EXCI 202

Lesson 1

Health and Wellness

- Self-Efficacy
- The strong belief in one’s ability to achieve goals despite the presence of obstacles and challenges
- A key factor in maintaining health and wellness over our lifespan
- The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion emphasizes important and related aspects of health,
emphasizing:
- Social and personal resources
- Physical capacities
- What are the factors that determine health and wellness?
- Factors that determine our health and wellness within biological systems of function and within
specific domains of wellness
- Non-modifiable factors
- Genetics and aging
- Modifiable, controllable factors
- Posture, diet, exercise, sleep, coping techniques for stress
Hierarchical Structural Organization
- Human Biological Structure and Function
- The human organism is anatomically constructed in a hierarchical manner, from simple to complex
- Molecules, cells and organ and glands
- Anatomical Organization
- Each layer of structure, while more complex, relies completely on the underlying structures and
their organization in order to function
- Molecules make up cells
- Cells form tissues
- Tissues form organs
- Organs make up the human body
- Ex. Muscle cells - hierarchical and symbiotic relationships:
- Striated muscle cells, a component of the musculoskeletal system
- Smooth muscle cell, a component of the cardiovascular system
Form, Function and System Interdependence
- Form and Function
- Physiology
- How organ systems function
- The study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole
- Anatomy
- Detailed structures of organ systems
- The study of the structure and relationship between body parts
- Anatomy and Physiology of the Heart
- Lungs:
 - Send oxygenated blood to the heart
- Eliminate de-oxygenated blood from the body
- Heart:
- Pumps oxygenated blood to all regions of the body
- Receives de-oxygenated blood from the body
- The heart’s 4 chambers
- Send direct blood flow to all regions of the body and supporting arterial systems
- Maintain appropriate pressure within the entire system
- Respond to demands to increase or decrease blood volume and heart rate
- System Interdependence
- Looking at systems independently helps our understanding of:
- The functions of a biological system
- How the system is constructed to examine it independent of other systems
- All systems can only function effectively in a highly interdependent manner
- Ex. System Interdependence
- If we increase our walking speed and begin to job both the respiratory and cardiovascular system
will, with the help of neural control mechanisms, respond accordingly
- They work together to respond to real or perceived threats to our biological homeostasis (a
property of cells, tissues and organisms that allows the maintenance and regulation of the stability
and constancy of the internal physiological environment needed to function properly, despite a
constantly changing external environment)
- Nervous System
- Endocrine System
- Immune System
- Fight or Flight Response
- An intricate set of physiological responses initiated by the hypothalamus and adrenal glands
that produce a complex series of changes that provide us with the best chance to “survive”

Biological Systems
- 12 Systems of the Human Body
- Integumentary system
- Made up of skin, hair, nails, covering the entire body; regulates body temperature and creates
structures for sensation
- Skeletal system
- Basic framework of the body
- Protects and supports and is made up primarily of bones, joints and cartilage
- Muscular system
- Made up of skeletal muscles which attach to bones; maintains posture and helps us move
- Nervous system
- Comprised of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory organs
- Endocrine system
- Contains glands that secrete hormones and chemical substances
- Cardiovascular system
- Blood, heart and blood vessels pumps/transports blood, carries to all body cells and carries waste
away from cells
 - Lymphatic system
- Composed of lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, lymph and other lymphoid organs
- Maintains fluid balance and defends against pathogens and other foreign material
- Immune system
- An elaborate defence system: allergens and our own cells that have mutated (cancer cells)
- Respiratory system
- Lungs and other structures that carry/conduct air to and form lungs
- Digestive system
- Made up of organs designed to ingest food
- Breaks food down into substances that can be absorbed; eliminates the rest as waste
- Reproductive system
- Male and female reproductive organs allow for continuity of life, reproduction
- Urinary system
- Kidney, urethra, ureters maintain electrolyte balance and rid the body of waste, such as urea
Biological Principles
- Important Biological Principles
- The ability to adapt in response to our constantly changing external environment and as a
consequence of our daily experiences
- The ability to maintain an internal, physiological homeostasis
- Homeostasis
- Maintaining homeostasis is absolutely essential to our survival, as each system of the body relies on:
- Various feedback mechanisms that respond to stimuli from the external world
- Internal biological environment in order to maintain a critical biological balance
- Maintaining/regulating body temperature (dilating or constricting blood vessels)
- Keeping blood glucose levels constant by regulating insulin production
- Our bodies’ lymphatic response to invading bacteria
- Maintaining oxygen levels through regulating our breathing rate and respiratory volume and heart
rate and blood

Feedback Mechanisms
- Positive Feedback Mechanism
- Causes an increase in the effect of the stimulus. During childbirth, the hormone Oxytocin increases
the frequency and strength of contractions that caused the hormone release
- Blood Clots
- When we are cut, there is an increase in blood clotting to prevent too much blood loss
- Negative Feedback Mechanism
- Have the impact of reversing the effect of the stimulus. A drop in core body temperature sets in
motion a series of responses in order to regain normal core temperature
- Reduce or reverse the direction of whatever event has initiated the response
- Example: Body Temperature Regulation
- Body temperature regulation is an example of a negative feedback mechanism
- Our internal environment has little tolerance for a drop in temperature
- The body will constrict blood flow to the extremities
 - Muscles shiver uncontrollably
- Autonomic nervous control mechanisms are the body’s initial effort to maintain an ideal core body
temperature
- It is important to draw a distinction between decisions that produce behavioural responses to
situations that threaten our core body temperature which are a part of the higher-level executive functions
of the central nervous system and those that are automated and regulated

