International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System (IJPEDS)

Vol. 10, No. 1, March 2019, pp. 1~9

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v10.i1.pp1-9  1

Electric vehicle technology impacts on energy

Wael A. Salah1, Basim Alsayid2, Mahmoud A. M. Albreem3, Basem Abu Zneid4, Mutasem
Alkhasawneh5, Anwar Al Mofleh6, Anees Abu Sneineh7, Amir Abu Al Aish8
1,2,7Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology,
Palestine Technical University-Kadoorie (PTUK), Palestine
3Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, College of Engineering,

A'Sharqiyah University (ASU), Oman

4Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University Of Business and Technology CEiT

Dhaban-North Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

5Faculty of Information Technology, Software Engineering Department, Ajloun National University, Jordan
6Faculty of Engineering Technology, Al-Balqa’ Applied University, Jordan
8Communication Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Jordan

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: The CO2 emission level is becoming a serious issue worldwide. The
continuous increase in gasoline price forms the essential base of development
Received Mar 24, 2018 of electric vehicle (EV) drives. Moreover, economic and environmental
Revised Sep 13, 2018 issues relate to fabrication and operation of traditional powered vehicles. The
Accepted Sep 30, 2018 basic considerations and development perspectives of EVs are presented in
this paper. The development of an efficiently designed motor and drive
satisfy the need of efficient characteristics that enable EVs to perform as part
Keywords: of the propulsion unit. The use of digital signal controllers compared with
conventional control systems minimizes the motor’s total harmonic
Clean energy distortion, lowers operating temperatures, and produces high efficiency and
Electric vehicle power factor ratings. This paper addresses the view of EV technology as well
Emission its advantages over other technologies.
Environment
Inverter
Motor control
Sustainable energy
Copyright © 2019 Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science.
All rights reserved.

Corresponding Author:
Wael A. Salah,
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology,
Palestine Technical University–Kadoorie (PTUK),
P.O. Box: 7, Yafa Street, Tulkarm, Palestine.
Email: waelsalah.dr@gmail.com, wael.salah@ptuk.edu.ps

1. INTRODUCTION
Electric vehicle (EV) drives, which are generally subjected to frequent start and stop demands, are
used in different climates, road conditions, and terrains. EV drives used mainly in industrial production lines
are often operated at constant speeds and in controlled environments. In any EV propulsion unit, the motor
drive is the most important part. The drive system mainly consists of an electric motor, a power converter,
and an electronic controller. The motor drive should be designed to satisfy several characteristics, such as
high torque capability, high efficiency, regenerative braking, and good thermal and cooling systems, which
enable it to perform efficiently as part of the propulsion unit. Electric and hybrid vehicles are important
factors for the improvement of a healthy environment owing to their beneficial effect on the environment
through low CO2 emission level. With the steadily increasing oil prices, the need for alternative energy
source is growing. Electric and electric hybrid vehicles offer the best possibility for the use of new alternative
energy sources.

Journal homepage: http://iaescore.com/journals/index.php/IJPEDS

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Electric drive refers to the conversion of electrical to mechanical energy in executing various work
demands and processes. About 50% of electrical energy produced is used by electric drives. Approximately
75%–80% of these electric drives operate at constant speed owing to the minimal requirement for speed
control in their application. The remaining 20%–25% requires electric drives that can respond to variable
speed and torque to match the mechanical load [1]. The variable speed drive (VSD) is now popular even in
industrial and home appliances [2]. The market of motion controls products shows a viable growth. Motion
control market growth is illustrated in the histogram in Figure 1. This growth reflects that the demand for DC
commutator motor drive sales decreases in contrast to the significant annual increase in AC motor drives [3].

Figure 1. Motion control market growth [3]

Owing to the rapid technological advancement in power electronic converters, AC motors are
increasingly becoming attractive solutions for variable speed applications and have recorded steady growth
since 1990. Figure 2 shows a major shift from traditional variable-speed DC brushed motors, which have
been used for decades [4]-[6].

