid, 16.
57
William Hussey, ‘Triadic Post-Tonality and Linear Chromaticism in the Music of Dimitri
Shostakovich’, Music Theory Online 9/1 (2003) at
http://www.societymusictheory.org/mto/issues/mto.03.9.1/mto.03.9.1.hussey_essay.html
(accessed 01.09.2007)
134
3.2.5 Fischer and Commercialism
Fischer’s ability to conform to socio-cultural conventions while retaining his artistic

integrity becomes obvious through examination of some of the works he provided
for the commercial pop industry. In particular, his orchestral arrangements for
albums of the highly successful pop artist Prince need to be mentioned here.
Fischer’s engagement with pop artists like Prince was a logical consequence after
Fischer’s successful involvement as an orchestral arranger for the funk band Rufus
and its lead singer Chaka Kahn. Fischer himself credits his involvement to
nepotism, since his nephew André Fischer, who was the drummer in the band,
helped to employ his uncle for several albums.58 Other engagements in the pop
industry were a consequence of the commercial success of these albums. Artists,
including Prince, recognized a successful combination and employed whoever they
felt was competent, artistically in line and trustworthy in order to turn their albums
into hit records as well. In the case of the collaboration with Prince, this concept
produced several successful records.
Fischer started his collaboration with Prince on the record The Family, produced in
1985 by Prince’s own record label Paisley Park Records.59 Their collaboration
continued until 2006 and included a number of highly successful albums such as
Parade – Under The Cherry Moon in 1986, Sign O’The Times in 1987, Batman
Soundtrack in 1989, Prince & The New Power Generation in 1992, The Hits in
1993, Girl 6 – Soundtrack in 1996 and 3121 in 2006.60 In most cases, Fischer’s
contributions were string arrangements for selected tracks on the albums.
Occasionally Prince also used sampled recordings of Fischer’s arrangements in
other songs.
58
Interviewed by Marteen de Haan in 1998, Fischer states: ‘Nepotism. My brother’s son,
André Fischer, was the drummer in the band ‘Rufus with Chaka Khan’. Apparently, the
arrangements I made for their early records were appreciated, so in the following years I
was hired almost exclusively by Black artists’. Marteen de Haan, ‘Clare Fischer: The Best
Kept Secret in Jazz’, (1998) http://www.artistinterviews.eu/?page_id=5&parent_id=22/
(accessed 01.09.2007).
59
Prince, The Family (Pk 25322-4, 1985). This record contains the song ‘Nothing
Compares To You’, which, performed by Sinead O’Connor, became a number one hit in
many countries in 1990.
60
Please refer to the attached discography for references regarding Fischer’s collaboration
on Prince’s albums.
135
Fischer has received financial rewards for his collaborations with major pop artists
and has gained a status of competence in the genre, which has led to many other
financially rewarding engagements in the industry. But alongside the positive
financial aspect, there have also been negative ramifications concerning the
aforementioned battle between commercially oriented producers and Fischer’s
individual creative mind. He has often referred to the resulting musical compromise
as ‘orchestral sweeteners’; in other words, commercial works that allow him to
concentrate artistically (if not profitably) on his own music.61 Fischer regards his
orchestral writing for the recording industry simply as a way to earn his living. He
said as much quite unequivocally in an interview in 2001: ‘That pays the best’.62 As
a downside to this, he also needed to collaborate with groups with whom he
disagreed musically. In the same interview he mentioned the group Tony, Toni,
Tone: ‘That’s pretentiousness beyond education’.63 However, Fischer talks
positively and rather proudly about his collaboration with Prince:
First of all he has left me completely free. It is a wise man who, after he
hires someone, does not interfere with his product. Prince was very open in
this area. I think besides being a jazz writer, I have written for classical
instrumentations, and that’s how unlike most jazz writers, who have a non-
classical concept of tone, I was orchestrally well versed. He sends me a
cassette tape of his recording, and then I have my son, Brent, transcribe it.
Then I write my arrangement in conjunction with this transcription.64
This quote describes not only the arranging process in collaboration with his son
Brent and Prince’s music, but also shows Fischer’s positive reaction towards the
artistic freedom he has experienced with Prince. According to Fischer’s statement,
Prince allowed him to express his own musical ideas, without supervising his every
move or negotiating the musical outcome. Consequently, Fischer’s working
61
See Chapter 3.4.1 for a discussion of Fischer’s distinction between ‘sweeteners’ and full
arrangements in the context of commercial music. Fischer explains his definition of in a
private letter to Robert Palmer in 1992. This letter is part of Donna Fischer’s collection of
private material of her husband.
62
Boyd Phelps, ‘Clare Fischer: An Interview with Clare Fischer’, Jazz Player 8/2 (2001),
26.
63
Ibid.
64
Sbacon1999 (pseud.), ‘Interview with Clare Fischer’, (2006) at
http://www.housequake.com/showthread.php?threadid=63884 (accessed 01.09.2007).
136
relationship with Prince is an example of the successful integration of financial need
and musical/artistic freedom.
As mentioned above, Fischer’s ‘bread and butter’ work has not always been
musically fulfilling. A strong sense of opposition to the artistic strangulation by
oppressive producers may be gleaned from Fischer’s statements regarding the
recording industry in general. This opposition has been tempered somewhat by
Fischer’s successful productions as a band leader himself (including his Grammy
awards in 1980 and 1986). And it must be remembered that he has used much of the
income from his involvement in commercial productions for the realisation of his
own creative visions. During the last twenty-five years in particular, Fischer has
spent an enormous amount of money as an individual in the field of jazz, in order to
record, purchase necessary instruments and produce his own music on records. In
short, he has used the positive outcome of otherwise often negative musical
collaborations in order to produce his own creatively fulfilling music.
3.2.6 Chromaticism, the ‘Pianto’ and Dysphoric Meaning
A common feature in Shostakovich and Fischer’s harmonic approaches is the use of

advanced chromaticism in conjunction with a broadly tonal approach.65 In both
contexts, tonality describes a somewhat ambiguous tonal centre rather than a
reference to the diatonic major scale or any other narrow modal tonality. The
separation between major and minor tonalities still exists, but often the frequent
chromatic notes interfere with the major-minor derived key signatures which are
employed for an easier visual representation as much as a theoretical representation
of the music. Fischer has now actually given up on using key signatures, as they do
not make sense in his opinion:
Because my music is so chromatic, I gave up using key signatures years

ago. They just don’t make sense in terms of the kind of music I play. Look
at something like a C7#9. Theoretically, the sharp ninth should be spelled
as a D#, but nobody thinks of it as a D# when they play it on the keyboard.
65
Harmonic relationships between examples of Fischer’s and Shostakovich’s music is
analysed in detail in Chapters 4.1 to 4.3.
137
The chord just has both an E natural and an Eb in it, so I prefer to spell it
that way.66
Shostakovich was less pragmatic and did not abandon key signatures completely.
His scores are full of the accidentals necessary in order to notate chromatic
passages.
The chromatic passages of both composers often comprise ascending and

descending chromatic lines. At the heart of a descending chromatic line lies the
motive of a falling minor second interval, also called the pianto. In the sixteenth
century this motive was used with words like ‘pianto’ and ‘lagrime’ to represent
weeping. Raymond Monelle identifies the pianto as a significant musical element
that has been used by various composers throughout the history of Western music. 67
According to his understanding of semiotics and topic theory, the pianto has
developed over time from the imitation of shedding tears to the broader
representation of grief, pain, regret and loss.
The chromatic fourth or passus duriusculus is another important motive in Western

music examined in Monelle’s discussion of motivic elements. He notes that leaps
and shorter chromatic lines were also described as passi duriusculi in the literature.
Example 3.1 is taken from Monelle’s study; it represents the use of chromaticism as
an accompaniment for the textual expression of lament as early as 1564.
Example 3.1: Passus Duriusculus
Monelle identifies the pianto as a crucial element concerning chromaticism: ‘Since

the filled-in diminished third is, in effect, a brief chromatic scale, the association of
66
Jim Aitken, ‘Off the Record: An Electric Keyboard Solo by Clare Fischer’, Keyboard
(1981), 32.
67
Monelle, Sense of Music, 17; 66 – 76.
138
the ‘pianto’ appears to haunt the mind of this lawgiver of chromaticism.’68 He
discusses some critical literature with regard to this issue and concludes that the
rising chromatic lines and motives that are found in Western classical music usually
represent sensuality and dreamy sentiments, and in practice almost always convey a
dysphoric meaning.69 The significant role of chromatic events in Fischer’s music
has been described previously. Chapters 4.2.1 to 4.2.3 will reveal, among other
issues, the similarity between Shostakovich’s and Fischer’s use of chromaticism.
3.2.7 Dysphoric Meaning and Survival Strategies in Shostakovich’s Music
The following two sections examine the notion of dysphoria in Shostakovich and
Fischer’s music and lives. This analysis is based on the assumption that the
experiences of life shape any creative individual in a particular way. This is
manifested in dysphoric meaning, which plays a significant role in the music of both
Shostakovich and Fischer, and is conveyed not only through the use of
chromaticism and the associated musical topic of the pianto, but also through a
number of other musical and extra-musical aspects. Political and economic
pressures have been identified previously as the respective socio-cultural burdens
which forced both composers to develop their own creative strategies in order to
overcome these difficult situations. Although both managed to become successful
and maintain a high level of musical integrity in their work, these burdens must
have left traces on their perceptions of life.
In this analysis, the experiences of life are perceived as extra-musical forces that
project onto and are expressed through musical ideas. The commonly held belief in
development from juvenile to mature works of any composer or performer indicates
this analogy clearly: whereas the young artist tends to rely on technical devices, the
mature artist has freed him- or herself from those restrictions in order to convey
some deeper meaning irrelevant to the showcasing of impressive technical skills.
Indications of the interconnection of life experiences and music can be found in
both Shostakovich’s and Fischer’s early lives. Interestingly, musical improvisation
plays a role in both. In his early career, Shostakovich worked as a pianist in
68
Monelle, Sense of Music, 74.
69
Ibid., 76.
139
cinemas, which necessitated spontaneous musical improvisations to the moving
pictures. The young Fischer was improvising on the piano according to his varying
moods after school.70
More recently, Fischer has stated that ‘feeling is harmony to me’, which articulates
his own conception of the interrelation of musical structure and emotion.71 This
statement explains the close connection he feels between musical events and his
personal life, a connection that leads in turn to emotions including dysphoria.
Of course, dysphoric meanings should not be over-emphasized here, as there were

by no means exclusively negative experiences in the lives of both composers.
However, the concept of dysphoria plays a crucial role in the life and works of
many artists, not just in music, but also in the fields of literature, and visual and
dramatic arts. Often the use of self-destructive addictive substances has gone hand
in hand with artists’ overwhelming feelings such as hopelessness, loneliness,
unhappiness or fear.
Shostakovich was known as a rather vulnerable person who suffered from nervous
tension and depression. But despite his ill health, he refused to give up two of his
pleasures in life, nicotine and alcohol. His dysphoric side is undoubted.
Interpretations of his music as containing elements such as encoded criticism, irony,
parody, sarcasm and the grotesque lead to the analysis of the man himself as an
oppressed and dysphoric individual. The dysphoria in Shostakovich’s life and music
can also be interpreted as the story of an extraordinarily talented person striving for
the continuation of the widespread recognition that he had received early in his life.
His pursuit of continuing success led to the creation of a diverse body of work, at
times highly appreciated and at other times harshly criticised by the political
regime.
Despite this threatening political environment, Shostakovich decided not to leave

his country. On the contrary, he joined the Communist party in 1960, although
whether by personal conviction or in response to some form of pressure is difficult
70
Private conversation at Fischer’s house in Los Angeles in September 2006.
71
Private conversation at Fischer’s house in Los Angeles in February 2008.
140
to assess. In any case, he managed to survive and have his music performed by the
best available musicians both in Russia and overseas. Revisionists, anti-revisionists
and less hard-line historians agree that Shostakovich was an immensely successful
composer who experienced dysphoria due to the circumstances in his life. They
disagree on whether he was a secret dissident, a private citizen who simply sought
to pursue his art, or a character somewhere in the middle of these extremes.
3.2.8 Dysphoric Meaning and Survival Strategies in Fischer’s Music
Unlike Shostakovich, Fischer has led a life free of political repression, but the
dysphoria in his life occurs through the previously described pressures of Western
capitalism. He has experienced personal losses, such as divorces and life in absence
of his beloved children. The latter led him to choose a home that borders a
kindergarten. He still lives in that house in Los Angeles, and during the author’s
first visit to his house he mentioned the ambivalence he felt when watching the
children play.
Fischer’s composition ‘Tahlia’, named after his daughter, is an example of the

musical expression of his dysphoria. It is a bittersweet composition with a melody
that balances ascending and descending lines over a set of complex harmonies that
can be interpreted as an expression of the complexity of Fischer’s relationship to his
daughter. Besides the dysphoria in Fischer’s personal relationships and experiences
in the music business, there may be a general attraction for him to melancholy. His
love for certain songs that carry some personal recollection indicates as much.
This melancholy can be ignited by the memory of a situation or a person. During a

dinner at Fischer’s house at which the author was present, Fischer suddenly stopped
eating and started to sing an old song with a rather sad melody that had just come
into his mind. He did not mention what it was that had caused this recollection and
simply resumed eating. He certainly expresses his memories in a musical way,
another example being his interpretation of the song ‘Du, Du liegst mir am Herzen’,
which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.2.3. Fischer’s father, who was a
travelling salesman, used to sing this song for his son. The song captures Fischer’s
141
sentiments for his father, who he missed greatly whenever the latter was on a
business trip.72
Perhaps the song not only reminds Fischer of his father but also places Clare in the
position of the father missing his own children. The words express the pain caused
by an unrequited love. These emotions of longing convey an unambiguous sense of
dysphoria, as the lyrics for the first verse show:
‘You are in my heart,

You are in my mind,
You cause me much sorrow,
You don’t know how good I am for you.
Yes, yes, yes, yes,
You don’t know how good I am for you.73
Another factor pointing to dysphoria in Fischer’s life and music can be seen in his
introverted personality with regard to his perception of musical expression. During
the interview session in 2006, Fischer stated that his sole interest in writing was for
his ‘own satisfaction’.74 By doing so, he rejected any active role for the audience in
the process of musical creation and reception.
The audience has traditionally participated in creating value judgements of music.

For the composers of the Tin Pan Alley period a composition proved to be
worthwhile only if it was successful among a wider audience. In other words, the
audience’s taste was the yardstick by which pieces were judged. Fischer does not
appear to share this assessment of an audience’s function. On the contrary, his
statement implies that he is only interested in setting his own quality measures. It
also implies that he does not want to share the responsibility regarding the value
judgement of his work, which means that all the processes that lead towards the
72
Private conversation at Fischer’s house in September 2006.
73
This is a translation of the first verse of the original German lyrics, which was made by
the author. There has been no attempt to fit the words to the original melody. The first verse
in the original German version is: ‘Du, du, liegst mir im Herzen. Du, du, liegst mir im Sinn.
Du, du, machst mir viel Schmerzen, Weißt nicht, wie gut ich Dir bin. Ja, ja, ja, ja Weißt
nicht, wie gut ich Dir bin.’ A facsimile of one of the first publications of the song, including
complete German lyrics, is provided in Chapter 4.4 as part of a detailed analysis of
Fischer’s recorded solo piano version of this piece.
74
Interview conducted by the author with Clare and Stewart Fischer at Clare Fischer’s
house in Los Angeles on 26.09.2006.
142
positive recognition of a piece must take place as mental processes within Fischer’s
mind alone.
The statement above presents a rather radical viewpoint that reflects an introverted
personality who prefers not to indulge in the audience’s appraisal. But this mindset
also reveals positive aspects. For instance, by separating the audience’s taste from
any value judgements of his work, the composer removes the risk of falling into the
hopeless self-consciousness that might exist if the audience’s disapproval is linked
with the idea of low quality. But other statements by Fischer show his awareness of
the interrelation of his musical conception and audience’s reaction. In the liner notes
to his recording Extension, he is quoted as being aware that his harmonic preference
may create a distance to the harmonic convention in the style of mainstream jazz:
[The composition] Quiet Dawn “approaches more the polytonal idiom in

which I prefer to write but in which I tread lightly, … because of its
harmonic distance from what one might consider the mainstream of jazz
writing.”75
Fischer’s awareness of a possible alienation of his target audience puts his previous
statement in perspective. The latter statement shows that he does, in fact, take the
audience’s reaction into account when planning his record productions, and it also
reveals his clear preference for polytonality. As his preferred harmonic framework
targets only a small appreciative audience, Fischer’s musical introversion as
opposed to an open, communicative relationship with that audience can be
explained more easily. After all there would not be any advantage for Fischer in
sharing the value judgement of his work in that field with his small audience in
terms of social success or financial reward. The general target audience of his
record productions, on the other hand, is vital to his survival in his socio-cultural
environment.
Another factor that puts Fischer’s discussed statement into perspective is his age of
almost eighty years at the time of the interview, which might have alienated him
from the more pragmatic viewpoint expressed in the second statement. Fischer has
75
John William Hardy, liner notes to Clare Fischer, Extension, (Discovery DS-902,
recorded in 1963, re-released in 1984).
143
earned enough money during his lifetime to be able now to focus on the music
alone, without having to consider his success among a wider audience. On the other
hand, the second statement, which expresses Fischer’s awareness of the discrepancy
between his preference for the polytonal idiom and the convention of jazz writing,
stems from 1963, a fairly early stage in his career. This follows logically if we
consider that at this point Fischer’s introverted occupation with the complexity of
polytonality ran parallel to his business tactic of adjusting his musical choices to the
target audience’s taste.
In summary, Fischer’s survival strategies comprise ‘hard’ factors such as financial

security and social status, and ‘soft’ factors such as value judgements, musical
responsibility and artistic integrity. The interrelation of these hard and soft factors is
well represented by his strategy of using the money earned from his commercially
successful work for the production of his own, commercially less attractive music.
In an interview in the magazine Jazz Player in 2001, Fischer talked about this
strategy, which started in the early 1990s:
Usually the work I do I pay for myself. After having produced several
records over the past decade, I have probably spent $200,000 and there’s
no way in hell to recoup it. I just made an album with six singers called
Rockin’ in Rhythm and that cost $55,000 to produce.76
Despite the financial loss, these productions cater for a small but appreciative
audience and they represent Fischer’s own musical ideas, without any commercially
oriented restrictions. These productions also represent his survival strategy with
regard to dysphoric aspects caused by the music business and his introverted
approach to the creation and value judgements of his work.
More generally, the musical expression of all dysphoric emotions in Fischer’s music
can be seen as his successful way of dealing with dysphoria. In psychology, the
process of overcoming a weakness or inadequacy in one area by achieving
excellence in another area is described as compensation. Fischer compensates for
the emotions caused by the negative experiences in his private life and business
environment by creating music. He even projects certain dysphoric feelings onto
76
Phelps, ‘Clare Fischer’, 27.
144
concrete musical events, which, as signs or musical topics, such as the pianto and
the passus duriusculus, express these emotions in a conventional form. The
expression of dysphoria in the form of the pianto and the passus duriusculus is
conventional with regard to the historical development and use of these specific
musical events. The analyses in Chapters 4.1 to 4.3 will reveal several chromatic
events, which account for the significance of the pianto and its associations of
dysphoria in Fischer’s and Shostakovich’s music.
145
3.3 Fischer – Evans
3.3.1 The ‘Evans-Syndrome’
The following section examines Fischer’s relationship to the pianist Bill Evans,
which deserves particular attention in a discussion of Fischer’s status in the jazz
community. Evans has enjoyed considerable success among a wider audience, while
Fischer remains known to a relatively small audience only. Fischer appears to have
suffered from the success of his colleague, as shown by the following quote from an
interview conducted by Marteen de Haan in 1998:
Whenever I played with a trio, people would say, ‘Fischer owes a lot to
Bill Evans,’ whom I had never heard … when I did orchestrations, it was
Gil Evans, the arranger that I copied. I called this my Evans Brothers
syndrome.77
In both workshops and interviews, Fischer has declared these comparisons to be

examples of his negligent treatment by the jazz world.78 National Public Radio in
the United States, which broadcasts well-known programs on jazz such as Marian
MacPartland’s Piano Jazz has described Fischer as a recipient of Bill Evans’s
musical influence:
Evans's style can be heard in the playing of contemporary pianists like

Clare Fischer, Andy LaVerne, and Brad Mehldau among countless others.79
Other publications in the jazz press also stress the stylistic comparison to Bill
Evans, but they acknowledge Fischer’s original style to a higher degree. The Rough
Guide to Jazz, for instance, describes Fischer’s playing as a ‘thoughtful but unstilted
extension of methods associated with Lennie Tristano and Bill Evans’.80
77
Haan, Clare Fischer.
78
Interviews by the author, held at Fischer’s house in Los Angeles in 2006 and 2008.
79
Beth Schenker, ‘Jazz Profiles from NPR: Bill Evans’, at
http://www.npr.org/programs/jazzprofiles/archive/evans_b.html (accessed 12.10.2007).
80
Ian Carr, Digby Fairweather and Brian Priestley, The Rough Guide to Jazz: The Essential
Companion to Artists and Albums, 3rd ed: expanded and completely revised, (New York,
London Dehli: 2004), 261.
146
Similarly to the comparisons of his piano work with Evans’s, there have been
comparisons of Fischer’s writing style with that of Gil Evans, who received acclaim
through his collaborations with trumpeter Miles Davis and has subsequently become
an icon regarding the chromatic linear approach to jazz writing.81
Fischer himself has complained that these comparisons cover superficial aspects of
the music only and dismiss the originality of his own work. According to his
perception, these superficial descriptions convey merely a general categorization of
his oeuvre alongside the work of Bill and Gil Evans, without considering more
substantial aspects of the music. Furthermore, Fischer believes that these
comparisons imply an influence of the highly acclaimed music of Bill and Gil
Evans upon his work.
As discussed earlier, Fischer appears very open about the sources of his musical
ideas and techniques. The music of neither Bill nor Gil Evans belongs in his cited
sources. In the following statement, Fischer criticises the implication of Bill Evans’s
influence by reviewers or critics of his music and asserts the originality of his own
work:
… One of the most annoying things in my life is somebody who comes up

to you and says ‘man you sound just like da-da-da …’ and one of them was
Bill Evans and I have never even heard Bill Evans at that point … nobody
… assumes that you can come to something by yourself … and that’s too
bad because I think that’s the limitation … that they’re understanding …
what I do.82
81
For instance, Bill Dobbins presents Gil Evans as a representative of the linear approach in
a comparative study of arrangements in Bill Dobbins, Jazz Arranging and Composing: A
Linear Approach (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 1986), 11.
82
Interview conducted with Fischer by the author on September 26, 2006 at Fischer’s house
in Los Angeles. Due to Fischer’s poor health at the time of the interview, the syntax of
some of his statements appears fragmented.
147
Even at the age of seventy-eight, at the time of our first interview in Los Angeles,
Fischer stated that he felt misunderstood in regard to the originality of his work,
although he also claimed in the same interview: ‘I write for my own satisfaction. I
have never been interested in writing for anyone else’.83 This obvious ambiguity can
be interpreted in two ways.
First, Fischer does write primarily for his own satisfaction and is only secondarily
interested in the wider recognition of his music. However, he still feels the need to
criticise comparisons made by critics and reviewers which appear superficial and
inappropriate to him. Second, he feels primarily misunderstood and underrated by
the jazz media, and turns towards an introverted, defensive approach as a
consequence. In both interpretations, Fischer implies a dissatisfaction caused by his
perceived lack of respect in the jazz press.
Bill Evans is often regarded as Fischer’s major rival of his generation as an

improvising pianist. In order to create a contextual perspective of the two
performers, the following section juxtaposes socio-cultural issues concerning
Fischer’s and Evans’s upbringings, musical educations, achievements and
reputations.
Specific aspects of advertising played a significant role in the rise of Evans’s status
as a major jazz artist, particularly his collaboration with the charismatic trumpeter
Miles Davis. On the other hand, Fischer’s involvement and success in the recording
industry did not result in the enhancement of his image as a jazz artist for a large
audience. The quality of Fischer’s work has gained recognition and influence
among jazz musicians however, if not in the eyes of the wider public. Evans’s fame
may be said to far overshadow Fischer’s achievements, and the fact that Fischer is
so often associated with Evans requires an assessment of the similarities and
differences between the styles of the two. The following section provides contextual
aspects, whereas the comparative analysis in Chapters 4.5 through to 4.7 attempt to
illuminate harmonic issues.
83
Interview conducted with Fischer by the author at Fischer’s house in Los Angeles on
September 26, 2006. This excerpt has also been used in the previous Chapter 3.2.8 in the
discussion of the notion of dysphoria in Fischer’s music.
148
3.3.2 Overall Similarities
Shared values in the upbringing and education of both musicians laid the
foundations for the development of numerous similarities. Both were born in the
north-western part of the USA at around the same time, Fischer on October 22,
1928 and Evans on August 16, 1929. Both grew up in middle class families and
were exposed to classical music, dance music and jazz at an early age through the
enthusiastic but amateur musical interests of their parents.
Besides the piano, both learned additional instruments in their childhood. Evans
played the flute and the violin, while Fischer is known to have played various
instruments needed in the high school band, such as tuba, violin, cello, clarinet, and
saxophone.84 Both had older brothers who provided a healthy source of motivation
and rivalry, and introduced their siblings to their first jobs in dance bands. Evans
and Fischer were also interested in sports. Evans played football and Fischer
strengthened his body with weights.
Early in their lives, both musicians played a vast repertoire of classical music and
developed a preference for the classical repertoire of the twentieth century,
including that of Stravinsky.85 Both pursued formal studies in music and earned
academic degrees. After completing their first degrees, both were drafted by the
army. Evans played piano and flute in the Army Band at Fort Sheridan near New
York, while Fischer played saxophone in the Army Band in Fort Leonard Wood and
worked as an arranger for the Army Band at Westpoint, New York. After their
military service, they both undertook postgraduate studies in composition.
This extraordinary similarity in their family, musical and early adult lives was the
platform from which both musicians developed their own idiosyncratic musical
languages. All of their original stylistic explorations were based on a conservative
84
According to Fischer’s statements and Donna’s notes, it was Glenn Litton, Fischer’s
music teacher and school band leader in high school, who played a major role in his early
musical development.
85
Despite the shared interest in Stravinsky, it is common knowledge that Evans was
particularly fascinated by the Impressionist composers Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.
149
socio-cultural background that implies an emphasis on the intellect in the
development of musical, oral and written expression.
3.3.3 Overall Differences
A crucial difference between the two musicians is the direction they took on
completion of their musical studies. While the piano had become the main
instrument for both, and they had both also studied composition at university,
Fischer established a clearer orientation towards writing than Evans.
Evans became known as a creative composer, but Fischer has covered a much
broader variety in his writing which includes a focus on colour through both
harmonic structures and orchestral timbres. Fischer has established himself as a
composer and arranger for large orchestral settings, while Evans is known for his
conception of interplay in the intimate small ensemble format.
Perhaps the essence of their differing idiosyncratic expressions can be found in their
divergent personalities. Evans pursued a highly analytical approach in combination
with an understated appearance while Fischer seems more impulsive in terms of
both his personality and musical expression.
Evans was known for his sensitive, vulnerable personality and controlled, analytical
approach to music. His personal problems eventually led to heavy drug addiction
and a premature death in 1980. In her dissertation ‘Bill Evans: His Contributions as
a Jazz Pianist and an Analysis of his Musical Style’, Paula Berardinelli described
Evans as a genuinely happy person, and she linked his personal insecurity to his
experiences in the army:
150
Bill was a sensitive, private man who was neither meek nor introverted. He
enjoyed pool halls, racetracks, movies, television, and life as much as the
next guy.86
He found the military life difficult to cope with and began to question
whether or not he had the ability to pursue a career as a musician … A lack
of confidence and a basic sense of insecurity were problems that would
plague him for years to come.87
The record producer Orrin Keepnews, who collaborated with Evans on some of his
most successful albums, described the pianist as ‘extremely negative about himself,
extremely diffident.’88
While Evans’s personal life moved in a long, slow downward spiral through his
addiction and resulting depression, his musical approach remained precise and
coherent. He described his analytical approach succinctly:
I’ve drawn from a million sources … I just put the thing together according
to all my experience and the things that I preferred, in the elementary way
in which I can think.89
In summary, Evans can be described as analytical and well-organized with regard to

his musical approach, but rather negative, understated, chaotic and self-destructive
in terms of his personal life. On the other hand, as shown previously, Fischer
appears as a more experimental, intuitive and impulsive personality in both his
music and life. Evans’s musical personality is expressed in his controlled harmonic
approach which unfolds within a tonal, functional framework. Fischer’s expressive
emotions are reflected in his colourful harmonies, which frequently develop beyond
the tonal conventions.
Perhaps the different harmonic approaches of these musicians reflect their different
personalities. Evans may be said to have compensated for his personal insecurities
86
Eddie Gomez, liner notes to Eddie Gomez, You’re Gonna Hear From Me (Fantasy
Records, 1988), cited in Paula Berardinelli, ‘Bill Evans: His Contributions As A Jazz
Pianist And An Analysis Of His Musical Style’, (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1992),
42.
87
Berardinelli, ‘Bill Evans’, 43.
88
Jim Aitken, ‘Peace Piece’, Contemporary Keyboard 6 (1980), 46.
89
Les Tompkins, ‘Bill Evans Today’, Crescendo International 10 (February 1972), 10.
151
in a controlled, well organized and highly sensitive way while Fischer’s harmonies
appear as a direct expression of his impulsive and multi-faceted personality.
In this dissertation I argue that there is a close relationship between Fischer’s

personality and his unconventional harmonic style that allows an identification of
his idiosyncrasies beyond a superficial comparison with Evans’s musical approach.
The comparative harmonic analysis in Chapters 4.4 to 4.7 will discuss this argument
in more detail.
152
3.4 Fischer’s use of Harmony in his Popular Music
Defining popular music strands can be a complicated business, not only because
‘popular’ interrelates with various other genres of music, but also because scholars
have only recently begun to develop perspectives for the study of popular music.90
With regard to ‘popular’ in the context of Fischer’s music, two large areas become
apparent. These may be defined as ‘commercial music’ on the one hand and as the
repertoire of popular songs to which Fischer has been exposed, on the other hand.
Commercial music is specifically designed for a mass market. This label does not
imply a single musical style, but rather the specific purpose of the music. The music
produced by the music industry in the Los Angeles area comprises several sub-
styles that can be grouped together under the umbrella ‘commercial music’; these
include Latin styles, popular songs, rock, jingles and so forth. The defining features
of commercial music are its goals of reaching a wide audience and, in so doing,
creating substantial financial revenue. It should also be remembered that recordings
of jazz and classical music are, up to a point, also produced with clear commercial
considerations, especially those by major record companies, such as Universal
Music or Warner Brothers.
Among musicians of Fischer’s age there is a clear separation between commercial

music and creative or ‘authentic’ music. This separation has developed parallel to
the exploitation of the mass market by the recording industry that began with the
emergence of rock’n’roll music in the 1950s. Fischer’s older brother Stewart, who
also experienced this divergence as an active musician, describes the situation
before and after the emergence of commercial production companies:
… the older record companies in the entire world were recording what …
the creators were doing … [commercial music] is capricious as hell and
there is a lot of money changing hands … that’s pretty much how we got it
… I have to separate the two in my head, otherwise…91
90
For instance, refer to Richard Middleton’s comprehensive discussion of popular music in
his book Studying Popular Music, first published in 1990.
91
Interview by the current author with Stewart Fischer at Clare Fischer’s house in Los
Angeles on October 26, 2006.
153
Stewart states the need to separate commercial music and the ‘other’, and he
describes the commercial industry as ‘capricious as hell’, which, in combination
with his last unfinished sentence, leaves us in no doubt about his feelings on the
matter. Clare Fischer has also stated his abhorrence of the restrictions on creativity
that are imposed in the commercial scene. In the following excerpt from an article
in Down Beat magazine in 1961, he deplores the attitude of producers towards his
own arranging techniques:
The one thing I detest here … is the show-biz attitude toward background
writing, that is the idea that the only way to write backgrounds is not to
detract from the soloist. The idea should be for the arranger to work with
the soloist so as to enhance his contribution. If they want a lackey behind
them, okay; but if they want a musical background, then they should expect
the background to be musical!92
Despite his criticism of the commercial music business, Fischer has continued to
participate in this industry as a pianist and writer, and has enjoyed considerable
artistic success with his work in this area. We may recall his statements about his
long-lasting and exceptionally successful collaboration with the pop artist Prince,
and note also his son Brent’s declaration of his father’s sincerity with, and
commitment to, each job he procured in the business.
In Chapters 3.1.5, 3.2.3 and 3.2.5, Fischer’s participation in the popular music
industry was discussed in a variety of contexts relating to his harmonic approach. It
was shown that his involvement in this industry invokes surprising parallels to the
socio-cultural circumstances of his early major influence, the Russian composer
Dimitri Shostakovich. This revelation must surely add to the case for
Shostakovich’s significance to Fischer’s harmonic approach. It was also shown that
Fischer’s participation in the popular music sector has led to a flow-on effect
throughout his compositional life: the growth of his reputation led to his financial
security, which in turn allowed an expansion of his musical output of artistic merit,
which allowed him more scope in the variety of his harmonic language.
92
John Tynan, ‘Star on the Rise’, Down Beat Magazine 28/23 (1961), 18.
154
The purpose of this section is to inquire into the role of Fischer’s characteristic
harmonic concept in the context of popular music and the popular media. It aims to
reveal the nature of his versatile if uncompromising attitude, which is characterized
by a clear orientation towards harmonic sophistication and complexity. The study
describes not only the problems that can occur due to this complex style of writing,
but also how Fischer has successfully maintained his harmonic idiosyncrasies in the
context of popular music. Selected examples of personal letters and scores, which
were written for the commercial music industry, will illustrate these issues. All
letters and scores used in this study have been provided by kind permission of
Donna Fischer.
3.4.1 Writing ‘Sweeteners’ or ‘Pouring one’s Heart out to write

a Full Arrangement’
In terms of popular music, the majority of Fischer’s work has been in arranging and
recording situations. The latter circumstance includes his appearances as a pianist or
keyboard player at recording sessions and as an arranger/conductor. As a pianist in
recording studios, he often had to fulfil a specific role without having the
opportunity to contribute his own harmonic ideas. According to his statements, he
did not enjoy this kind of work but, as he had to support his family in the early
1960s, the recording studios in the Los Angeles area provided a steady work
opportunity. In the following quote, Fischer recalls a particularly negative
experience in a studio, when he was asked to imitate another pianist’s style in a
recording situation:
Often I was asked to play like the pianist of the Crusaders, Joe Sample.
With great difficulty I did what they asked me to do and afterwards felt
terrible about it. One time I was working in the studio with Sample. During
a break he came up to me and said to my great surprise: ‘I want to tell you
something that really annoys me. Every time I go into a recording session
they ask me to lay down some of that stuff that you do!’93
Fischer’s work as an arranger allowed more opportunities to convey his own

harmonic fingerprint. After he had established a reputation for writing sophisticated
93
http://www.esdonk.nl/jazz/clare_fisher.htm (accessed 02.05.2007).
155
orchestral arrangements, such as those for Donald Byrd and Dizzy Gillespie in the
early 1960s, he was hired as a writer to contribute more material in his own
particular style for the commercial recording industry.94 According to Fischer’s
definition, this work can be divided into two areas.
The first area comprises what he calls ‘writing sweeteners’, which refers to the
creation of additional orchestral arrangements to pre-existing recordings. In these
cases the producers usually provide clear instructions for the arrangement, but there
are many more opportunities for the arranger to take liberties with the harmonic
construction, as opposed to the work of a keyboard player in the studios. However,
according to Fischer’s son Brent, there were occasions when producers attempted to
interfere during the recording process by altering certain notes in the score and
instrumental parts. Considering Fischer’s temper, it is easy to imagine his negative
reaction towards those producers.
The second area refers to the writing of full arrangements without a pre-existing
tape. The arranger is entrusted with the task of providing the entire concept, usually
according to the verbally expressed ideas of the producer. This format leaves a
significant portion of freedom to the arranger, which includes his or her harmonic
expression. However, even in cases when Fischer was hired to provide full, creative
arrangements, he experienced problems with producers. The following example
describes the interference of a producer who has obviously changed too much in
Fischer’s arrangements. This example also clarifies Fischer’s own definition of
writing ‘sweeteners’ and arrangements:
The singer Robert Palmer, who had hired Fischer to provide orchestral
arrangements for his successful albums Heavy Nova in 1988 and Don’t Explain in
1990, asked Fischer to provide the full orchestral arrangements for his new album
Ridin’ High in 1992.95 During the process of recording the orchestral arrangements
94
The following early records by trumpeters Donald Byrd and Dizzy Gillespie displayed his
ability to write in a given style, which includes elements of classical orchestral music in the
context of jazz: Donald Byrd, September Afternoon (Discovery DS 869, recorded in 1957,
released in 1982); Dizzy Gillespie, Portrait of Duke Ellington (Verve MG V-8386, 1960).
95
Robert Palmer, Heavy Nova, (EMI Manhat-48057, 1988). Robert Palmer, Don’t Explain
(EMI Manhat-93935, 1990). Robert Palmer, Ridin’ High (EMI E2 98923, 1992).
156
in the studio, Fischer obviously became very distressed by the interference of the
producer Teo Macero. This dispute caused Fischer to write a personal letter to
Palmer, in order to state his position in the matter and suggest a private discussion
to clear the air. In this letter, Fischer makes a clear distinction between writing so-
called ‘sweeteners’ and full arrangements, for which he was hired on the album
Ridin’ High:
Writing a sweetener is one thing, writing an arrangement is another. I

normally accept, when I write a sweetener, modifications of certain sorts,
such as addition of reverberation, placement of the string track in the mix
and a variety of basically pedestrian changes. When I pour my heart out to
write a full arrangement, I do not accept the fact that anyone has the right
to change it.96
According to Donna Fischer, her husband received no further communication from

