Chapter 2

Networks
2A Network Terminology (pg. 16)
2B Travelling a Network (pg. 17)
2C Drawing Network Diagrams (pg. 19)
2D Eulerian and Hamiltonian Walks (pg. 22)
2E Network Problems (pg. 23)
2F Minimum Spanning Trees (pg. 24)
2G Connector Problems (pg. 27)
2H Shortest Paths (pg. 28)

Written by
Benjamin Odgers
Maths Teacher
B Teaching / B Science

The following theory booklet lines up with the Cambridge Year 12 NSW Standard Mathematics 2
Textbook. This can be found using the following link:
https://www.cambridge.edu.au/education/titles/CambridgeMATHS-Stage-6-Mathematics-Standard-2-Year-12-print-
and-interactive-textbook-powered-by-HOTmaths/#.XYgHTUszaUk

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2A Network Terminology https://youtu.be/w04L4zVqkMQ
A network is basically a group of objects joined in some way. Examples of networks are:
• Maps – cities joined by roads
• Electrical circuits – electrical components joined by wires
• Social media – social media profiles that are linked in some way (for example, friends on Facebook)

The two diagrams below are examples of networks.

E F A

I B
D

G
H C
Network 1 Network 2

https://youtu.be/56cysEQzwR0
Write down a description or draw diagrams to help you remember the meaning of the following terms:
1. Vertex (plural: vertices) –

2. Edge –

3. Directed edge –

4. Directed network –

5. Undirected network –

6. Degree of a vertex –

7. Even degree –

8. Odd degree –

9. Loop –

10. Simple Network –

11. Weighted edge –

How do we label edges and vertices?

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2B Travelling a Network https://youtu.be/_8LDN_uZEP0
The following terminology is used to describe the routes we take when travelling on a network.

Walk
A walk is a route where you can cross vertices and edges as many times as F
E
you like.
 Edges can be crossed multiple times
I J
 Vertices can be crossed multiple times
We can describe a walk using the following notation: E-J-G-F-E-J-H-I G
H

Trail
A trail is a route we take where edges are not repeated. E F
 Edges can be crossed multiple times
 Vertices can be crossed multiple times I J
We can describe a trail using the following notation: E-F-G-J-E-I-H-J
G
H

Circuit
A trail (edges are not repeated) that starts and ends at the same vertex. F
E
 Edges can be crossed multiple times
 Vertices can be crossed multiple times I J
We can describe a circuit using the following notation: E-F-J-G-H-J-E
G
H

Path
A path is a route we take where vertices are not repeated (As a result of this, F
E
the edges cannot be repeated either).
 Edges can be crossed multiple times I J
 Vertices can be crossed multiple times
We can describe a path using the following notation: I-E-J-F-G G
H

Cycle
A path (vertices and edges are not repeated) that starts and ends at the same
vertex (notice that even though we can’t repeat vertices we need to repeat the E F

vertex we started at).

 Edges can be crossed multiple times I J

 Vertices can be crossed multiple times

G
We can describe a cycle using the following notation: I-E-J-G-H-I H

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Example 1 https://youtu.be/e_EwJig-0gU
What type of route was taken in each of the following scenarios? Give your solution as either a walk, trail,
circuit, path or cycle.
a) A-B-E-F-A
C

B
b) B-E-C-D-E-F D
A

F E
c) B-E-F-E-C-B-E

d) B-C-E-F-A

e) A-B-E-C-D-E-F-A

Traversable Graphs https://youtu.be/rM3AqHk9RHM

If you can travel over every edge only once (without repeating any edges) then we call this a traversable
graph. The examples below represent a traversable and a non-traversable graph.

A A

D D
B B

C C

Traversable Graph Non-Traversable Graph

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2C Drawing Network Diagrams

Connected Graphs https://youtu.be/91l6Ar5DNk0

Every vertex is connected either directly or indirectly on a connected graph. For example, in the figures
below, vertex A is directly connected to vertex B and indirectly connected to vertex C. Since you have to
pass through another vertex to get from vertex A to vertex C we say they are indirectly connected.
A
D
A
D
B

B C
C

Figure 1 Figure 2

The graphs below are not connected graphs. You will notice that there is no path that will take you from
vertex A to vertex C.

A D
A
D
B
B C

Figure 3 Figure 4

Isomorphic Graphs https://youtu.be/srNzVBltpFE

Isomorphic graphs look different but they represent the same thing. We often say that isomorphic graphs are
equivalent. You will notice that isomorphic graphs have the following qualities:
• They have the same number of vertices
• They have the same number of edges
• The degree of corresponding vertices is the same
• The edges connect to the same vertices

Match each graph on the left with its isomorphic graph on the right.

