Linear Algebra Chapter 3

Chapter 3.
Determinants and Diagonalization
Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 1 / 32

1 The Cofactor Expansion
2 Determinants and Matrix Inverse
3 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

3.1 The Cofactor Expansion
Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.
Definition
Aij is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained from A by deleting row i
and column j.
(i, j)-cofactor of A
cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

Definition
and column j.
The determinant of A, det(A) or |A| is defined recursively:
det(A) = ai1 ci1 + ai2 ci2 + · · · + ain cin .

Definition
and column j.

Definition
and column j.

Example
det(a) = a
" #
a b
det = ad − bc
c d

Example
det(a) = a
" #
a b
det = ad − bc
c d
 
a11 a12 a13
det a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33

1+1 a22
a23 1+2 a21 a23

=a11 (−1) + a12 (−1)
a32 a33 a31 a33

a a
+ a13 (−1)1+3 21 22

a31 a32

Example
det(a) = a
" #
a b
det = ad − bc
c d
 
a11 a12 a13
det a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33

1+1 a22
a23 1+2 a21 a23

=a11 (−1) + a12 (−1)
a32 a33 a31 a33

a a
+ a13 (−1)1+3 21 22

a31 a32

Sarrus rule
Example
We have
 
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1
det  3 0 2 = 3 0 2 3 0
 
−2 1 −1 −2 1 −1 −2 1
=1.0.(−1) + (−1).2.(−2) + 2.3.1 − 2.0.(−2) − 1.2.1 − (−1).3.(−1) = 5.

Sarrus rule
Example
We have
 
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1
det  3 0 2 = 3 0 2 3 0
 
−2 1 −1 −2 1 −1 −2 1
=1.0.(−1) + (−1).2.(−2) + 2.3.1 − 2.0.(−2) − 1.2.1 − (−1).3.(−1) = 5.

Example
 
1 3 −1 0
−1 1 0 5
Find the determinant of A =  .
 
 2 0 1 0
3 0 −2 0
Answer:

Example
 
1 3 −1 0
−1 1 0 5
 
 2 0 1 0
3 0 −2 0
Answer: Expanse along the fourth column of A:

Example
 
1 3 −1 0
−1 1 0 5
 
 2 0 1 0
3 0 −2 0

1 3 −1

|A| =5.(−1)2+4 2 0 1

3 0 −2

expanse along the second column 1+2 2 1

= 5.3.(−1)
3 −2

= − 15.[2.(−2) − 3.1] = 105 .

Example
 
1 3 −1 0
−1 1 0 5
 
 2 0 1 0
3 0 −2 0

1 3 −1

|A| =5.(−1)2+4 2 0 1

3 0 −2

expanse along the second column 1+2 2 1

= 5.3.(−1)
3 −2

= − 15.[2.(−2) − 3.1] = 105 .

Example
 
4 −5 7
Let A = 3 6 −2. Find (2, 3)-cofactor of A.
 
1 8 −9
Answer:

Example
 
4 −5 7
 
1 8 −9
Answer: (2, 3)-cofactor of A is

2+3 4
−5
(−1) = −[4 ∗ 8 − 1 ∗ (−5)] = −37.
1 8


Example
 
4 −5 7
 
1 8 −9
Answer: (2, 3)-cofactor of A is

2+3 4
−5
(−1) = −[4 ∗ 8 − 1 ∗ (−5)] = −37.
1 8


Elementary operations and Determinant
Interchange two rows (or column), the determinant change the sign.
Multiply a constant c to a row (or column), the determinant is
multiple by the constant.

Add a multiple of a row (or column) to a different row (or column),
the determinant does not change.

