16-106 HANOBOOK OF SULPHURIC ACIO MANUFACTURING

High Silicon Stainless Steels

The use of high silicon stainless steels in the manufacture of sulphuric acid is covered by patents in several
countries, including US Patent No. 4,543,244 and UK 2,122,594B. Compared to other stainless steels, the higher
corrosion resistance in hot concentrated sulphuric acid is achieved by the high silicon content.
The original material is known by its tradename SARAMET@. Other materials such as Sandvik SX and ZeCor
also fall under the same patent.

SARAMET@

SARAMET@ is a high silicon containing stainless steel first introduced by Chemetics lntemational Co. in 1982
for use in hot sulphuric acid. The term 'SARAMET' is an acronym for "Sulphuric Acid Resistant Alloyed METal".
The material is known by its tradename SARAMET@.
Extensive field data has demonstrated that no significant corrosion occurs in acid velocities exceeding of 3 mis
(9.8 ft/s). Both the parent material and weld deposits exhibit this exceptional corrosion resistance.
New developments have lead to a family of materials being created by alloying the material with different
elements.

SARAMET 23@

The original material has been given the designation SARAMET 23@. The cast version of SARAMET 23@ is
SARAMET 13@. SARAMET 23@ is a coded material covered under ASME Code Case 2125. The material's UNS
number is S30601 and it is covered under the following ASTM/ASME specifications:
A182/SA182 Standard Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves
and Parts for High-Temperature Service

A213/SA213 Standard Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and
Heat-Exchanger Tubes

A240/SA240 Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications

A249/SA249 Standard Specification for Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and
Condenser Tubes

A479/SA479 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes for Use in Boilers and Other Pressure
Vessels

The one weakness of the material is its poor corrosion resistance to acid concentrations below its intended range
of application. The use of SARAMET 23@ is limited to concentrations greater than or equal to 92% H2S04.

SARAMET21@

SARAMET 21@ has reduced alloy content so does not perform as well as SARAMET 23@, however, in some
applications it can offer acceptable performance with improved economy. SARAMET 21@ is recommended for use
in 98% H2S04 at less than 95°C and in 96% H2S04 at less than 60°C. The material is not recommended for use
below 95% H2S04. The material was originally developed to handle nitric acid.
SARAMET 21@ is a coded material covered under ASME Code Case 1953 and has a UNS number of S30600.

SARAMET 3S@

SARAMET 35@ was developed to be suitable over a broader range of acid concentrations, particularly in acids
concentrations not suitable for other grades of SARAMET@. This achieved by through significant modifications to
chemistry and improvements in production methods. The cast version of SARAMET 35@ is SARAMET 15@.
 MA TERIALS 16-107

The corrosion resistance is acceptable from O to 100% H2S04 at temperatures less than 50°C. At concentration
between 85 to 100% H2S04 corrosion resistance is excellent at elevated temperatures.

Nominal Chemical Composition

Chromium Cr 17-18%
Nickel Ni 17-18%
Silicon Si 4.5-5.8%
lron and other alloying elements Balance

Physical Properties

SARAMET 23@

Density 22°e (72"F) 7900 kglm3 493.2 lb/

38°e (100°F) 11.7 W/m °e 6.76 BTU/h ft °F

Thermal eonductivity 93°e (200°F) 13.2 W/m °e 7.63 BTU/h ft °F

204°e (400"F) 14.3 W/m °e 8.27 BTU/h ft °F

Heat eapacity 50-100oe (122-212°F) 495 J/kg °e 0.119 BTU/lb °F

24°e (75°F) 185 GPa 26,800 ksi

1000e (212"F) 179 GPa 26,000 ksi
Modulus ofElasticity 2000e (392°F) 172 GPa 25,000 ksi
3000e (572°F) 167 GPa 24,200 ksi
4000e (752°F) 159 GPa 23,100 ksi
5000e (932°F) 152 GPa 22,000 ksi
21-38°e (70-100°F) 15.4xl0.61fe 8.56xl0-6IfF
eoefficient ofThermal 21-93°e (70-200°F) 15.6xlO-6lfe 8.67xl0-61fF
Expansion
21-204°e (70-400°F) 16.2xlO-6l/oe 9.00xIO-6l/oF