A B A C

D C D B

A B A B

D C C D

A C B D A C D B

Note: the following website has a good activity where you recognise isomorphic graphs. The only problem
is that vertices are not labelled. http://github.ericmickelsen.com/graf/isomorphism.html
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Example 1 https://youtu.be/AZSv9I0qz2I
Below is a network graph with 6 vertices and 8 edges. Below this are two sets of vertices. Connect the
vertices with edges so that we have 3 isomorphic graphs.

A B

F C

E D

A C

E B
A B C D E F

F D

Representing a map as a network diagram

We can represent maps using network diagrams. You can use vertices to represent cities/towns and edges to
represent roads. The network diagram doesn’t need to look anything like the map, it only needs to have the
correct vertices connected by edges.

Example 2 https://youtu.be/0RxF7RXl7UU
Represent the following map as a network diagram. Represent the towns/cities as vertices and the roads as
edges.

Nigel Island

Antville

Dryton

Cartown

Beeville
Endville
Fancytown

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Representing a table as a network diagram
The following examples show you how to convert from a table to a network diagram and vice versa.

Example 3 https://youtu.be/fTzv8ZBuI3s
The following table has a list of 5 people with Facebook profiles. An ‘F’ implies that the two people are
friends.

Abby Ben Charlie Diana Erik

Abby ̶ F F F ̶
Ben F ̶ F ̶ ̶
Charlie F F ̶ F ̶
Diana F ̶ F ̶ ̶
Erik ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶

a) Represent this table as a network diagram

b) Why does the vertex representing Erik have no edges connected to it?

Example 4 https://youtu.be/vHvDh9aBJNo
The network diagram below has weighted edges that represent the distances between towns in kilometres.

A B C D E F
Ashgrove
23 A
17
Becroft
25 B
Frankton 8 19
Engleton 36 C
Charlton
24 D
28
Denmark E

a) Represent this information in the table at right

b) What is the shortest distance you can take from Becroft to Denmark?

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2D Eulerian and Hamiltonian Walks

How to pronounce the word “Eulerian” https://youtu.be/gDa77_NvE2c

Eulerian trails and circuits are a concept first discussed by Leonhard Euler. Leonhard’s last name is actually
pronounced “oiler” and not “you-ler,” therefore the word Eulerian would be pronounced “oil-erian” and not
“you-lerian.”

Eulerian trails and circuits

Eulerian trails are trails that use every edge of a graph only once (without repeating any). They start and end
at different vertices. If only two of the vertices on a graph have an odd degree (meaning the rest of the
vertices have an even degree) then an Eulerian trail must exist. The two vertices with an odd degree become
the starting and ending point for your trail.
Eulerian circuits have the same properties as an Eulerian trail except that they start and end at the same
vertex. If the degree of every vertex is even then an Eulerian circuit must exist.
Eulerian trails and circuits are useful for mail delivery. To save time and money, a postman (or woman)
would ideally drive down every street only once delivering mail.

Example 1 https://youtu.be/aqFnpa5CPc8
For each graph below state whether they have an Eulerian trail, an Eulerian circuit or neither by counting the
degree of each vertex. Check that your statement is correct by tracing
(a) (b) (c)
A A
A
D
D D

B
B
C B
C C

Hamiltonian paths and cycles https://youtu.be/4LGK5J8gMAQ

Hamiltonian paths pass through every vertex only once. Hamiltonian cycles have the same properties as a
Hamiltonian path except that they start and end at the same vertex. Sadly, Hamiltonian paths and cycles do
not have a rule that tells you whether a path or cycle is possible. Observation is the only method you can use
to see if a Hamiltonian path or cycle exists. Hamiltonian paths and cycles were named after a mathematician
named Sir William Hamilton.
Hamiltonian paths and cycles are useful for the travelling salesman (or woman) who would like to visit
every town only once.

Example 2 https://youtu.be/Q-1fSFguwkc
a) Describe a Hamiltonian path for the network diagram below that starts at D and ends at H.
H
A
G
F
D
E
B
C

b) Describe a Hamiltonian cycle for the network diagram below that starts and ends at B.

A
G
F
D
E
B
C

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2E Network Problems

Königsberg bridge problem https://youtu.be/qcDG4dc9X5c

The Königsberg bridge problem is a famous mathematical problem from the town of Königsberg (now
known as Kaliningrad). The town had two land mases separated by a river and two islands, as pictured
below. The whole town was connected by seven bridges, also pictured below. Someone once asked if a trail
exists where you pass over every bridge only once. This ended up becoming a famous mathematical
problem. Leonhard Euler ended up proving that it was impossible.

The following Ted-ed talk explains the Königsberg bridge problem

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZwSo4vfw6c

Example 1 https://youtu.be/dVAmFL6iyXg
For this example, we are going to look at the Königsberg
bridge problem. We are going to see if we can create B1 B2 B3
Eulerian trails and circuits by simply demolishing bridges.
a) Which bridge can we demolish in order to make an
B4
Eulerian trail?
B5 B6 B7

b) Which two bridges could you demolish in order to make an Eulerian circuit?