Palmer. Instead, Palmer cynically sent a small tuna-sized can with a paper label
pasted over the original label with the word ‘Worms’ printed on it. Palmer
continued his collaboration with the producer Teo Macero and they released the
album including Fischer’s arrangements but without any further discussion with
Fischer.
3.4.2 General Conflicts with the Nature of the Commercial Music Business
Fischer’s response to his problem with the interfering producer is interesting

because it depicts both his personal attitude towards the commercial music industry
and the nature of the business as a whole. Fischer is very particular about his
creative freedom and he cannot accept unilateral changes to his concept of an
arrangement. On the other hand, the most powerful protagonists in the business –
the producers – need to cater for the needs of the industry in the first instance. The
focus on the potential of a product to sell certain numbers has priority and, in the
view of the Fischers, it has overruled the original goal of the older record companies
to record ‘what the creators were doing’, to return to the words of Fischer’s brother
Stewart.97
96
This letter was written on December 23, 1992. A copy of the original was archived by
Donna Fischer.
97
See Chapter 3.2.3.
157
In the view of many older musicians, the recording companies used to try to sell a
product that was constructed by the musicians, and was therefore a greatly
appreciated effort. Over the years, though, the recording industry realized that some
products sold better than others, and this led to the formulation of standards based
on empirical results in order to guarantee a bestselling product. For older musicians,
this change was hard to adapt to, as they felt they deserved more recognition for
their participation in the successful development of the recording industry from its
very beginnings. Fischer belongs to this group of musicians, those who have
participated in the rise of the recording industry in the Los Angeles area since the
late 1950s.
Fischer’s conflict with the commercial music business is equally bitter on the issue
of publications of print media, such as books and scores. He has experienced
substantial problems concerning the integrity of his musical material in this area as
well. As discussed in Chapter 2.8, his nomenclature for chord symbolization at one
point became the subject of critical debates with various publishing companies.
Another constant strain for Fischer in this area is the work of the music copyists,
who are responsible for writing out all instrumental parts from the score that is
submitted by the composer or arranger. Fischer’s music frequently makes use of
unorthodox structures that make sense when viewed in tandem with their linear
connections. These structures may easily be perceived as errors if they are assessed
merely in line with the music of other established arrangers or composers. As shown
in chapter 2.8.2 Fischer has repeatedly insisted on the appreciation of his music as
notated by himself. He has criticized the attitude of those music copyists who
presume to change the notes in his scores.
3.4.3 The ‘Good Employers’
Alongside these extreme cases of unsatisfying work for Fischer in the commercial
area, there have also been very successful events. Fischer’s first appearance as an
arranger for the pop band Rufus with Chaka Kahn contributed to the establishment
158
of his reputation as a skilled and versatile arranger in the pop scene, and has led to
more work in the industry. Most significantly, Fischer’s work as an orchestral
arranger for the pop artist Prince has developed into his most successful and durable
collaboration in that genre.
This collaboration has not only been the most successful in terms of financial
reward, but has also allowed Fischer to express his musical ideas without any
disturbing interference from a producer. Interesting in this respect is the fact that,
despite Fischer’s appreciation for Prince’s personality and the diversity in his
artistic expression, they have never met in person. The following excerpt of an
interview with Fischer in 1996 describes how they discuss certain aspects of their
work by telephone and that it has been Prince’s choice not to get in personal contact
with Fischer.
Most people I work with, by the time we get into the fourth number, there
is a reiteration of one thing or another. Not Prince. In 43 starts with him,
never once has he repeated himself. I talk with Prince over the phone …
but I’ve never met Prince. He never comes to my recording sessions. He
once said, “I never go because I know that I’d interfere.” Here’s a man
with an ego who also understands that when somebody else does
something well, they have one, too. So it might not work to be pushing. I
do my best to follow his instructions, and he has a choice to use it or not
use it.98
Fischer acknowledges Prince’s refreshing attitude towards artistic freedom during

the arranging and recording processes. According to Fischer and Brent, who has
been responsible for much of his father’s business during the last twenty years, the
process of writing arrangements for Prince usually starts with a taped performance
of the song, sent to Fischer by mail, and verbal instructions submitted via telephone.
Brent transcribes the music and notates a simple sketch score that includes the
melody, chord symbols and significant elements such as bass vamps and counter-
melodies. Then Fischer writes his orchestral arrangement based on Prince’s ideas
and Brent’s notated sketch score. The finished score is then recorded in one of the
studios in the Los Angeles area and the recorded music sent to Prince for further
use.
98
This is an excerpt from an interview by A. Scott Galloway, ‘Sendin’ ya Swingin’, The
Urban Network (04/1996).
159
3.4.4 ‘Te Amo Corazon’
The following section discusses the role of Fischer’s orchestral arrangements for
Prince’s song ‘Te Amo Corazon’, one of his most recent hits.99 Close examination
of parts of Fischer’s arrangement for this piece will reveal details about the
relationship between his salient harmonic ideas and the music of Prince. The
examination will also show Fischer’s ability to adapt his work to follow the
conventions of the pop genre without giving up his harmonic idiosyncracies, a
process that requires compromise on both sides.
Prince has not always used all the music that Fischer has arranged and recorded for
him. In some cases Prince has opted not to use entire orchestral arrangements or has
used only parts thereof. This has happened with one of Fischer’s most recent
orchestral arrangements, for the song ‘Te Amo Corazon’. Fischer filled eighty-three
bars of the total ninety-three with his orchestral accompaniment to the pre-existing
recording. Prince decided to use only twenty-six bars of the arrangement, and in one
section (from bar forty to forty-three), he used the complete recording of the strings,
but only parts of the clarinet section.100
Prince’s song was released initially as a single CD and also appeared soon after on
the album 3121, both in 2006.101 Although this piece did not become a major hit like
his songs ‘Purple Rain’ or ‘Sign ‘O’ The Times’, it received a considerable amount
of attention, due partly to the success of Prince’s preceding album Musicology,
which had won two Grammy awards, and to the accompanying video clip, which
was directed by the well-known actress Salma Hayek.102
The introduction to ‘Te Amo Corazon’ includes two short statements that comprise
two rhythmically distinct motives played by low clarinets and echoed in a higher
99
Prince, Te Amo Corazon (Universal Music 9879807, 2006).
100
Fischer’s original handwritten score of his orchestral arrangement of ‘Te Amo Corazon’
could be obtained from Fischer for the analysis in this study. The comparison to Prince’s
recording is based on this original score.
101
Prince, 3121 (Universal Music 602498520727, 2006).
102
Prince, Purple Rain, Vinyl 7” (WEA Int., P-1904, 1984); Prince, Musicology (Columbia
Records, COL 517165 2, 2004).
160
register by the string section. Both statements, by the clarinets and strings, are
exposed, accompanied only by drums in the style of a simple Bossa Nova pattern.
The use of low clarinets is a characteristic feature of Fischer’s style of orchestration,

appearing throughout much of his work and highly appreciated by Prince.103
However, in the context of pop music, Fischer’s use of low clarinets here represents
a rather unusual, and as such, highly distinctive musical idea.
3.4.5 Quirky Clarinets and the Grotesque
Many of Prince’s recordings, including some of his greatest hits, such as ‘Sign ’O’
The Times’, ‘Kiss’ and ‘Purple Rain’, are characterized by distinct features that
stand out within the mainstream pop genre. ‘Te Amo Corazon’, which owes its
distinctive atmosphere to Fischer’s inventiveness, is another such song. As
mentioned earlier, Fischer also benefits from his collaboration with Prince in terms
of financial reward and reputation, but the process requires a considerable amount
of artistic compromise between ‘the polytonal idiom in which I prefer to write’ and
the conventions of the pop genre.104 In this statement from the liner notes to
Fischer’s album Extension, the term ‘polytonal idiom’ refers to the complex
harmonic style of his composition ‘Quiet Dawn’, which makes use of several poly-
chords in the form of superimposed triads, such as Db//D and Db//F#m//Gm.105
A polytonal approach in pop music would, it may be thought, challenge the

audience and pop artist alike. Even Prince, despite his interest in unusual
approaches such as Fischer’s, would have difficulties accepting polytonal elements
in his music. Consequently, Fischer’s participation in the pop genre requires a
compromise in terms of his harmonic decisions. In Example 3.2, an excerpt from
103
Information given in an informal conversation with Brent Fischer in February 2008.
104
Liner notes to Clare Fischer, Extension.
105
Besides poly-chords, the composition ‘Quiet Dawn’ comprises the extensive use of
whole-tone scales. These symmetrical scales imply augmented triads, which are an integral
part of Alban Berg’s Piano Sonata No.1. Bill Dobbins addressed the possible influence of
Alban Berg’s piano sonata on Fischer’s music in a lecture, delivered at the
Musikhochschule in Cologne during the winter semester in 2000/2001.
161
the introduction to ‘Te Amo Corazon’, Fischer’s compromise between the harmonic
confines of pop music and his own harmonic interests is shown.
Example 3.2: ‘Te Amo Corazon’, score reduction of bars 2–3 of

Fischer’s arrangement
With the exception of the chromatic parallel motion in the first bar of this example
(bar two in the score), Fischer decided to use modal harmony instead of a chromatic
approach. Besides this single exception, all harmonic motion from one chord to the
next takes place within the D dorian mode. This diatonic motion happens either in a
parallel or contrapuntal way, or in a combination of parallel and contrapuntal
motion. The chromatic motion in the first bar is short enough to be accepted by a
pop audience, which is used to the mainly diatonic conventions of the genre, and yet
conveys Fischer’s idiosyncratic harmonic technique.
In combination with the quirky sound of low clarinets, this motif even conveys a
sense of the grotesque in the context of the usually polished sound of pop music.
The second motif of the low clarinets contributes equally to this grotesque feel by
employing contrapuntal motion between two low clarinets. The contrapuntal lines
can hardly be followed aurally, due to the blend of the clarinets in this low register,
and the sound seems to be almost out of place in the context of pop music in general
and as an unusual contrast to the underlying static drum pattern in particular.
3.4.6 Non-Triadic Strings
‘Te Amo Corazon’ is broadly based on the functional relationships of triads. Some
chords appear in more extended forms, mainly by the superimposition of thirds to
162
form sevenths and ninths. The melody is almost entirely diatonic in the key of G
minor.
The second part of the introduction offers another opportunity to identify a

successful compromise concerning Fischer’s harmonic approach in the context of
pop music. In contrast to the triadic harmony of the bulk of the composition, Fischer
employs stacked fourths and fifths in his more modal harmonization of the string
section in the introduction to this piece. As shown in Example 3.3, he writes five-
part chords almost throughout and one six-part chord (in bar five). This use of
extended chord voicings beyond the triadic norm of the genre has been identified as
an inherent feature of his harmonic technique.106

Fischer’s vertical structures here contain few thirds (excluding compound intervals).
With the exception of the minor thirds within the chords on beats four in bar three
and four, most of his harmonies are constructed of superimposed fourths, fifths and
sixths, and, less frequently, seconds.
In the subsequent parts of this orchestral arrangement, Fischer uses a variety of

vertical constructions; however, the use of five-part chords and the inclusion of
intervals of seconds in the middle voices remains a coherent feature throughout the
string sections in this piece. Example 3.4 shows Fischer’s string arrangement in bars
106
The detailed analyses in Chapters 4.1 to 4.2 , 4.5 to 4.6 and the comparative studies in
Chapters 4.3 and 4.7 reflect examples of Fischer’s salient harmonic approach as opposed to
Shostakovich’s respectively Evans’s harmonic techniques.
163
six to eight. Of particular interest are the seconds in the middle voices of each
vertical structure, as well as the application of five-part chords in bar eight.

Although the chord symbols here, which are taken from Brent Fischer’s
transcription of Prince’s recording, indicate a triadic harmony in the original
version, Fischer adds additional notes in the form of tensions to most of his
voicings.
These examples represent Fischer’s ability as an arranger to convey harmonic

sophistication within the context of commercial music. The excerpts of this
arrangement for Prince reveal the complexity and versatility of his musical
approach, with regard to questions of genre and applicability for the mass market.
164
3.5 Harmony, Emotion and Meaning
3.5.1 Emotion and Harmonic Language
The relationship between music and emotion covers a broad spectrum of thought. It
ranges from rather superficial descriptions, such as music in a minor key expressing
sadness while a major key represents joy, via the Romantic idea of music as an art
form that may genuinely express a variety of emotions, to highly sophisticated
renderings in the fields of music aesthetics and art criticism, to name but two. There
is certainly no consistent view among writers, and the arguments extend well
beyond the two opposing perceptions in which music functions as either an abstract
event which causes emotional responses in the listener, or alternatively of emotions
being properties of the music itself rather than an individual experience. Discussions
of these extreme viewpoints include complex and delicate observations developed
for areas of studies such as linguistics, philosophy and music cognition.
As the present study is primarily concerned with a thorough examination of

Fischer’s harmony, it will not be necessary to defend a specific viewpoint in this
matter. The aim of this text is rather to provide a contextual understanding of
Fischer’s personality and harmonic language, as well as their interrelation by means
of an interdisciplinary, contextual investigation of Fischer’s specific harmonic
language and its relationship to the role of the composer/improviser. To this end, it
is vital to acknowledge that there is a correlation between music, emotion and
meaning. Another important assumption is the concept of the communication of
emotion through and into music. In these terms, emotion becomes a factor of
musical meaning. A differentiation between the meanings of emotion and feeling is
required here: emotion is commonly understood as a broad abstract concept that
may be said to include feeling as a more tangible physical aspect. Emotion, as
constituent in music, is a philosophical concept, whereas feeling refers to subjective
experiences.
There is a strong relationship between Fischer, the composer/improviser, and his

concept of emotion in music, which stands out in comparison with other jazz
165
musicians or composers. Fischer is particularly known for his dramatic expressions
and rather extreme signs of feeling, such as tears or angry statements, in relation to
musical events. In interviews, he frequently talks about his experience of emotion in
relation to music. Consequently, Fischer’s concept of emotion deserves special
attention with regard to its expressive and communicative nature.
There are several statements that strongly support the theory that the correlation
between emotion and Fischer’s harmonic language is of special interest. Don
Shelton, one of his long-time musical colleagues, indicates that a strong emotional
quality in Fischer’s music is a property of his music:
Clare has always been very passionate and extremely emotional and all the
music [of Fischer] that I have sung and played through the years quite
simply radiates that. It’s built into the writing.107
Fischer himself goes a step further and claims to gain emotive quality from his
particular focus on harmonic developments:
I said feeling is harmony to me. … I don’t know why … whether it’s my

interest in concert music, or my interest in jazz … or whatever it was …
my orientation was always harmonic.108
Gary Foster, a highly educated musician and well-established woodwind player in

Los Angeles, supports this view and identifies Fischer’s harmony as the expressive
means for the emotional quality in his music:
To me, it’s in the harmony. The emotion is expressed not through romantic
or expressive ‘-isms’ on the instrument … It’s the richness of the harmony
and the way he plays it.109
All of these statements point towards a complex network of emotive aspects that
will be discussed in detail in this section. The methodology, developed specifically
for this study and discussed in the following subsection, takes into account Fischer’s
emotive concept of music and is intended to facilitate a detailed investigation of this
sensitive matter.
107
Interview by the author with Don Shelton on February 27, 2008 in Los Angeles.
108
Interview by the author with Clare Fischer on October 26, 2006 in Los Angeles.
109
Interview by the author with Gary Foster on February 27, 2008 in Los Angeles.
166
3.5.2 Methodology
Fischer’s life will be investigated in a descriptive, non-evaluative manner with

emphasis on the links between particularly emotional events and his concurrent
musical life. Another aspect of this method will be the examination of Fischer’s
biographical data as a contextual framework for a broader discussion of his
harmonic language. Most of the existing published biographical material is
perfunctory and superficial. The sources for Fischer biographies tend to comprise
prefaces in his books, and articles in jazz magazines and on certain websites.110
The new biographical data used in this study has been assembled from informal
conversations, Donna Fischer’s biographical collection, interview sessions with
Fischer, Donna, his son Brent, his brother Stewart, and with his long-time
colleagues Gary Foster, Don Shelton, Morris Repass, Steve Huffsteter and Kim
Richmond. Richmond was part of Fischer’s first big band around the late 1960s, but
has not played with Clare since then. However, he has since been involved in the
Los Angeles music and is able to document several personal and musical
experiences with Fischer. Most of Fischer’s colleagues who were interviewed have
been in close personal and musical contact with Fischer since the beginning of the
1960s, or earlier.111 All of these interviews took place in Los Angeles in February,
2008.
The interviews were conducted in person, with the twin goals of collecting data
regarding Fischer’s life, and material for use in a study of the concept of emotional
links between his music and life. As well as general questions regarding the
relationship of Fischer and the interview participants, the interview strategy
included the confrontation of the participants with recordings of Fischer’s music.
The recordings chosen were the compositions ‘The Early Years’ and ‘Du, Du liegst
mir im Herzen’, both of which are analysed in detail later in this study. The
information available at the time about these compositions led to the assumption
110
See the bibliography for full references regarding Fischer’s published biographies.
111
Morris Repass met Fischer in the US army band in Oklahoma in 1952 and Don Shelton
met him in 1959. Steve Huffsteter moved to Los Angeles in 1959, but could not remember
their first meeting. Fischer’s brother Stewart and his son Brent have been very close to him
for most of their lives.
167
that they both convey strong emotional power. The participants were informed
about the purpose to enquire into the emotive aspects of Fischer’s music. They were
then asked to listen to the music and talk freely about their own emotional
responses, and about any associations of Fischer with emotion that they might recall
while listening. The biographical data collected in the course of these interviews is
used throughout this study and the data concerning the concept of emotion in
Fischer’s music is used in the following discussion. The methodology for this
chapter is based loosely on common emotion theories and their position that music
conveys, arouses and represents emotion.112
In Chapter 3.2.6 of this study, the musical topic of the pianto was identified as a
crucial element in Fischer’s music that can be interpreted as an expressive musical
feature of a dysphoric state. Clearly, this element is particularly obvious in the
harmony of his slower pieces; often taking the form of long, descending chromatic
lines, it plays a particularly emotive role in his music.
There are other equally obvious examples of emotive elements in Fischer’s music
and life. For the purpose of this study, which is the examination of Fischer’s
harmonic language in terms of its emotional qualities, subdivision into four more
easily managed groups will be appropriate. These are:
1. experiences of emotion
2. signs of emotion
3. expressions of emotion
4. communication of emotion through and into music.
112
In particular, Malcolm Budd’s writings on music and emotion are considered for this
study. Please refer to the bibliography regarding a source list. Furthermore, several articles
of the Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism were reviewed. These include Derek
Matravers, ‘The Experience of Emotion’, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 61/4
(2003), 353-363 and David Carr, ‘Music, Meaning and Emotion’, The Journal of Aesthetics
and Art Criticism 62/3 (2004), 225-234. Additional articles include Herbert Schwartz,
‘Music and Emotion’, Perspectives of New Music 24/1 (1985), 98-101 and Geoffrey Madell
and Aaron Ridley, ‘Emotion and Feeling’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society:
Supplementary Volumes 71 (1997), 157-176.
168
Further analytical techniques such as divisions between obvious and encoded forms
of emotion, verbal and physical expression, and specific tools such as semiotics will
be used across the four groups. These emotive categories, which interact with each
other in complex ways, are discussed in the following sections.
3.5.3 Experiences of Emotion
The experiences of emotion relevant to this study are twofold, but linked in a
complex way. First, any dramatic experiences in life can stimulate positive and
negative emotions. These emotions gain relevance to music in general and to this
study in particular by their communication into and through music by means of
performance-based improvisation or composition, and can be remembered, recorded
and re-experienced at a subsequent time.
The loss of close friends has certainly stimulated Fischer’s emotions. There are
several instances where his reactions to such tragedies have been communicated
through his music. The deaths of Antonio Carlos Jobim and Francis Paudras, in
particular, need to be mentioned here. The effect of these emotional experiences
will be analysed in the paragraphs below.
Second, the act of listening to music can lead to the experience of a wide range of
emotions; these may be remembered emotions linked to previous experiences, or
‘new’ and abstract ones, created in ‘real-time’ by the immediate experience of
music.
During one interview, while listening to a recording of ‘The Early Years’, Donna
Fischer expressed going through ‘a lot of emotion’:
I know that he used that [composition] for his entry into Michigan State
[University] and that was the summer I was married. I don’t know if he
wrote that that summer or if he had written that prior to that. … It takes me
back to that summer when I was so torn. I was already engaged to the son
of a very close family. To fall in love with Clare that summer was just an
impossible situation … I feel a lot of emotion.113
113
Interview by the author with Donna Fischer on February 27, 2008 in Los Angeles.
169
Obviously Donna experienced mixed emotions in response to this listening
experience. This particular composition re-activated many diverse memories of the
period in which the piece was composed, and involved feelings over a broad range
from the positive (love), to the negative (anxiety).
In order to understand the emotions Donna expressed in the interview, it is

necessary to lay out briefly the biographical facts about the Fischers. They first met
and fell in love during their high school years as members of the school orchestra.
Clare was a cellist at that time and Donna a violist. Clare was already known as a
composer and the orchestra had performed one of his pieces.114 As Clare was also
associated with the local jazz musicians, Donna’s mother, who was a classical violin
teacher, did not approve of their relationship. According to both Clare and Donna’s
statements, she considered jazz musicians to be alcoholic, drugs-addled
womanizers. Donna was already engaged to the son of friends of her family, but, in
her own words, as cited above, ‘to fall in love with Clare that summer was just an
impossible situation’.115 Donna married her fiancé and Clare moved to Los Angeles.
Both had their own families and raised children. About four decades later, they met
again and finally married.
3.5.4 Signs of Emotion
While emotions can be expressed tangibly by such overt reactions as tears or

laughter, they may also be experienced without the appearance of recognizable
physical signs.
Fischer experienced concussion as a consequence of an accident around 1990.116

After that incident, his overt signs of emotion, especially weeping while listening to
touching music, have become more frequent. This is documented in an article
entitled ‘Voicing with a Heart’ in Keyboard magazine. The author describes Fischer
114
Conversation with Donna Fischer in February, 2008 in Los Angeles.
115
116
The exact date of the accident is unclear; however, an article in the Los Angeles Times
on July 3, 1992 reports the incident and his recovery. According to Donna, this article was
one of the main reasons for her reunion with Clare.
170
weeping after performing his composition ‘Pensativa’: ‘You’ll excuse me … but
something like that is enough to bring me to tears’.117 However, Fischer’s brother
Stewart, a prolific composer and arranger himself,118 remarked in his interview, that,
even before that accident, his brother was known to experience and to express
emotions in a direct way:
Yes, we both were, what in the business is called ‘cryers’. Thrilling music
makes us cry. Things of beauty, music of that quality … even when we
were kids … When I cry it’s thrilling usually, I think that’s what he
experiences as well … yes, to a certain extent we have been romantic. We
like other people when their music sings.119
According to this statement, even as a child Clare possessed a latent tendency for
tears as a symptom of emotion in relation to music. According to his family, the
concussion has probably intensified this tendency in his later life.
Behaviour like this is extremely rare in the music business. The jazz scene has
always been dominated by male musicians and, as in other social groups in Western
society, shedding tears is commonly perceived as a weakness in male communities.
Weeping may be accepted in extreme situations only, as an outlet for dramatically
oppressed feelings. Fischer’s tendency to weep while playing or listening to his own
or other music is very uncommon and as such is an unmistakable sign of the
significance of emotion in his musical being.
3.5.5 Expressions of Emotion
Expressions of emotion are characterized by their active nature, as opposed to the

passive nature of signs of emotion. Here, expressions of emotion are defined as an
action, and signs of emotion as a reaction of the body. Expressions of the emotive
aspect in Fischer’s music can be observed in his behaviour, and particularly in his
117
Ernie Rideout, ‘Master Class: Voicing with a Heart’, Keyboard 268293 (2000), 56.
118
For instance, Stewart Fischer’s compositions were recorded on the record Thesaurus.
119
Interview by the author with Stewart Fischer on February 27, 2008 in Los Angeles.
171
verbal and written communication. These expressions of emotion may also be
encoded in music and successfully decoded as musical topics, for instance.120
Fischer frequently talks about emotional situations in his life that he has subsumed
in his music. For instance, he is not shy to talk in public about his deep love of
Donna. During one of his concerts at the festival ‘Jazzsommer Graz’ in Austria, he
even explained to an audience of several hundred people how he reunited with his
teenage love Donna late in his life, after several decades of separation.121 The
following quote expresses another musical experience that was particularly
emotional for him: ‘I don’t know why I picked Shostakovich, there was just
something about him which tore me up inside and I have always been happy with
that’.122
Extraordinarily, Fischer expresses two divergent sentiments in relation to the

stimulation of Shostakovich’s music. At another point, he expresses the elation of
learning to improvise: ‘By the time I was 13 I had learned how to improvise. And
that’s feeling. Sit down and feel. And, God, that was a great experience to me’.123
Kim Richmond, an established saxophonist, composer and arranger in the Los