Figure 2. AC versus DC electric drive market [1]

Electrical machines are key equipment in many industrial processes. They work either under
constant or variable speed to match the unknown load torque operation. A feedback control loop must be
implemented through a VSD. Information on the actual electrical and mechanical operating conditions
experienced by the motor is provided and sensed by variable appropriate sensors. Then, a control algorithm
processes this information and compares it with the demanded reference speed/torque. Based on this
comparison, the supplied voltage or current to the motor windings is controlled through the power electronics
switches as shown in Figure 3.

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  3

Figure 3. General scheme of VSD

The high maintenance requirement of the DC motor is a persistent problem with the DC drives. The
AC VSDs have become popular and have rapidly grown since the 1980s. This growth is mainly a result of
advances in power electronic switches and digital control technologies that highly affected the cost and
performance of different VSD systems. The main performance parameter of pulling the movement toward
AC VSDs is the rugged reliability and low cost of AC motors compared with the traditionally used DC
brushed motor. The mechanical commutation system in the DC brushed motor is the major source of
inefficiency of DC drives. It has been replaced by a power electronic converter circuit called the inverter to
validate the AC VSD system. Nevertheless, the uses of power electronics devices require a sensitive and
efficient digital control, which is the main difficulty in the AC VSD systems. This type of control
complicates the system and increases the cost in achieving a reliable inverter circuit.
For any new technology proposed, the energy efficiency could attract new customers and help
commercialize it among public users [7]. The wide presence of power electronics converter (PEC) systems
has recently caused the energy savings to pay back for the additional expenses implied by VSD
implementation. Energy costs, interest rates, and inflation rise slowly every year, but this increasing cost
could be forestalled to some extent by energy saving through PEC. Given that the life span of PEC drives
ranges from 10 to 15 years, the principal investment in installing the PEC pays off well during this cycle. The
energy savings produced by the PEC in VSDs for the PEC and motor improve energy utilization [8].
Regardless of the types of motor that the electrical drives are driving, the programmable
microcontrollers inside the drive controller enable intelligent controls over stator and rotor flux angles, total
harmonic distortion (THD) and power factor correction for optimal efficiency, and high-pitched noises
associated with conventional PWM controllers [9].
In consideration that the electric motor is the heart of electric vehicles (EVs), the recent advances in
electrical machines and their control greatly affect the development of EVs, particularly the development of
AC drives and the production of highly efficient AC motors. Different types of electric motors have been
used by manufacturers to implement different electric vehicles models as part of the drive system. Table 1
shows the different models of EVs by various manufacturers that are listed along with the type of motor used
to implement the EV [10]. The table shows that the AC motors are primarily used in EV implementation. The
permenant magnet PM brushless motors are specifically used owing to their dynamic characteristics and low
maintenance compared with other commonly used AC motors.

Table 1. Motors used in electric vehicles [10]

Company EV Model EV Motor
Fiat Fiat Panda Electra Series dc motor
Fiat Fiat Seicento Elettra Induction motor
Honda Honda EV Plus PM BLDC motor
Mazda Mazda Bongo Shunt dc motor
Nissan Nissan Altra PM BLDC motor
Toyota Toyota RAV 4 PM BLDC motor
General Motors GM EVI Induction motor
Ford Ford Think City Induction motor

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
High dependence on the oil as the main source of energy for passenger vehicles has several effects
because the number of automobiles introduced on the road increases annually. An economic factor is also
inherent in the poor energy conversion efficiency of combustion engines, but the use of EVs is still very
limited compared with other types of commonly used and manufactured vehicles. One reason could be that
electric cars remain more expensive than traditional cars. The high expense mostly refers to their expensive
batteries. Furthermore, concerns relate to sufficiency of battery charge before traveling great distances.
Electric vehicle technology impacts on energy (Wael A. Salah)
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For example, the transportation sector in Malaysia is considered one of the most advanced among
developed countries in Asia. The fossil fuel types used in the transportation sector include natural gas,
aviation gasoline, motor gasoline, aviation turbine fuel (ATF or Avtur), diesel oil, and fuel oil. Natural gas
fuel is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons (mainly methane) that occur either in gas fields or in association
with crude oil in oil fields. The transportation sector energy usage based on fuel types is given in
Table 2 [11].