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2F Minimum Spanning Trees
In this topic we are learning how to minimise the weight and amount of edges on a network diagram. We do
this in real life to increase productivity and cut costs. An electricity company needs to make sure that towns
are connected to the electrical grid. The towns would represent vertices and the electrical wiring would
represent edges. By reducing the weight (length) and amount of edges, the electricity company can save
money by laying out less wires to connect towns.

Trees https://youtu.be/ldnvnNtfg9g
A tree is a graph where every vertex is connected but contains no loops, multiple edges or cycles (see
images below). This comes in handy when connecting towns with electrical wires. All towns need to be
connected to the grid and loops, multiple edges and cycles are a waste of unnecessary wiring.
H H H
F G F G F G
E D E D E D
C C C
B B
B

A A A

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:

Tree diagram Not a tree diagram Not a tree diagram
(this graph has a loop (this graph has a cycle
and multiple edges) and is disconnected)

A tree will always have 1 less edge than the number of vertices. If n represents the number of vertices then
the number of edges is 𝑛 − 1.

Example 1 https://youtu.be/yLGd7Lv-YEA
There are many trees that you can make from the same set of vertices.
a) Connect the vertices at right to make a tree.

b) If you connected a set of 100 vertices to make a tree,

how many edges would you need?

Spanning Tree https://youtu.be/X0oT52AKAfI

All graphs will have at least one subgraph that is a tree. The graph below has several subgraphs that are
trees. The fourth figure on the right is called a spanning tree since it connects to every vertex in the original
graph.

H H H H
A A A A
G G G G
F F F F
D
D D D
E E E E
B B B B
C C C C

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4:

Original graph Tree is a subgraph Tree is a subgraph This spanning tree
of the original graph of the original graph connects every vertex
from the original graph

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Example 2 https://youtu.be/fNGG2qPKk6U
For the graph below, find two spanning trees.

A D A D A D
G G G
F F F

E E E
B B B
C C C

Spanning Tree 1 Spanning Tree 2

Minimum Spanning Trees https://youtu.be/_8cf_1LEM6o

A weighted graph like the one pictured below could represent the distance between locations. Sometimes it
is important to connect vertices using the shortest distance to save time and money. An example of this
might be water pipes connecting towns. By picking shorter distances between towns we can spend less on
infrastructure.
A minimum spanning tree ensures that we connect all vertices using the shortest total ‘length.’ There are two
algorithms we can use to find minimum spanning trees. The two algorithms are Prim’s algorithm and
Kruskal’s algorithm.

7 7
3 3
5 4 5 4
6 3 6 3
2 2
3 3
8 3 8 3

Weighted graph Minimum spanning tree

Prim’s Algorithm https://youtu.be/jPQU0qAD9ss

Prim’s algorithm involves starting at any vertex and walking along the shortest edge until you get to another
vertex. Each time you move to another vertex you look for the next shortest edge connected either to:
• the vertex you have landed on or
• to any vertex you have previously landed on.
If the shortest edge creates a cycle then pick the next shortest edge. You keep following this process until
you have made a minimum spanning tree.

Example 3
Use Prim’s Algorithm to find the minimum spanning tree for the graph below.

7 B
A
3
5 4
6 C
G 3 2
3 D
F 3
8
E

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Kruskal’s Algorithm https://youtu.be/vDVmAGaJLlc
Kruskal’s algorithm focuses on edges rather than vertices. We pick the shortest edge first and the move onto
the next shortest edge. Anytime the shortest edge creates a cycle you just pick the next shortest edge. You
keep following this process until you have made a minimum spanning tree.

Example 4
Use Kruskal’s Algorithm to find the minimum spanning tree for the graph below.

7 B
A
3
5 4
6 C
G 3 2
3 D
F 3
8
E

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2G Connector Problems https://youtu.be/vn2Dap-JbCY
This chapter focuses on using minimum spanning trees to solve real life problems.

Example 1
The following vertices represent NBN fibre nodes. The edges
390
represent possible lengths of cable that can connect the nodes. The 350
280
weight of each edge is in metres. 310
310 350 450
a) Create a minimum spanning tree for this graph 430 430
320
310
350
430
430 260 430

b) What is the minimum length of cable required to join all the nodes?

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2H Shortest Path https://youtu.be/vVBTCBwqBCA
This chapter is about taking the ‘shortest’ path between two vertices on a weighted graph. A GPS tries to
find the shortest path on a map so that people can get to their location quicker.

Example 1
For the following diagram, specify the shortest path between:
a) Vertex a and d B
A 4
7
20 1 C
6 G
10
13 9
F 5 8
D
3 14
E

b) Vertex d and f

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