21-316°e (70-600°F) 16.8xIO.6Ife 9.33xlO-6IfF

21-427°e (70-800°F) 17.5xIO.6Ife 9.72xlO-61fF

16-108 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURING

SARAMET 35 @

Density 22°e (72°F) 8150 kglm3 508.8 lb/ft3

38°e (100°F) 11.5 W/m °e 6.65 BTU/h ft °F

Thennal eonductivity 93°e (200°F) 13.2 W/m °e 7.63 BTU/h ft °F

204°e (400°F) 14.2 W/m °e 8.21 BTU/h ft °F

Reat eapacity 50-100oe (122-212°F) 504 J/kg °e 0.121 BTU/lb °F

24°e (75°F) 205 GPa 29,700 ksi

1000e (212°F) 200 GPa 29,000 ksi
Modulus ofElasticity 2000e (392°F) 191 GPa 27,700 ksi
3000e (572"F) 185 GPa 26,800 ksi
4000e (752°F) 176 GPa 25,500 ksi
5000e (932°F) 168 GPa 24,400 ksi
21-38°e (70-100°F) 15.lxl0-6 l/oe 8.39xlO-6lfF

21-93°e (70-200"F) 15.3xlO-61fe 8.50xlO-6lfF

eoefficient ofThennal
21-204°e (70-400°F) 15.9xlO-61fe 8.83xlO-6lfF
Expansion
21-316°e (70-600°F) 16.5xlO-61fe 9.17xlO-61fF

21-427°e (70-800°F) 17.2xlO-6lfe 9.56xlO-6 lfF

Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties for SARAMET 21@, SARAMET 23@ and SARAMET 35@ are provided in Tables 16-8
and 16-9.

Table 16-8 - ASME Maximum Allowable Stress Values (Div. 1)

Maximum SARAMET 21@ SARAMET 23@ SARAMET 3S@

Temperature
Maximum Where Greater Maximum Where Greater Maximum Where Greater
Allowable Defonnation is Allowable Defonnation is Allowable Defonnation is
Stress Acceptable Stress Acceptable Stress Acceptable
«90% Yield «90% Yield «90% Yield
Strength) Strength) Strength)
100°F 134 MPa 134 MPa 134 MPa
- - -
(37.8°C) (19.5 ksi) (19.5 ksi) (19.5 ksi)
200°F 123 MPa 128 MPa 134 MPa 134 MPa
- -
(93.3°C) (17.9 ksi) (18.6 ksi) (19.5 ksi) (19.5 ksi)
300°F 110 MPa 119 MPa 124 MPa 128 MPa 124 MPa 128 MPa
(148.9°e) (16.0 ksi) (17.2 ksi) (18.0 ksi) (18.5 ksi) (18.0 ksi) (18.5 ksi)
400°F 114 MPa 121 MPa 114 MPa 121 MPa
- -
(204.4°C) (16.5 ksi) (17.5 ksi) (16.5 ksi) (17.5 ksi)
500°F 104 MPa 114 MPa 104 MPa 114 MPa
- -
(260°C) (15.1 ksi) (16.5 ksi) (15.1 ksi) (16.5 ksi)
 MA TERIALS 16-109

Table 16-9 - Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature

UItimate Tensile Reduction Charpy VN

0.2% Yield Hardness Impact
Material Tensile Elongation in Area
Strength (HB) Energy
Strength (%) (%) (J)
Plate 325 MPa 630 MPa
70 75 - -
SARAMET (typical) (47.1 ksi) (91.4 ksi)
21@ 241 MPa 538 MPa
Plate (min.) 40 40 - -
(35 ksi) (78 ksi)
Plate 355 MPa 685 MPa
66 65 168 180
(typical) (51.5 ksi) (9.3 ksi)
Plate (min.) 255 MPa 538 MPa
30 30 N/A 75
SARAMET (37 ksi) (78 ksi)
23@ Tubing 290 MPa 630 MPa
75 75 N/A N/A
(42 ksi) (91.4 ksi)
Forgings 300 MPa 630 MPa
75 75 N/A N/A
(43.5 ksi) (91.4 ksi)
Plate 325 MPa 680 MPa
70 65 150 150
(typical) (47.1 ksi) (98.6 ksi)
SARAMET Plate 366 MPa 648 MPa
39 N/A N/A N/A
35@ (welded) (53.1 ksi) (94 ksi)
Plate (min.) 255 MPa 538 MPa
30 30 205 (max) 75
(37 ksi) (78 ksi)
16-110 HANDBOOK OF SUlPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURING

Sandvik SX

Sandvik SX is a high silicon containing austenitic stainless steel. It was developed by Sandvik exclusively for
use in concentrated sulphuric acid. Edmeston AB is a wholly owned subsidiary of Sandvik and introduced SX to the
industry in 1985. Edmeston continue to market SX world wide through its licensees, agents and representatives.
Edmeston has developed a complete standard for pipes, flanges and fittings made of SX. The standard is based
on ASME B 31.3 and covers the size range from DN 25 (1") up to DN 600 (24"). Flanges are available in ISO, PN
10 and ANSI B16.5 (150 lb) standards. Larger dimensions and other custom parts are manufactured according to
individual customer needs.
SX is a coded material covered under ASME Code Case 2029-2 and TÜV Einzelgutachten WB-M-960131996.
The material' s UNS number is S32615 and it is covered under the following ASTM specifications:
A213 Standard Specification for Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and
Heat-Exchanger Tubes

A312 Standard Specification for Seamless, Welded, and Heavily Cold Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel
Pipes

A403 Standard Specification for Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings

A530 Standard Specification for General Requirements for Specialized Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe

Physical Properties

Density - 7800 kglm3 486.9 lb/tt3

200e (68°F) 11.0 W/m °e 6.35 BTUIh ft °F

Thermal eonductivity 1000e (212°F) 13.0 W/m °e 7.52 BTUIh ft °F

2000e (392°F) 14.0 W/m °e 8.09 BTUIh ft "F

Heat eapacity 50-IOOoe (122-2 12°F) 500 Jlkg °e 0.12 BTUllb °F

21-100oe (70-212°F) 15.0xl0-61fe 8.33xlO-6lfF

eoefficient ofThermal
21-200oe (70-392°F) 15.5xl0-61fe 8.61xlO-6lfF
Expansion
21-300oe (70-572°F) 16.0xl0.61fe 8.89xlO-6lfF

Mechanical Properties

200e (68°F) 220 MPa 31.91 ksi

500e (122°F) 196 MPa 28.4 ksi

Yield Strength (0.2% offset) 175 MPa 25.4 ksi
minimum 1000e (212°F)
1500e (302°F) 160 MPa 23.2 ksi

2000e (392°F) 148 MPa 21.5 ksi

Yield Strength (0.1% offset) 250 MPa 36.3 ksi

minimum 200e (68°F)

Tensile Strength 200e (68°F) 550-800 MPa 79.8-116 ksi

Elongation A5 200e (68°F) 30%

Hardness (Vickers) - 160 nom

 MA TERIALS 16-111

References

1. Harding, G., "Developments in Sulphuric Acid-Resistant Metal (SARAMET@) Technology", Sulphur 98,
November 1-4, 1998, pp. 185-215.
16-112 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIG AGID MANUFAGTURING

Membranes And Mortars

Pecora A-I03 Mastic

PECORA A-103 Mastic is an asphaltic, fibrous, chemically resistant trowel-consistency material. It is

recommended as an acid-resistant coating applied between the brick work and metal shell oftowers and pump tanks.
PECORA A-I03 Mastic sets up to a firm but elastic film. It is sometimes used on its own but more often with an
acid resistant membrane such as PTFE film or Rephanol ORG.

Physical Properties
Color: Black
Base: Processed Asphalt
Solids: 75% (approximately)
Drying Time: A thin skin forms in approximately 90 minutes at 25°C (77°F)
A 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick film will set in approximately 48 hours at 25°C (77°F)
Flash Point: Over 32°C (90°F) (T.C.C.)
Density: 8.9 lb/US gallon
Solvent: Aromatic and Aliphatic
Softening Point: Dried mastic wiIl soften above 93°C (200°F)
Cleaning: Mineral spirits

Rhepanol ORG

Rhepanol ORG sheeting is a grahite-fiIled polyisobutylene rubber sheet product used in the protection of
surfaces from chemicaIly aggressive media. Rhepanol ORG sheeting has stood the test of time in the field of
surface protection against the effect of various liquid or gaseous chemical media. The sheeting is used mostly in
conjunction with chemicaIly-resistantbricks, tiles, clinker, etc.
Rhepanol ORG is generaIly available in three different thickness; 1.5,2.0 and 3.0 mm. The width ofthe roll is
generaIly 1.05 m. The sheeting is supplied as non-powdered black sheets that are smooth on both sides.