Table 2. Energy structure according to fuel types used in the transportation sector of Malaysia
Year Fuel Type (ktoe)
Petrol Diesel ATF Fuel oil NG Elect
1980 1296 847 250 - 0 0
1985 2057 1032 386 - 0 0
1990 2889 1826 628 41 0 0
1995 4477 2168 1158 17 5 0
1996 5161 2417 1333 32 4 1
1997 5574 3106 1437 75 5 1
1998 5849 2311 1618 9 4 1
1999 6778 3174 1423 13 0 4
2000 6378 4103 1574 4 7 4
2001 6820 4534 1762 5 14 5.17
2002 6940 4680 1785 5.5 28 5.20
2003 7120 4732 1798 5.8 36 5.5
2004 7531 4791 1815 6 44 6
2005 7865 4812 1830 6.5 56 6.2
(Source: Malaysian National Energy Balance, 2005) [11]

2.1. Planning issue

The growing numbers of passengers and vehicles in addition to increasing trip distances result in a
visible increase in the energy used by propulsion vehicle systems. Private vehicle population grows annually,
which increases energy consumption. With fossil fuel as the main source, air pollution increases because of
combustion. Therefore, a high efficiency of energy use in the transport sector should be planned to minimize
air pollution and address environmental concerns. Implementing energy efficient EV systems can help reduce
the daily increase in petroleum oils used in the propulsion system. As a result, it can curb rising air pollution,
especially CO2 emissions in which two-thirds originate from transport fuel combustion [12],[13]. The final
consumption for petroleum as shown in Figure 4.

Motor Petrol Diesel

33.7% 39.0%

Non Energy Fuel Oil

3.1% 7.7%
ATF & AV Gas LPG
Kerosene
8.6% 7.5%
0.4%

Figure 4. Final consumption for petroleum product (National Energy Balance 2003) [12]

2.2. Financial issue

Gasoline refined from crude oil is primarily used to supply the automobiles and light trucks with the
required fuel to power their combustion engines [11]. The almost continuous increase in the cost of the
gasoline is concerning. This issue could be addressed by development and implementation of an EV. The EV
could be charged at home at night during non-peak hours because electricity is cheaper at night. Gasoline
prices fluctuate even when crude oil prices are stable, thereby causing trouble and headache for customers.
Factors that cause the price fluctuation normally stem from the seasonality local retail station competition
and the crude oil supply disruptions [14].

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2.3. Environmental issue
In addition to CO2 emissions, the traditionally powered gasoline vehicle usage results in other gas
emissions that can highly affect the local air quality. Three gases covered by the Euro standards include
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). A balanced policy that could reflect
the effects of both local air quality change and global climate change is needed given the benefits and
disadvantages of fuels [15]. The basic transportation CO2 sources as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Transportation CO2 sources

The light-duty vehicle CO2 emissions are affected by vehicle use in terms of the vehicle miles
traveled (VMT), fuel economy which refers to the miles per gallon, and the net greenhouse gas emissions
[16]. The fuel economy is affected by the characteristics, operating conditions, and practices of the vehicle.
VMT growth affects the mounting emissions originating from the light-duty vehicle [16]. Figure 6 shows a
statistical graph of the amount of CO2 emissions from the transport sector in Asia, which clearly illustrates
the gradually increasing emission level.

Figure 6. Trend of transport sector CO2 emissions in Asia (IEA, 2007) [17]

2.4. Health issue

Air pollution has a visible effect on human health and environment owing to harmful components.
Air pollution components include CO, sulfur dioxide (SOx), NOx, HC, and CO2. CO reduces the blood’s
capability to carry oxygen, aggravates lung and heart disease, and causes headaches, fatigue, and dizziness.
The combination of SOx with water vapor in the air contributes to acid rain. NOx causes a yellowish-brown
haze and becomes a poisonous gas that damages lung tissue if combined with oxygen. HC could cause cancer
and could irritate mucous membranes. Excess CO2 can cause more sunlight to enter the atmosphere, which
causes global warming.

