Chapter 3.

Determinants and Diagonalization

ThienNV

March 4, 2021

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 1 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Determinant

Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.

Definition
Aij is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained from A by deleting row i
and column j.
(i, j)-cofactor of A

cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

The determinant of A, det(A) or |A| is defined recursively:

det(A) = ai1 ci1 + ai2 ci2 + · · · + ain cin .

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 2 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
det(a) = a
 
a b
det = ad − bc
c d

 
a11 a12 a13
det a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33
   
1+1 a22 a23  1+2 a21 a23 
   
=a11 (−1) a32 a33  + a12 (−1) a31 a33 
 
a a 
+ a13 (−1)1+3  21 22 
a31 a32

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 3 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Sarrus rule

Example
We have
 
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1
det  3 0 2 = 3 0 2 3 0
−2 1 1 −2 1 −1 −2 1
=1.0.(−1) + (−1).2.(−2) + 2.3.1 − 2.0.(−2) − 1.2.1 − (−1).3.(−1) = 5.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 4 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
 
4 −5 7
Let A = 3 6 −2. Find (2, 3)-cofactor of A.
1 8 −9
Answer: (2, 3)-cofactor of A is
 
2+3 4 −5
 
(−1) 1 8  = −[4 ∗ 8 − 1 ∗ (−5)] = −37.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 5 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Elementary operations and Determinant

Interchange two rows (or column), the determinant change the sign.
Multiply a constant c to a row (or column), the determinant is
multiple by the constant.
Add a multiple of a row (or column) to a different row (or column),
the determinant does not change.

Example
       
1 2 3 3 4 5  3 4 5 3 4 5
 ↔R3   1/2R2  −R2 +R3
2 4 6 R1 =
   
  − 2 4 6 = −2 1 2 3 = −2 1 2 3 = 0
3 4 5 1 2 3  1 2 3 0 0 0

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 6 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
   
 a b c   p+x q+y r + z 
  
Let  p q r  = 5. Find  3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z .
 x y z   3x 3y 3z 
Answer: We have
   
 p+x q+y r + z   p+x q+y r + z 
 1/3R3 
3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z  = 3 3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z 
  
 3x 3y 3z   x y z 
   
p q r 
 1/3R2 p q r 
 
−R3 +R1 ,2R3 +R2 
= 3 3a 3b 3c  = 9  a b c 
  
x y z x y z 
 
a b c 
R1 ↔R2  
= −9 p q r  = −9 ∗ 5 = −45.
x y z 

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 7 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
 
 
 a b c 

 x 0 y z 

   p 0 q r 
Let  p q r  = 10. Find 
  .
 x y z   a 0 b c 

 2 3 4 5 
Answer: Expanse the determinant along the second column,
 
x 0 y z     
  x y z  a b c 
p 0 q r  4+2   R1 ↔R3
   
 a 0 b c  = 3 ∗ (−1) p q r  = −3 p q r  = −30
   
  a b c  x y z 
 2 3 4 5

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 The Cofactor Expansion

Properties of Determinant

det(AB) = det(A)det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

m ∈ N? .
det(kA) = k n det(A), for any n × n matrix A.
det(AT ) = det(A)
If A is a square triangular matrix, then det(A) is the product of the
entries on the main diagonal.

Example
 
 2 4 −8 9 
 
  
3a 3b  a b  0 −1 5 6 
  = 9
3c 3d 
, 
c d  0 0 = 2 ∗ (−1) ∗ 4 ∗ (−5) = 40
 4 1 
0 0 0 −5

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 9 / 30

 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
Let A and B be 4 × 4 matrices with det(A) = 8 and det(B) = 6. Find
det(3B −2 A2 B T ).

Answer: We have

det(3B −2 A2 B T ) = 34 det(B)−2 det(A)2 det(B T )

= 34 det(A)2 det(B)−1 = 34 .82 /6 = 864.

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 The Cofactor Expansion

Quiz

Determine the following statements are True or False.