Physical Properties

Density: 1.37 g/cm3

Ultimate Tensile Strength (DIN 53 455): 30 kgfi'cm2
Elongation at Break (DIN 53 455): 400%
Shore Hardness (DIN53 505): 80 :!:3
Tear Propagation Strength (DIN 53 515): 25 kgfi'cm
Thermal Conductivity (DIN 52 612): 0.2 kcaVmh °C
Specific Resistance (DIN 53 482): 60 ohm cm

Surface compression strength without

stresses on points or edges: 100 kgfi'cm2

Rhepanol ORG sheeting conducts electricity and therefore cannot be electrically tested for freedom from pores
or integrity of the lining.
 MA TERIALS 16-113

Chemical Resistance

Concentration Temperature
%H2S04
20°C (68°F) 60°C (140°F)
10 1 1
50 1 1
70 1 -
80 2 4
98 3 4

l. Stab1e: Many years ofpractica1 experience is avai1ab1e as a ru1e

2. Practically Stable: When stressed under the indicated conditions, only minor changes in mechanical
properties have to be expected even over prolonged periods oftime.
3. Conditionally Stable: Significant reduction in the mechanical properties must be expected when stressed over a
prolonged period oftime although the functional efficiency may well be preserved.
4. Stable Over Short Periods: The sheets must not be exposed to the medium concemed except for shot periods oftime if
major damage is to be avoided.

It is interestingto note that the material is not 100% stable when exposed to 98% H2S04 at 60°C, the exact
conditions that exist in most absorption/drying systems. The acid resistant brick lining reduces the temperature at
the lining and shell to 60°C under normal operating conditions. During upset conditions, abnormal operation or
high ambient temperatures the temperature at the lining can exceed 60°C. As well, acid will eventually permeate
through the brick lining and contact the lining material. When these conditions occur for prolong periods of time,
the lining will be damaged and acid will eventually leak to the carbon steel shell. The end result will be corrosion of
the shell, acid leaks and reduced life of the equipment.

CORLOK@ B

CORLOK@ B Mortar is a two-component halogen-free, self-hardening inorganic potassium silicate brick

mortar. The mortar exhibits excellent handling and workability characteristics. It will not corrode steel, lead,
stainless steel or chrome-nickel alloy substrates as it hardens and does not release hydrogen fluoride (HF) during the
curing process. No acid washing of the exposed surface of the mortar joints is required following installation of the
brick lining to develop mortar strength.
Sodium, ca1cium or fluoride-based products are not used in the formulation. The absence of HF means there
will be no release of HF from the mortar during curing or during operation. Sodium or ca1ciumin the formulation
may result in deterioration of the mortar due to sulphation hydration reactions.
CORLOK@ B is resistant to all concentration of sulphuric acid. However, it is not resistant to significant
concentrations of acid fluorides or to hydrofluoric acid.

Areas ofUse

CORLOK@ B mortar is used in the installation of acid-resistant brick work in sulfuric acid plant equipment,
chimneys, vessels, towers, floors and other areas.

Properties
Colour: White
Density (ASTM C138): 1970 kg/m3(123 lb/ft3)
Work Life @ 70°C (ASTM C308): 30 to 40 minutes
Set Time @ 70°C (ASTM C308): 3 to 4 hours
Compressive Strength (ASTM C579): 28.9 MPa (4200 psi) - 7 days
41.4 MPa (6000 psi) - 28 days
Tensile Strength (ASTM C307): 2.8 MPa (400 psi)
Flexural Strength (ASTM C580): 10.3 MPa (1500 psi)
16-114 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIG AGID MANUFAGTURING

Bond Strength to Brick (Pull Blocks): 1.4 MPa (200 psi)

To1ueneAbsorption (ASTM C413): 15%
Maximum Service Temperature: 900°C (1650°F)

Packaging
CORLOK@B Powder 25 kg (551b) bag
CORLOK@Solution 20 kg (441b) pai1
272 kg (600 lb) drum

Mix ratio (mortar) 2.5:1.0 (powder to solution)

2 x 25 kg bags powder and 1 x 20 kg pai1 solution

HB@ Mortar

HB@ Mortar is a chemica1hardening, ha10genttee, 100% potassium silicate, and acid-resistant brick mortar. It
is especially suited for the installation and maintenance of 1iningsin acid towers and tanks. HB@mortar requires no
acid wash and employs a unique, inorganic, patented hardening system, which makes it resistant to sulfation-
hydration, crystal growths, and, when cured, water wash out.
HB@Mortar offers excellent resistance to acid exposure in the vapour zone of lined pressure vessels. However,
it is not resistant to acid fluorides or hydrofluoric acid. HB@ Mortar is resistant to weakly alkaline salts allowing it
to withstand a pH range of Oto 9.
HB@ Mortar will not corrode stee1substrates as it hardens and does not release hydrogen fluoride (HF) during
the curing process.