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The key point to be addressed is that car sales have almost doubled in the past 25 years. This
phenomenon has considerably increased the demand for considering an alternative solution to limit and/or
minimize the emissions from these vehicles [18].

3. EV DEVELOPMENT EFFECTS
3.1. Save money
Fuel prices continue to climb with the increase in tariff rates of electric power. Thus, the challenge
for saving energy has been arising and highly concerning at a global level along with the increase in car sales
as shown in Figure 7. However, electricity remains much cheaper than gasoline because it is mostly locally
generated. The massive increases in gasoline prices are unavoidable because its demand is quickly overtaking
the world’s normal production. Nevertheless, the electricity price has not changed significantly because the
electricity is locally generated. It is also generated from renewable resources (solar, wind, biomass, and
geothermal), which are slowly becoming much popular with the reduction of installation cost.

Figure 7. Global car sales (1980–2005) (IEA Data, 2007)

3.2. Finite resources

The global petroleum level is permanently dropping owing to resource constraints [11]. The
available usable energy is a finite resource, and energy cannot be repeatedly used indefinitely. Despite large
supplies of coal, oil, and natural gas, the demand is increasing, but the amount of new energy supplies being
discovered is decreasing. The consumption of energy by fuel type illustrated in Figure 8 shows that
worldwide energy use, especially the demand for oil, continuously increases.

Figure 8. World energy consumption (EIA-International Energy Outlook 2000)

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3.3. Clean environment
Energy conservation and environmental protection are highly important concerns worldwide. The
availability of electricity is a major consideration in EV development. In terms of environmental aspects, the
EVs produce zero emission at the point of use, which results in significant reduction in air pollution in
crowded town areas. Air pollution causes many harness effects on humans and surrounding environment.
Therefore, quality air is a possible result of greenhouse effect. The rules and regulations that relate to
practices that could affect the environment are important to encourage the promotion and movement of EVs.
Some cities have implemented emission-free zones from all sources that mostly come from transport. World
carbon emissions statistics are shown in Figure 9. The graph clearly shows the visible increase in carbon
emissions worldwide.

Figure 9. World carbon emissions (EIA-International Energy Outlook 2000)

EVs benefit environmental protection owing to improvement in air quality, reduction in noise level,
and zero local exhaust emissions. Globally, the emission from the generation of electricity for EVs is only
2% in CO, whereas that in gasoline-powered vehicles is about 76% in CO2, 56% in NOx, and 9% in HC.
EVs operate quietly and almost vibration-free, whereas gasoline-powered vehicles are inherently noisy and
have sensible vibration [19]. The EVs powered by high-efficiency controlled electric motors supplied by
alternative energy sources are somehow clean, efficient, and environmentally friendly town
transportation systems.
Moreover, the efficient potential pollution problem suppression by using the EVs has zero
emissions. The aspects that influence the pattern and emission level of energy consumption from the
transportation sector of Malaysia are presented. The study concludes that the total energy demand and
vehicular emissions from the road transport represent one of the greatest areas of challenge for energy
efficiency [20]. The increasing usage of petrol is primarily from the consumption in the transportation sector.
Petrol has been recently replaced by other fuels partially or totally in other sectors, yet the world energy
demands continue growing with the population. The development of new technologies helps decrease fuel
consumption in the transportation sector, which still accounts for the siginificant amount of air pollution
in cities.