Example

1 2 3 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5
1/2R
R1 ↔R3 −R2 +R3

2
2 4 6 = − 2 4 6 = −2 1 2 3 = −2 1 2 3 = 0

3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 0 0 0

Example

1 2 3 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5
1/2R
R1 ↔R3 −R2 +R3

2
2 4 6 = − 2 4 6 = −2 1 2 3 = −2 1 2 3 = 0

3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 0 0 0

Example

a b c p+x q+y r +z

Let p q r = 5. Find 3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z .

x y z 3x 3y 3z
Answer:

Example

a b c p+x q+y r +z


x y z 3x 3y 3z
Answer: We have

p+x q+y r + z p+x q+y r + z
1/3R3

3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z = 3 3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z

3x 3y 3z x y z

p q r p q r

−R3 +R1 ,2R3 +R2 1/3R2

= 3 3a 3b 3c = 9 a b c

x y z x y z

a b c
R1 ↔R2

= −9 p q r = −9 ∗ 5 = −45.

x y z

Example

a b c p+x q+y r +z


x y z 3x 3y 3z
Answer: We have

p+x q+y r + z p+x q+y r + z
1/3R3

3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z = 3 3a − 2x 3b − 2y 3c − 2z

3x 3y 3z x y z

p q r p q r

−R3 +R1 ,2R3 +R2 1/3R2

= 3 3a 3b 3c = 9 a b c

x y z x y z

a b c
R1 ↔R2

= −9 p q r = −9 ∗ 5 = −45.

x y z

Example

a
x 0 y z
b c

p 0 q r
Let p q r = 10. Find .

a 0 b c
x y z
2 3 4 5
Answer:

Example

a
x 0 y z
b c

p 0 q r

a 0 b c
x y z
2 3 4 5
Answer: Expanse the determinant along the second column,

Example

a
x 0 y z
b c

p 0 q r

a 0 b c
x y z
2 3 4 5

x 0 y z
x y z a b c
p 0 q r R1 ↔R3

= 3 ∗ (−1)4+2 p q r = −3 p q r = −30

a 0 b c

a b c x y z
2 3 4 5

Example

a
x 0 y z
b c

p 0 q r

a 0 b c
x y z
2 3 4 5

x 0 y z
x y z a b c
p 0 q r R1 ↔R3

= 3 ∗ (−1)4+2 p q r = −3 p q r = −30

a 0 b c

a b c x y z
2 3 4 5

Properties of Determinant
det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

m ∈ N⋆ .
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A)
det(kA) = k n det(A), for any n × n matrix A.


m ∈ N⋆ .
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A)
det(AT ) = det(A)


m ∈ N⋆ .
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A)
det(AT ) = det(A)
If A is a square triangular matrix, then det(A) is the product of the
entries on the main diagonal.


m ∈ N⋆ .
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A)
det(AT ) = det(A)
Example

2 4 −8 9

3a 3b a b 0 −1 5 6
= 9 , = 2 ∗ (−1) ∗ 4 ∗ (−5) = 40

3c 3d c d 0 0 4 1

0 0 0 −5


m ∈ N⋆ .
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A)
det(AT ) = det(A)
Example

2 4 −8 9

3a 3b a b 0 −1 5 6
= 9 , = 2 ∗ (−1) ∗ 4 ∗ (−5) = 40

3c 3d c d 0 0 4 1

0 0 0 −5

Example
Let A and B be 4 × 4 matrices with det(A) = 8 and det(B) = 6. Find
det(3B −2 A2 B T ).
Answer:

Example
det(3B −2 A2 B T ).
Answer: We have
det(3B −2 A2 B T ) = 34 det(B)−2 det(A)2 det(B T )

= 34 det(A)2 det(B)−1 = 34 .82 /6 = 864.

Example
det(3B −2 A2 B T ).
Answer: We have
det(3B −2 A2 B T ) = 34 det(B)−2 det(A)2 det(B T )

= 34 det(A)2 det(B)−1 = 34 .82 /6 = 864.

Quiz
Determine the following statements are True or False.
Let A and B be n × n matrices, then det(A + B) = det(A) + det(B).

Quiz

(F)
det(kA) = kdet(A), for any n × n matrix A and scalar k.

Quiz

(F)
det(kA) = kdet(A), for any n × n matrix A and scalar k.

Quiz

(F)
det(kA) = kdet(A), for any n × n matrix A and scalar k. (F)
det(AB) = det(A)det(B), for any n × n matrices A, B.