Angeles area, who played on Fischer’s album Thesaurus, remembers Fischer’s
emotional expressions of opposition to a certain piece of music that he obviously
disapproved of:
… Clare is not concerned with political considerations as far as the

business is concerned. And his mouth gets in the way of his going forward.
I went to one recording session, at MGM I think it was, and I was the guest
of somebody else, I was just sitting in on it, and Clare was making
comments from the piano that were detrimental to the composer, I don’t
remember who it was, but it was like making snipe comments … In other
words he didn’t really know how to play the game.124
120
Refer to Chapters 3.2.6 to 3.2.8 regarding a discussion of the pianto as a musical topic in
Fischer’s music.
121
Personal experience of the author in the audience of that particular concert.
122
Interview by the author with Clare Fischer on February 28, 2008 in Los Angeles.
123
Ibid.
124
Interview by the author with Kim Richmond on February 25, 2008 in Los Angeles.
172
Richmond’s comment refers not only to Fischer’s expression of hostility, but also
the negative implications of his behaviour in the music business. According to
Richmond, Fischer’s emotional attitude towards the music of other composers has
stirred up reactionary emotions among his peers. Richmond believes that this
behaviour has prevented Fischer from proceeding further in the music business.
Gary Foster has commented on this issue as well:
… there is no individual I have known in my life, who is, just to put it

simply, less entrepreneurial than he [Clare] is … and that is very hard to
be. In Hollywood everyone is banging their own drum.125
Expressions of emotion also occur in Fischer’s own writings, most obviously in the
titles of his compositions. Titles such as ‘Love Come Upon Me’, ‘Love’s Walk’ and
‘Donna, My Love’ (the latter is dedicated to Clare’s wife Donna), are obvious
examples of expressions of love. Reflections on love play a significant role in
Fischer’s musical life. The titles ‘Dancing Song’, ‘Waiting (for Jack’s plane)’ and
‘Western Airlines’ convey physical states of motion as well as related emotions
such as happiness and joy. The titles ‘Gentle Breeze’, ‘Ice Crystals’, ‘I Remember
Spring’ and ‘September Afternoon’ reflect Fischer’s impressionistic, musical
reflections about nature. Among the titles that express sadness there are a few that
were written shortly after the death of a close friend. Most notable among these are
‘Corcovado Funebre’, written in memory of Antonio Carlos Jobim and ‘Francis
Paudras’, a dark piece of music, written after Fischer had heard about the suicide of
the French artist, author and jazz collector, who was known as a patron of many
jazz musicians, including Bud Powell. Other pieces of that ilk include ‘Suddenly’,
written after the sudden death of another friend and ‘A Moment of Silence’, written
in memory of the wife of Fischer’s brother Stewart.
Of course, Fischer’s lyrics also express emotion. For example, his lines in the
composition ‘Elizete’ express love and happiness derived from love. Fischer’s lyrics
to ‘Carnaval’ express his affection for the rhythms of Brasilian music, as well as joy
in relation to dancing. Dancing can also be regarded as an expression of emotion
related to music.
125
173
Expressions of emotion can also be found in Fischer’s music. In general, the
musical expression of emotion appears in encoded forms, as music does not convey
emotion as recognizably as verbal or physical means. The idea of musical topics has
been developed as a powerful tool for decoding these abstract forms of emotive
expression in music.126 The musical topic of the pianto as an indicator of the
emotional quality of grief and lament in Fischer’s music is described in more detail
in Chapters 3.2.6 to 3.2.8.127
3.5.6 Communicating Emotion through and into Music
For the discussion of the communicative aspect with regard to Fischer’s music and
emotion, it is necessary to divide the catalysts of emotion in music into two groups:
composition and improvisation; the directions of the communication of emotion can
also be divided into two: from the music to the listener and from the
composer/improviser into the music.128 Within the music, any emotional content
conveyed by the composer or improviser is transformed or dissolved into abstract
musical events. As such, the music functions as a catalyst, which generates
emotional meaning for the composer, improviser and listener. Therefore the
emotional meaning that is perceived by the listener may or may not resemble the
emotional intention of the composer or improviser.
An interesting situation arises when the composer or improviser also becomes the
listener. This was the case during my interviews with Fischer when I played his own
music to him. His response after listening to the first few bars of his composition
‘The Early Years’ is particularly interesting. He began weeping soon after the
recording had started and said: ‘This is so long ago. This is like remembering your
life’.129 Later during the same interview he referred again to his emotional
126
This study refers to the theory of musical topics as developed by Leonard Gilbert Ratner,
Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980).
127
The pianto as a musical topic was described by Monelle in Sense of Music, 17-18, 66-73.
128
The role of gesture in the perception of emotion in the listener, with regard to the
improvising musician, is omitted here, as this study is only concerned with Fischer’s
harmony in notated music examples in the form of transcribed compositions.
129
174
experience while listening to music: ‘When I listen to music, I feel it as I am
hearing it’.130
The background to both statements here is that emotional meaning is being

communicated from the music to the listener, who also happens to be the composer
of the music. In the first example, Fischer remembered his ‘life ... so long ago’,
meaning his youth, given that he composed the piece at the end of his high school
years. While this quote does not provide references for the kind of feelings or
emotions that he experienced, considering his teary response, this was a deep
emotional moment for him.
The second quote describes broadly his feeling while listening to music, presumably
both his and other people’s. Donna Fischer also refers to this issue:
He [Fischer] is emotionally involved. He was when he wrote it, and he

returns to that same original emotion that he felt at the time he wrote it,
every time he performs it.131
She indicates that the piece communicates the same emotion to her husband now
that he had put into the music during the process of composition. Again, this
comment about Fischer’s music does not reveal any particular emotions that he
experienced either at the time of composition or in the re-listening.
Fischer’s writings demonstrate that there are certain recurring emotional themes in
his music. For example, Donna Fischer has described her husband as being greatly
affected in an emotional way after the loss of friends: ‘Many times when he loses
someone, his emotions are so strong that a song has resulted’.132 This comment
refers to Fischer’s way of converting emotion into music. Donna tells of her
husband having had vivid dreams that occasionally have also led to the creation of
new music. She remembered that the night after the Fischers heard about Francis
Paudras’s suicide, her husband got up in the middle of the night and started
improvising on the piano. ‘He remembered it very clearly the next morning and
130
131
132
Ibid.
175
wrote it down’.133 This is another significant incident, when Fischer converted
emotion into improvisation and then communicated remembered emotion in
combination with the experiences of his prior improvisations into a composition.
3.5.7 An Example of the Interaction of Emotive Elements in Fischer’s Music
In the case of the following quote, Fischer expresses a memory of an important

early experience with emotion in music. This quote is particularly crucial with
regard to this study of Fischer’s harmonic language in general and in relation to the
emotive and musical significance of Shostakovich’s first symphony in particular.
This symphony is of special relevance to the development of Fischer’s idiosyncratic
harmonic style and will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.1. While his statement
here represents a powerful expression of emotion in music, a closer examination
also uncovers links to the other emotive elements mentioned above:
I can still remember, there’s a cello solo in Shostakovich’s first symphony

and I can remember that when I … first heard that, I was in tears, it was so
beautiful. I can’t think of anything that affects me like that … It’s not just a
question of write notes and play notes, it’s feeling and I am so glad I’ve
had it. It’s been my ‘Raison d’être’.134
The first remarkable aspect of this quote is the fact that Fischer himself linked the
interviewer’s intention to enquire about emotion in his music with his memories of
his first encounter with Shostakovich’s first symphony. It is, of course, quite
surprising that Fischer mentions Shostakovich’s first symphony in relation to a
rather general enquiry about emotion in his own music. Interestingly, Fischer refers
both to the emotional quality of Shostakovich’s music and to the technical aspects;
he states that ‘it’s not just a question of write notes and play notes’, but, at the same
time, he does not deny that it is also a matter of ‘write notes and play notes’.
Certainly, while the technical aspects do play a major role in his compositional
process, they are very much the means to an end, which is the emotional context.
The second aspect of note in Fischer’s statement lies in the construction of these
aforementioned emotive elements. Fischer talks about the experience of strong
133
134
176
emotion when listening to Shostakovich’s first symphony – tears accompanied this
emotion. Fischer recalls this remembered emotion and claims the continuing strong
presence of the memory. This experience was characterized by a strong emotional
quality that was communicated through Shostakovich’s music and received by
Fischer.
3.5.8 Harmony, Emotion and Fischer
It is appropriate now to return to Fischer’s two statements that opened this chapter,
which, in considering the methodology described earlier, may now be analysed in
more detail:
I said feeling is harmony to me … I don’t know why … whether it’s my

interest in concert music, or my interest in jazz … or whatever it was …
my orientation was always harmonic.135
Fischer states here that feeling (as a component of emotion) equates to his interest in
harmonic expression. So if feeling equals harmony, then the inversion of the
argument – that harmony equals feeling, must also be also true. This finding is
crucial for all harmonic analysis of Fischer’s music. His harmony can, and perhaps
should, be understood as a means for emotional expression. And inversely,
harmonic developments, and perhaps certain harmonic complexities, communicate
some kind of emotion to Fischer.
Gary Foster’s argument supports this view and expands on it by adding Fischer’s
harmonic capability as an improviser to the process of communicating emotional
value:
To me, it’s in the harmony. The emotion is expressed not through romantic
or expressive ‘-isms’ on the instrument … It’s the richness of the harmony
and the way he plays it.136
135
Interview by the author with Clare Fischer on October 26, 2006 in Los Angeles.
136
177
The last sentence ‘the richness of the harmony and the way he plays it’ refers to
Foster’s appreciation of Fischer’s harmonic approach as an improviser, which can
be experienced in his solo piano recording of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’.
It will be clear by now that the technical analysis of Fischer’s harmony will lead to a
better understanding of the idea of emotion in his music. This section has
demonstrated the role of emotional quality in Fischer’s musical conception and the
interrelation of emotion with Fischer’s harmonic creations.
3.5.9 Loneliness, Elitism and ‘High-Art’
Throughout Chapter 3 I identified Fischer as a successful composer and arranger

within the music business whose success has allowed him to produce a long series
of compositions and musical recordings that have been acclaimed by critics and a
select audience; and yet they have not achieved any large-scale success among the
general public. However, Fischer’s productivity and creativity do not appear to have
suffered from this lack of large-scale recognition. He has continued to record music
for his own record label, avoiding any dependency on the mechanisms of the music
business, a position that sits well with this statement:
… I write for my own satisfaction … I suppose that sounds selfish, but I

don’t think of how it [the music] communicates to others. I’m happy and
delighted when it does, but that’s not my concern. My concern is having it
mean something to me.137
This statement deserves further examination with regard to its deeper implications
concerning Fischer’s personality and socio-cultural network, and also with regard to
the notion of meaning in his music.
Clearly, Fischer does not discourage the performance of his music, and indeed
welcomes his audience’s appreciative response. But he also expresses the
independence of his work from any outside appraisal. This position signifies his
identification with the concept of the confident artist who contributes to the high
137
Interview by the author with Clare and Stewart Fischer on September 26, 2006 at Clare
Fischer’s house in Los Angeles.
178
arts in a self-sustaining way, without depending on the assessment of his work by
others. The artist alone is responsible for the evaluation of his or her own work
according to aesthetic and moral values – a fundamental association with the idea of
Romanticism. This position also evokes other related socio-cultural concepts such
as l’art pour l’art, upper class and elitism, and the notions of loneliness and
melancholy.138 The dysphoria in Fischer’s music is conveyed in part through the
musical topics of the pianto and passus duriusculus, which are found frequently in
the form of descending chromatic events.
Loneliness is represented in the persona of the artist whose method of creating art
involves an isolated environment – isolation from any form of communication with
his audience and from any form of criticism. The artist generally claims to prefer
this isolated way of producing his or her art, but this isolation can also evoke the
notion of melancholy; the fostering and even promoting of isolation and the loss of
social participation during the process of creation.139
Generally, all these images of the lonely creative artist are not characteristic of the
genres of Latin or pop; even within the jazz genre they are only partially
characteristic. Latin and pop can be perceived as active forms of music, always
directed communicatively towards an audience. Even ethnic and folk music, as part
of the popular music genre, connect strongly with participating audiences and play a
certain communicative role within society. Within jazz, the persona of the
introverted, non-communicative artist is definitely found among musicians such as
Bill Evans and Gil Evans, and yet it stands in opposition to the evolution of jazz
138
The notion of l’art pour l’art is commonly credited to diverse artists of the nineteenth
century such as Théophile Gautier and Edgar Allan Poe. Their bohemian concept of art
being justified by itself stands in opposition to the purpose driven perception of art in other
societies such as the Soviet regime of the twentieth century. Regarding the notions of
upper-class and elitism refer to Tom Bottomore, Élites and Society, 2nd ed. (New York:
Routledge, 1993).
139
The introverted characters of several composers have been described in the literature.
For instance, composer and arranger Gil Evans is known for spending hours on his music,
locked into his private room: see Miles Davis’s characterization of Gil Evans in his
autobiography Miles Davis, Miles, The Autobiography: Miles Davis with Quincy Troupe,
(New York: Touchstone, 1990). Similarly, classical composers are known for their retreats
such as Gustav Mahler’s hut at the Wörthersee near Klagenfurt in Austria.
179
music as popular music within the entertainment sector.140 Fischer has participated
actively in the development of jazz as entertainment, as a member of various touring
bands, in various jam sessions and, of course, as an arranger in the pop industry. He
has also participated as a lecturer in masterclasses, which provide rare opportunities
to communicate the techniques and experiences of his creative art to a sympathetic
and inspired audience, such as one composed of college students.
Fischer, the academically trained musician, prefers to state his link to jazz as a
serious art form rather than be known for his work in the more broadly popular
entertainment sector. According to his statement above, he is not even interested in
‘how it communicates to others’. Despite the composer’s obvious disinterest in the
communicative aspect of his work, he may or may not be aware that his high-art
music does indeed communicate.
It has been noted before that Fischer communicates his ‘high-art’ approach actively
in workshops and masterclasses to interested students.141 The communicated content
refers mainly to structural issues in music, such as harmony, form and melodic
development. He also communicates emotive content in the course of his talks on
music. This includes his sentimental reactions while playing some of his own
recordings, as well as his emphasis on the emotional aspect of his musical approach.
In an interview published by the magazine Jazz Player in 2001, Fischer stated: ‘At
this point in my life compositionally, I’m more involved with how I feel; the
emotional element’.142 While this statement describes a more mature period in his
life, Fischer’s tendency to overt emotional expressions from an early age has been
shown previously in a quote related to Fischer’s first encounter with Shostakovich’s
first symphony.143
140
Historically, the perception of jazz music as an art form started with Norman Grantz’s
concert series ‘Jazz At The Philharmonic’ (1944) which for the first time exposed jazz
musicians, despite their race, to a wide audience on the concert stage.
141
The author attended one of Fischer’s workshops at the University of Music and Dramatic
Arts in Graz in 2000.
142
Phelps, ‘Clare Fischer’, 27.
143
As a child, he was already improvising at the piano according to his current feelings and
later, in one of his first large compositions, ‘The Early Years’, he communicated dysphoria
in the form of similar musical events to those found in the music of Shostakovich.
180
One interesting aspect of the discussion on the communicative powers of Fischer’s
music is the notion of his innate elitism and exclusivity. Complex chromatic
harmony can, of course, signify elitism and exclusivity to an audience as well as to
musicians and producers involved in jazz and popular music. The effect of this
categorization is twofold: there have been both positive and negative effects in
terms of Fischer’s career. The positive impact can be observed in the recording
industry’s continuing interest in using his arrangements. Fischer himself explained
his view of the reasons for his success in the pop industry as such:
I think the reason that I got writing for pop artists in the first place is the
fact that they felt I added a layer of sophistication to their music.144
The term ‘sophistication’ implies the notions of expertise and knowledge,

experience and perhaps even wisdom.145 This notion refers to an educated way of
writing that can hardly be achieved by the natural, untrained talents in the pop
industry or in show business. Fischer represents the expert who is capable of
‘adding that layer of sophistication’, in this case by providing interesting and at
times complex orchestral arrangements often derived from classical music. If the
use of classical orchestration in pop or jazz music signifies elitism and proximity to
the classical canon, the chromatic harmonic concept only adds to this perception as
the chromatic idea represents a later stage in the development of classical music.
Producers have long considered interesting orchestration essential for a high-

ranking pop production to stand out from similar projects. That sophistication by its
very nature creates exclusivity and elitism, as it is an extremely expensive
undertaking to hire a competent writer and pay for a recording by a large orchestra.
Only elite pop stars can afford to spend such large sums for the production of what
is essentially an ephemeral product.
In the context of jazz music too, although to a lesser extent, Fischer’s approach may
be said to represent elitism and exclusivity. Jazz trumpeters Donald Byrd and Dizzy
144
Sbacon1999 [Internet Pseudonym], Interview with Clare Fischer. (2006),
www.housequake.com/showthread.php?threadid=63884 (accessed 01.09.2007).
145
Please compare Oxford English Dictionary, http://dictionary.oed.com (accessed
02.09.2007).
181
Gillespie used his arrangements on their recordings September Afternoon and
Portrait of Duke Ellington respectively. As mentioned earlier, both artists hired
Fischer to arrange the music for large ensembles, and by doing so, indulged in
elitism simply by featuring themselves as the soloist in front of a large orchestra. As
in the pop music world, only the elite of jazz soloists are able to afford to spend
large sums of money on the production of an album.
182
CHAPTER 4: COMPARATIVE MUSICAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Dimitri Shostakovich’s 1st Symphony
Shostakovich completed his first symphony in 1925 when he was nineteen years
old. The work was very well received and established his reputation both in Russia
and abroad. As mentioned earlier, Fischer has frequently expressed his strong
emotions regarding this particular work and has reiterated its major role as an early
influence upon his musical development.1 The following section examines the cello
solo and its harmonic accompaniment in the fourth movement, as well as related
passages within the symphony.
4.1.1 Chromatic Voice Leading and Tonality in the 1st Symphony Cello Solo
The cello solo in the fourth movement of Shostakovich’s first symphony appears
from Figures 36–39. Largo indicates the slow, reflective tempo of the section. The
following score reduction shows the first part of the cello solo including the
accompanying low strings.
1
See Chapters 3.2.1 to 3.2.6 for a close discussion of Fischer’s relationship to Shostakovich
in general and to the cello solo in his first symphony in particular.
183
Example 4.1: Score reduction of Figures 36–37 in Shostakovich’s Symphony
No. 1, 4th movement2
The whole passage is centred upon the sustained F pedal in the bass. Although the
melody and the accompanying harmony seem to contradict a clear sense of tonality,
F minor is established in the second half of bar 2 and sustained to the end of bar 3 in
Example 4.1. The melody, despite its chromatic notes, emphasizes the related Ab
major tonality in the first two bars, before it locks into the stable fifth of the tonic F
minor, which is reconfirmed at Figure 37.
Harmonically, the characteristic element in bars 1 and 2 is the parallel descent of an

inverted minor triad. The triads move chromatically from Ab minor down to F
minor. Bars 5 and 6 start with a similar descent from Ab minor down to Gb minor,
followed by a chromatic ascent of the upper two notes of the second inversion of the
2
This and all subsequent score reductions were made by the author from Dimitri
Schostakowitsch, 1. Symphonie Op. 10: Taschenpartitur/Pocket Score (Hamburg:
Musikverlag Hans Sikorski).
184
Gb minor triad, while the lower note Db is sustained. On beat two of bar 5, the
resulting vertical structure, complemented by the melody note E, shows a four-part
Db diminished chord on top of the F pedal. According to conventional jazz theory,
this vertical structure conveys the clear dominant function of a rootless C7-9
dominant chord in the context of F minor (see Example 4.2). The chromatic motion
of triadic harmony on top of a pedal note resembles the harmonic device known as
‘chromatic planing’ in jazz theory and prominent in pieces such as ‘On Green
Dolphin Street’ by Bronislau Kaper and Ned Washington.3
Example 4.2: Bar 5 of Figure 36 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
The fundamental structure of the last two bars of Figure 36 to the first bar of Figure
37 can be seen as a dominant chain that leads back to F minor at Figure 37.
Example 4.3 shows a reduction of this passage.
Example 4.3: Voice-leading graph of the last bar of Figure 36 to the first bar of
Figure 37 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement,
broken lines represent register transfers
In bar 1 of this example, the lower structure F diminished chord can easily be
regarded as a rootless G dominant chord (V7 of V7) with the addition of a Gb
3
See Chapter 2.5.13 for the discussion of this harmonic technique in jazz compositions.
185
dissonance in the melody line, due to the presence of the third (B) and the flattened
ninth (Ab). While the following chord does not convey any obvious dominant
quality, all voices, except the pedal (tonic) F resolve by chromatic step into the F
minor triad. Particularly interesting is the resolution Db–C, the characteristic
semitone interval in the F minor key. As Daniel Harrison theorizes in his book
Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music, this significant semitone progression alone
conveys the characteristic harmonic discharge into a minor tonic. According to
Harrison’s theory, this chromatic chord conveys dominant function, despite the lack
of a dominant root.4
With regard to voice leading, the most striking aspect of this passage is the fact that,
with the exception of bars 3 to 4, all voices of the low string accompaniment move
chromatically. Nevertheless, at Figure 37, the tonality of F minor is clearly outlined
and confirmed by the appearance of the dominant chord root C which resolves back
to the F tonic. The mediant relationship F minor–Ab minor at Figure 37 can be seen
as a recapitulation of the relationship between the Ab minor triad in the first bar of
Figure 36 and the home tonality of F minor.
4.1.2 Re-harmonizations of the Cello Solo
The melody of the first part of the cello solo, which reduced Fischer to tears, can
also be found in other passages within the fourth movement in different
transpositions and harmonizations. In fact, this melody is one of the most prominent
motivic elements in this movement.
4
Harrison, Harmonic Function, 27, 45-102. William Hussey also refers to Harrison and a
similar theoretical relationship in an article about chromaticism in Shostakovich’s music:
‘A half step alone can, on some level, function as a dominant agent’ in Hussey, ‘Triadic
Post-Tonality’, paragraph 5.
186
Example 4.4: Transposed melodic comparison chart of the first part of the cello
solo in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
The melody is first introduced at Figure 18 in a tutti section, where it is played by

high strings, piccolo, flute, oboe and clarinet. It reappears as a violin solo at Figure
20 and as a French horn solo at Figure 22 before the aforementioned cello solo at
Figure 36. Towards the end of the symphony the melody is restated at Figure 44 by
high woodwinds and strings. Shostakovich also uses the first motive of the melody
at Figure 28, this time as a tutti solo by the horns which is echoed briefly by
trombone.
Example 4.4 shows a comparison chart of the first six bars of all five realisations of
this melody, all transposed to the key of C major. It is notable that the majority of
the different versions are identical with regard to their melodic contour. The cello
version at Figure 36 differs slightly in terms of the duration of certain sustained
notes. The melody at Figure 43 appears in alla breve in the original score. In
Example 4.4, the note values are shown in diminution (half of their original
duration) in order to allow a clearer comparison. For instance, the first melodic note
at Figure 43 appears as a whole note in the original score, as opposed to the half
note as shown in Example 4.4. Furthermore, the melody at Figure 43 moves a half
step lower than all other examples from bar 4 onwards. However, its the first three
bars equate to the earlier permutations.
187
Shostakovich uses different harmonizations for each appearance of this melody.
This technique recalls the jazz pianist’s approach of re-harmonizing the harmonic
circle of a typical jazz tune in the course of a performance. The following
examination of the harmonic differences between these five melodic statements will
reveal details regarding Shostakovich’s harmonic language and will provide a basis
for the examination of its potential influence on Fischer’s harmonic approach. The
discussion in Chapters 4.1.3 to 4.1.6 focuses on general issues of tonality,
chromaticism and voice leading, as well as on voice-leading procedures in
functional situations, such as V–I progressions. Chapter 4.1.7 summarizes the
examined features and draws conclusions and hypotheses from the methodological
perspective of a jazz musician such as Clare Fischer with regard to the usability of
these features in general jazz improvisation and, more particularly, in Fischer’s
music.
188
4.1.3 Figure 18
Example 4.5 shows a score reduction of the first appearance of Shostakovich’s

melody at Figure 18. The melody is played in octaves by high strings, piccolo,
flutes, oboes and clarinets. The composer’s tempo marking at this point is Allegro
molto.
Example 4.5: Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
The striking difference of this passage, in comparison with the cello solo at Figure
36, is the bright A major tonality as opposed to the earlier dark F minor tonality.
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The similarities between the two passages are also apparent: not only is the entire
section again underpinned by a tonic pedal note, but the accompaniment of the
melody in both sections opens with parallel triadic chromatic motion. At Figure 18,
Shostakovich uses an inverted A major triad, as opposed to the Ab minor triad at
Figure 36, and he employs a chromatic ascent in place of a descent. In bars 5 to 11
of Figure 18, he uses a chromatic voice-leading pattern that states a major triad at
the beginning of each bar, descending from Db major in bar 5 to Bb major in bar 8.
In bars 8 to 10, the accompanying voices imply a Bb major tonality placed upon the
A pedal note. The chord in bar 11 can be regarded as an E triad with a flattened
ninth. Despite the omission of the flattened seventh, this Eadd-9/G# chord represents a
variant of the dominant chord of the tonic A major. The tonic in this passage is
represented by Shostakovich’s key signature, by the first chord at Figure 18, as well
as by the A pedal. As shown in Example 4.6, the incomplete dominant chord is
reached by chromatic voice leading in combination with register transfers in all
voices prepared by an inverted F7 chord, which is placed upon the A pedal. This
F7/A chord appears as subV7/V.
Example 4.6: Last two bars of Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement
Similarly to the harmonic situation during the cello solo, Figure 18 also conveys its
sense of tonality by the tonic pedal note, despite the chromatic inflection of the
melody. However, in both sections, the melody emphasizes tonic chord tones at the
beginning and towards the end of the passage. Despite the tonal ambiguity which is
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caused by chromatic parallel motion in the accompaniment and by the non-diatonic
melodies, Shostakovich accentuates fundamental principles of tonal harmony, most
notably the dominant – tonic relationship at the end of the Figure 18 passage.
4.1.4 Figures 20 to 21
As shown earlier, the violin solo at Figure 20 uses the same melody as the cello
solo. However, the harmonic treatment of the melody here is much more complex
than at Figures 18 and 36.
Example 4.7: Figures 20 to 21 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4th movement
A sense of tonality is provided by the emphasis of the A major triads at the

beginning and end of this passage. In bar 5 the accompanying harmony shows an A
minor chord placed upon the added ninth in the bass. A notable linear aspect here is
Shostakovich’s application of descending bass lines. The bass note A in the first bar
moves down chromatically through the interval of a major third from A to F. From
bars 5 to 9, the bass line descends a perfect fifth from B to E. All other voices in the
accompaniment either descend by half step or are sustained.
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Particularly interesting is the transition from bars 4 to 5. Although the bass line
shows a leap from F to B, the voice leading of all three voices in the
accompaniment is represented by two chromatic steps (F–E and B#–B) and two
sustained voices (B#–C and E–E). Example 4.8 shows the voice leading of this
section. Chromatic steps are indicated by straight lines and the sustained note is
shown by a tie. Table 4.1 clarifies the chromatic voice leading between the two
bars:
Table 4.1: Voice leading between bars 5 and 6
E1 E1 sustained voice
B#1 C1 sustained voice
B chromatic descend
(voice split)
F E1 chromatic descend
(register transfer)
Example 4.8: Voice leading graph of bars 4 to 5 of Figure 20 in

Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
Another noteworthy voice-leading approach is to be found in bars 7 to 9 of Figure

20. Shostakovich employs chromatic anticipations within the tonal context of
dominant chords, as shown in Example 4.9.
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Example 4.9: Voice-leading graph of bars 7 to 9 of Figure 20 in
The first chord in the accompaniment outlines an F#7 chord, which resembles the
guide tones root, third and flattened seventh of a typical jazz voicing. The melody
adds the ninth G# and the fifth C#. In the second half of the bar, the root descends
chromatically, while the third and flattened seventh are sustained. The resulting
vertical structure outlines a somewhat obscure Fsus chord with an added major
seventh. From the vertical perspective the bass note F represents the anticipation of
the root F of the following dominant chord F7. The melody note C# adds the
-13
alteration to the F7 chord. Shostakovich continues this voice-leading pattern by
moving the chord root F down to E in the second half of this bar, while the third A
and flattened seventh D# are sustained. Again, the obscure vertical structure Esus
with a major seventh is the result of a horizontal anticipation of one of the following
chord tones. Here, the low E becomes the fifth of an A minor triad, which is reached
almost exclusively by chromatic voice leading, or through the sustained bass voice
E. The exception is represented by the note F# in the melody line, which provides
forward motion by resolving chromatically onto E# by register transfer on beat three
in the following bar.
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4.1.5 Figure 43
Section forty-three (Example 4.10) represents the final statement of this melody
before the full orchestra reaches a fiery Presto climax that concludes the symphony.
Example 4.10: Score reduction of Figure 43 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No.

1, 4th movement
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The tempo indication at Figure 43 is Piu mosso and the music is notated in alla
breve, MM = 132. The high strings and high woodwinds play the melody in unison
over a solid F pedal note played by low strings, bassoons and tuba. The trumpets
and horns have the accompanying harmony, while the trombones play a chromatic
counterpoint to the melody.
This section contains a fundamental tonal reference point similar to Figures 18 and
36: a tonic pedal note. Over the top of this, Shostakovich writes a colourful and
sometimes ambiguous harmonization that differs from those others. Despite the key
signature of F minor at figure 43 he develops his harmonies from an opening F
major tonality towards the F minor tonality at Figure 44. Two harmonic aspects
stand out: first, there are several clear dominant qualities to be found; and second,
the counter melody played by the trombones creates harsh dissonances within the
otherwise mostly consonant passage. Example 4.11 contains a reduction of the
harmonic accompaniment in combination with the melody.
Example 4.11: Voice-leading reduction showing the melodic line and

accompaniment at Figure 43 in Shostakovich’s Symphony
No. 1, 4th movement5
In this voice-leading graph the counter melody is reduced to its fundamental notes,
which appear in the lowest voice, just above the pedal. The broken vertical lines
5
The broken vertical lines indicate dissonant intervals between the melody and counter
melody.
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indicate where the counter melody clashes with the melody, producing a flattened
ninth. These dissonances are resolved by a chromatic ascent in the upper voice in
bars 2 and 7, and by a chromatic descent by the lower voice in bar 3. The chromatic
descent of the lower voice is a notable and consistent feature in this section, similar
to the linear motion at Figure 20. From bars 3 to 10, the lowest voice above the
pedal descends chromatically through a perfect fifth from F# to C#.
From the functional perspective, Figure 43 comprises several dominant chords.

Some of these convey their functional meaning in the context of the framework of
the passage, while others merely serve the purpose of providing harmonic colour.
The first dominant chord (F7addMa7) in bar 2 includes the major seventh, which results
in the aforementioned harsh dissonance. It does not fulfil its dominant role and
moves into another harsh dissonance in bar 3. This dissonance resolves into G7/F,
which represents the inverted secondary dominant of the following chord in bar 4.
This chord can be analysed as a rootless C7-9 chord, placed upon the F pedal; in
other words, Eo7/F conveys a clear dominant function in the key of F major or F
minor and justifies the role of the secondary dominant G7 (V7/V7) in bar 3.
However, Shostakovich does not resolve the dominant chord C7-9/F entirely onto a
tonic chord; he only moves one note, E down to Eb, which results in the more stable
Eb7/F chord. This dominant chord conveys the function bVII7, which in jazz theory
represents a modal interchange chord and, as such, a harmonic colour rather than a
dominant function, thereby fulfilling its resolution onto a tonic or temporary tonic.
Instead of resolving the dominant chord as expected, Shostakovich moves two notes
in contrary motion, Db to D in the top voice and Eb to D just above the pedal note.
By doing so, he creates a triadic dominant quality D+ in the upper structure, which
resolves into the upper structure triad G major of the following vertical
‘construction’. Indeed, this chord appears as a man-made ‘construction’, as it
contains the harsh dissonance of a flattened ninth. Nevertheless, the upper structure
triad G major fulfils its dominant role by resolving into the chord Cma7/F, which
works as a resting point for the dense harmonic and melodic development. This
chord provides a Lydian quality in the key of F major and may also be analysed as
an Fma7+11 chord, which lacks its major third. The transition from bars 11 to 12
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shows another tonicization: D+/F, which can be seen as an inverted Bb+/F, resolves
into Ebm/F. The chords F9 and F7-9 in bar 13, on the other hand, do not convey
functional meaning. They participate in a voice-leading process that transforms the
F major tonality into F minor tonality at Figure 44. This transformation process
includes the aforementioned dominant chords F9 and F7-9, as well as the diminished
chords Foadd6-2 and Foadd6. These diminished chords can also be seen as Abm7add11
and Abm6add11, which reiterate the mediant relationship, found in the harmonization
of the original cello solo in sections 36 and 37.
4.1.6 Figure 22
At Figure 22, as with the violin solo at Figure 20, a complex, mainly tonal
harmonization occurs. Here, the chromatic impetus is provided not only by the usual
large number of chromatic resolutions in the voice leading and by the piano’s
obvious high-pitched chromatic line, but also by the long chromatic lines in the
voice leading of some inner voices. A score reduction of Figure 22 is shown in
Example 4.12. The high-pitched piano part is notated two octaves below its original
register. The A major tonality of this section is obscured by such factors as: the
Ema7 chord in bar 1; the melody, which also seems to imply an E major tonality; the
lack of dominant seventh chords; the F#m chords at the end of the passage; and the
chromatic voice-leading events. However, as the discussion in the following section
will show, A major appears as the most convincing tonal designation for this
passage.
197
Example 4.12: Score reduction of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No.
1, 4th movement
The voice-leading graph in Example 4.13 reveals the long chromatic descent of the
second lowest voice from B through a major sixth to D. This graph disregards the
chromatic line of the piano, because it functions as embellishing material rather than
a structural element, owing to its high register.
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Example 4.13: Voice-leading graph of the first seven bars of Figure 22
in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
Example 4.14 shows a harmonic analysis of the voice leading from bar 4 into the A
major chord in bar 5 of this section. All voices, except for the uppermost line,
descend chromatically and create the following vertical progression: D#maddma7 –
Bbadd#11/D – A/C#. This progression is significant in this section, as the bright sound
and stable quality of the inverted A major triad participates in the identification of A
major as the tonic centre of this passage.
Example 4.14: Voice-leading graph of bars 4–5 of Figure 22 in

Although there is no dominant seventh chord in this example, the progression

resolves smoothly from the dark sounding D#maddma7 chord into the dissonant
inverted triad Bb/D in combination with the anticipated fifth E of the tonic A major.
The dissonance is created by the interval of a major seventh between the second
voice from the bottom and the uppermost voice (F–E). This dissonant structure can
be seen as an inverted subV triad that resolves into the inverted tonic chord A
major. The progression in Example 4.14 shows a variation of Shostakovich’s linear
chromatic voice leading approach in tonic resolutions that resemble the fundamental
V7–I relationship without relying exclusively on leading note resolutions.
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Towards the end of this section, the sonority of A major appears somewhat
ambiguous and needs some time to fully establish itself as the tonic chord against a
prevailing F# minor sonority. Example 4.15 shows a voice-leading reduction of
Figure 22. The chord symbols illustrate the harmonic situation towards the end of
this passage.
Example 4.15: Voice-leading graph of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s Symphony

No. 1, 4th movement
The tonic chord is first heard as an inverted F# minor triad because it emerges
chromatically from the F#/A# chord. As the F# descends chromatically towards the
note E, the vertical structure can be regarded as a F#m/A chord first, but on beat
four it represents itself rather as an A6 chord due to the strong perfect fifth between
the root and the fifth of the chord in the bass. Furthermore, the F# is now located in
a higher register and not readily perceived as the chord root. The very last note, A,
despite its high register, accentuates the chord root even more.
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4.1.7 Summary
As a common general harmonic feature, all examined musical excerpts from