4. EV APPLICATIONS AND MARKET

EVs are used for passengers and public transportation. EVs are successfully realized in off-road
vehicles market as they fulfill the application requirements. These applications include airport vehicles for
passenger and ground support, recreational vehicles such as golf carts, plant operation vehicles such as
forklifts and loader trucks for theme parks, vehicles for disabled persons, and so on. [21]. EVs are cost
effective and lean toward green technologies. In addition, EVs have received increasing interest because they
contribute to global pollution reduction. To achieve the abovementioned objectives, the following
infrastructure matters should be considered: (a) Battery chargers: implementation of residential and public
charging facilities and stations; (b) Standardization of EV plugs, cords, and outlets and safety issues; (c)
Sales and distribution; (d) Service and technical support; and, (e) Supply of parts. However, cost remains a
major concern, and EV initial cost and battery replacement cost must be suppressed at a reasonable level.

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5. EV IMPLEMENTATION
Figure 10 shows the basic EV propulsion system. Batteries or fuel cells can generally be used as
energy system in EVs [22].

Figure 10. Basic electric vehicle propulsion system

5.1. Electric vehicle technologies

The essential technologies for EVs are: EV, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. Batteries are used as
energy storage that powers the electric motor of the EV to achieve zero emissions. Batteries and conventional
gasoline are used to power hybrid gas/EVs for propulsion. The hybrids generate less tailpipe emissions than
the gasoline counterpart. The development of fuel cells could boost the EVs through generating electricity
onboard, which is an emission-free source [12]. The main difference between EV technologies is the method
used to generate the electricity that powers the electrics motors.

5.2. Battery EVs and fuel cell vehicles

A major concern of any new technology nowadays is energy storage [23]. Some energy storage
technologies can be implemented commercially at small-scale integration, but others must be further
developed. The study highlights the challenges that prevent the commercial deployment of these energy
storage technologies [23]. The Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is a promising technology, but it still needs to
be be developed to gain social acceptance. This study reviews the technological readiness of the BEV
technology and highlights the main technological issues to be handed for visible progress [24]. BEVs have
higher efficiency and are more commercial compared with fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). BEVs and FCVs are the
only two zero-emission candidates [25].

5.3. EV energy sources

Energy efficiency, energy utilization, and environmental protection have attracted increasing
concern in research and industry because of energy cost. A part of this major concern is to achieve a green
energy efficient transportation system through implementation of EVs. The popularization of EVs on the
road and the energy sources are key technologies that could possibly realize the commercial implementation
of EVs. The storage system implemented in an EV should fulfill the requirement of high power density to
accomplish its anticipated driving range. Typical energy storage devices for automotive applications are lead-
acid, nickel metal hydride, and lithium ion batteries [26]. Charging EVs using photovoltaic (PV) has been
proposed [27]. The following approaches are available. The first is a combination of PV and the grid, and the
second is using PV as the source only, which is more popular. The final aim is to reduce the emission over
the entire life of a vehicle, including the energy and material used to power it [28]. The fuel cell operates in
an electrochemical process that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. The fuel cell system has zero
emission because it does not emit any exhaust gas. The wastage of the reaction results in the production of
only water and heat [29].

6. CONCLUSIONS
The instability of gasoline prices is a compelling impetus for the development of EV drives. EV
drives are essential and play major roles in economic and environmental issues. The design and development
of an efficient motor drive aim to satisfy the characteristics needed to perform as part of the propulsion unit.
This major aim can be realized by using digital signal controllers as replacement of the conventional control
systems to minimize motor THD, lower operating temperature, increase efficiency, and improve power factor
rating. The vehicles used by the majority of the population have become part of our daily life. The high
percentage of carbon emissions from the exhaust of these vehicles comes from the conventional internal
combustion engine. The issue is more serious in a town area where the vehicles are the major sources of
pollution that cause greenhouse effect. EVs can indirectly affect carbon emissions at the power plant level.
Strict standards of CO2 power plant emission levels can minimize this effect and thus reduce air pollution.
The concerns on energy efficiency and energy consumption become more active to protect the environment.
The best alternative solution for road transportation is the use of EVs. The development of energy source

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  9
supplies for long-term drives is the crucial technology for commercialization and popularization of EVs. This
paper demonstrates the potential of EVs in vehicular usage and practicability to fulfill the world’s growing
demand on energy without affecting environment air quality

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Electric vehicle technology impacts on energy (Wael A. Salah)