Areas of Use

HB@ Mortar is used in the installation of acid-resistant brick work in sulfuric acid plant equipment, chimneys,
vessels, towers, floors and other areas where exceptional chemical resistance and physical properties are required.

Properties
Colour: White
Density (ASTM C138): 1843 kg/m3(115 lb/fe)
Work Life @ 70°C (ASTM C308): 30 to 60 minutes
Set Time @ 70°C (ASTM C308): 5 to 8 hours
Compressive Strength (ASTM C579): 21.37 MPa (3100 psi) -7 days
41.36 MPa (6000 psi) - 28 days
Tensile Strength (ASTM C307): 2.93 MPa (425 psi)
Flexural Strength (ASTM C580): 11.38 MPa (1650 psi)
Bond Strength to Brick (Pull Blocks): 2.41 MPa (350 psi)
Toluene Absorption (ASTM C413): 12%
Maximum Service Temperature: 900°C (1650°F)

Packaging

HB@Powder 25 kg (551b) bag

HB@ Solution 20 kg (441b) pai1
272 kg (600 lb) drum

Mix ratio (mortar) 2.5: 1.0 (powder to solution)

2 x 25 kg bags powder and 1 x 20 kg pai1 solution
r-
MA TERIALS 16-115

r
References

1. "CORLOK@ B Mortar- ProductInformation CE-281", Elf Atochem, 01/99.

2. "HB@ B Mortar - Product Information CE-207", Elf Atochem, 01/99.
3. "Pecora A-l 03 Mastic - Data Sheet", Pecora Corporation.
16-116 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURING

Elastomers
EPDM

EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) is a M Class Rubber containing a saturated chain of the
polymethylene type. It is a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene with the residual unsaturated portion of
the diene in the side chain. EPDM has good abrasion and tear resistance to a variety of acids and bases. It is
susceptible to attack by oils and is not recommended for applications involving petroleum oils, strong acids or
strong bases. It has exceptionally good weather aging and ozone resistance. It is fairly good with ketones and
alcohols and has an excellent temperature range. Because it has a negligible absorption rate, it is not susceptible to
swelling. EPDM is the most economical ofthe elastomers. EDPM meets CSA standard B137.0-1973 for toxicity.
EPDM is available from companies such as DuPont Dow Elastomer under the tradename Nordel@.
In sulphuric acid plants, EPDM is commonly used for seals and gaskets in the gas cleaning system handling
weak sulphuric acid. Gaskets may be bonded with PTFE or PVDF for maximum corrosion allowance. They are
also used as gaskets in plate and uame heat exchanger.
Fluorocarbon Rubber

Fluorocarbon rubber is a M Class Rubber that contains a saturated chain of the polymethylene type having
fluoro and perfluoroalkyl groups on the polymer chain. Fluorocarbon elastomers are inherently compatible with a
broad spectrum of chemicals. Because of this extensive chemical compatibility, which spans considerable
concentration and temperature ranges, fluorocarbons have gained wide acceptance as a material of construction for
butterfly valve O-rings and seats. Fluorocarbons exhibit excellent resistance to mineral acids, salts solutions, oils
and many aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
However, fluorocarbon rubber is attacked by caustic (sodium hydroxide) and low molecular weight organics.
There are several different grades of material available. Care should be taken in selecting the right grade for the
application.
Fluorocarbon rubber is available from many manufacturers. Viton@ is DuPont Dow Elastomers' registered
trademark for their fluorocarbon rubber. 3M market their material under the tradename FLUOREL@.
In sulphuric acid plants, fluorocarbon rubber is commonly used for seals and gaskets in the gas cleaning system
handling weak sulphuric acid. They are also used as gaskets in plate and uame heat exchangers in both weak and
strong acid applications.