Shostakovich’s first symphony comprise references to tonal centres which are
supported by the appearance of frequent V–I relationships and tonicizations.
However, a variety of chromatic voice-leading events appears as a harsh contrast to
the functional framework. Often these chromatic voices create ambiguous vertical
structures that obscure a straight-forward functional harmonic analysis utilizing jazz
theory as outlined earlier in Chapter 2.5. Furthermore, the fundamental functional
relationships never occur in their pure form V–I, which would represent one of the
most common, and theoretically sound, harmonic forms of tension and complete
release. In many cases, the dominant chords occur in inversions, such as G7-9/B in
the key of C major. Often, dominant chords are shown inverted and placed upon
pedal points, such as Do/C–C+.6 In addition to the uncommon appearance of the
dominant chord, the tonic destination occurs simultaneously with the emergence of
another tension (#5). Very often, but not always, these functional harmonic
relationships are chromatically altered to such a high extent, so that these chromatic
V–I resolutions that cannot be discovered through a vertical analysis alone. Vertical
analyses and the consideration of the different constituents of functional triads offer
possible analytical solutions. As previously mentioned, Harrison has discussed the
ways dominant basses and agents interact with chromatic resolutions in chromatic
chords that convey dominant function.7
This section will summarize the harmonic and linear events of the analysed excerpts
of Shostakovich’s first symphony. It starts with a documentation of tonality, then
describes the different forms of V–I relationships and finishes with an examination
of chromatic voice leading that emphasises triadic chromatic resolutions.
Although Shostakovich never uses conventional V–I progressions to establish the

tonality in the harmonization of the melody discussed in this section, he always
conveys a sense of tonality by means of two basic procedures:
6
Do functions as a rootless G7-9 chord on top of a C pedal, which resolves into a relatively
unstable C+ chord.
7
Harrison, Harmonic Function.
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1. the use of a tonic pedal note
2. the starting and ending points of all examined sections are based on
the fundamental functions tonic, tonic parallel, related tonic or
dominant.
The following table shows a comparative vertical analysis of all examined sections
transposed into the key of C major or A minor respectively. The following
discussion also refers to the transposed sections.
As discussed previously, the melodies of these sections are identical only for the
first six bars. Figure 18 finds a temporary ending in its sixth bar, while all other
sections are developed further until they reach a temporary closure. Figure 18 closes
on the dominant chord. Closure on the tonic chord is achieved at Figures 20, 22, 36
and 43. The latter section opens in C major, but closes in C minor. Figure 22
represent a special case in this study. As opposed to all other sections, it does not
state the tonic at the beginning: it starts in G major, reaches G minor and proceeds
to various representations of C minor before it closes in C major. The opening tonic
in Figure 36 is created by the tonic bass note only, although the upper structure triad
represents a mediant relationship, before it reaches the tonic triad A minor in bar 2.
Tables 4.2 to 4.4 illustrate the comparison of all harmonizations of the prominent
melodic theme used in the fourth movement of Shostakovich’s first symphony, the
same material that Fischer has cited often as a major early influence with regard to
its harmonic and emotional qualities. The chord symbols aim to illustrate the most
prominent constituents of the vertical structures at the downbeats one and three
within each bar. Occasionally, there are more than three or four significant vertical
structures to be found within one chord.
202
Table 4.2: Comparative vertical analysis of all examined sections, bars 1–4,
(transposed into the key of C)
Section Bar 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4
Section 18 C – Db/C – D/C D/C – Eb/C – E/C E/C – Eb/C D/C – Db/C
Section 20 Cma7 Coadd9 – Ab7/C B6 – Ebo/Bb B7/A – Abma7
Section 22 Gma7 A/G – Ao/G G+ – Gm6no5 F#mma7 – Dbadd+11/F
Section 36 Cm/A – Bm/A Bbm/A – Am Am Cm/A – Bm/A
Section 43 C – C7addma7 Dma7/C – D7/C – Bo7/C Bb7/C – A+/C D/Ab/C – Gma7/C
Section Bar 5 Bar 6 Bar 7
Section 18 Db/C – Bb/A – F7/A G7-9/B -
Section 20 Cm/D – Cm/Db Dno5/C – Bm Ebma7/Bb – Am7-5
Section 22 C/E – Am7 – Am7add13 F#mma7/A# Bm7-5 – Cmma7-6
Section 36 Bbm/A – Bo/A Bo/A – Co7 Co7 – F7/A
Section 43 Gma7/C – G#m-5/C A+/C – Bbm/C C9 – C7-9 – Coadd6-2 – Coadd6
Section Bar 8 Bar 9 Bar 10 Bar 11 Bar 12
Section 18 - - - - -
Section 20 A9 – A9/Ab Ab7-13 – Ab7-13/G Cm/G – Cm7-5 Do C/G
Section 22 Cmma7-6 – A7/C# Gm/D Gm/D – A/C# Am/C C6
Section 36 Am – Cm/A Am – Cm/A Am - -
Section 43 Cm - - - -
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The dominant function material found in the analysed excerpts of this movement
can be divided into three categories:
1. inverted forms (for example: G7-9/B, in the key of C)

2. diminished chords, which function as dominant chords in certain
harmonic contexts (for example: Do/C – C+)
3. chromatic V–I resolutions (for example: Bbadd11/D – A/C#).
The chromaticism in the voice leading found in the analysed excerpts can be
categorized as follows:
1. chromatic planing of constant structures on top of pedal notes such as C

– Db/C – D/C – Eb/C
2. chromatically descending bass line or inner voice in combination with
contrapuntal movements of other voices
3. chromatic suspensions or anticipations in functional V–I situations
4. chromatic alterations of chord tones in functional V–I situations
5. chromatic resolutions to the tonic or temporary tonic (tonicization)
without any evidence of functional relationships.
The last two categories involve a challenge for the analyst. On the one hand, a
vertical, functional harmonic analysis is necessary for the identification of
functional V–I progressions and for tonicizations. A pure linear analysis would
neglect the evidence of functional relationships. On the other hand, the same
vertical method does not contribute towards an explanation of many of the
chromatic alterations of chord tones in functional V–I situations. Shostakovich
draws from a variety of triadic chromatic resolutions. All theoretic possibilities of
such chromatic resolutions, given that no chord tone is sustained, were discussed in
Chapter 2.1.
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4.2 Clare Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’
It is an interesting fact that at around the age of nineteen, at which Shostakovich had
written his first symphony, Fischer also composed a slow piece of music which
resembles much of the musical content in the slow sections of Shostakovich’s
symphony. Fischer submitted this piece to the composition department when
entering Michigan State University as a cellist in 1947. Many years later, in 1999,
he recorded this piece as the middle movement of his Suite for Cello and String
Orchestra.8 As part of this suite, Fischer titled the slow movement ‘The Early
Years’. In 2001, the year of the CD release, the score was published by the company
Advance Music.9 Despite these publications, the piece remains unknown to a wider
audience. The following paragraphs will provide an introduction to the
composition’s themes, motives, harmony and other relevant features in order to
provide a basis for the comparative analysis to the cello solo in the fourth movement
of Shostakovich’s first symphony.
As with the examples from Shostakovich’s symphony, the music of ‘The Early
Years’ is dark and melancholic in character and consists of a lyrical, yet highly
chromatic melody accompanied by low string material consisting mainly of
sustained notes. The piece contains two main themes; the first is introduced in bar 3
after a short introduction by the cello, while the second is introduced in bar 10.
Example 4.16: First theme of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’
The first theme (Example 4.16), which is seven bars long, can be regarded as the
composition’s main theme for three reasons: it appears four times throughout the
piece; it opens and closes the piece; and it contains the composition’s most
8
Clare Fischer, After The Rain (CFP012201, 2001).
9
Clare Fischer, Suite for Cello and String Orchestra (Rottenburg: Advance Music, 2001).
All score reductions of this piece in this study are based on this publication by Advance
Music.
205
frequently used motivic element. This motive consists of the interval of a
descending minor third preceded by a chromatic descending approach note (see
Example 4.17).
Example 4.17: Main motive in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’
Occasionally this motive appears in an altered version with a major third instead of
a minor third, such as in the long middle section from bars 57–83. This middle
section is developed from the composition’s main phrase, which comprises the first
two bars of the first theme.
The second theme, which is eight bars in length, appears three times throughout the
composition (see Example 4.18).
Example 4.18: Second theme in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’
This theme starts with another significant motive, comprising the interval of a rising
octave, followed by a descending line. Fischer uses the second theme three times in
the piece. The consistent use of the two main themes and motives provides a general
formal coherence to this composition.
4.2.1 Harmonic Ambiguity in ‘The Early Years’
All elements, melodic and harmonic, comprise a high degree of chromaticism,

which contributes towards the general complexity of the piece. A sense of tonality is
conveyed throughout, but often in a rather ambiguous way. For instance, the
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opening section (see Example 4.19) initially suggests F minor as the tonal centre,
which is supported by its dominant C7+9-13 in bar 6, but this impression is
subsequently disturbed by a lack of functional progression and the occurrence of
frequent chromatic progressions and unstable vertical structures.
Example 4.19: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 1–11
Some of this ambiguity is provided by the pivotal E+ma7 chord in bar 9, which can
be perceived as either an unstable tonic chord or as having a chromatic dominant
function that strives for resolution onto the following Fm7-5 chord (which, again, is
rather unstable). The following Eb/G chord provides stability briefly, although a
chromatically ascending triplet figure in the lowest middle voice, just above the
bass line, provides forward motion that weakens the perception of stability. All
three chords, E+ma7, Fm7-5 and Eb/G, have some potential to be perceived as altered
tonic chords in this context but none is stable enough to fulfil this role satisfactorily.
207
In all three cases, those notes that create instability are reached and abandoned by
chromatic lines.
The note C in E+ma7 weakens the tonic quality and may serve as an anticipation of
the following chord’s (Fm7-5) fifth, which, in fact, appears unexpectedly as a
flattened fifth. Nevertheless, the note C is left by a chromatically ascending line that
resolves into Eb, the flattened seventh in Fm7-5. The note Eb in Ema7+5 is reached by
a longer chromatic descent that started in bar 6. In bar 9 it is left by another
chromatic descent that leads towards the highly unstable note B in the following
chord Fm7-5. Here, the chromatic line changes its direction and the note B is
eventually resolved into the root of the inverted Eb major triad. This triad creates
the brief illusion of a stable tonic. However, it is soon weakened by the quick
chromatic ascent Eb–E–F–Gb. Further instability is provided by the melody which,
having already anticipated the chord root Eb in bar 10, begins a descent on beat two
of bar 11.
4.2.2 Structure and Stability in ‘The Early Years’
With regard to harmonic ambiguity, this opening passage exemplifies the

complexities apparent throughout the piece. Similar complex forces continue to
govern the perception of tonal ambiguity, with some exceptions that provide
structure and stability within the chromatic web:
1. final resting point and tonic chord

2. recurring and repeated figures
3. extended diatonic section
4. V – I progressions, tonicizations and chromatic dominants (linear
dominant chords)
5. chromatic planing10
An examination of these five structure- and stability-providing elements is essential

here. Special consideration will be given to V–I progressions, tonicizations,
10
Chromatic planing is explained in Chapter 2.5.13.
208
chromatic dominants and chromatic planing. These elements not only represent
structure within Fischer’s harmonically complex composition, but they also show
some of his salient harmonic devices, which are the main subjects of this study.
4.2.2.1 Final resting point and tonic chord
The final resting point of the composition and the final confirmation of the tonal
centre is reached towards almost at the end by means of a basic E major triad (see
Example 4.20).
Example 4.20: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 110 to the
end
It is hardly possible to perceive the entire piece in E major, but this simple triad
definitely serves as a point of rest and relief after the complex and chromatic
harmonic developments of this composition. In a recent interview, Fischer himself
stated that he had not thought of any tonal centre while composing the piece, but
had rather pursued melodic and harmonic developments, guided by his emotions.11
4.2.2.2 Recurring and repeated figures
The employment of recurring, repeated and sequential figures generates contrast

and structure within the complex harmonic web of this composition. The recurring
figures include transpositions of the main themes, motives and phrases. Sequential
11
This statement was made by Fischer during an informal conversation after an interview
with the author at Fischer’s house on March 1, 2008.
209
figures describe three or more subsequent appearances of smaller melodic entities
such as motives or phrases. For instance, the recurring second theme is found in
transposed form in bar 43, a half step higher than in its first version in bar 10. In bar
51 the second theme re-appears a tritone above its first version. Both re-appearances
of this theme fulfil the listener’s aural expectations and thus contribute to the
perception of musical structure. Other recurring figures include the main motive and
the opening phrase of the first theme. These motives and phrases are often
incorporated in repeated or sequential patterns. One substantial passage that
contains numerous recurring motives and phrases in repeated patterns occurs
between bars 57 and 71, as shown in Example 4.21.
210
The passage in Example 4.21 is comprised exclusively of repetitions and sequential
transpositions of the main motive and phrase. It is not only the melodic elements
that are repeated and transposed, but also the accompanying harmonies. For
instance, the harmonic accompaniment in bars 60–62 supports a transposition of
bars 57–59. The melodic and harmonic repetitions, sequences and transpositions
contribute to the general coherence of the composition, despite the fact that this
particular passage offers a clear contrast to the complex harmonies and melodic
lines of the main body of the work.
As well as the frequent use of the main motives, phrases and themes, there are also
recurrences, repetitions and sequences of less prominent motives and phrases to be
found here, such as occur in the passage from bars 30–41. In contrast to the
previous section, these motives and phrases (see Example 4.22) represent new
material, which is not prominent elsewhere in the composition.
211
Of particular interest here is the passage from bars 36–41, which is constructed as a
melodic and harmonic sequence of a two-bar phrase (phrase 2). Both the melodic
and harmonic content of phrase two are employed successively three times, with the
exception of the final bar, where there is a slight variation of melody and harmony.
Representation three (bars 40-41) is a tone lower than representation two, which is a
tone below representation one. This chromatically altered descending fifths
sequence is preceded by an exact repetition of a one-bar motive (motive 1: bars 34-
35), with a slightly different harmonic accompaniment. The beginning of this
passage shows the transposed repetition of a phrase (phrase 1), which is a
conceptual but not parallel transposition. The second representation of phrase one is
212
essentially a minor third above the first representation, but includes small changes
in melodic and harmonic material.
Although phrases one and two, and motive one represent independent and non-
prominent melodic material, it is notable that all melodic material of this section is
developed from the main melodic material of Fischer’s composition. For example,
phrase one consists of a whole note followed by a series of eight notes, which
resembles the contour of the last phrase in the second theme, while the repeated
notes in motive one which are followed by a short descending line are similar to the
beginning of the second main theme.
4.2.2.3 Extended diatonic section
There is an extended diatonic section from bars 72–83, which provides another
significant contrasting element in Fischer’s complex composition. The entire
passage (see Example 4.23) is centred upon a Bb pedal note and is exclusively
constructed from the diatonic material within the Bb Mixolydian scale. The passage
can also be seen as being derived from E flat major over a dominant pedal. The
melodic material is derived from the composition’s main motives and phrases and it
is constructed by means of repetitions and transpositions. Interestingly, the main
motive is slightly altered and contains a major third instead of a minor third.
This passage represents the composition’s peak in terms of intensity and range. The
Bb pedal works as a harmonic and melodic anchor, providing aural relief and
stability in the midst of the composition’s weaving chromatic lines and harmonies.
However, it creates only a temporary illusionary tonal centre, as the piece returns to
complex chromatic harmonies before ending on its final E major tonality.
213
214
4.2.2.4 Basic Progressions (subV–I and V–I progressions, tonicizations and
chromatic connections)
subV–I, subV–I progressions and subV–I tonicizations
Despite the intriguing chromatic harmonies of Fischer’s composition and

considerable ambiguity regarding tonality, there are numerous functional harmonic
elements and relationships such as V–I progressions, tonicizations and linear
dominant chords. Pure diatonic V–I progressions are extremely rare due to the
aforementioned harmonic ambiguity regarding tonality. Only the transition to the
final E major tonic chord from bars 109–110 shows a clear subV7–I progression (see
Example 4.24). The chord on beat four in bar 109 (F7-9-13) represents an altered
tritone substitution of the final tonic’s logical dominant B7.
Example 4.24: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 109 to the
end
SubV chords are frequently found within the composition, but apart from the
progression discussed above, they are all used as tonicizations of various chords. A
typical example may be found at the end of bar 11, where an F7-13 chord functions as
the subV7 of the following E+ chord, which serves as a temporary tonic in this
context (see Example 4.25).
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Fischer also uses more complex subV tonicizations which appear in the following
forms:
subVsus7-9-13 in bars 93–94

subVsus7-9 in bars 94–95
SubV in bars 98–101
The section from bars 98–101 is particular noteworthy (see Example 4.26). The first
vertical structure appears as a poly-chord consisting of a C major triad placed upon
an F# major triad. This structure can also be identified as an inverted C7 dominant
chord, placed on top of an F# major triad, or as a C major triad, placed upon the
guide tones of an F# dominant chord. In the first case, both chords share the pitch B
flat, which represents the flattened seventh in the C7 chord and the third in the F#
major triad. In the case of C/F#7, both structures share the pitch E, which functions
as the flattened seventh of F#7, or as the third of the C major triad.
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In the first chord shown, the C7 component functions as the subV7 of the following
B7 chord, while the lower structure triad represents the pure dominant triad of the
upper structure triad B of the subsequent (B/F) B7/F poly-chord. The functional
connection is even stronger, as C7 also serves as the V7 chord of the following lower
structure triad F, and the F# triad seeks V–I resolution in the subsequent upper
structure B7. In the second case the F# dominant chord resolves as the subV7 of the
subsequent F7 chord and as the V7 of the subsequent B major triad upper structure,
while the upper C major triad resolves as V of the subsequent lower structure F and
as the subV of the subsequent upper structure B major triad.
In a similar way, the B/F poly-chord tonicizises the following Bb/E (Bb7/E) poly-
chord. This structure can be analysed as another poly-chordal subV/V–I tonicization
which resolves to the subsequent A/Eb (A7/Eb) poly-chord.
The cross-relations and pivotal character of these progressions resemble the so-
called ‘bebop cross’, a phenomenon found frequently in theories of tonal jazz.12
Here, Fischer employs both the dominant and its tritone substitution simultaneously
in the form of a poly-chord. In the context of this composition, the sudden
12
See Chapter 2.5.10.
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appearance of these poly-chords and their functional resolutions provides another
intriguing and contrasting aural sensation just before the final reprise of the first
theme brings the piece to an end.
II–V–I progressions
While II–V–I progressions do not play a particularly significant part in the

harmonic web of this composition, from the perspective of a jazz musician, an
examination of the role of this progression, which is so crucial in tonal jazz, is
always relevant. Fischer employs three types of II–V–I progressions, but none of
these appears in the form IIm7–V7–Ima7, most typically found in tonal jazz. The first
type employed by Fischer appears in the form IImma7–Vma7–V7–I7 as a part of the
first theme in bars 5, 22 and 106 (see Example 4.27).
Example 4.27: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 5–6,
type one II–V–I progressions
The root movement of descending fifths, the voicings which are basically built upon
the guide tones in the lower register and the basic chord qualities of IIm–V7
resemble the typical II–V–I progression in four-part harmony and yet, the Dmma7
quality as well as the brief Gma7+9 chord on beat three is unusual within a II–V–I
progression in the context of tonal jazz. The major seventh Db in the chord Dmma7
results from a sustained flattened seventh of the previous Ebsus7 chord.13 The minor
third F, which, in the conventional II–V progression, would normally be sustained
13
The sustained voice Db from the previous Ebsus7 chord accounts for the enharmonic
spelling Db of the seventh of the Dmma7 chord.
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to become the flattened seventh in the following dominant chord, is raised
chromatically and appears as the major seventh of the expected dominant seventh
chord. On beat four, the flattened seventh F is reached and, simultaneously, the bass
line starts a rapid chromatic ascent to the root C. Considering the ascending bass
line, the chord symbol G7+9-13 does not fully reflect the voice-leading situation, but it
does take into account the acoustic trace of the logical dominant root G. As we can
see in the score reduction, the two lowest voices move chromatically in contrary
motion towards the root and major third in the final chord C7+9-13.
The first type of Fischer’s II–V–I progressions consists of typical jazz voicings and
chord extensions, but shows an unusually high percentage of major sevenths in
conjunction with typical thirds. The second type of II–V–I progressions, found only
once in this piece, shows similar features to type one.
Type two appears as another variant of a chromatically inflected II–V–I

progression, as shown in Example 4.28. Again, Fischer employs chromatically
moving inner voices which result in a brief embellishment of the dominant chord’s
seventh. As in type one, the flattened seventh in the first chord is raised
chromatically to become the dominant chord’s major seventh (C–Db), which
consequently resolves via the dominant’s flattened seventh C into the G major
seventh chord’s major third B. In contrast to type one, this motion is mirrored by
another voice, one whole step higher (Eb–D). This upper voice moves in parallel
motion and splits into the chromatically ascending line C#–D–D#–E), as soon as the
lower voice reaches the G major chords’ major third.
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Example 4.28: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bars 27–28,
type two II–V–I progressions
The third type of II–V–I root progression is found in bars 103–104, as illustrated in
Example 4.29. This progression represents the transition to the final representation
of the first theme. Interestingly, the dominant chord C7-9+9 is shown in a typical jazz
voicing without the chromatic embellishment to the major seventh seen in types one
and two. Again, the major seventh of the IImma9 chord results from a suspended note
of the previous bar.
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II–V sequences
II–V sequences appear in two sections of Fischer’s composition. The first of these
comprises bars 36–41 and the second, bars 57–66. The harmonic formulae that lie at
the heart of each sequence in the first section, represent interesting variants of a
common IIm–V7 progression. Through repeated use within the sequence and
through their functional quality, these formulae gain an exclusive character within
Fischer’s composition, as discussed in the section at Example 4.22.
Example 4.30 shows the first progression of the two-bar formula that is
subsequently sequenced three times in a row, each time one whole step below the
previous one. The core progression Bm7-5–Esus7 is surrounded by vertical structures
that result from different chromatic connections between chords.
The first chord Bb+ma7-9 is quite unusual in the context of tonal jazz, but should be
regarded as a vertical structure which contains suspensions that resolve into the
more conventional m7-5 quality on beat three. The low Bb, which creates a harsh
dissonance with the diatonic melody note B, and the note F# resolve in contrary
motion towards the more stable, or, at least, more conventional tones B and F within
the functional vertical structure Bm7-5.
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Example 4.31 shows the analysis of bar 37 and its transition to the following bar. As
in bar 36, there is one chord (E6-9-13) that represents an unusual vertical structure
within a II–V progression. However, this unusual structure comprises the
conventional upper structure triad Db which resolves chromatically into an inverted
C major triad in the following chord. Characteristic of this progression are the
chromatic resolutions of uncommon chord tones Db and Ab into the common chord
tones C and G, as well as the triadic organization within uncommon vertical
structures. The two-bar formula in bars 36–37 represents a II–V progression which
is chromatically inflected by dissonant suspensions and equally dissonant upper
structure triads.
The second sequential II–V section, in bars 57–66, consists of a three-bar formula,
as shown in Example 4.32. The second sequential unit appears a minor third below
the first, and after a brief interruption in bar 63, the last appearance of the formula is
shown a major third below the second (see Example 4.22 above). Similarly to the
section in bars 36–41, the harmonic formula here also comprises a linear variation
of a II–V progression.
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The change in chord quality on the II chord Ebmma7–Ebm7 results from the melody
line motion, in which the major seventh D is emphasised before it resolves into the
flattened seventh Db. The major third C of the V chord Ab9+11 is represented only
briefly in the top voice, and yet it appears as the anticipated resolution of the more
dissonant note Db that is sustained into bar 58. The second half of this bar shows a
more dissonant version of a V7 chord, Ab7-9+9no3, which appears without its major
third. Particularly notable is the harsh dissonance in the lowest interval of a
flattened ninth between the bass note Ab and the lowest middle voice A. Bar 59
appears as an extension of the V chord and simultaneously introduces a chromatic
ascending bass line which leads towards the second representation of this harmonic
II–V formula.
As shown in bar 58, characteristic of this II–V formula are the chromatic resolutions
of uncommon chord tones into common chords such as Db resolving into C, the
third of Ab9+11. The change of colour within the dominant chord is also realized by
chromatic voice leading in the uppermost voice and in the voice just above the bass
note. Another aspect of chromaticism is found in the melodic line of the entire
three-bar passage, which is based on a chromatically descending line (see Example
4.33).
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Example 4.33: Chromatic melody line in bars 57–59
V–I tonicizations and other progressions based on V–I root progressions
In this composition, V–I tonicizations are less frequently found than the subV–I
progressions discussed above and yet there are two types to be identified. The first
type includes the strong root progression by descending fifth in combination with
functional voice leading in the form of leading tone resolutions. The second type of
V–I tonicization is also based on the strong V–I root progression, but here the V
chord shows a close linear proximity towards the chord it resolves to, instead of
functional leading tone resolutions. This linear proximity comprises chromatic voice
leading and scale step resolutions that replace the conventional functional
relationships. One tonicization in this composition (examined in Example 4.41
below), shows both a V–I root progression and a close linear proximity that can be
analysed as belonging to either the first or second type of tonicization.
Type one tonicizations
A typical example of tonicization of the first group is found in bar 15 (see Example
4.34). Fischer employs an A7-5 chord that tonicizises the following Dmma7 chord.
This tonicization includes the leading tone resolution C#–D and the resolution of
the dominant chord’s flattened seventh G into the following chord’s minor third F.
The dominant chord’s flattened fifth Eb is resolved chromatically into the following
chord root. Similar straight-forward tonicizations, which include leading tone
resolutions, appear in bars 19, 48, 55 and 102.
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Other examples of the first type of tonicization are found in bars 14 and 47 as part
of the first and second appearances respectively of the second main theme. Example
4.35 shows the first appearance, in bar 14. The Dominant chord Bb9 at the end of
bar 14 appears in its most simple form, in root position, whereas the following subV
chord’s inversion provides the root progression of a descending fifth. In this
example, the basic dominant chord structure Bb9 anticipates a simple tonicization,
but the expectation of a temporary tonic destination chord rooted on Eb is blurred
by an inverted destination Dominant chord (B7-9/Eb) which functions as a subV of
the following Bbm7 chord.
Other examples of tonicizations in the work appear with various degrees of

alteration regarding the dominant chord. Example 4.36 shows the tonicization in
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bars 95–96, which is characterized by the chromatic alteration of a rather
conventional dominant quality Ebsus7 into the unconventional quality Ebma7+9+11.
Although there is no flattened seventh to be found in this vertical structure, it still
conveys a dominant quality for two reasons: first, it represents an altered
prolongation of the previous Ebsus9 chord, and second the structure resolves
entirely chromatically onto the destination chord. This Ab minor destination chord
shows the composition’s characteristic chromatic resolution of the major seventh G
to the flattened seventh Gb.
The voice-leading graph in Example 4.37 illustrates the chromatic voice movements
within these bars, some of which are disguised by register transfers. The solid lines
indicate chromatic voice leading and the broken line shows the strong root
progression by (inverted) descending fifth. Two notes, G and B, are sustained from
bar 95 into bar 96.
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Type two tonicizations
Other examples of chromatic resolutions underpinned by a V–I root progression

may be found in bars 46–47 and 54–55. These examples refer to the second type of
tonicization in this composition, characterized by linear proximity rather than
leading tone resolutions. Examples 4.38 and 4.39 show reciprocal passages within
two separate versions of the second main theme. As in Example 4.37, the solid lines
indicate chromatic resolutions and sustained voices, while the broken line represents
the strong root progression by descending fifth.
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In Examples 4.38 and 4.39, the chord symbols do not indicate tonicizations. Both
chords which convey the function of tonicization, consist of complex vertical
structures that can be analysed as four-part upper structures, placed on top of a
dominant root. F#mma7-5/C and Bmma7-5/F do not contain any obvious functional
attributes of dominant chords such as major thirds or flattened sevenths. No
disguised elements of these functional attributes (obscured by voice-leading
approaches), such as anticipations or suspensions, can be identified in these
examples either. This type of tonicization is characterized solely by non-functional
chromatic connections that are supported by the strong functional root progression
of a descending fifth.
The passage shown in Example 4.40 displays similar attributes to the previous
tonicizations. It is found in the reciprocal section of the first appearance of the
second theme, in bars 13–14. Once again there is no leading tone resolution to be
found. All voices, with the exception of the root progression in descending fifth,
resolve chromatically.
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The note A in the tonicizised chord Esus9, which, in a diatonic progression, would
normally be reached by the step resolution B–A (arrow), is a result of the registrally
transferred chromatic resolution A#–A from the acoustic trace of the prominent bass
note A# (broken line). The vertical structure on beat three in bar 13 cannot be
represented satisfactorily by any chord symbol. There is no convincing upper
structure to be found, the lower structure A#–F#–G does not refer to any
conventional chord type and the absence of any third or suspended fourth
contributes to the indefinite nature of this vertical structure. Despite the problematic
vertical analysis, the chromatic resolutions in combination with the functional root
progression clearly refer to a type of chromatic tonicization.
The last example of a chromatic tonicization underpinned by the V–I root

progression is found in bars 20–21. This example can be categorized as either the
first or second type of tonicization found in this composition.
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As shown in Example 4.41, the sustained note A in the melody line appears as the
major third of the F6-5 chord and later as the major seventh of the Bbmma7 chord. The
unstable major seventh A quickly resolves chromatically to the flattened seventh
Ab, which provides a more stable vertical structure. The chord F6-5 does not include
a flattened seventh and can also be regarded as an inverted Bm7-5 chord. However, in
this composition, all root progressions by descending fifths, such as that shown
here, provide a sense of tonal reference, contrasting to and standing out from the
dense chromatic harmonic web that covers virtually the entire composition.
Chromatic connections
Throughout all of his work, and perhaps beginning with this composition, Fischer
employs long chromatic lines within the voice-leading web of tonal music for
occasions other than guide tone lines.14 These chromatic lines exist within the outer
structures of chromatically planing chords, or are intertwined with diatonic or non-
diatonic progressions. Of particular interest for this study are the chromatic lines
that interact with parallel planing structures or with simple functional structures
such as II–V–I progressions or others that have been discussed earlier in this
chapter. At times these chromatic lines provide a consistent framework for more
14
The term ‘guide tone line’ is described in detail in Chapter 2.5.6. Jazz theory describes
guide tone lines as an integral part of voice leading occurring in diatonic cadences and in
sequential forms, such as sequential dominant chords or sequential diatonic cadences.
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complex voice leading, while on other occasions, the chromatic lines constitute a
constant structure within a complex web of chromatic harmony and voice leading.
Much of Fischer’s composition ‘The Early Years’ is characterized by chromatic
motion in the bass line, melody or middle voices.
Longer chromatic connections
As shown in Example 4.42, theme one starts with the chromatically descending bass
line F–E–Eb–D. Then, after the leap of an (inverted) descending fifth, the bass line
conducts the chromatic ascent G–G#–A–A#–B–C–Db. Then follows another leap of
a descending fifth and another short descending line Gb–F–E. In both the melody
line and middle voices, there is a long chromatic line to be found. On beat three in
bar 5 the melody reaches a Bb, which starts a chromatic descent that is taken over
by the lowest of the middle voices from bars 6–9. In bar 10, the same voice starts a
chromatic ascent. Bar 9 is particular interesting as another chromatic line, C–Db–
D–Eb, creates a chromatic counterpoint to the descending line Eb–D–Db–C–B.
These two chromatic lines contribute to the intriguing chord quality in this bar,
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represented by the chord symbol E+ma7, which marks the quality at the beginning
of the bar only. Soon the quality changes to E+7, then E6no5, then back to E+7 and
finally to Ema7. As mentioned earlier in this text, the pivotal harmonic character of
this bar with regard to its perception as either a tonic or more unstable chord is
created by the forward motion of these two contrapuntal chromatic lines.
Chromatic connections within planing, consistent structures
The melody in bars 3–5 can also be reduced to a descending chromatic line.
Example 4.43 shows a voice-leading graph of bars 3–5 that illustrates the chromatic
descent of the melody as well as the chromatic parallel planing of the lower
structure. Here, the interval of a perfect fifth in the bass (F–C) moves down
chromatically to D–A.
Example 4.43: Voice-leading graph of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’,

bars 3–5, chromatically planing structures
This example also reveals the impact of contrapuntal chromatic voice leading within
the frame of a chromatically planing structure. Example 4.44 shows the chromatic
motion of these middle voices. The outer, planing structures contain bass note, fifth
and seventh, whereas one of the middle voices constitutes the third of the first three
chords. In bar 2 of this example (bar 4 of Fischer’s composition), another middle
voice emerges from the bass note F by register transfer and becomes the ninth of the
first chord in bar 2.
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bars 3–5, inner voices
Bars 2–3 of Example 4.44 show the suspended fourth Ab in Ebsus9 resolving to the
fifth, A, of the last chord Dmma7. It also shows the ninth, F, in Ebsus9 becoming the
minor third in Dmma7. This passage represents an interesting example of Fischer’s
voice-leading approach in general:15 a chromatically moving constant structure
provides a consistent shell for the emergence, progression and resolution of
chromatically moving inner voices, which constitute or contribute to the chord
quality and create degrees of colour, tension and dissonance in relation to the
consistent outer shells. The example taken from the opening of the first theme
represents a rather mild version with regard to harmonic colour and tension: all
chords remain four-part or five-part and all structures are relatively stable within
themselves. Other examples of chromatic connections within planing, constant
structures are found, for instance, in bars 16–17, 29–30, 31, 46, 53–54, 63–64, 69–
71, 90–91 and 105–106.
The frequent use of perfect fifths at the bottom of vertical structures, as shown in
Example 4.44, is a consistent and interesting aspect with regard to Fischer’s
construction of vertical structures in his composition ‘The Early Years’. The
prominence of these low perfect fifths is established at the beginning of the work,
throughout the first three bars of the first theme and also below the second theme.
Subsequent appearances of the two main themes show a similar frequency of perfect
fifths on the bottom of vertical structures. Other passages such as sequential
sections are also underpinned by perfect fifths. The most substantial example other
15
For previous analyses of Fischer’s music, please refer to Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’;
Blej, ‘On Harmony and Meaning’; and Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
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than below the main themes is found in bars 98–103, which will be discussed
separately in the analysis below. Occasionally Fischer moves these fifths
chromatically as separate two-part structures in combination with contrapuntal inner
voice leading. Examples thereof are found in bars 21–22 and in bar 49. Example
4.45 shows a voice-leading reduction of bars 21–22 and reveals the aforementioned
voice-leading features. The low two-part structure Bb–F descends chromatically,
while the upper voices progress via contrapuntal, chromatic voice leading. The
voice Db–D–D# ascends chromatically and the uppermost voice A–Ab–G descends
chromatically, in similar rather than parallel motion to the low voices.
Another relevant aspect of Fischer’s chromatic voice leading is the occasional

occurrence of chromatically planing, constant structures that are embedded in
various chromatically moving outer voices. Examples of chromatically planing
triads within contrapuntal lower and/or upper voices are found in bars 19, 25, 36–40
and 92. Example 4.46 shows the score reduction of bar 92. The circles indicate the
components of the chromatically descending major triads. Here an inverted E major
triad descends chromatically, via Eb major to D major, in contrary motion to the
chromatically ascending bass line A–Bb.
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Example 4.46: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bar 92
Example 4.47 illustrates the chromatic and at times registrally transferred motion of
all voices. The register transfers are indicated by broken lines. The top notes C on
beat two and E on beat three are the only tones in this bar that are not resolved
chromatically.
Example 4.47: Voice-leading graph of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bar 92
A different chromatically planing constant structure is found in bar 27. Here the
interval of a major second (Db–Eb) descends chromatically. Example 4.48 shows
the score reduction of this bar. All chromatic progressions are indicated by lines,
register transfers are marked by broken lines and slurs connect sustained voices.
The strong root progression by descending fifths appears as a counterpoint to the
chromatic web of this passage. The melody note Gb on beat four, which is shown in
brackets, merges with the first voice above the bass note. The acoustic trace of the
previous note Bb resolves chromatically into the A in the following bar.
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Example 4.48: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’, bar 27
The constant structure is found on beats three and four in bar 27. The structure
descends chromatically from Db and Eb via C and D to B and C#.
Another relevant type of chromatically moving constant structure takes the form of
augmented triads. These appear as part of all versions of the second theme in bars
11–12, 44–45 and 52–53. Example 4.49 shows a score reduction of the first theme
in bars 11–12.
The brackets indicate upper structure augmented triads. The augmented triad Gb+
on beat three in bar 11 descends via F+ to E+. As in previous examples, these
augmented triads are embedded in chromatically and mostly contrapuntally moving
voices.
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Contrapuntally planing, constant structures
The passage in bars 100–101 represents a significant variation to the bulk of