Let A and B be n × n matrices, then det(A + B) = det(A) + det(B).
(F)
det(kA) = kdet(A), for any n × n matrix A and scalar k. (F)
det(AB) = det(A)det(B), for any n × n matrices A, B. (T)
det(AT A) = [det(A)]2 , for any square matrix A. (T)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any square matrix A. (F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any 3 × 3 matrix A. (T)

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 The Cofactor Expansion

Example
Let A be a 4 × 4 matrix, det(A) = 2.
B is the matrix obtained from A by interchanging R3 and R2 .
C is the matrix obtained from B by adding 12 times R3 to R2 .
D is the matrix obtained from C by multiplying R3 by 5.
Find det(BCD).
Answer: We have

det(B) = −det(A) = −2
det(C ) = det(B) = −2
det(D) = 5det(C ) = −10.

Hence

det(BCD) = det(B)det(C )det(D) = −2 ∗ (−2) ∗ (−10) = −40.

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 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Let A be a square n × n matrix.

Definition
The adjugate of A, denoted adj(A):
 
c11 c21 · · · cn1
 T c12 c22 · · ·
 cn2 
adj(A) = cij = 

. . . . . . . . .

. . .
c1n c2n · · · cnn

where cij is (i, j)-cofactor of A.

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 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Theorem
Matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) 6= 0, and

1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)

Example
 
a b
Let A = . Then A is invertible if det(A) = ad − bc 6= 0 and
c d
 
−1 1 d −b
A =
ad − bc −c a

For example,
 −1    
3 1 1 4 −1 0.4 −0.1
= =
2 4 10 −2 3 −0.2 0.3

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 14 / 30

 Determinants and Matrix Inverse
 
2 0 1
Find the inverse matrix of A = −1 3 4.
1 5 7
Answer: We have    
3 4 −1 3
det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1  5 7 + 1 ∗ (−1)
 1+3
 1 5 = 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.
 

All (i, j)-cofactors of A:

     
3 4 −1 4 −1 3
c11 =    = 1, c12 = −   = 11, c13 = 
  = −8
5 7 1 7 1 5
     
0 1 2 1  2 0 
c21 = −    = 5, c22 = 
  = 13, c23 = −   = −10
5 7 1 7 1 5
     
0 1  2 1  2 0
c31 =    = −3, c32 = −    = −9, c33 =   =6
3 4 −1 4 −1 3
   
1 5 −3 −1/6 −5/6 1/2
Thus, A−1 1 
= −6 11 13 −9 = −11/6 −13/6 3/2
−8 −10 6 4/3 5/3 −1
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 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Properties

det(A−1 ) = 1/det(A).
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 , for any invertible matrices A, B.
I −1 = I .
 k −1
k
A = A−1 .
(aA)−1 = 1/aA−1 .

−1
T
AT = A−1 .
det(adj(A)) = [det(A)]n−1 , for any invertible n × n matrix A.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 16 / 30

 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Example
Find the (1, 3)- entry of A−1 provided that
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
5 −2 4

Answer: First, compute det(A)

 
2+2 2
 1
det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) 5 4  = 9


The (3, 1)-cofactor of A:

 
3+1 −3 1

c31 = (−1) 3 = −3
0

Hence, (1, 3)-entry of A−1 is −3/9 = −1/3.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 17 / 30

 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Example
 
1 0 2
Let A =  0 3 0 . Find the values of x so that A is invertible.
−5 0 x
Answer: We have
 
2+2  1 2

det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) −5 x  = 3(x + 10)

Hence A is invertible if and only if det(A) 6= 0 ⇔ x 6= −10.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 18 / 30

 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Example
 
0 0 2
Let A =  1 3 4 . Find the (1, 2)-entry of A−1 .
−5 2 x
 
1+3
 1 3
Answer: det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1) −5 2 = 2 ∗ 17 = 34. The (2, 1)-cofactor
 

of A is  
2+1 0 2 
 
c2,1 = (−1) 2 x  = 4.

Hence (1, 2)-entry of A−1 is 4/34 = 2/17.

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 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Crammer’s rule
Theorem
If A is an invertible n × n matrix, the solution to the system

Ax = b

of n equations in the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is given by

det A1
x1 =
det A
det A2
x2 =
det A
···
det An
xn =
det A
where Ak is the matrix obtained from A by replacing column k by b.
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 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

Example
Find y satisfying the following system:

4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1

Answer: We have
   
4 −1 3  4 1 3 
  
6 2 −1 = 79, 6 0 −1 = −37.
   
3 3 2 3 −1 2 

Hence y = −37/79.

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 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

How to compute Ak when A is a square matrix and n large?