Quiz

(F)
det(AB) = det(A)det(B), for any n × n matrices A, B.

Quiz

(F)
det(AB) = det(A)det(B), for any n × n matrices A, B. (T)
det(AT A) = [det(A)]2 , for any square matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(AT A) = [det(A)]2 , for any square matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(AT A) = [det(A)]2 , for any square matrix A. (T)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any square matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any square matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any square matrix A. (F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any 3 × 3 matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any 3 × 3 matrix A.

Quiz

(F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any 3 × 3 matrix A. (T)

Quiz

(F)
det(−A) = −det(A), for any 3 × 3 matrix A. (T)

Example
Let A be a 4 × 4 matrix, det(A) = 2.
B is the matrix obtained from A by interchanging R3 and R2 .
C is the matrix obtained from B by adding 12 times R3 to R2 .
D is the matrix obtained from C by multiplying R3 by 5.
Find det(BCD).
Answer:

Example
Find det(BCD).
Answer: We have
det(B) = −det(A) = −2
det(C ) = det(B) = −2
det(D) = 5det(C ) = −10.

Example
Find det(BCD).
Answer: We have
det(B) = −det(A) = −2
det(C ) = det(B) = −2
det(D) = 5det(C ) = −10.
Hence
det(BCD) = det(B)det(C )det(D) = −2 ∗ (−2) ∗ (−10) = −40.

Example
Find det(BCD).
Answer: We have
det(B) = −det(A) = −2
det(C ) = det(B) = −2
det(D) = 5det(C ) = −10.
Hence
det(BCD) = det(B)det(C )det(D) = −2 ∗ (−2) ∗ (−10) = −40.

3.2 Determinants and Matrix Inverse
Let A be a square n × n matrix.

Definition
The adjugate of A, denoted adj(A):
 
c11 c21 · · · cn1
c12 c22 · · · cn2 
h iT 

adj(A) = cij =  .. 
. . . . . .

. . . .

c1n c2n · · · cnn


Definition
 
c11 c21 · · · cn1
c12 c22 · · · cn2 
h iT 

adj(A) = cij =  .. 
. . . . . .

. . . .

where cij is (i, j)-cofactor of A.


Definition
 
c11 c21 · · · cn1
c12 c22 · · · cn2 
h iT 

adj(A) = cij =  .. 
. . . . . .

. . . .

where cij is (i, j)-cofactor of A.

Theorem
Matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) ̸= 0, and
1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)
Example
" #
a b
Let A = .
c d

Theorem
1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)
Example
" #
a b
Let A = . Then A is invertible if det(A) = ad − bc ̸= 0 and
c d
" #
−1 1 d −b
A =
ad − bc −c a

Theorem
1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)
Example
" #
a b
c d
" #
−1 1 d −b
A =
ad − bc −c a
For example,
" #−1 " # " #
3 1 1 4 −1 0.4 −0.1
= =
2 4 10 −2 3 −0.2 0.3

Theorem
1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)
Example
" #
a b
c d
" #
−1 1 d −b
A =
ad − bc −c a
For example,
" #−1 " # " #
3 1 1 4 −1 0.4 −0.1
= =
2 4 10 −2 3 −0.2 0.3

 
2 0 1
Find the inverse matrix of A = −1 3 4.
 
1 5 7
Answer: We have
−1 3
3 4

det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1 + 1 ∗ (−1)1+3
= 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.

5 7 1 5


 
2 0 1
 
1 5 7
Answer: We have
−1 3
3 4

det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1 + 1 ∗ (−1)1+3
= 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.

5 7 1 5

All (i, j)-cofactors of A:

 
2 0 1
 
1 5 7
Answer: We have
−1 3
3 4

det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1 + 1 ∗ (−1)1+3
= 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.

5 7 1 5


3 4 −1 4 −1 3
c11 = = 1, c12 = − = 11, c13 = = −8

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c21 = − = 5, c22 = = 13, c23 = − = −10

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c31 = = −3, c32 = − = −9, c33 = =6

3 4 −1 4 −1 3

 
2 0 1
 
1 5 7
Answer: We have
−1 3
3 4

det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1 + 1 ∗ (−1)1+3
= 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.