Fischer’s chromatic writing in ‘The Early Years’. He moves two major triads, which
are part of the poly-chordal structure F#/C, in contrary motion until both structures
merge into a simple Eb major triad. Example 4.50 shows a score reduction of this
passage. The melody can also be reduced to the simple descending chromatic line
C#–C–B–Bb, which doubles the lowest notes of the accompanying upper structures.
The structural simplicity and clarity of this passage contrast to the harmonic density
and complexity of the main parts of this composition. This passage consists of pure
chromatic linear motion.
Chromatic planing
The passage in bars 98–101 has been mentioned with regard to its complex
tonicizations. But it is also interesting in terms of its chromatically planing constant
structures. As described earlier, the vertical structures in this passage, with one
exception at the end of bar 99, are constructed as triadic poly-chords, which can also
be analysed as dominant chords placed upon triads, or as triads placed upon the
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guide tones of dominant chords. In this part of the analysis the focus turns to the
simple parallel chromatic motion of these structures.
The score reduction in Example 4.51 shows the parallel chromatic descent of all
vertical structures through to beat three in bar 99. The parallel chromatic descent of
this constant structure constitutes another contrasting element to the complex
harmonic web in this piece. In the two bars following this example, Fischer
develops the idea of parallel chromatic motion, but now he employs the same
concept in contrary motion. Example 4.52 shows the score reduction of bars 100–
101.
Fischer starts with two triadic structures that are rooted a tritone apart from each
other. As in the previous example, the melody can be reduced to a chromatic
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descending line that mirrors the lowest voice of the upper structures. The upper triad
F# major descends chromatically, while the lower triad C major ascends
chromatically. Both moving structures merge into a single Eb major triad on beat
three in bar 101.
4.2.3 Summary
The examination of all V–I, subV–I, II–V, II–V–I and chromatic V–I events found
in Fischer’s composition ‘The Early Years’ reveals a substantial variety with regard
to these fundamental harmonic resolutions. In particular, the treatment of the V–I
relationship, which can also be perceived as a simple tension–release relationship,
offers much variety. Considering the V7add-13–Ima7 tonicization in bars 27–28 as the
most basic and functional, and the chromatic planing in bar 100 as the most
chromatic and non-functional variants of the fundamental tension–release
relationships, results in a broad range are to be found in Fischer’s harmonic
language in ‘The Early Years’. The following explanations illustrate the findings in
brief.
Tonal ambiguity is a characteristic element of this composition. However, Fischer

employs a pure V–I at the conclusion of the piece. The tonic appears in triadic form
and its dominant is given in subV7 form. Although the sense of tonality remains
ambiguous until the very end, functional tonicizations appear frequently throughout
the composition in various forms. Variants of the subV–I tonicization are by far the
most frequently used form. Variants of V–I tonicization appear less frequently, but
they can also be found as part of several II–V–I progressions throughout the
composition. II–V progressions are mainly used in two significant sequential
sections within the piece. Some harmonic progressions involve the parallel, and
often chromatic parallel motion of constant structures. Moving constant structures
appear mostly as triads and they can move either as a separate entity or within a
functional harmonic progression.
Most vertical structures comprise four or more voices, with the notable exception of
the final tonic triad. The vertical structures can usually be analysed by common
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chord symbols, as they tend to comprise the chord root and at least one of the guide
notes in the lower register. Fifths are also frequently found in the lower register.
Occasional interferences of non-harmonic notes in the lower register are mostly
created and resolved by voice-leading procedures. One of Fischer’s most
characteristic voice-leading features here is the employment of longer chromatic
lines within the inner voices. All voices, with the exception of the bass line, often
progress chromatically. The bass line combines chromatic motion and frequent
progression by descending fifths with less frequent leaps including thirds, ascending
fifths, descending sixths and occasional stepwise motion.
Doubled voices appear rarely and chromatic alterations of tones within the vertical
structures of functional progressions can be explained as the result of chromatic
voice leading. The chromatic alterations employed by Fischer affect both chord
tones and tensions.
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4.3 Technical Comparison of Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1
and Fischer’s Composition ‘The Early Years’
A technical comparison of Fischer’s composition ‘The Early Years’ with the cello
solo (and its related themes) composed by Shostakovich in his first symphony
reveals a number of similarities that point towards Shostakovich’s significance as an
influential figure for Fischer’s compositional style and for his harmonic approach in
particular. And yet there are also several important differences to be found:
arguably, these differences question the strength of that influence. However, the
evidence of these differences in the compositional techniques employed certainly
does not remove completely the likelihood of an influential impact, given the fact
that Fischer’s stated love of Shostakovich’s cello solo suggests an influence on
some musical level. Technical differences are indeed a sign of stylistic difference,
which is a matter of fact considering the divergent socio-cultural context of these
two composers. These differences are also an indication of creative individuality,
which can be assumed considering the two composers’ large bodies of work. The
interesting facts for this study are the technical similarities, as they constitute
possible sources for Fischer’s idiosyncratic harmonic style in the context of tonal
jazz.
In terms of the perception and treatment of tonality in the selected works, there are
major differences to be discovered. Shostakovich unsurprisingly shows a stronger
reference to tonality than Fischer, which is evident not only through his use of key
signatures and pedal notes, but also through unambiguous V–I and I–IV
relationships which are found in all examples. Fischer’s composition does not show
any key signature and an ambiguity pervades the tonality throughout almost the
entire piece. Only a longer diatonic section in the central section and the final
subV–I progression at the end provide a clear sense of tonality.
Interestingly, despite Fischer’s ambiguous treatment of tonality, smaller functional

harmonic relationships such as tonicizations, II–V and II–V–I progressions, are
frequently found in ‘The Early Years’. Tonicizations and other short functional
entities appear in a large variety of situations, with the latter used mainly in
241
sequential figures. All of the small functional progressions contribute to the
perception of a larger structure within the dense chromatic harmonic web of
Fischer’s composition. The analysed examples of Shostakovich’s symphony on the
other hand consist rarely of small functional relationships that are based on V–I or
II–V root progressions. Shostakovich uses these functional elements only
occasionally in inverted form as well as in various chromatically altered shapes.
Chromaticism is probably the most common feature of both composers’ works. The
melodies under discussion in both pieces contain a high degree of chromaticism.
Harmonically, the analysed examples in Shostakovich’s symphony show mostly
chromatically altered vertical structures instead of diatonic chords. Fischer’s vertical
structures also defy any clear diatonic reference. The Shostakovich examples are
characterized by chromatic parallel motion of constant structures underpinned by
pedal notes, chromatic root motion and chromatically moving inner voices,
sometimes in the form of longer, consistently descending chromatic lines within a
larger tonal structure. Fischer’s composition shows exactly the same features, with
the main difference being the general tonal ambiguity. In both composers’ works,
the chromatically moving voices create dramatic tension and release. Often the
resolution of one voice coincides with the creation of further tension in another
voice.16 In the Shostakovich examples, this tension and release is directed mainly
towards the tonal centres, and in Fischer’s composition towards the harmonic
elements based on V–I and I–V root progressions. In Fischer’s piece, the
chromatically moving voices also contribute towards the general tonal ambiguity.
Both compositions contain significant chromatic, compound melodies that are

accompanied by equally chromatic harmonies. The melodies of both composers
contain sections that can be reduced to ascending or descending chromatic lines.
Shostakovich’s melodies tend to point out references to the tonality, whereas
Fischer’s contribute to the general feeling of tonal ambiguity. The inner voices of
both composers’ works contain longer chromatic figures that form consistently
descending lines. These descending chromatic lines may be interpreted as musical
topics such as the pianto and passus duriusculus, which offer points of departure for
16
This aspect has been mentioned by Bill Dobbins as a characteristic element of Fischer’s
harmonic approach. See Dobbins’s foreword to Fischer, Alone Together, 6.
242
the analysis towards musical meaning. (Chapters 3.2.6 to 3.2.8 are dedicated to this
topic). In Shostakovich’s examples, longer chromatic lines appear in the bass or in
the voice just above a pedal. In Fischer’s work, these lines are usually found in the
inner voices, just above the bass line.
Most vertical structures in both analysed works comprise four voices. Five-part
chords are also frequently found, usually underpinned by a pedal note in the
Shostakovich examples and in various contexts in Fischer’s piece. The vertical
structures in Fischer’s accompanying parts are usually spread over a range of two
and a half octaves, while Shostakovich’s accompanying figures happen within a
much narrower range. Fischer originally composed ‘The Early Years’ as a piano
piece, which explains the spread style. The fact that spread chords are a typical
feature of the solo jazz piano style further connects this work to Fischer’s strong
background in jazz. Another outstanding characteristic of the vertical structures in
Fischer’s piece is the frequent appearance of perfect fifths in the lowest structure of
his chords. The parallel motion of these fifths is another interesting aspect that
connects the chord voicings and their treatment to tonal jazz. Shostakovich’s
vertical structures on the other hand are frequently found in close position.
With regard to Fischer’s standing as a highly individual jazz musician, and with the
experience of previous analyses of his works, one of the most significant findings of
the present analysis has been to note the effects of linear chromatic voices on
vertical chord structures, in particular on functional harmonic areas.
The following detailed comparative analysis of selected excerpts of Shostakovich’s

first symphony and Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ will show examples of the technical
details discussed above.
4.3.1 Significant Results of the Melodic and Harmonic Comparison
The melodic comparison of the first main theme in Fischer’s composition and the
cello solo in Shostakovich’s first symphony reveals an interesting similarity (see
Examples 4.53 and 3.54). Noticeable in Fischer’s first theme (Example 4.53) is a
243
chromatically descending line within the first two bars, marked by arrows in the
example. Bar 3 shows the arpeggio of a Bbm triad with chromatic approach notes.
The following four bars are characterized by the notes Ab and Gb.
Example 4.53: First theme of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’
Shostakovich’s melody comprises an ascending chromatic line, which is marked by

arrows (Example 4.54). Towards the end there is a similar emphasis to Fischer’s
melody on the notes Gb and Ab. Both melodies are non-diatonic and show a high
degree of chromaticism. Interestingly, Fischer’s employment of the pitch
progression Gb–F–Ab, which is marked by a circle here, resembles Shostakovich’s
use of the same melodic idea at the end of Example 3.54.
Example 4.54: Cello solo in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1, 4th movement
Harmonically, one of the most significant shared features in the analysed examples
is chromatically moving triads. The cello solo in Shostakovich’s symphony is
accompanied by chromatically descending minor triads on top of a pedal point in
the bass. There are also parallel moving constant structures to be found in the first
theme of Fischer’s composition, as shown in the voice-leading graph in Example
4.55. As mentioned before, Fischer’s melody in bars 3–5 can be reduced to a
descending chromatic line. This example shows a voice-leading graph of these bars
that illustrates the chromatic descent of the melody as well as the chromatic parallel
planing of the lower structure. Here, the interval of a perfect fifth (F–C) moves
down chromatically to D–A. The structure E–B–D in bar 2 of this example
descends chromatically to Eb–Bb–Db.
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bars 3–5, chromatically planing structures
Chromatically moving constant structures are found elsewhere in both

compositions. As shown in Example 4.56, Shostakovich employs a chromatic
motion pattern at Figure 18, the accompaniment of another version of the same
melodic material as used for the cello solo.
245
Example 4.56: Figures 18–19 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,
4th movement
Similarly, Fischer utilizes contrapuntally moving constant structures in bar 100 of

‘The Early Years’, as illustrated in Example 4.57. Here he moves the two major
triads, which are part of the poly-chordal structure F#/C, in contrary motion until
both structures merge into a simple Eb major triad.
246
Particularly noteworthy in both compositions is the use of long chromatically

descending inner voice lines. Example 4.58 shows Fischer’s employment of long
chromatic connections in the first theme of ‘The Early Years’. The chord symbols
mark his use of functional progressions such as Em9–Ebsus9–Dmma7.
Example 4.59 shows the long chromatically descending line that occurs at Figure 22
in the fourth movement of the Shostakovich symphony. This is another
harmonization of the same melody used for the cello solo at Figure 36.
247
Example 4.59: Voice-leading graph of the first seven bars of Figure 22 in
As shown by the analyses in the previous chapters and their summary above,
Fischer’s affinity to Shostakovich’s 1st symphony is not only expressed verbally, but
also through the striking similarity of certain melodic and harmonic elements and
techniques found in his composition ‘The Early Years’. The following examination
in Chapters 4.5 to 4.7 will pay particular attention to Fischer’s use of these devices
in his harmonic treatment of a simple folk tune in the context of tonal jazz.
Additionally, this large discussion offers a harmonic comparison of Fischer’s
harmonizations to those of Bill Evans.
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4.4 ‘Danny Boy’ and ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’:
Historical Information and Harmonic Analyses
Preceding the analyses of Evans’s and Fischer’s interpretations of ‘Danny Boy’17

and ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’,18 the following examination will explain some
historical details and identify the basic harmonic elements that traditionally
underpin the tunes. The origins of both songs are somewhat mysterious and are
designated broadly to the folk repertoire of the Irish (Danny Boy) and Germans (Du,
Du liegst mir im Herzen). Both pieces consist of a purely diatonic melody supported
by the basic harmonies of tonic, dominant and subdominant. Both tunes have been
recorded numerous times in simple harmonic arrangements. Some of these
recordings have become very popular and consequently the pieces have become a
familiar part of the popular music repertoire.19 The tunes have been published
numerous times in differing arrangements, most of them intended for amateur
musicians. Both Bill Evans and Clare Fischer extended the basic functional
harmony of these pieces in their recorded interpretations.
4.4.1 ‘Danny Boy’
The tune ‘Danny Boy’ has become very popular among the Irish diaspora in
America. The origins of this folk tune cannot be traced to one single composer and
researchers have discovered that travelling musicians probably sang the melody
before it was transcribed and sent to a publisher by Miss Jane Ross of Limavady in
the county of Londonderry.20 After its first publication in 1855, the melody became
17
‘Danny Boy’ as recorded by Bill Evans on Empathy in 1962 is out of print, only available
as the double CD Bill Evans, Empathy/A Simple Matter of Conviction (Verve 837757,
1989).
18
‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ as recorded by Clare Fischer on Alone Together (Advance
Music 9709003, 1997).
19
Recorded interpretations of the tune ‘Danny Boy’ by well-known performers include
versions by Tom Jones, Elvis Presley and Harry Belafonte. ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’
was recorded by well-known German singers Marlene Dietrich and Freddy Quinn, among
others.
20
Most of the historical information regarding this song was derived from Dr. Michael
Robinson, ‘Danny Boy: The Mystery Solved’, at www.standingstones.com/dannyboy.html
(accessed 24 October 2006).
249
known as ‘Londonderry Air’ or ‘Air from County Derry’. In 1913 songwriter
Frederick Edward Weatherly (1848-1929) published a version of the melody using
his own lyrics, which he called ‘Danny Boy’. Under this title the piece has become
famous. It has been published and recorded in numerous versions and has gained the
status of an Irish anthem.
Considering the folk origins of the piece and its early publication as a simple
melodic line without any harmonic accompaniment, it can be assumed that the
harmonic treatment of early versions was rather simple and often improvised. Even
today the harmony of most folk music, anthems and hymns is kept simple and thus
‘authentic’ in most publications.
Example 4.60 shows a basic arrangement of ‘Danny Boy’ in which the bold letters
followed by a colon indicate the formal subdivisions. The overall form of the song
is AA’BC. Segment A’ is closely related to segment A; its first phrase comprises
the exact melody of the first phrase of segment A but its second part differs in
melodic shape. The second phrases in both A and A’ show similarities to the
opening phrase of the song. The ending of segment A’ consists of an authentic
cadence, whereas the ending of segment A is a half cadence. Segment B consists of
two very similar phrases, which can be seen as variations of the initial phrase of the
piece. Here, the first phrase ends on the tonic, and the second phrase ends on the
dominant. The beginning of segment C marks the apex point of the piece and the
tune ends on the tonic. All phrases and segments start on the tonic chord, segment
A’ and C also end on the tonic, and segments A and B end on the dominant.
The chord symbols, which I have added to the arrangement, identify the most basic
harmonic functions only: tonic, dominant and subdominant. The frequent use of
pedals is notable in this arrangement and reflects the personal taste of the arranger,
Dave Bruce. His pedal note technique does not hide the basic harmonic functions
that support the melody.
250
Example 4.60: Simple sheet music arrangement of ‘Danny Boy’ by David
Bruce
A: F Bb6/F F
C A’: F Bb6/F Gm F Bb6/F
F B: F Bb/F F C/G
251
F Bb/F C C: F Bb6/F
F Bb F Bb6/F F
252
4.4.2 ‘Du, Du, liegst mir im Herzen’
Sources in the literature place the origins of the folk tune ‘Du, Du liegst mir im
Herzen’ at around 1820 in northern Germany. The earliest citation of the tune
appears to be in Matthäus Mayer’s songbook Das Taschenliederbuch. Eine Auswahl
von Liedern, die am liebsten gesungen werden. Mit den Melodien der Lieder und
Gitarrebegleitung, dating from 1828 in Passau, however, the book itself is not held
at the archives of the ‘Austrian Volksliedwerk’, the main archive of folk songs in
Austria.21 The song was published elsewhere several times during the following
century with differing melodic versions. The version that most closely resembles
Fischer’s, albeit with some minor differences is found in an arrangement for four
voices in G. Wilhelm Fink’s Musikalischer Hausschatz. Eine Sammlung von über
1100 Liedern und Gesängen mit Singweisen und Klavierbegleitung, published in
Leipzig in 1843 (Example 4.61).22
Typically for a folk tune, the composer remains unknown. Noteworthy is the 3/4
metre of the tune. The overall form of the piece as shown in Example 4.61 is AA’B,
although many arrangements, including Fischer’s, repeat the B section, which
results in the formal structure of AA’BB. The melody in the A section emphasizes
the repeated major third of the tonic chord during bars 1–3 and the fifth of the
dominant chord in bars 5–7. The A section closes on the major third of the tonic in
bar 8, while the second half of the A’ section shortens the dominant chord by one
bar and closes in bar 7. Most early publications of the song show a pause at the end
of bar 7, sometimes with an added fermata; in performance practice, this pause is
usually held for longer in order to maintain the symmetrical eight-bar framework.
The B section contains the phrase ‘Ja, ja, ja, ja’, which is characteristic for the
unique shape of this melody. None of the historic sources show a repetition of the B
section.
21
Matthäus Mayer, Das Taschenliederbuch. Eine Auswahl von Liedern, die am liebsten
gesungen werden. Mit den Melodien der Lieder und Gitarrebegleitung (Passau: 1828), Nr
69.
22
G.W. Fink ed. Musikalischer Hausschatz der Deutschen: Eine Sammlung von 1000
Liedern und Gesängen mit Singweisen und Klavierbegleitung. 3rd ed. (Leipzig: Verlag
Gustav von Maher, 1862), Nr 57.
253
Example 4.61: ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’, in an arrangement by
G. Wilhelm Fink, published in 1843
Similarly to the tune ‘Danny Boy’, the harmonic framework of ‘Du, Du liegst mir
im Herzen’ consists of the most basic harmonic functions only: tonic, dominant and
subdominant.
The following Chapter 4.5 examines Bill Evans’s re-harmonzations of the simple
harmonic background of ‘Danny Boy’, whereas Chapter 4.6 will analyse Fischer’s
harmonic treatment of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’.
254
4.5 Bill Evans’s Two Recordings of ‘Danny Boy’
Pianist Bill Evans recorded the tune ‘Danny Boy’ twice during his career. The first
version was done as a solo piano piece at a studio session on April 4, 1962. The
recording remained hidden for several years and was released on the seventh CD of
the 12-CD box Bill Evans: The Complete Riverside Recordings.23 The second
version was recorded a few months later on August 14, 1962 and was released in the
same year on the record Empathy.24 Evans’s accompanying musicians during that
recording session in New York were the bassist Monty Budwig and drummer Shelly
Manne. Neither Manne nor Budwig were regular sidemen in any of Evans’s trios.
More to the point, the producer Creed Taylor, who worked for the company Verve
at that time, initiated this recording session to feature Manne supported by his
regular bassist Budwig and with Bill Evans, who had already become a star in the
jazz scene, as a guest on piano. At that time Evans was under contract to the record
company Riverside, which granted permission for his appearance on this recording.
The second version of ‘Danny Boy’ represents an arrangement for piano trio, but
also includes an introductory solo piano statement of the first two formal segments
(A and B) of the composition.
Evans’s first version of the piece is more than ten minutes long and conveys the
impression of a freely improvised rendering of this folk tune rather than a compact
solo arrangement. His loose treatment of the piece can be compared to his solo
recordings at the so-called ‘Solo Sessions’ from 1963 rather than to his dense solo
interpretations on records such as the Grammy-winning album Alone and the
Grammy-nominated record Alone Again.25 In this first version, Evans states the
melody of ‘Danny Boy’ three times, in the keys of Bb, B and F, followed by an
improvised solo in the key of Bb. After seven minutes and forty seconds, he seems
to end the piece with a retarding coda-like section, but then he resumes the melodic
23
Bill Evans, Bill Evans: The Complete Riverside Recordings (Riverside RCD 018-2,
1987).
24
As mentioned earlier, the original record Bill Evans and Shelly Manne, Empathy, (Verve
V/V6 8497, 1962) is out of print and now available only on the compilation Empathy/A
Simple Matter of Conviction (Verve 837757, 1989).
25
Bill Evans. Solo Sessions Vol.1 and Vol.2 (Milestone M 9170 and Milestone M9195,
1963); Bill Evans, Alone (Verve V6 8792) 1968; Bill Evans, Alone Again (Fantasy F 9542,
1975).
255
improvisation before a final rendering of the melody chorus in the key of F. The
incident of supposedly ending the piece and then restarting the improvisatory
section contributes to the view that this version was intended for practice purposes
rather than release on record. Despite its loose character, this first recorded version
reveals many of Evans’s influential ideas regarding re-harmonization and harmonic
vertical structures in the context of tonal jazz.
With regard to the second version of the piece, it is noteworthy that the co-operation
with the drummer Manne and the bassist Budwig, who had never been in Evans’s
own working groups, stimulated a fresh approach in his playing that was enjoyed by
critics and audience alike.26 Without going into detail here, Evans’s rhythmic and
melodic ideas, and his phrasing and articulation sound different on this recording in
comparison with the famous recordings from his live performances at the Village
Vanguard jazz club in 1961 with bassist Scott LaFaro and drummer Paul Motian.27
However, neither Evans’s overall musical concept nor his harmonic approach differ
much from his other recordings of that period. The two versions of ‘Danny Boy’
represent Evans’s influential harmonic concept very clearly as his harmonic
augmentations can be traced from the basic harmonies of the folk tune. The
following comparative analysis of the two versions will provide insight into his
advanced technique of re-harmonizing a simple harmonic background. Despite
many pedagogical publications regarding Evans’s harmony, his re-harmonization
technique has not been studied extensively in academic studies to this time.28
26
Unknown reviewer of the record Shelly Manne, Bill Evans and Monty Budwig/Empathy,
www.elusivedisc.com/search/EUROS8497.htm (accessed 05.11.2006); and several reviews
by record collectors at www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-
/B00000478L/qid=1086135395/sr=1-1/ref=sr_1_1/002-0596001-
8514429?v=glance&s=music (accessed 05.11.2006).
27
For instance, see Bill Evans, Explorations (Fantasy 9351, originally released 1961, re-
released 2004); Bill Evans, Waltz for Debby (Riverside Records 210, originally released
1961, re-release 1990); Bill Evans, Sunday at Village Vanguard (Original Jazz Classics
140, originally released 1961, re-released 1990).
28
Marian McPartland’s interview with Bill Evans provides interesting details about Evans’s
perception of the simple harmonic background and its harmonic alterations. Marian
McPartland, Piano Jazz Interview (Fantasy [J] VDJ 25045), 1978. Jack Reilly examined
Evans’s harmonic techniques in Jack Reilly, The Harmony of Bill Evans (Brooklyn, NY:
Unichrom, 1992). Steve Larson studied Evans’s statements in relation to Schenkerian
analysis in tonal jazz. Larson, Schenkerian Analysis, 219-239.
256
The following comparative analysis of his two versions of ‘Danny Boy’ will reveal
the same influential harmonic techniques and re-harmonization concepts that are in
evidence in much of his music. The analysis will describe harmonic techniques that,
besides their status as inherent features of Evans’s style, have defined a standard
among jazz musicians up to the present day. The analysis will also show Evans’s
introduction of chromaticism based on formulaic harmonic events, which has
become standard in the interpretation of tonal jazz.
4.5.1 Comparative Harmonic Analysis of Evans’s Two Versions of ‘Danny

Boy’, bars 1–4
This analysis is based on transcriptions of the first melody section of Evans’s two
recorded versions of ‘Danny Boy’. The transcription of version one was made for
the present study and the transcription of version two was made by Prof. Dr. Harald
Neuwirth, who has granted permission for its use in this study. The transcription of
version one is provided in Appendix 3, the transcription of version two is found in
Appendix 4.
The first four bars of the original folk tune outline the following harmonic structure:
I–IV–I–V. Evans stays very close to these harmonic functions in both versions, but
adds some harmonic material that has become common practice in tonal jazz. Table
4.9 illustrates the harmonic motion of both versions in comparison with the original
structure of the folk tune and also shows a hypothesized basic harmonic strategy.
The hypothesized basic strategy represents a harmonic plan including basic

structural functions that have become a standard in tonal jazz. Many fakebook
arrangements of the jazz repertoire show similarly constructed harmonic functions.
Usually this harmonic plan, fakebook arrangement or basic harmonic strategy
represents a basis for individual, improvised harmonic and melodic alterations of
the piece. Here, the basic strategy represents a distillation of Evans’s versions and
the tune’s original chords. It focuses on the basic functions and omits alterations.
257
The harmonic motion I–I7–IV–IVm represents a common procedure in tonal jazz
that can be identified as a harmonic pattern which recurs in many jazz adaptations
of harmonically simple pieces. Considering the Schenkerian idea of musical layers,
the progression I–I7–IV–IVm can be seen as a middle-ground level, just above the
background progression I–IV.
Table 4.9: Harmonic comparison of Evans’s two versions of ‘Danny Boy’, bars
1–4
Bar 1 Bar 2
Folk Tune Bb Eb
Harmonic I IV
Analysis
Version 1 Bbma7+11 Bbma7 Bbsus13add3 Bb7add-13 Eb6/9/Bb Eb6/9addm7/Bb Eb6/9addm7/Bb Ebm6addma7
Harmonic Ima7 Ima7 Vsus7/IV Vsus7/IV IV6/5 IV6/5 IV6/5 IVm6
Analysis
Version 2 Bbma7/F Bbma7/F Fm9add13 Fm6/9 Gm7add11 Eb6addma7 Ab9add13 Ebm6addma7
Harmonic Ima7/5 Ima7/5 Vm9 Vm6 VIm7 IV6 bVII7 IVm6
Analysis
Basic Bbma7 Bbma7 Fm7 Bb7 Eb6 Eb6 Ebm6 Ebm6
Strategy
Harmonic Ima7 Ima7 IIm7/IV V7/IV IV6 IV6 IVm6 IVm6
Analysis
Bar 3 Bar 4
Folk Tune Bb F
Harmonic I V
Analysis
Version 1 Dm7 Dm7 (Bb) Gm11 Csus13 C9 Fsus9 F7
Harmonic IIIm7 IIIm7 (I) VIm7 Vsus7/V V7/V Vsus7 V7
Analysis
Version 2 Dm7 Bb/D Gm9 (Gm) Csus13 C7 F9add13 Fsus9 – F7-9
Harmonic IIIm7 I/3 VIm7 (VI) Vsus7/V V7/V V7 Vsus7 – V7

Analysis
Basic Dm7 Dm7 Gm7 Gm7 C7 C7 F7 F7
Strategy
Harmonic IIIm7 IIIm7 VIm7 VIm7 V7/V V7/V V7 V7
Analysis
Both of Evans’s versions follow that middle ground progression (I–I7–IV–IVm)

during the first two bars. However, he employs several short pedal notes that result
in various chord inversions without changing their harmonic functions. Version one
uses a tonic pedal throughout bars 1 and 2 until the introduction of a root position
Ebm6 chord on beat four of bar 2. Similarly, version two applies the dominant pedal
258
F throughout bar 1. Unlike version one, Evans uses a moving bass pattern in bar 2
here which results in the introduction of the bVII7 chord (Ab7); this involves the use
of the chromatic notes Ab and Gb. The bVII7 chord is a conventional modal
interchange chord, found in many jazz tunes.
As Table 4.9 shows, the beginning of bar 3 represents the expected return to the
tonic after the temporary modulation to the subdominant and its departure through a
subdominant minor chord (modal interchange). Both versions follow the basic
strategy of applying the typical tonic substitutes IIIm7 and VIm7. However, both
versions also correspond to the tonic in a more direct way, by showing an inverted
(version two) or arpeggiated (version one) tonic triad. The basic strategy in bar 4
establishes the secondary dominant chord C7, which acts as the V7/V in the key of
Bb major. Evans embellishes this secondary chord by means of suspended fourths
in both versions. This voice-leading routine adds harmonic motion on top of the
middle ground tonicization C7–F7 (V7/V–V7).
4.5.2 Bars 5–8
The A’ section (bars 5–8) of the original folk tune ‘Danny Boy’ is very similar to
the A section. It consists of the simple harmonic motion I–IV–I–V–I. The basic
strategy in bars 5 and 6 resembles bars 1 and 2, while bars 7 and 8 consist of the
diatonic cadence III–VI–II–V–I–VI–II–V. The cadence types III–VI–II–V and I–
VI–II–V are usually referred to as ‘turnarounds’ in jazz parlance. Turnarounds may
consist of pure diatonic functions, or they may include secondary dominants, such
as are used in bar 7 (V7/II and V7/VI).
Table 4.10 illustrates the analytical comparison of bars 1–2 and 5–6 of both
versions. Interestingly, Evans’s harmonization on beat four of bars 2 and 6 is almost
identical in all four versions; the IVm6 chord here introduces the chromatic note Gb
(b6).
259
Table 4.10: Harmonic comparison of Evans’s two versions of ‘Danny Boy’,
bars 1–2 and 5–6
Bars 1 and 5
Folk Tune Bb
Harmonic Analysis I
Version 1 (Bar 1) Bbma7+11 Bbma7 Bb7sus13add3 Bb7add-13

Version 2 (Bar 1) Bbma7/F Bbma7/F Fm9add13 Fm6/9
Version 1 (Bar 5) Bb+ma7 Bb6 Bb7add13 – Bbsus13 Bb7 – Bb7add-13
Version 2 (Bar 5) Bbma7/A Bbma7/A Bb9add13 Bb+7
Harmonic Analysis Ima7 Ima7 Vsus7/IV Vsus7/IV

Version 1 (Bar 1)
Harmonic Analysis Ima7/5 Ima7/5 IIm7/IV V7/IV
Version 2 (Bar 1)
Harmonic Analysis I+ma7 I6 V7/IV – Vsus7/IV V7/IV
Version 1 (Bar 5)
Harmonic Analysis Ima7/7 Ima7/7 V7/IV V7/IV
Version 2 (Bar 5)
Basic Strategy Bbma7 Bbma7 Fm7 Bb7
Harmonic Analysis Ima7 Ima7 IIm7/IV V7/IV
Bars 2 and 6
Folk Tune Eb
Harmonic Analysis IV
Version 1 (Bar 2) Eb6/9/Bb Eb6/9addm7/Bb Eb6/9addm7/Bb Ebm6addma7