Viton@

DuPont Dow Elastomers produces several different grades ofViton. There are three major families of standard
Viton@ Fluoroelastomers: A, B and F. The designation refers to their relative resistance to attacks by fluids and
chemicals. The differences in chemical resistances are the result of different levels of fluorine in the polymer which
is determined by the types and relative amounts of monomers that comprise the polymer.
The chemical make-up of the polymer contributes to the differences in physical properties and chemical
resistance between the materials. As well, the compounding method, particularly the cross-linking or curing system
used imparts certain physical characteristics to the material.
GLT types are peroxide cured which provides fast cure rates and imparts excellent physical properties. As
such, only the G type of fluoroelastomers are suitable for service in sulphuric acid.
Viton@ B is the original grade of Viton used in plate heat exchangers when they were first introduced into
sulphuric acid plants.
Viton@ G is Alfa Laval's recommended material for hot concentrated sulphuric acid. The material Viton@ G
contains substantially more fluorine than other grades which improves its resistance to hot concentrated sulphuric
acid. The gasket material is also peroxide cured which provides the lowest temperature relaxation and the lowest
acid absorption characteristics.

Naming

With the wide range of materials available a naming system was created to identify the material more
accurately.
For example, Viton@ A-401C:
 MA TERIALS 16-117

..
1sI Character (letter)
Represents the type ofViton@: A, B or F
A "G" prefix, in addition to a type prefix, indicates that the polymer can be crosslinked with the peroxide

.. cure system.
An "L" designation indicates that the polymer provides slight1yimproved low temperature flexibility.
An "LT" designation indicates a significant improvement in low temperature performance criteria.

.
2nd Character (Number)
Represents nominal Mooney Viscosity of the product - ML 1 + 10 at 121°C (250°F)

..
3rdCharacter (Number)
Represents the relative leve! of curative in a precompound on a scale of lOto 1 (10 is represented by O)

..
0- High curative level (for optimum compression set)
9 to 2 - Intermediate, decreasing levels of curative (increased elongation at break, tear resistance)
1 - Low curative level (for optimum tear, flex resistance)

4thCharacter (Number)
. Represents a slight1ydifferent version of a particular compound (e.g. Viton A-402C contains process aid,
A-401C does not).

5th Character (Letter)

. No letter suffix indicates that the product is a gum polymer only and contains no curatives (may contain

. process aid).
"C" indicates that the product is a pre-compound, containing accelerator and curative.

Table 16-10 - Viton@ Compounds

Fluorine
Type Chemical Composition Content Description

Tbe most cornmon fluoroelastomer composition used in

A -CH2-CF2-CF3CFCF2- 66%
-CH2-CF2-CF3CFCF2-CF2-
B 67%
CF2-
GF or F - 70%
GLT - 65%
O-rings. Comprised ofvinylidene fluoride (VF2) and
hexafluoropropylene (HFP).
Improved acid and alcohol resistance over A type.
Comprised ofvinylidene fluoride (VF2),
hexafluoropropylene (HFP) and tetrafluoroethylene
(TFE).
Improved fuel and alcohol resistance. Comprised of
vinylidene fluoride (VF2), hexafluoropropylene (HFP)
and tetrafluoroethylene (TFE).
Often referred to as "Good for Low Temperature".
Good performance down to -40°C. Introduced in 1976,
this type was the first cornmercial fluoroelastomer to use
the fluorinated vinyl ether monomer.

- Often referred to as "Good for Fluids and Low

GFLT 68%
Temperature". Good performance down to -35°C.
55 to
AFLAS -CF2-CF2-CH3CHCH2- Excellent resistance to bases, arnines and solvents.
60%
-CF2-CF2-CF30CFCF2-CH2- 72to Resistance to fluids is increased with the higher fluorine
Super FKM CH2- 74% content
Perfluoroelastomers
-CF2-CF2-CFOCFCF2- 75% Family of fully-fluorinated fluorocarbon elastomers
FFKM
 PROPERTIES 17-1

Section 17

Properties

Properties 3
General .3
Standard Conditions 3
Properties ofGas Mixtures 4
Molecular Weight 4
Detailed Physical Properties 4
Sulphur 6
Sulphur Dioxide 18
Sulphur Trioxide 28
Sulphuric Acid 36
 PROPERTIES 17-3

Properties

General

Table 17-1 - Molecular Weights ofKey Materials

Material Formula Molecular Weight

Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.009

Carbon Monoxide CO 28.01

Hydrogen H2 2.0158

Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 34.0798

Nitrogen N2 28.0134

Oxygen O2 32.998

Sulphur S 32.064

Sulphur Dioxide S02 64.062

Sulphur Trioxide S03 80.061

Sulphuric Acid H2S04 98.0758

Sulphurous Acid H2S03 82.0768

Water H20 18.0148

Standard Conditions

Standard conditions (S.e.) are established in arder that the volumetric properties of various gases may be
compared. The most common set of standard conditions used are the universal scientific standard conditions.