5 7 1 5


3 4 −1 4 −1 3
c11 = = 1, c12 = − = 11, c13 = = −8

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c21 = − = 5, c22 = = 13, c23 = − = −10

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c31 = = −3, c32 = − = −9, c33 = =6

3 4 −1 4 −1 3
   
1 5 −3 −1/6 −5/6 1/2
Thus, A−1 = 1
 11 13 −9 = −11/6 −13/6 3/2
   
−6
−8 −10 6 4/3 5/3 −1
 
2 0 1
 
1 5 7
Answer: We have
−1 3
3 4

det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+1 + 1 ∗ (−1)1+3
= 2 ∗ 1 + (−8) = −6.

5 7 1 5


3 4 −1 4 −1 3
c11 = = 1, c12 = − = 11, c13 = = −8

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c21 = − = 5, c22 = = 13, c23 = − = −10

5 7 1 7 1 5

0 1 2 1 2 0
c31 = = −3, c32 = − = −9, c33 = =6

3 4 −1 4 −1 3
   
1 5 −3 −1/6 −5/6 1/2
Thus, A−1 = 1
 11 13 −9 = −11/6 −13/6 3/2
   
−6
−8 −10 6 4/3 5/3 −1
Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 , for any invertible matrices A, B.

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.
h i−1 k
Ak = A−1 .

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.
h i−1 k
Ak = A−1 .
(aA)−1 = 1/aA−1 .

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.
h i−1 k
Ak = A−1 .
(aA)−1 = 1/aA−1 .
−1 T
AT = A−1 .

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.
h i−1 k
Ak = A−1 .
(aA)−1 = 1/aA−1 .
−1 T
AT = A−1 .
det(adj(A)) = [det(A)]n−1 , for any invertible n × n matrix A.

Properties
det(A−1 ) = 1/ det(A).
I −1 = I.
h i−1 k
Ak = A−1 .
(aA)−1 = 1/aA−1 .
−1 T
AT = A−1 .
det(adj(A)) = [det(A)]n−1 , for any invertible n × n matrix A.

Example
Find the (1, 3)- entry of A−1 provided that
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
 
5 −2 4
Answer:

Example
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
 
5 −2 4
Answer: First, compute det(A)

2+2 2 1

det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) =9
5 4

The (3, 1)-cofactor of A:

Example
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
 
5 −2 4

2+2 2 1

det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) =9
5 4


−3 1
c31 = (−1)3+1 = −3

3 0

Example
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
 
5 −2 4

2+2 2 1

det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) =9
5 4


−3 1
c31 = (−1)3+1 = −3

3 0
Hence, (1, 3)-entry of A−1 is −3/9 = −1/3.

Example
 
2 −3 1
A = 0 3 0
 
5 −2 4

2+2 2 1

det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1) =9
5 4


−3 1
c31 = (−1)3+1 = −3

3 0
Hence, (1, 3)-entry of A−1 is −3/9 = −1/3.

Example
 
1 0 2
Let A =  0 3 0 . Find the values of x so that A is invertible.
 
−5 0 x
Answer:

Example
 
1 0 2
 
−5 0 x
Answer: We have

1 2
det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1)2+2 = 3(x + 10)

−5 x

Example
 
1 0 2
 
−5 0 x
Answer: We have

1 2
det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1)2+2 = 3(x + 10)

−5 x
Hence A is invertible if and only if det(A) ̸= 0 ⇔ x ̸= −10.

Example
 
1 0 2
 
−5 0 x
Answer: We have

1 2
det(A) = 3 ∗ (−1)2+2 = 3(x + 10)

−5 x
Hence A is invertible if and only if det(A) ̸= 0 ⇔ x ̸= −10.

Example
 
0 0 2
Let A =  1 3 4 . Find the (1, 2)-entry of A−1 .
 