Version 2 (Bar 2) Gm7add11 Eb6addma7 Ab9add13 Ebm6addma7
Version 1 (Bar 6) Eb6/9 Eb6addma7 Eb6addma7 Ebm6
Version 2 (Bar 6) Eb6/9 Eb6/9 Eb6/9 Ebm6
Harmonic Analysis IV6/5 IV6/5 IV6/5 IVm6

Version 1 (Bar 2)
Harmonic Analysis VIm7 IV6 bVII7 IVm6
Version 2 (Bar 2)
Harmonic Analysis IV6 IV6 IV6 IVm6
Version 1 (Bar 6)
Harmonic Analysis IV6 IV6 IV6 IVm6
Version 2 (Bar 6)
Basic Strategy Bbma7 Bbma7 Fm7 Bb7
Harmonic Analysis Ima7 Ima7 IIm7/IV V7/IV
Table 4.10 also provides an opportunity to compare Evans’s harmonic ideas

regarding delicate manipulations of basic functions by inserting pedal notes, chord
inversions and suspensions into the voice leading. None of these manipulations
260
questions the harmonic functions of the chords and Evans stays very close to the
basic functions as outlined by the basic strategy while managing to add colour and
harmonic motion. A noticeable variation is found on beat one in bar 2 of version
two, where he uses the tonic substitute VI before reaching the subdominant on beat
two.
Bar 7 consists of the middle ground progression III–VI–II–V, which represents an

extension of the harmonic background I–V. Chords III and VI function as
substitutes of the tonic and the use of a II–V progression instead of the pure
dominant chord is a common procedure in a tonal jazz context. Evans’s treatment of
the II–V progression, which involves suspensions of the major third, follows similar
lines to those used in previous bars of his two interpretations of ‘Danny Boy’. His
re-harmonizations of the III–VI strategy include similar procedures in both versions,
namely tonicizations and alterations of chord tensions. Table 4.11 shows a harmonic
comparison of bar 7.

bar 7
Bar 7
Folk Tune Bb F
Harmonic Analysis I V
Version 1 D7 Gm9 – G7-9add-13 Csus13 – C7add13 Fsus9 – F7
Harmonic Analysis V7/VI VIm7 – V7/II Vsus7/V – V7/V V7sus – V7
Version 2 Dm7 G7+9add-13 Csus9add-13 Fsus9 – F9
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 V7/II V7/V Vsus7 – V7
Basic Strategy Dm7 Gm7 (G7) Cm7 F7

Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 VIm7 (V7/II) IIm7 V7
In bar 8, Evans employs two rather different harmonic solutions (see Table 4.12).
While the original folk tune reaches a simple tonic triad, he uses a plagal
progression in version two. He starts with the inverted tonic chord, reaches the VI
261
chord on beat two and returns to the tonic on beat three. All of these chords are
played on top of the dominant pedal note F.

bar 8
Bar 8
Folk Tune Bb
Harmonic Analysis I
Version 1 F#o/F Co/Bb Bbadd9 Eb6/9
Harmonic Analysis #Vo/8 29 IIo/b8 30 I IV6
Version 2 Bb6/F Ebma7/F – Fsus7 Bbma7/F F7/Eb
Harmonic Analysis Ima7/5 IVma7/2 – Vsus7 Ima7/5 IV6/b7
Basic Strategy Bbma7 Eb6 Bbma7 Eb6
Harmonic Analysis Ima7 IV6 Ima7 IV6
Version one here shows a V–I related harmonic situation which is represented by
the bass movement F–Bb, as well as by the superimposed diminished chords. Both
diminished triads F#o and Co can be regarded as fragments of an F7-9 dominant
chord. The chord F#o/F includes the dominant chord’s root, third, fifth and flattened
ninth, while Co/Bb outlines the dominant chord’s fifth, flattened seventh and
flattened ninth, placed upon the tonic root Bb.
This analysis calls for a re-evaluation of the special role played by the flattened
ninth within a dominant chord in tonal jazz. The interval of a flattened ninth is
usually avoided in vertical structures in tonal jazz, due to its high degree of
dissonance. However, in the context of a dominant chord, jazz theories as well as
29
In this study, the assignation of diminished chords placed upon bass notes other than their
chord roots takes the symmetrical eight-note diminished scale into account (whole step –
half step). Consequently, the chord F#o/F needs to be symbolised by #Vo/8 since the note F
represents the eighth scale degree of the symmetrical diminished scale starting from F#.
30
According to the analytic approach presented in the previous footnote, the note Bb
represents the flattened eight scale degree within the diminished scale (whole step – half
step) starting from the note C.
262
musicians are more tolerant with the use of this dissonance.31 In fact, the flattened
ninth of a dominant chord is established as a desirable dissonance that tends to
resolve to a consonance in the following chord.
The special treatment of this dissonance in jazz performance contributes to

harmonic solutions such as Evans’s in bar 8 that do not represent all guide tones.
The flattened ninth possesses enough functional potential to replace one of the guide
tones in the dominant chord. Evans employs this technique within the first two beats
of bar 8, but he anticipates the tonic root on beat two, which creates the unusual
colour Co/Bb. This structure resolves to the triadic tonic representation Bbadd9,
another rather uncommon chord in the context of tonal jazz. Evans’s triadic
harmonic choice in bar 8 of version one recalls his experience of classical music
rather than the typical chord structures of tonal jazz.
One particular spot that illustrates Evans’s strive for variation regarding the use of
harmonic patterns occurs in both versions within the transition of beat four of bar 8
into beat one of bar nine (Tables 4.12 and 4.13). Version one, which was more V–I
related on beats one to three, uses the plagal progression IV6–IIIm7 in version one.
Version two, which has used plagal progressions throughout bar 8, conveys the V–I
resolution from bar 8 into bar 9 (V7/b7–I/3).
31
Most jazz theories discuss ‘avoid notes’ in tonal jazz. These notes create a dissonant
interval, usually a flattened ninth, within the vertical structure and are therefore to be
avoided. Paradoxically, the flattened ninth in a dominant chord is not regarded as an avoid
note, despite its high degree of dissonance. Frank Sikora has provided an explanation:
‘Perhaps the b9 is perceived as a rather natural component within the unstable structure and
comparably dissonant sound of a dominant chord. More to the point, however, is the fact
that our ear perceives the b9 as a part of the diminished chord on the seventh scale degree
of the harmonic minor scale. We have become accustomed to this sound due to its frequent
use as the substitute of the V7b9’ [my translation]. Sikora, Jazz-Harmonielehre, 99. For a
more detailed discussion of jazz theory and the methodology and terminology used in this
study, see Chapters 2.1, 2.4 and 2.7.
263
4.5.3 Bars 9–12
Bars 9–12 represent the B section of the tune ‘Danny Boy’. As shown in Table 4.13,
bars 9–10 of the original harmonization consist of the simple I–IV–I–V progression,
which includes the plagal cadence IV–I. Evans replaces all tonic chords by either a
simple inversion of the tonic triad Bb/D (version two, beat one), or by the more
extended chords Dm7, Dm7add11 (bar 10) and Dm7-6 (bar 9), all rooted on the third
scale degree.
At the end of bar 9, after the introduction of the diatonic scale degree 4, Evans
inserts the subV7/III–IIIm7resolution Eb7–Dm7 by a chromatic voice-leading event
in both versions. The major seventh in the Ebma7 chord and the natural sixth in the
Eb6 chord become the non-diatonic flattened seventh Db. The originally plagal
cadence IV–I becomes a chromatically altered, functional dominant resolution
subV7/III–IIIm7. This procedure, namely the introduction of chromatic events which
foster functional yet non-diatonic progressions, can be regarded as one of the
characteristic elements of Evans’s harmonic approach.
264
bars 9–10
Bar 9
Folk Tune Bb Eb/Bb
Harmonic Analysis I IV/5
Version 1 Dm7-6 D7add-13 Eb6addma7add+11 Eb9
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 V7/VI IVma7 subV7/III
Version 2 Bb/D Bb+/D Ebma7add+11 Eb9
Harmonic Analysis I/3 I+/3 IVma7 subV7/III
Basic Strategy Bb/D Bb+/D Ebma7 Eb7

Harmonic Analysis I/3 I+/3 IVma7 subV7/III
Bar 10
Folk Tune Bb F/C
Harmonic Analysis I V/5

7add11 7
Version 1 Dm D Gm9 F7/Eb
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 V7/VI VIm7 V7/b7
Version 2 Dm7 – D7+9 Gmadd9 Cm7add11 – F7add13 F7/Eb
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 – V7/VI VIm IIm7 – V7 V7/b7
Basic Strategy Dm7 – D7 Gm7 – C7 Cm7 F7

Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 – V7/VI VIm7 – V7/V IIm7 V7
Bar 10 consists of two differing harmonic solutions: version two shows a diatonic
III–VI–II–V progression, with the inclusion of the secondary dominant chord D7+9
(V7/VI) and the inverted dominant chord F7/Eb. In the context of tonal jazz, this
represents a typical re-harmonization of the simple I–V situation that is present in
the original folk tune in bar 10. Version one utilizes a different re-harmonization:
III–V7/VI–VI–V/b7 (Dm7–D7–Gm7–F7/Eb). The tonicizised VI chord (Gm7) can be
perceived as a substitute for the tonic chord, followed by the same dominant chord
as in version one, F7/Eb.
265
bar 11
Bar 11
Folk Tune Bb Eb/Bb
Version 1 Bb/D Bb+ma9/D Ebma7add+11 – Eb7add13 D7+9dd-13
Harmonic Analysis I/3 I+ma7/3 IVma7 – subV7/III V7/VI
Version 2 Bb/D Bb+ma7/D Ebma7add+11 Dm7 – Gsus9
Harmonic Analysis I/3 I+ma7/3 IVma7 IIIm7 – VIsus7 (Vsus7/II)
Basic Strategy Bb/D Bb+/D Ebma7+11 Dm7
Harmonic Analysis I/3 I+/3 IVma7 IIIm7
Bars 11 and 12 represent a similar but slightly simpler progression to the previous
two bars: I–IV–V. Overall, Evans’s harmonic solutions in bar 11 resemble bar 9,
although he uses augmented tonic chords on beat two in both versions here (see
Table 4.14).
Bar 12 is of particular interest, as it demonstrates Evans’s re-harmonization

technique of a simple dominant chord that operates in the musical background (see
Table 4.15). This re-harmonization involves the secondary dominant chord C7
(V7/V), its related IIm7 chord Gm7 and various sus4–3 resolutions. Evans’s
procedures such as the use of secondary dominants, tritone substitutions, related
IIm7 chords, suspended fourths, tonic substitutions and modal interchange chords
have not only become extremely influential as harmonic models in the context of
tonal jazz, but also represent the basic concept of functional re-harmonization.
266
bar 12
Bar 12
Folk Tune F
Harmonic Analysis V
Version 1 Gm7add11 Csus13 F7add13 Fsus13 – F9add-13
Harmonic Analysis VIm7 Vsus7/V V7 Vsus7 – V7
Version 2 Csus7add13 C7 Fsus7 – Fsus9add13 F7-9
Harmonic Analysis Vsus7/V V7/V Vsus7 V7
Basic Strategy Gm7 C7 F7 F7

Harmonic Analysis VIm7 V7/V V7 V7
4.5.4 Bars 13–16
Bar 13 marks the apex point of the folk tune ‘Danny Boy’ (see Table 4.16). Just as
at the opening, Evans employs a tonicization of scale degree 4 (Bb7–Eb6), utilizing
suspended fourths within the dominant chords (Bb7sus–Bb7).

bar 13
Bar 13
Folk Tune Bb Eb/Bb
Version 1 Bbsus13add3 Bb9add13 Eb6/9 – Ebma7 Eo7
Harmonic Analysis V7sus/IV V7/IV IV6 #IVo
Version 2 Bbsusadd3add13 Bbsusadd3add13 Ebma13+11 Em7-5 – Eo7
Harmonic Analysis V7sus/IV Vsus7/IV IV6 #IVo
Basic Strategy Bb7 Bb7 Eb6 Eo

Harmonic Analysis V7/IV V7/IV IV6 #IVo
267
In both versions, he leaves the IV chord via an E diminished chord that resolves into
an inverted tonic in version one and a fragmentary D triad in version two. In both
versions, the Eo chord operates as a rootless dominant, resolving onto the first
chords in bar 14, which are built upon the roots F and D: A7-9–Dm7-6 (version 1) and
C7-9–(F) (version 2). The Em7-5 chord on beat four in bar 13 operates as a related II
chord of the hypothetical dominant chord A7-9.

bar 14
Bar 14
Folk Tune Bb Eb
Harmonic Analysis I IV
7-6 7-9add-13
Version 1 Dm D Gm7 – C9+11 C#o
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 V7/VI VIm7 – V7/V #IIo
Version 2 (F) – (D) Gm – Db13+11 C7add13 C#o
7 7
Harmonic Analysis (V/VI) VI – subV /II V /V #IIo
Basic Strategy Dm7 Gm7 C7 C#o

Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 VIm7 V7/V #IIo
Evans’s harmonization in the first part of bar 14 differs from the original folk tune
as well as from the basic strategy (see Table 4.17). The point of departure is beat
three, where he significantly re-harmonizes the subdominant chord. Instead of the
Eb or Cm7 subdominant qualities, he introduces the C7 chord in version two,
preceded by its related IIm7 chord (Gm7) in version one. The chords on beats one
and two in both versions of this bar refer to this re-harmonization: the D7-9add-13 chord
on beat two in version one functions as the secondary dominant chord of the
following Gm chord, which is, in turn, identified as the related IIm7 of C7. In version
two, the fragmentary D major triad on beat one functions as the dominant of the
following G minor triad. This chord is followed by a tritone substitution (Db13+11 of
an altered G dominant chord), which tonicizises the C7add13 chord.
268
Evans employs tonicizations of various chords in bar 14, targeting different chords
in the two versions. These procedures represent significant re-harmonization of the
original subdominant on beat three. At the end of the bar, he utilizes another
diminished chord that operates in the same way (see Table 4.18). Here, the C#o
chord functions as an A7-9 chord that resolves onto the inverted tonic chord Bbma9/D
or tonic substitute Dm7 (IIIm7).

bars 15–16
Bar 15 Bar 16
Folk Tune Bb Eb/Bb Bb

Harmonic Analysis I IV/5 I
Version 1 Bbma9/D Gm7add11 Csus13 Fsus9 – F7-9 Dm7/F
Harmonic Analysis Ima7/3 VIm7 V7sus/V V7sus – V7 IIIm7/3
Version 2 Dm7 Gm9 Csus13 Fsus9add13 – F7 Bb – Bbma7/F
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 VIm7 V7sus/V V7 Ima7 – Ima7/5
Basic Strategy Dm7 Gm7 C7 F7 Bbma7
Harmonic Analysis IIIm7 VIm7 V7/V V7 Ima7
Bars 15 and 16 consist essentially of the plagal cadence I–IV–I, whereas the basic
strategy implies a common III–VI–V7/V–V progression. In version one, Evans
again chooses an inverted tonic chord, and his second version utilizes the typical
tonic substitute IIIm7 (Dm7). The final V7/V–V cadence is again harmonically
decorated by means of sus4–3 resolutions in both versions.
269
4.6 Clare Fischer’s Performance of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’
Clare Fischer recorded a solo version of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ in 1975 in
Germany. The recording was produced by Hans Georg Brunner-Schwer and it was
first published on the LP Alone Together by the German record label MPS (Musik
Produktion Schwarzwald). The record was re-released by the American label
Discovery Records in 1980 and, again, in 1997 by the German label and publishing
company Advance Music.32 The same year, Advance Music published a book of
several transcriptions of Clare Fischer’s solo piano recordings, transcribed by Bill
Dobbins.33 Dobbins’s transcription of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ will be used in
the following analysis. The first 64 bars of the full transcription in Appendix 5, and
excerpts throughout this dissertation are reproduced by kind permission of Advance
Music.
Fischer has a strong emotional bond to this particular song, as it represents a

connection to his father, who was a travelling salesman. The young Fischer was not
able to see his father a lot, as he had to travel for business purposes. Donna Fischer
explained, that
… he wanted to be with his father, but his father was on the road all the
time. When Clare was in college, his father realized what a talent his son
was, which contributed to a good understanding between the two of them.
His father died at the age of 59, so they could not spend as much time
together as they should have.34
Fischer himself provided some information about his relationship to this song and
about its production in a recent interview, while listening to the recording of this
performance:
32
Clare Fischer, Alone Together (MPS 15500, 1975); Clare Fischer, Alone Together (LP
Trend DS 820 VG+, 1980); Clare Fischer, Alone Together (Advance Music 9709003,
1997).
33
Clare Fischer, Alone Together – Just Me. Solo Piano Transcriptions. Transcribed by Bill
Dobbins (Advance Music, 1997).
34
Interview by the author with Donna Fischer on February 27, 2008.
270
Michael Kahr:
Did you improvise that completely, or did you prepare that harmonization?
Fischer:
No, no, I just played it. … I can still hear my dad singing this. I mean, how
otherwise I would have an affinity with ‘Du, Du …’?35
Fischer’s version uses a symmetrical AA’BB form, as opposed to the AA’B form
that is presented in early sources and many recordings of the song such as the
interpretation by the famous German singer Marlene Dietrich.36 Fischer starts with a
re-harmonized statement of the melody in the key of G major, followed by another
re-harmonization of the melody in the key of Eb major. Both melody-choruses are
played rubato. Then, Fischer moves into a medium tempo jazz waltz feel and
improvises one solo chorus in the key of Eb major. He remains in this key for the
final statement of the melody and for the coda.
Fischer’s complex harmonic treatment of the simple folk tune is one of the most
outstanding aspects of this recorded performance, as has been stated by Jim Aiken
in his review of Fischer’s record Alone Together in the magazine Contemporary
Keyboard in 1979:
When the inner voices shift while the bass note stays the same, it can be
difficult to tell just what the chord is and how it’s functioning in the phrase,
but the sense of movement, or progression if you will, remains clear. This
dense harmonic interplay reaches an apogee in “Du, Du, Liegst Mir Im
Herzen,” a traditional tune that Fischer makes very affecting by keeping
the melody virtually intact while the chords quietly tie themselves into
knots.37
The following analysis explains the questions raised by Aiken regarding Fischer’s
vertical structures and their function within the simple harmonic framework of the
folk tune. The analysis focuses on the initial melody section of the performance,
comprising bars 1–64 of the transcription. I will utilize the terminology and
analytical techniques that were introduced in the previous sections.
35
Interview by the author with Clare Fischer on February 28, 2008.
36
Marlene Dietrich, Sei Lieb Zu Mir (Remember 789368416721, 2000).
37
Jim Aiken, ‘Review of Clare Fischer: Alone Together’, Contemporary Keyboard 5
(September 1979).
271
The chord symbolization shown in the examples is structured in three layers. The
first layer represents the analytical chord symbolization (AS), as described in
Chapter 2.8. The practical symbols (PS) show a simplified description of the
vertical structures, as used in typical fakebook arrangements, similar to the
hypothesized basic harmonic strategy as used in the analysis in Chapter 4.5. The
harmonic basis (HB) indicates the fundamental harmonic functions, which operate
in the background. This analytical method will explain Fischer’s harmonic solutions
from the perspective of an improvising musician who keeps the basic harmonic
functions in mind while creating new harmonic solutions, according to personal
taste or, in other words, the idiolect of the improvising performer.
4.6.1 Bars 1–8
Example 4.62: ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ as played by Clare Fischer,

transcribed by Bill Dobbins, bars 1–4
As shown in Example 4.62, Fischer begins with a rather conventional vertical

structure that is frequently used in tonal jazz. This structure constitutes the tonality
of G major with a blues flavour by means of the added flattened seventh. The
voicing consists of chord root and guide-tones on the bottom and the thirteenth and
ninth piled up in perfect fourths on top of the third of the chord. The third is doubled
by the melody one octave higher. Noteworthy is the unusual small interval of a
major second between the melody note (B) and the first of the middle voices (A). In
the first seven bars of his interpretation, Fischer mainly explores the resolving
tendencies and potential of forward motion provided by dominant chords within the
structural framework of tonal harmony (see Examples 4.62 and 4.63).
272
Two characteristics are particularly significant within bars 1–7: first, all chords,
with one exception in bar 4, function as more or less altered dominant seventh
chords; and second, there is a consistent chord root progression by descending fifths
resulting in the sequence G–C–F–Bb–Eb–Ab–Db up to the beginning of bar 7. Both
features seem to contradict the framework of functional diatonic harmony, and
indeed the power of the dominant chord chain loosens the structural orientation
towards the tonic. On the other hand, there are also some characteristics that help
this passage to relate more closely to the tonic.
In all bars except the seventh, the melody and bass note are stated at the beginning
of the bar and the remainder of the chord follows on beat two. This rhythmic
element emphasises the melody and the bass notes and imbues the chords with a
more supportive and colouring role. The middle voices are usually lower in the
hierarchy of musical perception in comparison with the outer voices and,
additionally, the impact of the middle voices in this performance is softened
because of their weak position within each bar.
The melody here is purely diatonic and the repeated notes B and A serve as pedals,
representing the stable third of the tonic in bars 1–3 and the unstable major second
in bars 5–6 and the beginning of bar 7. Numerous chords within the first eight bars
of Fischer’s performance have functional meaning within the diatonic framework.
The tonic in bar 8 is stated clearly on beat one by the root and the third and on beat
three by a full G6 voicing. The dissonant cluster on beat two resolves smoothly by
chromatic steps upwards into the chord on beat three. The lower triad within the
273
chord Bb+ma7 in bar 4 can be regarded as an inverted D+ triad, which also conveys
a clear functional meaning represented as a dominant chord in the key of G major.
The chord Ab7-9add13 in bar 6 can be regarded as a tritone substitution of a D7 chord
and as such, it contributes towards the establishing of the dominant function in bars
6 and 7. The chord Eb7+9+11 in bar 5 functions as subV7/V and participates in the
harmonization of the dominant function.
In bar 7, Fischer finishes the chain of dominant chords with a chromatic approach
from the Db7+9add-13 chord upwards to the dominant seventh chord D7+9, which
resolves into the tonic G major in bar 8. While a parallel chromatic descent of
dominant chords would be analysed as a tritone substitution, the parallel chromatic
ascent is more unusual in tonal jazz and it does not convey functional meaning in a
conventional sense. However, the parallel chromatic motion (chromatic planing)
does convey a structural logic, which is also utilized by Fischer on other occasions
within this interpretation.
For instance, the middle voices from bars 1–3 show a chromatic parallel descent.
There is a structural logic in the parallel chromatic descent of all four middle voices
from bar 1 (F–B–E–A) to bar 3 (Eb–A–D–G), as well as from bar 5 (G–Db–Gb) to
bar 7 (F–B–E). In conjunction with a bass progression in descending fifths, the
chromatic descending planing of middle voices is often found in tonal jazz. This
parallel chromatic descent of the middle voices can also be seen as contrapuntal
motion against the static melody as well as against the consistent bass progression
in descending fifths.
However, in bar 2 of this performance, the chromatic process results in an almost

polytonal situation concerning the diatonic melody. The melody certainly belongs to
the diatonic tonality of G major, whereas the middle voices and the bass progression
lead away from the tonic centre. The resulting chord C7+9add-13addma7 contains the note
Bb, the flattened seventh of the dominant chord C7, and the melody note B, which
form the dissonant interval of a minor ninth. In tonal jazz the inclusion of the major
seventh in a dominant chord is unusual. The B natural has an important status as the
274
diatonic melody note in this bar and the note Bb can be explained in context of
Fischer’s voice-leading approach throughout this first section of his performance.
With one exception in bar 2, all vertical structures found within the first eight bars
of Fischer’s performance are constructed as conventional voicings used in tonal
jazz. In general, all vertical sonorities in these bars contain a high degree of
instability and tendency to resolve. Final resolution is reached in bar 8, when
Fischer states a stable G6 tonic chord.
4.6.2 Bars 9–16

In the first fours bars of the A’ section Fischer states the melody in simple fashion,
just as he had in the previous section. Additionally, he employs a complex mixture
of functional and linear harmonisations, which interrelates with a series of vertical
sonorities that are unusual in the context of tonal jazz. 38
The first chord in bar 9 shows a rather uncommonly altered IIm7 chord (F#m11-9-13),
which appears as a poly-chord: The upper structure outlines a G major triad, while
the guide tones of the lower structure refer to the start of a functional II–V
progression that leads towards a chord based on the sixth scale degree, Em7. The
38
For a closer examination of Clare Fischer’s voice-leading techniques, see Appendix 8,
which shows a complete voice-leading analysis of bars 1–32 of Fischer’s interpretation of
‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’. Additionally, please see Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’; and
Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
275
upper structure triad G major outlines and strengthens the tonic sonority, while
simultaneously the bass progression has started to move away from the tonic. The
motion in the bass appears as an inversion with the seventh in the bass on beat two
of the following bar (Em7/D). In functional tonal jazz, the chord on the sixth scale
degree possesses a quality that is stable enough to recall a tonic character but is also
fluid enough to provide forward motion in a broader harmonic context. Fischer
increases the forward motion of the Em7 chord by the placement of its seventh (D)
in the bass. The urgency of the bass note’s forward motion is provided by its
involvement in a coherent chromatic bass descent that begins on the D# in bar 10
and ends on the B in bar 12.
The altered dominant chord B7, which resolves into Em7, spans from beat two of bar
9 until beat one in the following bar. In bar 9, B7 appears with the conventional
alterations +11 and –13, whereas bar 10 shows a somewhat contradictory vertical
structure in the context of tonal jazz that may be accorded a dominant function: the
lower structure here seems to outline the guide tones of an D#6 chord, while the
upper structure outlines a B major triad. Usually, the lower structure, containing the
guide tones, conveys the functional meaning in tonal jazz, while the upper structure
comprises those notes that provide colour and tension. In this passage though,
Fischer turns the usual voicing procedure upside down. He puts a dominant triad
into the upper structure and resolves it onto the relatively stable Em7 chord. The
lower structure resolves chromatically to the next chord, which again contains an
element of instability owing to its inversion, as described above. As a result of this
analysis, the chord on beat one in bar 10 (D#6+9add-13) can be regarded also as Badd-9add-
13
/D#. The lack of the dominant seventh is made up for by the chromatic proximity
to the following chord. Three chord tones resolve chromatically (D#–E, C–B and
F#–G) and two notes are even sustained into the next chord (B and G).
Bar 11 contains a half-diminished chord on scale degree #4 followed by the chord

on the fourth scale degree, which includes a raised eleventh. This progression is not
unusual in the context of jazz. Both voicings are characterized by the inclusion of
the interval of a second within the middle voices. With the exception of the bass
note C#, both chords are constructed from diatonic material.
276
Bars twelve 12–14 form a functional III–VI–II–V progression, which is very
common in tonal jazz. The guide tones in bar 12 outline the conventional V7/VI
(B7)–VIm7 (Em7) progression. The B7 chord on the third scale degree functions as
the secondary dominant of the following chord on the sixth scale degree. The
alterations +9 and +11 here are common for a dominant chord in tonal jazz, while
the next chord appears as a typical pile of thirds with the guide tones at the bottom.

Bars 13 and 14 consist of a harmonically elaborated II–V progression (see Example

4.65). Fischer uses a variety of mostly conventional voicings for the harmonization
of each melody note. On beat one in bar 13 and beat two in the following bar, there
are conventional dominant voicings in contrast to the first chord in bar 14 which
lacks a seventh and it contains a tripled fifth, resulting in an open and almost empty
sonority. The specific sound here is certainly a contrast to the dense chords that
appear before and after this point. The chord at the end of bar 14 can almost be seen
as a response to this open sound: it is a dark, dissonant and unusual dominant
harmonization of the leading note, F#. Characteristic of this voicing is the interval
of a flattened ninth between the two lowest voices.39
Unusual in the context of tonal jazz is the inclusion of two altered chord tones,
which would normally be found in the upper structure of a dominant chord, between
39
Fischer’s unconventional voicings of conventional chords has been described as a
characteristic aspect of his harmonic approach. With regards to Fischer’s transfer of
tensions into the lower structure of voicings, refer to Barbara Bleij, ‘On Harmony and
Meaning in Clare Fischer’s Music’, Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie 9/3 (2004), 215-216.
277
the bass note and the next guide tone. Of course, this voicing has its own particular
sound quality, which recurs on the last beat of bar 22 and in bar 30.
At this point it becomes clear that Fischer’s improvisation shows a tendency to use
unusual voicings in combination with common chords of the tonal jazz repertoire.
Furthermore, he uses the principles of Western tonal music such as V–I
relationships to generate a high degree of harmonic tension. This tension is created
by the constant harmonic oscillation towards and away from the tonic.
In bar 15 Fischer employs an interesting variation of a deceptive cadence D7-9-13–

Dbma7+9+11 (see Example 4.65). The ear expects a return to the tonic at this point, an
expectation which is supported by the move of the leading note F# in the previous
bar to the tonic G. However, Fischer places the tritone Db at the bottom and creates
a sonority that is highly unusual in the context of most conventional tonal jazz.
Reading the structure from the guide tones upwards, it can be described as a Db
major chord with a sharp nine (E) and a sharp eleven (G). The structure comprises
the guide tones of a Db major chord in combination with a C major upper structure
triad.
The construction resembles the usual jazz voicing, with the guide tones at the
bottom, stretched out over almost two octaves, and a major triad on top. However,
the inclusion of the sharp nine in a major chord is very rare in tonal jazz. A
satisfying explanation of this chord can be achieved by taking into account Fischer’s
voice leading. The bass note Db results from a chromatic descent from the previous
bass note D. Fischer continues a chromatic approach within the bass line by a quick
chromatic ascent to the note Ab, which becomes part of a cambiata-like movement
to the bass note G in bar 16.
Looking at the upper structures in bars 15 and 16, it is easy to identify the only
changing notes C–B. In the context of the expected tonic root G, the note C in bar
15 appears as a suspension that resolves into the third of the tonic in bar 16. The
bass note Db can be seen as a tritone substitution of the expected note G, which is
reached in bar 16 after a chromatic rise and an ornamental figure.
278
In bar 16, while the tonic root is finally heard, the sonority does not appear stable,
due to the F that is sustained from the previous bar. This note appears as the
dominant seventh and completely changes the chord’s character and harmonic
function from stable to unstable. However, the resultant G7add13 chord appears as a
conventional voicing of tonal jazz with a blues flavour that leads into an equally
conventionally voiced C major seventh chord in bar 17.
4.6.3 Bars 17–20
The vertical structures found in the first B section (bars 17–20), are based on a
conventional and purely diatonic bass progression. An investigation of the guide
tones of this passage reveals the progression Cma7–Bm7 (Em)–Ama7 (Am7)–Dm7
(G7). Here, my chord symbols in brackets describe the vertical sonorities that
Fischer introduces on a weak part of the bar. The guide tones of this passage form
diatonic chords in the key of G, with the only exception being the first chord in bar
nineteen (see Example 4.66). This chord stands out in comparison with all other
sonorities of this section. The rest of the passage can be analysed as either
conventional voicings found in much tonal jazz or as contrapuntal lines that make
use of the melodic material provided by equally conventional vertical sonorities in
tonal jazz.

Bar 17 is characterized by the contrapuntal motion of two middle voices and the
alteration +11, as well as the sharpened fifth, which serves as a chromatic passing
279
note towards the flattened seventh of the following chord Bm7. Bar 18 contains a
melodic realization of a Bm7 chord and a fragmentary Em7 chord, whose bass note
is employed only on the final eighth note of the bar. The chord’s fifth (B) is very
prominent throughout bar 18 as the root of the previous chord Bm7. The progression
Bm7–Em7 (III–VI in the key of G major) shows a clear functional coherence that is
developed further into the functional chord Am7 on beat three in the following bar, a
progression that is interrupted by a somewhat unusual vertical sonority which will
be discussed below.
The harmonic functions of Fischer’s interpretation of bars 17 and 18 show a closer

proximity to the basic functions of the folk tune than the previous section: C+ma7+11
constitutes an altered version of a temporary new tonic on the fourth scale degree in
the key of G major. The chords Bm7 and Em7 are to be seen as purely functional
chords that provide harmonic motion while, at the same time, maintaining their
close connection to the harmonic qualities of the tonic G major.
Fischer’s harmonizations in bars 19 and 20 constitute more dramatic alterations in

comparison with the basic harmonic accompaniment to the folk tune (see Example
4.67). He employs two chords per bar. The progression in bar 20 is essentially a
conventionally voiced II–V progression, while the progression in bar 19 is more
unusual.

280
In bar 20 the voicing of the Dm9add11 chord consists of a C major upper structure
triad placed above the guide tones of a Dm7 chord. The alterations of the G7+9+11
chord are also conventionally piled up in thirds on top of the guide tones. In bar 19,
Fischer places an unusual non-functional and non-diatonic chord in between a series
of functional and mostly diatonic chords. The Ama7 chord does not convey any
functional meaning, but it provides a fresh colour within this series of functional
chords, resolving to a diatonic chord on the following beat. The non-diatonic tones
of the Ama7add13 chord, G# and C#, resolve chromatically to the diatonic tones G and
C. The chord Am7add13 is characterized by a diatonic chord root, as well as by a
strong horizontal connection to the surrounding chords.
4.6.4 Bars 21–24
Bars 21–24 resemble bars 13–16 (see Example 4.68). Again, the first two bars of
this passage consist of an elaborated II–V progression that resolves into Fischer’s
re-harmonisation of the tonic in bars 23 and 24. The melody is once again
interpreted in a pure and simple fashion, with no ornaments or other changes.