T emperature: o°c
Pressure: 1 atm

At standard conditions the following volumetric data are true for any ideal gas.
1 g-mole = 22.4 litres @ S.e.

1 lb-mole = 359 ft3@ S.e.

1 kg-mole = 22.4 m3 @ S.e.

The notation Nm3 or Normal cubic metres is often used to denote a volumetric measurement at standard
conditions. Likewise, SCF represents standard cubic feet.
17-4 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURING

Properties of Gas Mixtures

Molecular Weight

The average molecular weight of a gas can be calculated using the following relationship:

MWTavg = L MWY; XXi

where MWTavg - Average molecular weight

MWTi - Molecular weight of component i
X; - Mole fraction of component i

Detailed Physical Properties

Detailed physical properties are provided for the following materials:

.. Sulphur
Sulphur Dioxide
. Sulphur Trioxide
. Sulphuric Acid
 PROPERTIES 17-5

Reference

1. HimmeIbIau, D.M., "Basic PrincipIes and CaIcuIations in chemical Engineering", 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall,
lnc., EngIewood Cliffs, 1962.
17-6 HANDBOOK OF SULPHURIG AGID MANUFAGTURING

Sulphur
Sulphur is a non-metallic element and there are four stable isotopes: 32S,33S,34Sand 36S. The 32Sisotope is the
most abundant form at 95.1%. Isotope 34Sis the next most abundant form at 4.2% with 33Sand 36Spresent in 0.74%
and 0.016% amounts, respectively. Sulphur has valences of -2, +2, +3, +4 and +6.
Sulphur is insoluble in water but is soluble to varying degrees in organic solvents such as carbon disulphide,
benzene, wam aniline, warm carbon tetrachloride and liquid ammonia. Carbon disulphide is the solvent most
commonly used to remove sulphur that has been accidentally deposited in equipment.
Sulphur is an allotropic element which means it occurs in two or more forms in the same physical state.
Allotropes generally differ in physical properties but may also differ in molecular structure. The different forms of
sulphur exist together in chemical equilibrium. The sulphur allotropes that will be present in a given sample of
sulphur depends on the previous thermal history, time and presence ofimpurities.
When sulphur solidifies it will be in one of two different forms depending in the temperature. Rhombic sulphur
(Sa) is stable at atmospheric pressure up to a temperature of 95.5°C (203.9°F). Above this temperature sulphur
transforms itself into the monoclinic form (SfJ). This form is stable up to the melting point of sulphur.
The allotropic nature of sulphur influences its physical properties. For example, as temperature varies, the
molecular constitution of liquid sulphur undergoes significant and reversible changes that are best seen by the affect
they have on the viscosity of liquid sulphur. Below 159°C (318°F), sulphur exists primarily as Sg rings. In this
form, the viscosity of sulphur shows the normal decrease with increasing temperature. Above 159°C (318~),
sulphur exhibits a sudden increase in viscosity that is attributed to the formation of polymeric sulphur chains. The
viscosity of sulphur reaches a maximum at about 187°C (369°F) and then begins to decrease. The decrease in
viscosity is attributed to the breakdown of the long polymeric chains as the temperature increases.
Sulphur in the vapour form exists as different species in equilibrium. At low temperatures, octatomic (Sg)
sulphur is the predominate formo As the temperature increases, the equilibrium shifts to smaller molecular species
such as S6. Further increases in temperature results in further decrease of the Sg and S6fOfmswith increases in the
S2 formo At temperatures of about 700°C (1292~), sulphur is present primarily in the S2 formo The equilibrium
relationship between these sulphur species is shown in Figure 17-8.