−5 2 x
Answer:

Example
 
0 0 2
 
−5 2 x

1 3
Answer: det(A) = 2 ∗ (−1)1+3 = 2 ∗ 17 = 34. The (2, 1)-cofactor

−5 2

of A is

Example
 
0 0 2
 
−5 2 x

1 3

−5 2

of A is
2+1 0 2

c2,1 = (−1) = 4.
2 x


Example
 
0 0 2
 
−5 2 x

1 3

−5 2

of A is
2+1 0 2

c2,1 = (−1) = 4.
2 x

Hence (1, 2)-entry of A−1 is 4/34 = 2/17.

Example
 
0 0 2
 
−5 2 x

1 3

−5 2

of A is
2+1 0 2

c2,1 = (−1) = 4.
2 x

Hence (1, 2)-entry of A−1 is 4/34 = 2/17.

Crammer’s rule
Theorem
If A is an invertible n × n matrix, the solution to the system
Ax = b
of n equations in the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is given by

det A1
x1 =
det A
det A2
x2 =
det A
···
det An
xn =
det A
where Ak is the matrix obtained from A by replacing column k by b.

Example
Find y satisfying the following system:
4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1

Example
4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1
Answer:

Example
4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1
Answer: We have

4 −1 3 4 1 3

6 2 −1 = 79, 6 0 −1 = −37.

3 −1 2

3 3 2

Example
4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1
Answer: We have

4 −1 3 4 1 3

6 2 −1 = 79, 6 0 −1 = −37.

3 −1 2

3 3 2
Hence y = −37/79.

Example
4x − y + 3z = 1
6x + 2y − z = 0
3x + 3y + 2z = −1
Answer: We have

4 −1 3 4 1 3

6 2 −1 = 79, 6 0 −1 = −37.

3 −1 2

3 3 2
Hence y = −37/79.

3.3 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors
How to compute Ak when A is a square matrix and n large?

Definition
 
λ1 0 ··· 0
0

λ2 ··· 0
A diagonal matrix is  ..  = diag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )
. . . . . .

. . . .

0 0 ··· λn


Definition
 
λ1 0 ··· 0
0

λ2··· 0
. . . . . .

. . . .

0 0 ··· λn
We can see
 k  
λ1 0 ··· 0 λk1 ···0 0
0

λ2 ··· 0 0

···λk2 0
 =

.. .. 
. . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . .

. . . .

0 0 ··· λn 0 0 ··· λkn


Definition
 
λ1 0 ··· 0
0

λ2··· 0
. . . . . .

. . . .

0 0 ··· λn
We can see
 k  
λ1 0 ··· 0 λk1 ···0 0
0

λ2 ··· 0 0

···λk2 0
 =

.. .. 
. . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . .

. . . .

0 0 ··· λn 0 0 ··· λkn

Theorem
Suppose that A = PDP −1 with D is a diagonal matrix then
Ak = PD k P −1 .
Definition
If A is an n × n matrix, a number λ is called an eigenvalue of A if
AX = λX for some column X ̸= 0 in Rn .

Theorem
Ak = PD k P −1 .
Definition
In this case X is called an eigenvector of A corresponding to the

eigenvalue λ, or a λ-eigenvector.

Theorem
Ak = PD k P −1 .
Definition
In this case X is called an eigenvector of A corresponding to the

eigenvalue λ, or a λ-eigenvector.

To find eigenvalues of A, we solve the equation
det(λI − A) = 0
Theorem
The characteristic polynomial cA (x ) of an n × n matrix A is defined by
cA (x ) = det(xI − A).

det(λI − A) = 0
Theorem
Example
" #
1 8
Find all eigenvalues of A = .
1 3

det(λI − A) = 0
Theorem
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
The characteristic
polynomial
of A is
x − 1 −8
cA (x ) = = (x − 1)(x − 3) − 8 = x 2 − 4x − 5.

−1 x − 3

det(λI − A) = 0
Theorem
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
The characteristic
polynomial
of A is
x − 1 −8
cA (x ) = = (x − 1)(x − 3) − 8 = x 2 − 4x − 5.