Definition
 
λ1 0 · · · 0
 0 λ2 · · · 0
A diagonal matrix is   = diag (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )
 
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 ··· λn

We can see
 k  k 
λ1 0 · · · 0 λ1 0 · · · 0
 0 λ2 · · · k
0  0 λ2 · · · 0
 
 =
 
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 
. . . . . .
0 0 ··· λn 0 0 ··· λkn

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 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Theorem
Suppose that A = PDP −1 with D is a diagonal matrix then

Ak = PD k P −1 .

Definition
If A is an n × n matrix, a number λ is called an eigenvalue of A if

AX = λX for some column X 6= 0 in Rn .

In this case X is called an eigenvector of A corresponding to the

eigenvalue λ, or a λ-eigenvector.

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 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

To find eigenvalues of A, we solve the equation

det(λI − A) = 0

Theorem
The characteristic polynomial cA (x) of an n × n matrix A is defined by

cA (x) = det(xI − A).

Example


1 8
Find all eigenvalues of A = .
1 3
The characteristic
 polynomial
 of A is
x − 1 −8 
cA (x) =   = (x − 1)(x − 3) − 8 = x 2 − 4x − 5.
−1 x − 3
cA (x) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or x = 5. Hence A has two eigenvalues −1 and 5.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 24 / 30

 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Example
 
1 8
Find all eigenvectors of A = .
1 3
Answer: As above example, A has two eigenvalues λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 5.
 
x
−1-eigenvectors X = 1 is nonzero solution of the system
x2
        
−2 −8 x1 0 4t 4
= ⇔ x1 + 4x2 = 0 ⇒ x = =t , t 6= 0.
−1 −4 x2 0 −t −1
 
x1
5-eigenvectors X = is nonzero solution of the system
x2
        
4 −8 x1 0 2t 2
= ⇔ x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ X = =t , t 6= 0.
−1 2 x2 0 t 1

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 25 / 30

 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Theorem
An n × n matrix A is diagonalizable if and only if it has eigenvectors
x1 , x2 , ..., xn such that the matrix P = x1 x2 · · · xn is invertible.

A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1

where λi is the eigenvalue of A corresponding to xi .

Example
 
1 8
The matrix A = has two eigenvalues λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 5.
1 3
 
4
x1 = is an eigenvector corresponding to λ1 .
−1
 
2
x2 = is an eigenvector corresponding to λ2 .
1
Hence:    −1
4 2 −1 0 4 2
A= .
−1 1 0 5 −1 1
ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 26 / 30
 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Example
Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix with eigenvalues 2 and 3, and with corresponding
eigenvectors [2 1]T and [5 3]T . Find the (2, 1)-entry of A.

Answer: We have
   −1   
2 5 2 0 2 5 4 15 3 −5
A= =
1 3 0 3 1 3 2 9 −1 2

Hence (2, 1)-entry of A is 2 ∗ 3 + 9 ∗ (−1) = −3.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 27 / 30

 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Example
 
1 1 −1
Let A =  0 0 −1 . Given that λ = −1 is an eigenvalue of A. Which
0 2 −3
of the following are basic eigenvectors corresponding to λ?
Answer:
    
−2 −1 1 x1 0
(λI3 − A)x = 0 ⇔  0 −1 1 x2  = 0 (?)
0 −2 2 x3 0
 
−2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
 x1 = 0

The system (?) is equivalent to −x2 + x3 = 0 ⇔ x2 = t .
 
−2x2 + 2x3 = 0 x3 = t
 
 
0
Hence 1 is basic eigenvector corresponding to λ = −1.

1
ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 28 / 30
 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Find the eigenvalues of the matrix

 
2 1 −1
A =  0 1 1 .
0 4 −2

Answer: The characteristic polynomial of A is

 
x − 2 −1 1   
 x − 1 −1 
cA (x) =  0 x − 1 −1  = (x − 2)  
−4 x + 2
 0 −4 x + 2 
= (x − 2)(x 2 + x − 6) = (x − 2)2 (x + 3).

Hence, A has two eigenvalues λ1 = −3 and λ2 = 2.

ThienNV Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization March 4, 2021 29 / 30

 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Exercises

Section 3.1 : 1bci, 5bd, 7, 9, 10, 16a (page 155 − 157)

Section 3.2 : 1ac, 2bdf , 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 20, 33 (page 169 − 171)
Section 3.3 : 1ace, 8a, 12, 13, 14 (page 189 − 190)

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