Names Sulphur, Sulfur, Brimestone, Flowers of Sulphur, Precipitated Sulphur

CAS Number 7704-34-9

Shipping Code UN1350, NA1350 (Solid)

UN2448, NA2248 (Liquid)

Appearance Bright yellow solid

Clear yellow liquid
Odour Very slight, may have rotten egg smell, strong sulphuric odour in liquid
state

Molecular Weight 32.064

Critical Source

Temperature 1040°C (1)

Pressure 11.75 Mpa (1)
Volume 2.48 mL/g (1)

Solid

Freezing Point
Rhombic 112.8°C(ideal) (1)
110.2°C(natural) (1)
Monoclinic 119.3°C(ideal) (1)
114.5°C(natural) (1)
 PROPERTIES 17-7

Density Source

Rhombic 2.07 g/cm3@ 20°C (1)

Monoclinic 1.96 g/cm3@ 20°C (1)
Amorphous 1.92 g/cm3@ 20°C (1)

Vapour Pressure (p = Pa, T = K)

Rhombic (20 to 80°C) logp = 16.557 - 5166 IT (1)
Monoclinic (96 to 116°C) log p = 16.257 - 5082 I T (1)

Specific Heat See Figure 17-10

Rhombic
Cp = 468 + 0.814 T (1)
(24.9 to 95.5°C) (J/kg K)

Cp = 2.9963 + 0.01058 T + 0.8160(10.5)T2 (2)

(35 to 95°C) (BTU/lbmol K)

Monoclinic
Cp = 465 + 0.908 T (1)
(-4.5 to 118.9°C)(J/kg K)

Cp = 3.388 + 0.006854 T + 0.080351 1(388.336 - T/ (2)

(101-115.38°C) (BTU/lbmol K)

Therma1Expansion ofRhombic Sulphur (Linear)

Temperature Thermal Expansion

Oto I30e 4.567 x 10-5
I3 to 500e 7.433 x 10-5
50 to 78°e 8.633 x 10-5
78 to 97°e 20.67 x 10-5
98 to IlOoe 103.2 x 10-5

Magnetic Susceptibility
Rhombic at 18°C 1.539 m3/mol (1)
Monoclinic at 112°C 1.539 m3/mol (1)

Solubility
In Water Negligible

Liquid

Boiling Point 444.6°C (1)

Density SeeFigure 17-1

Temperature Density (g/cm3)

125°e 1.7988
I300e 1.7947
1400e 1.7865
1500e 1.7784
17-8 HANOBOOK OF SULPHURIG AGIO MANUFAGTURING

Viscosity Source
Pure Sulphur See Figure 17-2
With Hydrogen Sulphide See Figure 17-5

Vapour Pressure (p = Pa, T = K) See Figure 17-6

(120 to 325°C) log p = 19.6 - 0.0062238 T - 5405.1 T (1)
(325 to 550°C) log p = 12.3256 - 3268.2 / T (1)

Specific Heat (J/kg K) See Figure 17-3

Liquid (S),,)(118.9 to 444.6°C) Cp = 706 + 0.65 T (1)

Refractive lndex 1.929 @ 110°C (1)

Surface Tension 60.83 mN/m @ 120°C (1)

57.67 mN/m @ 150°C (1)

Magnetic Susceptibility
Liquidat no°c 1.539 m3/mol (1)

Gas

Density 3.64 gIL @ 444.6°C, 101.3 kPa (1)

Specific Heat See Figure 17-4

Gas (S)
Cp= 709- 0.034T - 3.5 X 106r2 (1)
(25 to 1727°C) (J/kg K)

Cp = 5.43 - 0.26(10-3)T + 0.27(105)/ T2 (2)

(25 to 1727°C) (BTU/lbmol K)

Gas (S2)
Cp = 558 - 0.018 T - 5.2 X 106r2 (1)
(25 to 1727°C) (J/kg K)

Cp = 8.54 + 0.28(10-3)T - 0.79(105)/ T2 (2)

(25 to 1727°C) (BTU/lbmol K)

Viscosity See Figure 17-9

Miscellaneous

Heat ofTransformation
Rhombic to Monoclinic 11.25 J/g @ 95.5°C (1)

Heat ofFusion
Rhombic (S) to Liquid (S),,) 49.8 J/g @ 112.8°C (1)
Monoclinic (S) to Liquid (S),,) 38.5 J/g @ 118.9°C (1)

Standard Reduction Potential

S / S2- -0.508 V (1)
 PROPERTIES 17-9

Latent Reat of Vapourization See Figure 17-7

Temperature Latent Heat ofVapourization

(J/g)
200°C 308.6
300°C 289.3
400°C 286.4
420°C 287.6
440°C 290.1
460°C 293.1

Electrical Resistivity

Temperature Electrical Resistivity

(ohmocm)
20°C 1.9 x 1017

30°C 3.9 X 1016

55°C 3.95 x 1015

69°C 1.78 x 1014

110°C 4.8 x 1012

115°C 9.5 x 1011

400°C 8.3 X 106