−1 x − 3
cA (x ) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or x = 5. Hence A has two eigenvalues −1 and 5.

det(λI − A) = 0
Theorem
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
The characteristic
polynomial
of A is
x − 1 −8
cA (x ) = = (x − 1)(x − 3) − 8 = x 2 − 4x − 5.

−1 x − 3
cA (x ) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or x = 5. Hence A has two eigenvalues −1 and 5.

Example
" #
1 8
Find all eigenvectors of A = .
1 3
Answer: As above example, A has two eigenvalues λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 5.

Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
x1
−1-eigenvectors X = is nonzero solution of the system
x2
" #" # " # " # " #
−2 −8 x1 0 4t 4
= ⇔ x1 + 4x2 = 0 ⇒ x = =t , t ̸= 0.
−1 −4 x2 0 −t −1

Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
x1
x2
" #" # " # " # " #
−2 −8 x1 0 4t 4
= ⇔ x1 + 4x2 = 0 ⇒ x = =t , t ̸= 0.
−1 −4 x2 0 −t −1
" #
x1
5-eigenvectors X = is nonzero solution of the system
x2
" #" # " # " # " #
4 −8 x1 0 2t 2
= ⇔ x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ X = =t , t ̸= 0.
−1 2 x2 0 t 1

Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
x1
x2
" #" # " # " # " #
−2 −8 x1 0 4t 4
= ⇔ x1 + 4x2 = 0 ⇒ x = =t , t ̸= 0.
−1 −4 x2 0 −t −1
" #
x1
5-eigenvectors X = is nonzero solution of the system
x2
" #" # " # " # " #
4 −8 x1 0 2t 2
= ⇔ x1 − 2x2 = 0 ⇒ X = =t , t ̸= 0.
−1 2 x2 0 t 1

Theorem
An n × n matrix A is diagonalizable if andh only if it has ieigenvectors
x1 , x2 , ..., xn such that the matrix P = x1 x2 · · · xn is invertible.
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1

Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
where λi is the eigenvalue of A corresponding to xi .

Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
Example
" #
1 8
The matrix A = has two eigenvalues λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 5.
1 3

Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
4
x1 = is an eigenvector corresponding to λ1 .
−1

Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
4
−1
" #
2
1

Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
4
−1
" #
2
1
Hence: " #" #" #−1
4 2 −1 0 4 2
A= .
−1 1 0 5 −1 1
Theorem
A = Pdiag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )P −1
Example
" #
1 8
1 3
" #
4
−1
" #
2
1
Hence: " #" #" #−1
4 2 −1 0 4 2
A= .
−1 1 0 5 −1 1
Example
Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix with eigenvalues 2 and 3, and with corresponding
eigenvectors [2 1]T and [5 3]T . Find the (2, 1)-entry of A.
Answer:

Example
Answer: We have
" #" #" #−1 " #" #
2 5 2 0 2 5 4 15 3 −5
A= =
1 3 0 3 1 3 2 9 −1 2
Hence (2, 1)-entry of A is 2 ∗ 3 + 9 ∗ (−1) = −3.

Example
Answer: We have
" #" #" #−1 " #" #
2 5 2 0 2 5 4 15 3 −5
A= =
1 3 0 3 1 3 2 9 −1 2
Hence (2, 1)-entry of A is 2 ∗ 3 + 9 ∗ (−1) = −3.

Example
 
1 1 −1
Let A =  0 0 −1 . Given that λ = −1 is an eigenvalue of A. Which
 
0 2 −3
of the following are basic eigenvectors corresponding to λ?
Answer:
    
−2 −1 1 x1 0
(λI3 − A)x = 0 ⇔  0 −1 1 x2  = 0 (⋆)
    
0 −2 2 x3 0

Example
 
1 1 −1
 
0 2 −3
Answer:
    
−2 −1 1 x1 0
(λI3 − A)x = 0 ⇔  0 −1 1 x2  = 0 (⋆)
    
0 −2 2 x3 0
 
−2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0

 x1 = 0


The system (⋆) is equivalent to −x + x = 0
2 3 ⇔ x =t
2 .
 