Bar 21 opens with a conventionally voiced IIm7 chord (Am7) in the key of G major
and from beat two onwards, proceeds by a chromatically ascending vertical
structure, which is located beneath the melody. This lower structure consists of the
guide tones of minor seventh chords ascending chromatically from Dm7 to Fm7.
281
The vertical structure on beat two in bar 21 outlines a conventionally voiced
Dm7add11 chord with a doubled minor third. It is then moved chromatically upwards
over the following three beats. This passage conveys the forward motion and
coherence provided by a parallel chromatic ascent of the lower vertical structure.
All of the m7add11 chords, with the exception of the structure on beat one in bar 22,
carry some degree of dissonance, due to the interval of a major seventh between the
melody note and the second of the middle voices (i.e. B–C on beat two in bar 21).
The last beat in bar 22 shows a vertical structure that is very similar to the one
found on the last beat of bar 14. The only differences are the omission of the bass
note D and the doubling of the F# bass note. The resulting chord is conventional,
but the voicing is somewhat unusual in tonal jazz. Example 4.69 shows a
comparison of the chords on beat three in bars 14 and 22.

transcribed by Bill Dobbins, comparison of bars 14 and 22
Apart from the sustained note C, Fischer resolves each note of the chord in bar 22
chromatically into the following vertical structure. The bass F# resolves to a low G,
which we might expect to function as the root of the following chord. Fischer
contradicts this expected V–I resolution by adding a low D as the bass note of the
chord in bar 23. The bass note is doubled one octave above, which strengthens the
effect of a dominant bass note in the key of G. This lower structure, which therefore
contains the interval of a perfect fourth on the bottom, is quite unusual in tonal jazz.
Without the inclusion of the low G, the chord would appear as a conventional
voicing of a Vsus7 chord. Fischer avoids this obviousness by adding the second bass
note, which of course conveys a strong functional meaning in this context.
282
The upper structure in bar 23 is more immediately apparent in its harmonic
function. The C major triad placed on the lower structure recalls the voicing in bar
15 (C major upper structure triad placed on the guide tones of a Db major seventh
chord), which is equally intriguing harmonically. In bar 23 however, the C major
triad conveys a plagal quality on top of the dominant bass note D in the key of G
major.
The unconventionally voiced Dsus11 chord conveys an ambiguous harmonic

condition between the functional qualities of the dominant, tonic and subdominant.
The ambiguity continues in bar 24 in a more subtle fashion, with the harmony
seeming to resolve finally to the tonic G major, but as at bar 16, Fischer adds the
flattened seventh to the tonic chord; now, besides its clear reference to a blues
context, it provides further forward motion within the functional framework (see
Example 4.70).40

Instead of stating the bass note G clearly, Fischer employs a chromatic run in the
bass from G to B. The instability inherent in this tonic chord is reinforced by the
following chord Db7/B which functions as a common tritone substitution, although
its appearance as an inversion in unusual in tonal jazz. Rather occasionally, jazz
40
McGowan identifies the inclusion of the flattened seventh in a tonic chord as a blues
dialect. For a more detailed discussion please refer to McGowan, Aspects of Harmony, 76–
132.
283
pianists such as Bill Evans have used inverted chords in compositions such as
‘Waltz for Debby’41 Table 4.19 illustrates this technique.
Table 4.19: Chord changes in ‘Waltz for Debby’, bars 1–16
Fma7 Dm7 Gm7 C7

A7/G D7/F# G7/F C7/E
F7/Eb Bb6/D Gm7-5/Db C7 – C7/Bb
Am7 Dm7 Gm7 C7
Fischer’s employment of the inverted dominant chord Db7/B provides a fresh and
unusual sound quality and simultaneously conveys a clear functional dominant
meaning by resolving logically into the following functional chord on the fourth
scale degree Cma7 (IV in the key of G).
4.6.5 Bars 25–28
The first two bars of the second B section of Fischer’s first chorus begin with a
similar harmonization to the first B section, although the motion of the inner voices
is less contrapuntal in bars 25–26 (see Example 4.71). One harmonic difference is
found on the last beat of bar 26, where Fischer does not employ the expected root
progression in descending fifths from B to E.

41
Taken from Sher, The New Real Book Vol.1, 387-388.
284
The harmonic result is a simple inverted G major triad that leads into the next chord
Eb7+9. While at first sight the chord progression G/B–Eb7+9 appears strange and non-
functional, there are, however, two ways of perceiving this progression as functional
in a broader sense:
First, considering the reciprocal B section in bars 17–20, it is noticeable, that

Fischer has applied a similar voicing on beat three of bar 26 to that on the same beat
in bar 18. The noticeable difference is the omitted bass note E in bar 26. The
inclusion of this bass note would result in a diatonic chord on the sixth scale degree,
Em7. Assuming the existence of that chord, the resulting root progression E–Eb
would appear more logical in a functional context than the root progression B–Eb.
Taking into account Fischer’s preference for unusual progressions and voicings, I
believe that he omitted the bass note E intentionally in order to avoid repetition.
The second possibility regarding the analysis of the chord Eb7+9 in bar 27 as a
functional chord is its interpretation as the tritone substitution of the vertical
structure that is built on the bass note A, which is present in the previous reciprocal
passage (in bar 19). Example 4.72 shows a comparison of the reciprocal sections of
the first and second B sections.
285
transcribed by Bill Dobbins, comparison of bars 18–20 and 26–
28
In the context of tonal jazz, tritone substitutions usually exist between dominant
chords.42 However, considering Fischer’s flexibility regarding his harmonic choices,
the chord Eb7+9 can well be regarded as a tritone substitution for both chords Ama7
and Am7add13, which are present in the reciprocal B section in bar 19. In bar 20
Fischer moves on to a Dm9add11 chord whereas in bar 28 he resolves the Eb7+9 chord
to an Ab6/9addma7 chord. Despite the logical V–I resolution of this progression, it still
sounds surprising to the listener. Ab6/9addma7 appears as a new tonic that is placed a
half step above the tonal centre of the tune. Within the functional context of the
tune, Fischer uses the dominant quality of the imaginative, yet functional chord
Eb7+9 to move far away from the tonal centre of the piece to a distant harmonic
region. This harmonic side-step marks the dramatic high point within this first
chorus of Fischer’ s performance.
42
For a discussion of tritone substitutions in tonal jazz, see Chapter 2.5.10.
286
4.6.6 Bars 29–32
In contrast to the effective harmonic solution in bar 28, Fischer uses a rather simple
and purely functional harmonization for the final cadence of the first chorus (see
Example 4.73). The first chord B7 is provided in a sparse harmonisation that
consists only of its guide tones and the bass note. This chord represents the third
scale degree with a dominant function, which is a common technique in tonal jazz.
The next chord Bb7-9add13 functions as a chromatic link to the A7+9add13 on the third
beat. The latter can be regarded as the dominant of the dominant D7, which follows
in bar 30. Of particular interest is the chord on beat three of bar 30 (D7-9add-13), which
appears as it did in bar 14 and similarly to its use in bar 22. The voicing is unusual
in tonal jazz, but due to its threefold use in the first chorus of this interpretation, it
appears now as an already established vertical sonority. Considering the tritone
substitution on beat two in bar 29, the passage appears as the following progression:
III7–bIII7 (VI7)–II7–V7. Functionally the chords work as a series of sequential
dominant and subdominant chords.

The last two bars of the first chorus mark the return to the tonic and the modulation
to the new key Eb, which becomes the tonal centre until the end of Fischer’s
performance. On beat one of bar 31, the tonic is stated by its root G only. On the
following beat, he changes the chord quality from stable to unstable by introducing
a Gsus7 chord.
287
In tonal jazz a sus7 chord can be explained as a hybrid structure formed by the bass
note of the dominant chord (V7) and the guide tones of the related minor seventh
chord (IIm7). The bass note of the dominant chord has a strong tendency to resolve
by a descending fifth, while the guide tones of the subdominant chord show a more
stable character than those of a dominant chord. The harmonization of the tonic by
means of a sus7 chord implies the tendency to resolve downward by a descending
fifth. Here, in bar 32 Fischer proceeds by parallel planing into a Bbsus7 chord, which
shows the same harmonic characteristics as the previous chord. This time, he allows
the chord to fulfil its potential to resolve downwards via the dominant chord Bb7-
9add13
on beat three into the new tonic (Eb major) of the second chorus in bar 33.
288
4.7 Statistical Comparison of Fischer’s and Evans’s Versions
of the Folk Tunes ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and ‘Danny
Boy’
It is now possible to compare the vertical and the horizontal treatments in the solo
piano interpretations by Evans and Fischer that were analysed in detail separately in
the preceding sections. Particular attention must be payed to the differing strategies
for the extension of the simple harmonic framework of the folk songs ‘Danny Boy’
and ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and towards the degree of chromaticism
employed in each case. Despite overall similarities in both interpretations, the
comparison reveals how both pianists define their style by means of distinct
harmonic and linear choices rather than by pianistic devices alone.
As the performances display characteristic examples of the harmonic approaches of

Evans and Fischer, similarities of harmonic language can be identified. The
differences, on the other hand, imply ramifications for the identification of the
fundamental idiosyncrasies in Fischer’s harmonic style, which is one of the
principal goals of this study.
4.7.1 General Similarities
The interpretations of both pianists convey a sense of romanticism that, on the

surface, is apparent primarily in their pianistic abilities rather than their actual
choice of notes. Elements such as: balance, which empathizes with the melody and
treats the harmony as a secondary, accompanying issue; the choice of harmonically
colourful accompaniments; the choice of rubato tempi that recall the emotive
interpretations of romantic piano music by classical composers such as Frederic
Chopin; and the subtle tone produced by both pianists are all paramount here.
With regard to the pianists’ choice of notes, the analyses have shown that both stay
close to the original melody of the folk tunes and create complex accompanying re-
harmonizations. Their harmonies, although placed in the background of the music,
289
convey originality and play an important role in the definition of their idiosyncratic
styles.
Both pianists provide musical contrast by the use of pedal notes and modulations.
The analysed sections of Evans’s performances of ‘Danny Boy’ remain in the key
of Bb major, but both versions modulate in the course of the full performance.
Version 1 modulates up a half step to the key of B major, followed by modulations
back to Bb major and into F major. Version 2 modulates down a minor third to the
key of G major. Similarly to Evans’s version 2, Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du
liegst mir im Herzen’ modulates down a major third (G major – Eb major).
However, the following comparative analysis focuses on the first chorus of each
interpretation exclusively.
A common strategy is the use of variation where harmonic solutions in reciprocal

formal and harmonic situations are concerned. Both pianists employ differing
harmonizations whenever a formal segment is repeated. Evans’s two versions of
‘Danny Boy’ contain different harmonies not only from each other, but also in
reciprocal formal segments.
Smooth voice leading, constituted by chromatic or step-wise linear progressions, is

a common approach in the interpretations by both pianists. Both make extensive use
of a range of linear phenomena in order to create harmonic tension and release.
These linear developments comprise common and more unusual linear phenomena
that have been described by Rob Hinz as: ‘splitting, merging, suspension and its
subsequent resolution, anticipation and its subsequent resolution, suspension
sounding simultaneously with its resolution, anticipation sounding simultaneously
with the tone that the anticipation serves as a resolution for, register transfer of a
voice, register transfer of a resolution, simultaneous movements or resolutions to
two different expressions of a scale degree or chord tone (double inflections),
tension tones (similar to a pedal tone), lines that appear to move into or originate
from a prominent non-octave overtone (such as the perfect twelfth) and
290
parallelism’.43 Chromaticism, as an integral aspect of these voice-leading
phenomena, is used by both pianists in order to expand upon the diatonic framework
of the original folk tunes.
4.7.2 General Differences
Although both pianists make use of similar devices in the construction of their
harmonic content, there is a fundamental difference to be found in the extent and
degree to which each device is applied. Clearly Fischer’s approach reaches much
further towards the borders of tonality than Evans’s approach.
In the case of Evans’s interpretation, most of the vertical structures and their
function within the tonal framework do not go beyond the scope of tonality as
described in common practice jazz theories. This is no coincidence, since most jazz
theories were developed after, or parallel with, the constitution of Evans’s status in
jazz history. These jazz theories can be seen as a tool to explain the core repertoire
of tonal jazz music, which is constituted by Evans’s harmonic language to a great
extent.44
Fischer’s harmonic structures, on the other hand, comprise a combination of

common structures as found in Evans’s interpretations and vertical structures which
appear unusual in the context of conventional jazz theories, such as C7+9add-13addmaj7.
His functional progressions also progress far beyond Evans’s concept of tonality. As
explained in previous studies of Fischer’s music, these unconventional vertical
structures and harmonic progressions can be explained as the products of an
idiosyncratic use of the aforementioned linear phenomena. However, the extent and
degree of this linear approach becomes apparent only through a comparative
examination, which is the purpose of the following section.
43
Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’, 81-82. The author has adopted Hinz’s voice-leading
categorisations in his Master of Music thesis, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
44
See Chapters 2.2. and 2.5
291
4.7.3 Comparative Analytical Strategy
The comparative analytical strategy in this section is divided into vertical,

horizontal and combined perspectives and involves various components in each, as
outlined below:
Harmonic perspective
1. vertical analysis by means of chord symbolization
2. comparison of analytical symbols with practical chord symbolizations
and with the harmonic framework of the folk tune
3. identification and classification of various types of vertical structures
4. identification of functional relationships
5. statistical comparison of types of vertical structures and functional
relationships.
Vertical perspective
1. vertical analysis by means of voice-leading graphs
2. identification and classification of various types of voice-leading events
3. statistical comparison of types of voice-leading events.
Tables and excerpts of the transcriptions, harmonic analysis and voice-leading

graphs are used throughout the comparative analysis in order to illustrate the
findings. Excerpts of these tables are used within the text whenever necessary. The
full tables, graphs and scores can be found in Appendix 9.
4.7.3.1 Harmonic Perspective
Vertical analysis and analytical symbolization was carried out on the basis of the
transcriptions and analytical graphs. Each vertical entity was assigned an analytical
chord symbol according to the method (as described in Chapter 2.8). In addition to
the analytical chord symbols, the transcriptions show hypothetical chord symbols as
they might be used in fakebook arrangements, as well as chord symbols that
represent the fundamental structure of the tune. The relationships between
292
fundamental structures and hypothetical chord symbols have been discussed in
detail previously in this chapter.
All three performances, in particular the contrapuntal style in Evans’s two versions
of ‘Danny Boy’, required the identification of much of the melodic and contrapuntal
motion as part of separate harmonic entities. In the tables, the jazz term ‘voicing’ is
used for these harmonic entities. Some vertical structures comprise sonorities that
were introduced in the previous harmonic entity. For instance, the sound of the bass
note Bb on beat one of bar 1 of the first Evans recording is sustained into beat two;
the sound of the note Bb can still be heard internally on beat two, even though the
note is not actually played.45
The analysed section of Fischer’s version of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ is

limited to the first thirty-one bars. The first sixteen bars of both Evans’s first and
second versions of ‘Danny Boy’ are used in this study. For the remainder of this
chapter, the analysed section of Fischer’s performance is referred to as ‘Fischer’ and
Evans’s versions as ‘Evans 1’ and ‘Evans 2’. The table below illustrates the
statistical analysis of vertical events in the three examined performances.
45
For more information regarding the techniques and problems in relation to transcriptions
of recorded performances, see Chapter 2.7.
293
Table 4.20: Statistics of vertical structures in Fischer’s and Evans’s performances
Total number of Fischer Evans 1 Evans 2

Voicings 57 = 100% 67 = 100% 68 = 100%
2 – part voicings - - 2 = 2.9%
3 – part voicings 5 = 8.8% 6 = 8.9% 12 = 17.7%
4 – part voicings 21 = 36.8% 27 = 40.3% 26 = 38.2%
5 – part voicings 26 = 45.6% 27 = 40.3% 21 = 30.9%
6 part – voicings 5 = 8.8% 7 = 10.5% 7 = 10.3%
Uncommon vertical structures 4 = 7% - -

Entirely diatonic voicings 15 = 26.3% 38 = 56.7% 44 = 64.7%
Voicings based on diatonic 42 = 73.7% 64 = 95.5% 63 = 92.7%
chord roots
Voicings based on non-diatonic 15 = 26.3% 3 = 4.5% 5 = 7.4%
chord roots
Voicings based on diatonic 26 = 45.6% 24 = 35.8% 18 = 26.5%
roots, containing one or more
non-diatonic tone
Voicings based based on 1 – 3 – 41 = 71.9% 32 = 47.8% 25 = 36.8%
7, 1 – 7 – 3 or 1 – sus4 – 7
Fischer’s version consists of 57 separate harmonic entities, Evans’s version 1 of

‘Danny Boy’ comprises 67 harmonic entities and his second version shows 68
distinguishable harmonic entities. The majority of Fischer’s voicings (45.6%)
consist of a five-part structure, followed by his four-part voicings. Five- and four-
part chords are equal in Evans 1 with 40.3% each, while Evans 2 shows more four-
part voicings (38.2%) than five-part chords (30.9%). This fact reminds us of
Fischer’s interest in a colourful harmonic arrangement which requires extended
chord structures beyond the functional chord tones.
Fischer’s chromatic approach becomes obvious through his use of a small number
of entirely diatonic voicings (26.3%), while Evans makes use of a much higher
number of diatonic voicings (56.7% in Evans 1 and 64.7% in Evans 2). The chord
roots in Evans’s performances especially are mostly diatonic (95.5% and 92.7%),
while 26.3% of Fischer vertical structures are built upon a non-diatonic chord root.
However, Fischer tends towards the rather conventional chord basis, consisting of
root, third (or suspended fourth) and seventh for 71.9% of his chords and Evans
294
uses this characteristic concept for only 47.8%, and 36.8% respectively of his
vertical structures.
This fact is surprising, since the Fischer expert Dobbins has characterized Fischer’s
voicing conception as ‘unusually fresh’ and ‘simply the result of voicing an old
familiar chord in a not so familiar configuration’.46 Another Fischer expert, Harald
Neuwirth, refers to Fischer’s re-voicing technique as a ‘wrong voicing concept’ in
relation to the voicing conventions that are conveyed in most theories of jazz.47
Besides Neuwirth, Barbara Bleij, theorist at the Conservatorium van Amsterdam,
discussed the term ‘wrong’ in relation to Fischer’s voicings.48
Evans’s performances show no unconventional chord structures at all, while 7% of

Fischer’s vertical structures in this performance are constructed in an
unconventional way, such as the voicing used for D7-9add-13 on beat three of bar 14. In
particular, the placement of the alterations below the two guide tones appears as a
characteristic element in Fischer’s music, as described by Dobbins, Neuwirth and
Bleij. However, with regard to this particular performance, Fischer uses his
repertoire of unorthodox voicings unexpectedly rarely, in a contrasting way to his
more consistent use of conventional chord types.
Returning to Fischer’s voicing on beat three of bar 14, this particular voicing
comprises the interval of a flattened ninth between the chord root and the first of the
middle voices. This interval adds a high degree of tension, which is characteristic of
Fischer’s harmonic approach. Interestingly, the statistical survey of other highly
dissonant and unstable intervals (minor second, tritone, major seventh and flattened
ninth) used by Fischer and Evans in their voicings does not reveal any particular
preference for dissonance with regard to Fischer. In fact, both, Fischer and Evans,
use a similar degree of dissonance within their voicings.
46
Fischer, Alone Together, 6.
47
Dr. Harald Neuwirth is Professor Emeritus of jazz piano at the University of Music and
Dramatic Arts in Graz. He has studied Fischer’s music since the early 1960s and has
developed the term ‘wrong voicings’ in relation to Fischer’s preference for unusual lower
structures, such as the inclusion of the ninth below the guide tones of a chord.
48
Refer to Bleij, ‘On Harmony and Meaning’, 215.
295
The following table illustrates the statistical survey of dissonance within the vertical
structures used by Fischer and Evans in the examined performances. The bases for
this analysis are the transcriptions. All intervals are counted once, independently of
their duration. For instance, in bar 1 of version one of Evans’s interpretation of
‘Danny Boy’, the major seventh between the root and the seventh is counted on beat
one only, although the sound sustains into beat two. If there is more than one
vertical structure per beat, all relevant intervals are counted and listed in that beat. If
an interval between the same pair of notes appears more than once within one beat,
the structure is counted only once. It is clear that this method implies a degree of
variance due to psycho-acoustic aspects, which are beyond the scope of this thesis.
Any contrapuntal, melodic motion blurs the effect of isolated vertical dissonance.49
The previous analyses by Kahr and Hinz have shown that structures that appear
highly dissonant as isolated entities in Fischer’s music appear less harsh within the
melodic flow of the music.
Table 4.21: Statistics of dissonance within the vertical structures in

Fischer’s and Evans’s performances

Highly dissonant intervals 78 = 100% 52 = 100% 51 = 100%
within the vertical structures
(flattened seconds, tritones,
major sevenths and flattened
ninths)
Intervals of flattened seconds 1 = 1.3% 2 = 3.85% 9 = 17.6%
Intervals of major sevenths 37 = 47.4% 22 = 42.3% 19 = 37.3%
Intervals of flattened ninths 4 = 5.1% 2 = 3.85% 2 = 3.9%
Intervals of tritones 36 = 46.2% 26 = 50% 21 = 41.2%
The statistical examination of dissonance within the vertical structures of Fischer’s

‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and Evans’s two versions of ‘Danny Boy’ shows that
Fischer‘s harmonies cannot be characterized as more dissonant than Evans’s vertical
structures. Fischer uses only slightly more major sevenths and flattened ninths than
Evans, but only one interval of a minor second. With regard to this interval, Evans 2
surprisingly contains a percentage of 17.6%.
49
With regard to detailed discussions of the interrelation of vertical and horizontal events in
Fischer’s music, see Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’; and Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
296
Consequently, vertical dissonance alone may not be seen to be a typical feature of
Fischer’s salient harmonic approach here. The vertical perspective in his music is
characterized by other factors, which include a non-diatonic linear perspective. This
fact is examined in detail in the full-length analysis of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im
Herzen’ in Chapter 4.6, as well as in the comparative horizontal analysis in the
section below.
In addition to an analysis of chord structures, a statistical comparison of functional

relationships in the three examined performances also sheds light on Fischer’s
harmonic technique in relation to the influential style of Bill Evans. Table 4.22
shows the statistical comparison of functional relationships in the examined
performances.
Table 4.22: Statistics of fundamental functional entities

Chord progressions 56 = 100% 66 = 100% 67 = 100%
V7 25 = 44.6% 20 = 30.3% 19 = 28.4%
Vsus7 1 = 1.8% 10 = 15.2% 13 = 19.4%
Vsus7 – V7 - 9 = 13.6% 7 = 10.5%
V7 – tonic function 2 = 3.6% 3 = 4.5% 5 = 7.5%
V7/V7, V7/Vsus7, Vsus7/V7, 6 = 10.7% 6 = 9.1% 7 = 10.5%
Vsus7/Vsus7 (sequential
dominant)
V7 – temporary tonic 4 = 7.1% 5 = 7.6% 3 = 4.5%
IIm7 – V7 2 = 3.6% 1 = 1.5% 1 = 1.5%
subV7 – V7 5 = 8.9% 2 = 3.0% 2 = 3.0%
Here, the main finding is Fischer’s apparent preference for the dominant chord. The
rather large proportion of 44.6% of all chord progressions in this performance
includes the motion applied by a dominant chord. In comparison, Evans uses
dominant chords for only 30.3% and 28.4% respectively of his harmonic
progressions. On the other hand, Evans’s performances show a clear preference for
dominant chords with a suspended fourth (15.2% and 19.4%), while Fischer makes
use of this chord type only once. Consequently, Vsus7–V7 progressions are not
found in Fischer’s performance, as opposed to Evans’s (13.6% and 10.5%). While
297
Fischer employs subV7–V7 progressions more often than Evans (8.9% Fischer, 3%
Evans 1 and 3% Evans 2). Fischer’s frequent use of subV7 chords, which include a
chromatically resolving root, adds to his preference of non-diatonic material in an
obvious way. Other common chord progressions, such as V7–tonic function, V7–
temporary tonic, IIm7–V7 and sequential dominants do not show any great disparity
between the two pianists.
4.7.3.2 Vertical Perspective
The horizontal analysis was carried out on the basis of the voice-leading graphs.
The method for the creation of these graphs was developed in a previous study by
the author, based on Robert Hinz’s voice-leading graphs.50 The analysis of the
graphs of the transcriptions of Fischer’s and Evans’s performances has identified
and classified all voice-leading events. These events include chromatic resolutions,
diatonic resolutions, suspensions and leaps which proceed non-chromatically and
non-diatonically. The category of ‘other’ voice-leading events includes one chord
alteration as either the source or destination of the voice-leading event.
As shown in previous studies by Kahr and Hinz, the investigation of linear

developments in Fischer’s music reveals interesting facts concerning his use of
unusual vertical structures.51 The present study shows how Fischer’s piano style
differs from the style of Evans on a deeper level, below the overall similarities
which have been described in previous passages.
Due to Evans’s contrapuntal style, the total number of voice-leading events in his
performances (322 in Evans 1 and 350 in Evans 2) is significantly higher than in
Fischer’s performance (276). Fischer’s preference for chromatic voice-leading
events is most obvious. More than forty percent (40.2%) of his voice-leading events
proceed chromatically, while Evans uses linear chromaticism in only eighteen
percent and around fifteen percent (18% and 14.9%) of his linear developments. On
the other hand, Evans’s music shows a much higher degree of diatonic voice leading
(40.4% and 48%), in comparison with Fischer (25.4%). Non-diatonic, non-
50
Kahr, ‘Aspects of Harmony’; Hinz, ‘Aspects of Harmony’.
51
Ibid.
298
chromatic voice-leading events appear to a recognizable extent in Fischer’s music
(4,3%), while these events are insignificant in Evans’s music (0.3% in both
versions).
Table 4.23: Comparative analysis of voice-leading events
Number of voice-leading events Fischer Evans 1 Evans 2

TOTAL 276 = 100% 322 = 100% 350 = 100%
Chromatic 111 = 40.2% 58 = 18.0% 52 = 14.9%

Suspension 83 = 30.1% 130 = 40.4% 126 = 36%
Diatonic 70 = 25.4% 130 = 40.4% 168 = 48%
Non-chromatic, non diatonic 12 = 4.3% 3 = 0.9% 3 = 0.9%
(including one or more alterations)
Leap - 1 = 0.3% 1 = 0.3%
4.7.4 A Characterization of Fischer’s Idiosyncratic Style
Although this statistical comparison of harmonic events has been limited to the
three analysed performances, it allows conclusions regarding Fischer’s salient
harmonic technique, especially since the selected performances represent typical
examples of Fischer’s and Evans’s piano styles in the area of tonal jazz. Further
studies based on the method developed in this study will uncover more details
regarding Fischer’s harmonic choices.
The foremost conclusion drawn from this comparative study regards Fischer’s status
as an idiosyncratic pianist. Fischer’s and Evans’s vertical and linear devices build
upon similar bases, but Fischer’s approach clearly involves the following
outstanding aspects which cannot be found in Evans’s music to the same extent:
299
1. colourful vertical structures through a large percentage of extended five-
part voicings
2. high degree of chromaticism through:
a. non-diatonic chord roots
b. few entirely diatonic chords
c. chromatic voice-leading events
3. high degree of non-diatonic and yet functionally related re-
harmonizations, which proceed beyond Evans’s concept of functional
extensions of the tonal fundamental structure.
One of the most interesting findings refers to Fischer’s preference for functional
chord bases, which include the chord root, third and seventh in the lower structure
of the voicing. In combination with non-diatonic re-harmonization techniques, a
high degree of chromatic voice leading and occasional outstanding, unconventional
chord structures, Fischer defines his idiosyncratic linear harmonic approach.
300
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Within the scope of the underlying objective of this dissertation – the investigation
of Fischer’s harmony within the totality of its cultural context – this final chapter
will summarize the discussions and analyses in this study, and also provide closure
of the circle between Fischer’s harmonic approach and its socio-cultural context.
This dissertation has, in large part, juxtaposed the discussion of Fischer’s socio-
cultural context (in Chapter 3) to the technical examination of conventional and
idiosyncratic aspects of his harmony (in Chapter 4). However, the notion of context
has also been a motivating factor for the study as a whole.
Five aspects of Fischer’s socio-cultural context were analyzed with regard to their
interrelation with his harmonic approach in Chapter 3. All analyzed examples of
Fischer’s harmony, including the large harmonic examinations in Chapter 4, were
chosen because of their relevance to these aspects of context. Furthermore, the
methodological considerations in Chapter 2 focused on the concept of an
interdisciplinary and ‘contextualized’ method which took a priori experiences of
social and cultural issues into account in order to reveal meaningful aspects in
relation to Fischer’s music. The fundamental thought behind this approach draws
from the understanding of music as ‘both reflection and generator of social
meaning’.1
5.1 Summary
Chapter 2 discussed current tendencies in jazz theory and described the prominent
streams regarding the terminology of semiotics and its interpretative strategies in
music. The discussion of the close interrelation between jazz improvisation and
composition here led towards the formulation of a pragmatic analytical approach to
the harmonic conventions in Fischer’s music from the perspective of common jazz
theory. This chapter also identified the role of, and the problems involved with,
1
Nicholas Cook, ‘Music as Performance’, in The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical
Introduction, eds. Martin Clayton, Trevor Herbert and Richard Middleton (New York and
London: Routledge, 2003), 213.
301
musical transcriptions of recorded performances such as those used in Chapter 4 and
detailed the nomenclature of the analytical chord symbolization developed for the
present study. This original nomenclature has taken Fischer’s personal theoretical
observations and practices into account and assessed their analytical applicability.
Rather than representing a closed theoretical system, jazz theory is built upon both
the theoretical implications of prominent Western music theories, and the pragmatic
harmonic approaches of improvising jazz musicians (as represented in this study) by
the harmonic ideas of Fischer and Bill Evans. Fischer’s harmonic approach draws
from the conventions subsumed in common jazz theory as well as from other
sources. In order to identify his harmonic idiosyncrasies and relationship to jazz
theory, Fischer’s work is contextualized and then compared with his contemporary
Evans’s comprehensive and comprehensible generative harmonic approach. These
are among the most crucial elements in the analytical discussions in Chapters 3 and
4 of this study.
Fischer’s status and recognition within the musical world, a position characterized
by disparity with regard to the perception of his life and music within various social
groups, has been discussed in Chapter 3. While his music appears under-represented
within the broader jazz community, a small group of critics, musicians and music
experts values his musical contributions at the highest level, and comparisons have
been made with iconic figures in jazz, such as Duke Ellington. The notion of
disparity has also been discussed in terms of Fischer’s participation in the
commercial musical business and will be identified as a crucial, unifying element in
his harmony and life in the conclusion that follows.
Chapter 3 has also revealed the significance of emotion as a communicative channel

in Fischer’s harmony and has shown how his idiosyncratic harmonic approach has
led to socio-cultural implications such as loneliness and elitism. Fischer’s musical
relationships to Shostakovich, one of the major influences on his harmonic
expression, and to Evans, who could be identified as a rival in terms of the
perception of Fischer’s music within the jazz community, have been analysed in
302
detail. These two comparative analyses have revealed surprising parallels between
Fischer’s and Shostakovich’s, as well as between Fischer’s and Evans’s lives.
Chapter 4 has added detailed comparative harmonic analyses to the contextual

studies in Chapter 3. Clear parallels between the linear treatment in Fischer’s early
composition ‘The Early Years’ and Shostakovich’s first symphony have been
revealed, firmly identifying this symphony as an influential source upon Fischer’s
early compositional efforts. Additionally, the manner in which Fischer has
combined linear techniques with conventional functional chord progressions and
jazz voicings within an ambiguous tonal framework has been clarified.
The comparative analysis of Fischer’s improvised solo piano interpretation of the