−2x + 2x = 0
 
x = t
2 3 3
 
0
Hence 1 is basic eigenvector corresponding to λ = −1.
 
1

Example
 
1 1 −1
 
0 2 −3
Answer:
    
−2 −1 1 x1 0
(λI3 − A)x = 0 ⇔  0 −1 1 x2  = 0 (⋆)
    
0 −2 2 x3 0
 
−2x1 − x2 + x3 = 0

 x1 = 0


The system (⋆) is equivalent to −x + x = 0
2 3 ⇔ x =t
2 .
 
−2x + 2x = 0
 
x = t
2 3 3
 
0
Hence 1 is basic eigenvector corresponding to λ = −1.
 
1

Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
 
2 1 −1
A =  0 1 1 .
 
0 4 −2
Answer: The characteristic polynomial of A is

 
2 1 −1
A =  0 1 1 .
 
0 4 −2

x − 2 −1 1
x − 1 −1
cA (x ) = 0 x − 1 −1 = (x − 2)

−4 x + 2

−4 x + 2

0
= (x − 2)(x 2 + x − 6) = (x − 2)2 (x + 3).

 
2 1 −1
A =  0 1 1 .
 
0 4 −2

x − 2 −1 1
x − 1 −1
cA (x ) = 0 x − 1 −1 = (x − 2)

−4 x + 2

−4 x + 2

0
= (x − 2)(x 2 + x − 6) = (x − 2)2 (x + 3).
Hence, A has two eigenvalues λ1 = −3 and λ2 = 2.

 
2 1 −1
A =  0 1 1 .
 
0 4 −2

x − 2 −1 1
x − 1 −1
cA (x ) = 0 x − 1 −1 = (x − 2)

−4 x + 2

−4 x + 2

0
= (x − 2)(x 2 + x − 6) = (x − 2)2 (x + 3).
Hence, A has two eigenvalues λ1 = −3 and λ2 = 2.

Exercises
Section 3.1 : 1bci, 5bd, 7, 9, 10, 16a (page 155 − 157)

Section 3.2 : 1ac, 2bdf , 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 20, 33 (page 169 − 171)
Section 3.3 : 1ace, 8a, 12, 13, 14 (page 189 − 190)

Linear Algebra Chapter 3

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Linear Algebra Chapter 3

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Chapter 3.

Determinants and Diagonalization

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 1 / 32

2 Determinants and Matrix Inverse

3 Diagonalization and Eigenvectors

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 2 / 32

Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.

cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 3 / 32

Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.

cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

The determinant of A, det(A) or |A| is defined recursively:

det(A) = ai1 ci1 + ai2 ci2 + · · · + ain cin .

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 3 / 32

Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.

cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

The determinant of A, det(A) or |A| is defined recursively:

det(A) = ai1 ci1 + ai2 ci2 + · · · + ain cin .

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 3 / 32

Let A = [aij ]n×n be a square matrix.

cij (A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).

The determinant of A, det(A) or |A| is defined recursively:

det(A) = ai1 ci1 + ai2 ci2 + · · · + ain cin .

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 3 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 4 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 4 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 4 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 5 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 5 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 6 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 6 / 32

= − 15.[2.(−2) − 3.1] = 105 .

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 6 / 32

= − 15.[2.(−2) − 3.1] = 105 .

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 6 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 7 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 7 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 7 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 8 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 8 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 8 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 8 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 9 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 9 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 9 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 10 / 32

Answer: Expanse the determinant along the second column,

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 10 / 32

Answer: Expanse the determinant along the second column,

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 10 / 32

Answer: Expanse the determinant along the second column,

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 10 / 32

det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 11 / 32

det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 11 / 32

det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 11 / 32

det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 11 / 32

det(AB) = det(A) det(B). In particular det(Am ) = [det(A)]m , for

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 11 / 32

Chapter 3. Determinants and Diagonalization 12 / 32

det(3B −2 A2 B T ) = 34 det(B)−2 det(A)2 det(B T )