German folk song ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and Evans’s performances of the
Irish folk song ‘Danny Boy’ has shed light on Fischer’s re-harmonization
techniques. Despite overall similarities with regard to fundamental harmonic
functions, Fischer’s harmonic approach differs from Evans’s predominantly through
his (Fischer’s) expansion of tonality by means of chromaticism and use of
unconventional chord voicings in the tonal jazz context. A higher number of
extended five-part voicings, a higher degree of chromaticism through non-diatonic
chord roots, fewer diatonic chords and a higher percentage of chromatic voice-
leading events have been identified as noteworthy aspects of Fischer’s interpretative
style.
303
5.2 Conclusions
This study has provided detailed analyses of selected aspects of Fischer’s harmony
and interrelated socio-cultural context. It has uncovered a variety of details in
Fischer’s harmony that interact with their context of society, culture and his
persona, and has also shed light on those aspects of his socially and culturally
shaped personality which have participated in the development of his original
harmonic approach.
The variety of findings within all of these analyses appear as a rich source for
conclusions regarding not only Fischer’s harmonic style, but also the socio-cultural
interrelation of his music and life. The findings provide evidence for myriad
conclusions, such as the presence of dysphoria as discussed in Chapters 3.2.6 to
3.2.8.2
The recapitulation of the analytical processes and findings of this study suggests an
underlying principle that may be useful in identifying a variety of significant
conclusions within Fischer’s harmony and socio-cultural context.
The following section develops this dyadic principle into a generative analytical
model. The analysis of the upper-most dyad harmony – socio-cultural context
uncovers other dyadic structures within this interrelating network. For example, this
dyadic model can be narrowed down to its component parts which reveal in one
instance the concept of dysphoria in relation to Fischer’s chromaticism as one of the
most characteristic aspects of this study.
2
The evidence for myriad conclusions is in line with Richard Parncutt’s observation
regarding the generality of conclusions in the research practices of humanities scholars and
scientists: ‘ … conclusions depend not only on the researcher's own subjectivity but also on
the historical and cultural context. For that reason, humanities researchers may shun the
idea of general conclusions altogether. Instead, they describe, illuminate, and enrich the
subjects/objects of their research. … Thus, scientists tend to favour simple, general
conclusions (in the form of imperfect generalizations), whereas humanities scholars prefer
complex, specific accounts’. Richard Parncutt, ‘Systematic Musicology and the History and
Future of Western Musical Scholarship’, Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies 1/1
(2007), 22.
304
5.2.1 The Dyadic Model
In general, the dyadic model constitutes a binary system, the opposition of two
extremes, or a thesis and its antithesis, such as the numbers zero and one. For
instance, the general structure of this dissertation, the juxtaposition of contextual
and harmonic analysis, represents a dyadic concept. The analysis of Fischer’s life
and harmonic style has revealed several basic and more specific aspects which can
be illustrated in a dyadic model, as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Basic dyadic model
simple complex
old new
context harmony
society personal
outspoken introverted
on the road study
street training academia
convention strangeness
jazz classical
blues symphony
diatonic chromatic
happiness dysphoria
commercial music artistic approach
jazz voicing unorthodox vertical structure
Fischer’s life and music are full of these opposing elements and the list could be
further extended. Besides these basic juxtapositions, the dyadic model can be used
for an analysis of the opposition of context to, and its impact on, Fischer’s harmony
according to the findings of this study. Table 5.2 shows a possible representation of
this specific dyadic model. The left column represents large contextual settings and
the right column shows what these contextual areas constitute within Fischer’s
harmony.
305
Table 5.2: Dyadic model of context and harmony
Context Harmony
people (influential personalities, conventions
teachers, fellow musicians, audience,
family, friends…)
musical styles (common practice conventions
Western music, tonal jazz, Latin music,
symphonic music…)
cultural forces (within American society, conventions
jazz community, academic
community…) idiosyncratic approach
self (psychological state, emotions…)
The contextual settings of people, musical styles and cultural forces provide
constituents of convention towards Fischer’s harmonic approach, whereas Fischer’s
self represents his idiosyncratic approach. As shown in Table 5.2, each of the
constituents of context divides into sub-related entities, which provide specific
aspects of convention within Fischer’s harmonic approach.
There is no doubt that Fischer’s experiences with the harmonic influences of

composers such as Shostakovich shaped his perception of linear development early
in his life. These experiences provided a basis of convention within Fischer’s
harmony upon which he then built to create original music – within the context of
the conventions of tonal jazz or Latin music, for example. Thus the conventions
derived from Shostakovich appear as Fischer’s idiosyncrasies, while the context of
tonal jazz or Latin music provides another set of conventions. When Fischer
performs his musical inventions to a particular culturally based audience, such as a
jazz audience, he receives feedback, perhaps in the form of a critique of his
performance in a magazine. This feedback expresses yet another specific version of
the culturally shaped conventions of the jazz community and the critique may
influence Fischer’s harmonic choices in a subsequent performance.
Harmonic conventions and idiosyncrasies represent a dyad of complex, contextually

interrelating forces that participate in the creation of Fischer’s original harmonic
approach. Concrete contextual and technical aspects of these forces appear as
findings which can also be organized within dyadic models. Tables 5.3 and 5.4
306
show a selection of contextual and technical issues respectively within the dyad of
convention and Fischer’s idiosyncrasies.
Table 5.3: Contextual issues within the opposition of convention – idiosyncrasy
Convention Fischer’s idiosyncratic approach

wider jazz community strangeness
jazz experts, critics attention
pop music listeners interest
family love
As Table 5.3 shows, strangeness appears as a perception of Fischer’s idiosyncrasies

within the conventions of the wider jazz community. The same idiosyncrasies,
however, evoke the notion of love within the conventions of his family. And as
Table 5.4 shows, the technical issues of a fundamental dominant – tonic resolution
are typically expanded through chromatic anticipations and suspension within
Fischer’s idiosyncratic approach.
Table 5.4: Technical issues within the opposition of convention – idiosyncrasy
Convention Fischer’s idiosyncratic approach

tonality expansion through chromaticism
V–I (chromatic anticipations/suspensions)
II – V (– I)
tonicization
tension – resolution
5.2.2 The Dyadic Model in Fischer’s Compositional Process
The dyad convention – idiosyncrasy is acknowledged as a fundamental concept in

Fischer’s musical approach in the following two statements. The first quotes Fischer
himself, while the other is an analysis by his long-time colleague Jerry Coker. Both
manifest the dyadic model:
307
There are two ways to write original music. One is to abandon traditional
practices and precedents, inventing new sounds, which are generated from
a new system of organization, or simply new sounds without an attempt at
organization. The other way is to utilize traditional concepts, but give them
new twists. I prefer the second approach.3
In this quote, Fischer describes his compositional approach as a dyad consisting of

traditional concepts (conventions) and new twists (idiosyncrasies). Furthermore, he
distinguishes between his dyadic approach and the invention of new, unorganized
compositional systems. This distinction between Fischer’s preferred concept and the
unorganized concept also represents a dyadic relationship. Coker goes a step further
in describing Fischer’s approach as a specific dyad which opposes the traditional
constituents of conventional chord progressions against the concept of altering one
or more of these constituents:
[P]arody cadences … are progression cells which appear (illusory) to be

commonplace, such as the II–V–I progression, but which in fact are
variations on the familiar cadence. The variable elements are the root
progression, the upper chord voices … and the chord-types. By retaining
some of the three variables, to agree with what is the familiar form, and
altering one or more of the other variables, a balance is achieved between
tradition and innovation.
Coker’s analysis describes in large part what was revealed in the harmonic analysis
of Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ in Chapter 4 of this
study. The conventions described in tonal jazz theory account for the identification
of Fischer’s use of traditional elements, while his idiosyncratic harmonic devices
appear as alterations of these conventions.
5.2.3 The Dyadic Model in this Dissertation
In broad terms, this dissertation has considered two large areas of convention in
Fischer’s music in order to identify his idiosyncratic harmonic approach. The
analyses have shown how Shostakovich’s first symphony provides convention as
the major influence regarding Fischer’s concept of chromaticism and linear
development within ambiguous tonal settings. Within the context of tonal jazz,
3
According to Jerry Coker, Fischer spoke these words him in 1951, shortly after they had
become acquainted. Coker quotes this statement at the beginning of an unpublished paper.
Jerry Coker, ‘On Composing’, in ‘The Fischer Book’, Vol. 3, Donna Fischer Collection.
308
these conventions appear as Fischer’s idiosyncrasies. This relationship is revealed
by the comparative analysis of the basic harmonic elaborations and structures found
in Fischer’s ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’ and Evans’s ‘Danny Boy’.
Both analyses have revealed aspects of Fischer’s consistent use of linear

chromaticism within the harmonic context of tonal jazz. This finding adds to the
characterization of Fischer’s style and also evokes the association of the pianto and
the passus dusiusculus, prominent topics in semiotic studies of music, which were
discussed in Chapters 3.2.6 to 3.2.8.
These musical topics inherit a rich semantic that conveys dysphoric notions such as
grief, pain, regret, loss, lament, a sigh, strangeness or simply ‘music’.4 The dyadic
opposition of chromaticism to dysphoria represents one of the most comprehensive
and consistent findings of this study within the dyad of socio-cultural context and
harmony.
Just as the dyadic model represents the juxtaposition of irreconcilable elements, it is

the combination of these disparate aspects that produces Fischer’s aesthetic
character as expressed through his idiosyncratic harmonic approach. In terms of his
harmonic style, recurring statements such as ‘wrong voicing’, ‘new twist’, ‘fresh
sound’ and ‘illusory progression’ represent broad attempts to describe a feature that
displays at least some of the characteristics of an underlying convention and yet
retains a certain distance from it. For example, ‘voicing’ describes the placement of
notes within a chord, and the assignation of wrongness indicates a failure, conscious
or unconscious, regarding the conventional execution of this process. Similarly, the
terms ‘fresh’, ‘new’ and ‘illusory’ express acknowledgement of features falling
outside the framework of a convention. All such statements add to the perception of
Fischer’s harmonic approach resulting from an idiosyncratic combination of
conventions and opposing concepts. Some of these opposing elements have been
discussed as components of Fischer’s artistic concept in this study, in particular the
areas of harmony and socio-cultural context.
4
Compare Monelle’s literature review regarding this musical topic. Monelle, Sense of
Music, 17–18, 66–76.
309
5.3 Implications for Further Research
Besides the dyadic concepts of dysphoria – chromaticism, and convention –

idiosyncrasy, there are numerous other relationships and oppositions to be found
within the fundamental dyad of context – harmony. For instance, happiness, as the
opposite of dysphoria, could very usefully be further researched in order to move
towards a complete consideration of Fischer’s harmony in relation to its socio-
cultural context.
Up-tempo compositions and performances, and Fischer’s compositions in the

danceable styles of Latin music have been beyond the scope of this dissertation. The
harmonic and contextualized analysis of Fischer’s free improvisations and avant-
garde compositions would also contribute insights to yet another side of his diverse
musical persona.
On a larger scale, Fischer’s harmony could be discussed from the perspective of

aesthetics and music aesthetics. The interdisciplinary approach in this dissertation
has touched aesthetical aspects with regard to the emotive quality in Fischer’s
concept of harmony, but there is definitely space for further enquiries into various
aspects.
Despite the agreement of scholars over the significance of his harmonic approach
within the context of tonal jazz, the examination of other elements of Fischer’s
writing also seems appropriate. For instance, his intricate rhythmic ideas have so far
been overshadowed by the focus on his harmonic approach in most detailed
analyses of his music.
Finally the analysis of sense within the interrelating network of musical structure
and socio-cultural context, as conducted in this dissertation, could be applied to
other musicians in jazz. By considering more subjects of analytical interest, the
interdisciplinary data concerning single performers, composers, performances and
compositions could be expanded. At this stage, numerous publications offer
transcriptions and copies of jazz performances and compositions, but often, the
310
analyses in these publications regarding the interrelation of musical structure,
context of culture and society, and musical meaning and sense are insufficiently
realised. My arguments, methodology and suggested approaches to the music of
Fischer in this study could provide a model for more in depth studies, along these
lines, of jazz performers and jazz music.
For instance, this model might change our perception of the music of pianist Denny
Zeitlin whose dense harmonic approach and under-representation in the jazz canon
evokes an association of Fischer’s music and status. Furthermore, it might provide
insights regarding musical meaning and sense in jazz-star Herbie Hancock’s
harmonic approach, which has been cited as being influenced by Fischer’s
approach.
311
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323
Jacksons, The. Destiny. Columbia 35552 (1978).
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McPartland, Marian. Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz with Clare Fischer.

Program 841031(unreleased recording from a radio show, originally
broadcast on 31.10.1984)
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(unreleased recording from a radio show, originally broadcast on 20.2.2001)
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Verve 8470 (1962).
324
Appendix 1
Table 1: All possible combinations of chromatic resolutions towards the

Fmaj7 four-part chord. The bold marks indicate chromatically
resolving chords, given that no voice is sustained
D# E D#
B Emaj7 C G#m7 B
G# A G#
E F Gb
F E F
B Eadd9 C G#m7add13 B
G# A G#
E F Gb
D# E D#
Db Dbmadd9 C G#sus7 Db
G# A G#
E F Gb
F E F
Db Dbadd+9 C Db6 Db
G# A G#
E F Gb
D# E D#
B ? C Bmaj7 B
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
F E F
B ? C Gbmaj7add11 B
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
D# E D#
Db Bboadd4 C D#m7 Db
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
F E F
Db EoaddF C Gbmaj7 Db
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
325
Table 2: All possible combinations of chromatic resolutions towards the
Fmmaj7 four-part chord. The bold marks indicate chromatically
resolving chords, given that no voice is sustained
D# E D#
maj7 7
B Em C G+maj B
G Ab G
E F Gb
F E F
B Emadd-9 C G7addmaj7 B
G Ab G
E F Gb
D# E D#
Db D#7-9 C D#7+9 Db
G DboaddD# Ab G
E F Gb
F E F
Db DboaddF C ? Db
G Ab G
E F Gb
D# E D#
B Esusmaj7 C B7 B
A B7add11 Ab A
E F Gb
F E F
B Bsus7+11 C Gbmmaj7add11 B
A Esusadd-9 Ab A
E F Gb
D# E D#
Db ? (all notes C Gbm6 Db
A from Db Ab A
E diminished F Gb
scale)
F E F
7 C maj7
Db F+ Gbm Db
A Ab A
E F Gb
326
Table 3: All possible combinations of chromatic resolutions towards the Fm7
four-part chord, given that no voice is sustained
D Eb D
B Em7 C Gmaj7 B
G Ab G
E F Gb
E Eb E
B Em (no four- C G6maj7 B
G part chord) Ab G
E F Gb
D Eb D
Db Em7add13 C ? Db
G DboaddD Ab G
E F Gb
E Eb E
Db Dbo (no four- C Dboadd5 Db
G part chord) Ab G
E F Gb
D Eb D
B Esus7 C Bm7 B
A Ab A
E F Gb
E Eb E
B Esus (no four- C Bsus7 B
A part chord) Ab A
E F Gb
D Eb D
Db Esus7add13 C Gbmadd-13 Db
A Ab A
E F Gb
E Eb E
Db A (no four-part C Gbm7 Db
A chord) Ab A
E F Gb
327
Table 4: All possible combinations of chromatic resolutions towards the F7
four-part chord, given that no voice is sustained
D Eb D
B E7 C G#oadd8 B
G# A G#
E F Gb
E Eb E
B E (no four-part C E6 B
G# chord) A G#
E F Gb
D Eb D
Db Dbmmaj7 C Dmaj7add+11 Db
G# A G#
E F Gb
E Eb E
Db Dbm (no four- C Dbmadd11 Db
G# part chord) A G#
E F Gb
D Eb D
B Bmmaj7add11 C Bmmaj7 B
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
E Eb E
B ? (no four-part C Bsusmaj7 B
Bb chord) A Bb
E F Gb
D Eb D
Db BboaddD C D+maj7 Db
Bb A Bb
E F Gb
E Eb E
Db Bbo (no four- C Gb7 Db
Bb part chord) A Bb
E F Gb
328
Appendix 2
Voice-Leading Reduction of ‘The Early Years’
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
Appendix 3
Transcription of Bill Evans’s performance of ‘Danny Boy’ as recorded on

04.04.1962 (Version 1)
Irish Folk Tune
Transcribed by Michael Kahr
336
337
Appendix 4
Transcription of Bill Evans’s performance of ‘Danny Boy’ as recorded on

14.08.1962 (Version 2)
Irish Folk Tune
Transcribed by Harald Neuwirth
338
339
Appendix 5
Reproduction of Bill Dobbins’s transcription of Clare Fischer’s performance

of ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’
German Folk Tune
Transcribed by Bill Dobbins
Published by Advance Music
Clare Fischer, Alone Together, Just Me: Solo Piano Improvisations.
(Rottenburg: Advance Music, 1997)
Used with friendly permission by Advance Music
340
341
Appendix 6
Voice-Leading Graph of Bill Evans' Danny Boy Version 1
342
Appendix 7
Voice-Leading Graph of Bill Evans' Danny Boy Version 2
343
Appendix 8
Voice-Leading Graph of Clare Fischer’s ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’
344
Appendix 9
Tables of Statistical Comparison in Chapter 4.2.4
Statistic of vertical structures:
Number of Fischer Evans 1 Evans 2

voicings 57 = 100% 67 = 100% 68 = 100%
2 – part voicings - - 2 = 2,9%
3 – part voicings 5 = 8,8% 6 = 8,9% 12 = 17,7%
4 – part voicings 21 = 36,8% 27 = 40,3% 26 = 38,2%
5 – part voicings 26 = 45,6% 27 = 40,3% 21 = 30,9%
6 part – voicings 5 = 8,8% 7 = 10,5% 7 = 10,3%
Uncommon vertical structures 4 = 7% - -

Entirely diatonic voicings 15 = 26,3% 38 = 56,7% 44 = 64,7%
Voicings based on diatonic chord 42 = 73,7% 64 = 95,5% 63 = 92,7%
roots
Voicings based on non-diatonic 15 = 26,3% 3 = 4,5% 5 = 7,4%
chord roots
Voicings based on diatonic roots, 26 = 45,6% 24 = 35,8% 18 = 26,5%
containing one or more non-
diatonic tone
Voicings based based on 1 – 3 – 7, 41 = 71,9% 32 = 47,8% 25 = 36,8%
1 – 7 – 3 or 1 – sus4 – 7
Highly dissonant intervals within 78 = 100% 52 = 100% 51 = 100%

the vertical structures (flattened
seconds, tritones, major sevenths
and flattened ninths)
Intervals of flattened seconds 1 = 1,3% 2 = 3,85% 9 = 17,6%
Intervals of major sevenths 37 = 47,4% 22 = 42,3% 19 = 37,3%
Intervals of flattened ninths 4 = 5,1% 2 = 3,85% 2 = 3,9%
Intervals of tritones 36 = 46,2% 26 = 50% 21 = 41,2%
Statistic of fundamental functional entities:

Chord progressions 56 = 100% 66 = 100% 67 = 100%
V7 25 = 44,6% 20 = 30,3% 19 = 28,4%
Vsus7 1 = 1,8% 10 = 15,2% 13 = 19,4%
Vsus7 – V7 - 9 = 13,6% 7 = 10,5%
V7 – tonic function 2 = 3,6% 3 = 4,5% 5 = 7,5%
V7/V7, V7/Vsus7, Vsus7/V7, 6 = 10,7% 6 = 9,1% 7 = 10,5%
Vsus7/Vsus7 (sequential
dominant)
V7 – temporary tonic 4 = 7,1% 5 = 7,6% 3 = 4,5%
IIm7 – V7 2 = 3,6% 1 = 1,5% 1 = 1,5%
subV7 – V7 5 = 8,9% 2 = 3,0% 2 = 3%
Descending fifth in bass 20 = 35,7% 22 = 33,3% 19 = 28,4%
345
Statistic of vertical structures:

2 – part voicings - - Bars 14, 14
3 – part voicings Bars 9, 13, 13, Bars 3, 11, 11, Bars 3, 7, 9, 10,
18, 29 13, 14, 16 11, 12, 12, 14,
15, 15, 16, 16
4 – part voicings Bars 4, 7, 8, 8, Bars 1, 1, 2, 5, Bars 0, 1, 2, 3,
10, 11, 11, 13, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7,
14, 18, 19, 19, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9,
21, 21, 21, 22, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10,
24, 24, 26, 26, 11, 11, 13, 13, 11, 11, 13, 13,
31 14, 15 15, 15
5 – part voicings Bars 1, 5, 6, 7, Bars 1, 2, 4, 4, Bars 0, 1, 2, 2,
9, 9, 10, 12, 14, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6,
14, 15, 15, 16, 7, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 7, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10,
17, 20, 20, 23, 12, 12, 12, 12, 11, 12, 12, 12,
25, 27, 28, 29, 12, 13, 14, 14, 14
29, 30, 30, 30 14, 15, 15
6 part – voicings Bars 2, 3, 9, 12, Bars 1, 2, 3, 11, 1, 2, 13, 13, 14,
13, 13, 15, 15 15, 15
Uncommon vertical structures Bars 2, 9, 14, - -
22
Entirely diatonic voicings Bar 1, 8, 9, 10, Bars 1, 2, 2, 3, Bars 0, 1, 2, 2,
11, 12, 14, 18, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4,
18, 19, 21, 23, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7,
26, 26, 30 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8,
10, 10, 11, 11, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10,
12, 12, 12, 12, 10, 10, 11, 11,
13, 13, 14, 14, 11, 11, 12, 12,
15, 15, 15, 15, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16 15, 15, 15, 15,
16, 16
Voicings based on diatonic chord Bars 1, 2, 7, 8, Bars 1, 1, 1, 1, Bars 0, 0, 1, 1,
roots 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3,
11, 11, 12, 12, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
13, 13, 14, 14, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7,
14, 16, 17, 18, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8,
18, 19, 19, 20, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9,
20, 21, 21, 22, 10, 10, 10, 10, 9, 10, 10, 10,
22, 23, 24, 24, 11, 11, 11, 11, 10, 10, 10, 11,
25, 26, 26, 29, 11, 12, 12, 12, 11, 11, 11, 11,
29, 30, 30, 30, 12, 12, 13, 13, 12, 12, 12, 12,
31 13, 13, 14, 14, 12, 13, 13, 14,
14, 14, 15, 15, 14, 14, 15, 15,
15, 15, 15, 16 15, 15, 15, 16,
16,
Voicings based on non-diatonic Bars 3, 4, 5, 6, Bars 1, 8, 13, Bars 2, 13, 13,
chord roots 7, 10, 11, 13, 13, 14 14, 14
15, 15, 21, 22,
27, 28, 29
346
Voicings based on diatonic roots, Bars 1, 2, 7, 8, Bars 1, 1, 1, 2, Bars 0, 1, 1, 2,
containing one or more non- 9, 12, 13, 13, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7,
diatonic tone 14, 14, 16, 17, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10, 7, 9, 9, 10, 11,
19, 20, 20, 21, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13, 14
22, 23, 24, 24, 13, 13, 14, 14,
25, 29, 29, 30, 15
30, 31
Voicings based on 1 – 3 – 7, Bars 1, 2, 3, 5, Bars 1, 2, 3, 3, Bars 0, 0, 2, 2,
1 – 7 – 3 or 1 – sus4 – 7 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 3, 4, 4, 4, 7, 7,
9, 11, 11, 12, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 10, 10,
12, 13, 13, 13, 7, 9, 10, 10, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12,
14, 15, 15, 16, 12, 12, 12, 12, 14, 14, 15, 15,
18, 19, 19, 20, 13, 13, 14, 14, 15, 15
20, 21, 21, 21, 15, 15, 15
22, 22, 24, 25,
26, 27, 29, 29,
29, 30, 30,
Statistic of fundamental functional entities:

V7 Bars 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,
Bars 1, 4, 4, 5, Bars 0, 2, 4, 4, 4,
7, 7, 9, 9, 12, 13,
5, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10,
13, 13, 14, 16, 20,
9, 10, 10, 11, 10, 10, 12, 12, 14,
24, 24, 25, 27, 29,
11, 12, 14, 14, 14, 15,
29, 29, 30, 30, 30
15
Vsus7 Bars 31 Bars 2, 4, 4, 7, Bars 0, 4, 4, 7, 7,
7, 12, 12, 13, 8, 11, 12, 12, 12,
15, 15 13, 15, 15,
Vsus7 – V7 - Bars 2, 4, 4, 7, Bars 0, 4, 4, 7,
7, 12, 13, 15 12, 12, 15
V7 – tonic function Bars 7 – 8, 30 – Bars 4 – 5, 10 Bars 0 – 1, 4 – 5,
31 – 11, 15 – 16 7 – 8, 8 – 9, 15 –
16
V7/V7, V7/Vsus7, Vsus7/V7, Bars 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, Bars 1, 4, 7, 7, Bars 4, 7, 7, 11,
Vsus7/Vsus7 (sequential 29 12, 15 12, 12, 15
dominant)
V7 – temporary tonic Bars 3, 12, 16, 27
Bars 1, 5, 10, Bars 5, 10, 12,
12, 14
IIm7 – V7 Bars 9, 20 Bar 14 Bar 10
subV7 – V7 Bars 13, 14, 24, Bars 9, 11 Bars 9, 14
29, 29
347
Number of highly unstable intervals per bar in Fischer’s interpretation of ‘Du, Du
liegst mir im Herzen’:
Bar 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4 Bar 5 Bar 6 Bar 7 Bar 8

-2 - - - - - - - -
M7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1/1 -
-9 - 1 - - - - - -
+4/-5 1 1 1 - 1 1 1/1 -
Bar 9 Bar 10 Bar 11 Bar 12 Bar 13 Bar 14 Bar 15 Bar
16
-2 - - 1/-/- - - - - -
M7 -/1/- 2/- - 1/1 1/2/1 1/1/- 1/1 1
-9 - - - - - -/-/1 - -
+4/-5 -/1/1 - - 1/1 1/2/1 -/1/1 - 1
24
-2 - - - - - - - -
M7 1 - 1/- -/1 -/1/1 -/1/- - 1/-
-9 - - - - - - - -
+4/-5 1 1/- -/1 -/1 -/1/1 -/1/1 - 1/-
32
-2 - - - - - - - -
M7 1 - 1 - -/1/2 1/1/- - -/1
-9 - - - - - -/-/1 - -/1
+4/-5 - - 1 - 1/1/2 1/1/1 - -/1
Number of highly unstable intervals per bar in the first version of Evans’s
interpretation of ‘Danny Boy’:
Bar 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4

-2 - - - -
M7 -/2/-/1 -/1/- -/1 1/-/1/1
-9 - - - -
+4/-5 1/-/-/1 - - -/1/-/1
-2 - - - -
M7 1/-/1/- - -/1/-/1/1/-/- -
-9 - - - 1/-/-/-
+4/-5 -/-/1/1 -/-/1 1/-/1/-/1/-/1 1/-/-/-
-2 - -/-/1/ - -
M7 -/1/-/- -/-/1/ -/-/1/-/- -/1/-/1/
-9 - - - -
+4/-5 -/1/-/1 -/1/-/1 -/-/-/-/1 -/-/1/-/1
348
-2 - 1/-/-/-/- - -
M7 -/1/-/-/- - 1/-/1/-/1 -
-9 - -/1/-/-/- - -
+4/-5 -/1/-/-/2 -/1/-/1/1 -/-/-/-/1 -
Number of highly unstable intervals per bar in the second version of Evans’s
interpretation of ‘Danny Boy’:
Bar 0, 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4

-2 -/-/1/-/- -/-/1/- - -/-/1/-/-
M7 -/-/-/1/1 -/-/1/- -/-/1
-9 -/1/-/-/- - - -/-/-/-/1
+4/-5 -/1/-/-/1 -/-/1/1 - -/1/1/-/1
-2 1/-/- - - -/1/-/1/-
M7 -/1/- - -/1/-/1 -
-9 - - - -
+4/-5 -/1/1 -/1 -/1/-/1 -
-2 - -/-/1/-/-/- - -
M7 -/-/1/- -/1/-/-/-/- -/-/1/-/- 1/-/1/2
-9 - - - -
+4/-5 -/-/-/1 -/1/-/-/1/1 - -/1/-/-/1
-2 - - -/-/-/1/- -/1
M7 -/1/-/- -/-/1/1/- -/1/1/-/- -
-9 - - - -
+4/-5 -/-/-/1 -/-/1/1/1 -/-/-/-/1 -
Comparative analysis of vertical events:
Voice-leading events Fischer Evans 1 Evans 2

TOTAL 276 = 100% 322 = 100% 350 = 100%
Chromatic 111 = 40,2% 58 = 18,0% 52 = 14,9%

Suspension 83 = 30,1% 130 = 40,4% 126 = 36%
Diatonic 70 = 25,4% 130 = 40,4% 168 = 48%
Non-chromatic including one or more 12 = 4,3% 3 = 0,9% 3 = 0,9%
alterations
Leap - 1 = 0,3% 1 = 0,3%
Descending Fifth in bass progression 20 22 19
349
Number of voice-leading events in Fischer’s ‘Du, Du liegst mir im Herzen’:

Chromatic 4 4 2 2 2 2 5 2
Suspension 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 6
Diatonic - - 4 1 1 1 3 2
Other - - - - - - 1 -
Leap - - - - - - - -
Chromatic 5 3 4 4 5 6 5 2
Suspension 6 4 2 4 4 6 7 2
Diatonic 3 4 5 2 5 2 3 1
Other - - - - - 1 - -
Leap - - - - - - - -
Chromatic 1 2 2 4 7 7 3 8
Suspension 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 4
Diatonic 2 3 2 3 3 3 1 1
Other - - 1 2 1 1 - 2
Leap - - - - - - - -
Bar 25 Bar 26 Bar 27 Bar 28 Bar 29 Bar 30 Total
Chromatic 1 3 - 2 7 7 111
Suspension 2 3 1 1 2 7 83
Diatonic 2 3 1 1 6 2 70
Other - - 2 1 - - 12
Leap - - - - - - -
Number of voice-leading events in Evans’s ‘Danny Boy Version 1’:
Bar 0 Bar 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4 Bar 5 Bar 6 Bar 7 Bar

8
Chromatic 2 4 3 - 3 5 1 7 1
Suspension 0 7 9 8 5 9 4 8 9
Diatonic 2 9 2 6 7 9 8 12 9
Other - 1 - - - 1 - - -
Leap 1 - - - - - - - -
Bar 9 Bar 10 Bar 11 Bar 12 Bar 13 Bar 14 Bar 15 Total
Chromatic 5 2 6 4 4 10 1 58
Suspension 6 4 5 13 17 11 15 130
Diatonic 6 12 12 7 12 8 9 130
Other - - - - 1 - - 3
Leap - - - - - - - 1
350
Number of voice-leading events in Evans’s ‘Danny Boy Version 2’:
Bar 0 Bar 1 Bar 2 Bar 3 Bar 4 Bar 5 Bar 6 Bar 7 Bar

8
Chromatic 1 1 4 2 2 4 2 4 0
Suspension 7 3 14 6 7 6 3 6 9
Diatonic 7 9 9 7 11 7 11 9 12
Other - 1 - - - 1 - - -
Leap 1 - - - - - - - -
Bar 9 Bar 10 Bar 11 Bar 12 Bar 13 Bar 14 Bar 15 Bar 16 Total
Chromatic 4 2 2 6 6 10 2 - 52
Suspension 5 11 10 11 13 6 8 1 126
Diatonic 7 16 10 8 19 7 18 1 168
Other - - - - 1 - - - 3
Leap - - - - - - - - 1
351

Aspects of Context and Harmony in The Mu

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Aspects of Context and Harmony in The Mu

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ASPECTS OF CONTEXT AND HARMONY

IN THE MUSIC OF CLARE FISCHER

A thesis submitted in fulfilment

Sydney Conservatorium of Music

This study presents socio-cultural and harmonic analyses of Clare Fischer’s

Various methodological and theoretical considerations are outlined and a pragmatic

A more precise definition of the relationship between Fischer’s harmonic techniques

This research was supported through an Endeavour International Postgraduate

2 METHOD AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

4 COMPARATIVE MUSICAL ANALYSIS

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

2.1: Voice-leading graph of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’,

2.2: Melodic variation in Evans’s piano improvisation 35

2.3: Keith Jarrett’s improvised ending of the standard

2.4: Diatonic three-part chords and scale degree assignment

2.5: Diatonic four-part chords and scale degree assignment

2.6: I – IV – V – I in the key of C major 56

2.7: Guide tone lines of a VI – II – V – I progression

2.8: Guide tone lines of IV – V and II – V progressions

2.9: Guide Tone Lines of a full diatonic cadence

2.10: V7 and its tritone substitution bII7 in the key of C major 62

2.11: IIm7 – V7, (related) IIm7 – subV7 in the key of C major 62

2.12: V/V – V progressions including tritone substitutions

2.13: The ‘bebop-cross’ 63

2.14: Ascending and descending passing diminished chords 64

2.15: Bo7 as a variant of four different V7-9 chords

2.16: Two line clichés in the key of A minor 65

2.17: ‘On Green Dolphin Street’ by Bronislau Kaper, Lyrics by

2.19: Conventional open position voicing of Cma7 and Cma7+11 69

2.20: Upper structure triads in V7 – I progressions 69

2.21: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

2.22: Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

2.23: Bar 2 in Fischer’s improvised interpretation of

2.24: Scale degree assignation of the seventh mode

2.25: Triads based on the root C 99

2.26: Full representations of conventional four-part chords 99

2.27: Representations of conventional five-part chords 100

2.28: Representations of conventional six-part chords 101

2.29: Representations of conventional seven-part chords 101

2.30: Diminished chords 102

3.1: Passus Duriusculus 138

3.2: ‘Te Amo Corazon’, score reduction of bars 2–3 of

3.3: ‘Te Amo Corazon’, score reduction of bars 4–5 of

3.4: ‘Te Amo Corazon’, score reduction of bars 6–8 of

4.1: Score reduction of Figures 36–37 in Shostakovich’s

4.2: Bar 5 of Figure 36 in Shostakovich’s

4.3: Voice-leading graph of the last bar of Figure 36 to the first

4.4: Transposed melodic comparison chart of the first part of

4.5: Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4.6: Last two bars of Figure 18 in Shostakovich’s Symphony

4.7: Figures 20 to 21 in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 1,

4.8: Voice leading graph of bars 4 to 5 of Figure 20 in

4.9: Voice-leading graph of bars 7 to 9 of Figure 20 in

4.10: Score reduction of Figure 43 in Shostakovich’s

4.11: Voice-leading reduction showing the melodic line

4.12: Score reduction of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s Symphony

4.13: Voice-leading graph of the first seven bars of Figure 22 199

4.14: Voice-leading graph of bars 4–5 of Figure 22 in

4.15: Voice-leading graph of Figure 22 in Shostakovich’s

4.16: First theme of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 205

4.17: Main motive in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 206

4.18: Second theme in Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’ 206

4.19: Score reduction of Fischer’s ‘The Early Years’,