Importance of Homeostasis
- There are countless examples of homeostatic function
- Blood Glucose
- Regulated by the balanced release of insulin and blood glucose
- Blood Pressure
- Regulated by heart rate, respiratory rate and vascular distensibility
- Without homeostatic function, we cannot survive. Every second of every day in every system of the
body, this primary and central mechanism of physiology is put into effect, performing the critical tasks
of keeping our internal environment stable—or at least within levels that are tolerable

Variables Affecting Homeostasis

- Maintaining a regulated internal biological environment is complicated by a great number of ever
changing variables
- Temperature
- Humidity
- Air Quality
- Uncontrollable
- Major factors
- Has to do with the state of one’s biological health
- Dysfunction within a particular system can be caused by a great many factors:
- Controllable (e.g., Diet)
- Uncontrollable (e.g., genetics, aging)
Homeostatic Imbalance
- Many diseases are a result of an inability of the body to restore a functional, stable internal
environment
- Aging (Is a source of homeostatic imbalance)
- Homeostatic imbalance within cardiovascular system function
- The control mechanisms of the feedback loops lose their efficiency, which can cause heart failure
Adaptation
- the ability of an organism to adapt to its environment
- Has different meanings, but we will define it as our ability to respond effectively to varying
environments and conditions
- Sometimes those adaptations are more pronounced and happen with relative speed (ex. Adaptations to
spending time at a higher altitude)
- Without that period of biological adaptation, one dramatically increases the risk of suffering from
serious, altitude-related illnesses
- Heat
 - Cold
- Humidity
Exercise as Adaptation
- Most of the time, exercise is a positive stressor (eustress)
- Stressor
- A chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus, or an event that
causes stress to an organism. There are two broad categories of stressors: Physiological (or
physical) and psychological
- Eustress
- Moderate or normal stress interpreted as being beneficial to the individual experiencing it (e.g.,
exercise, or a demanding but valued academic program of study)
- The demands of exercise:
- Create immediate physiological responses
- Place significant demands on the cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal systems
- Causes the body to produce very specific physiological adaptations in response to those repeated
physical demands
- Specific adaptations to imposed demands (SAID)
- The principle of training specificity referred to as specific adaptations to imposed demands
(SAID) holds that training responses/adaptations are tightly couples to the mode, frequency
and duration of exercise performed
- Example: SAID
- Adaptation in response to the demands of cycling on a regular basis at a sufficient level of intensity:
- An increase in the heart’s ability to pump blood to the cells
- An increase in the cell’s ability to utilize the oxygen and nutrients being delivered
The repeated contractions of the leg muscles increasing those muscles ability to produce force
with each contraction
- Cardiovascular system
- Musculoskeletal system
- An individual’s response to exercise is highly individualized and determined by many factors that are
genetically controlled and therefore not under one’s control

Summary
- Important Terms and Concepts
- Health and wellness are not synonymous concepts
- Health: State of optimal well being
- Wellness: Incorporates all the domains of our daily existence with the aim being to achieve
optimal and a balanced wellness in all domains
- State of health and wellness is affected by factors that are within and outside of our personal
control
- Principles that help us understand our human form and related functions:
- Hierarchically arranged structural organization
- Biological systems:
- All systems must work in a highly interconnected and interdependent manner
- Internal physiological homeostasis:
 - Our bodies respond to these external stimuli by making sure all aspects of our internal
environment remain within levels we can tolerate
- Most of the time, these mechanisms respond negatively to stimuli, reversing the effect that is
causing the homeostatic changes
- The body responds to repeated stressors by attempting to adapt to those demands
- During exercise and training, we can expect some level of physiological adaptation
Lesson 2-Musculoskeletal System

Muscle/Bone Resource - will not have to name bones or muscles on a diagram

Overview of Human Body Structure

- Human Body
- Composed of 11 major body parts that are located within the axial and appendicular portions of the
body
- Some of the major body parts are comprised of smaller parts separated from each other joints
- True movement of a body part involves movement of that body part relative to another body part
relative to another body part at the joint located between them
- Sections of the Human Body
- The axial body is the core axis of the body containing the:
- Head
- Neck
- Trunk
- The appendicular body is comprised of appendages that are “added unto” the axial body
- Can be divided into:
- Right and left upper extremities
- Contain:
- Shoulder girdle:
- Scapula and clavicle
- Arm
- Forearm
- Hand
- Right and left lower extremities
- Contain:
- Pelvis
- Thigh
- Leg
- Foot
Skeletal System
- Functions of the Skeletal System
- External functions
- Structural support of body
- Provide levers for body movement
- Protection of underlying structures (organs)
 - Internal functions
- Blood cell production
- Fat storage within yellow marrow
- Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorous)
Bone Classification
- Overview
- 206 bones in the body are classified by shape:
- Long
- Short
- Flat
- Irregular
- Long Bones
- Have longitudinal axis (the shaft of the bone)
- Examples:
- Humerus
- Femur
- Radius
- Ulna
- Tibia
- Fibula
- Metacarpals
- Metatarsals
- Phalanges
- Long bones in the arms (Phalanges, Metacarpals, Radius, Ulna)
- Short Bones
- Are about as wide as they are long and often scribed as cube shaped
- Examples:
- Carpal bones of the wrist
- Tarsal bones of the ankle
- Short bones in the foot (Tarsals)
- Flat Bones
- Are broad and thin with either a flat or curved surface
- Examples:
- Ribs
- Sternum
- Cranial bones of the skull
- Scapula
- Flat bones in the skull (Cranial bones)
- Irregular Bones
- Irregular in shape and do not neatly fit into any of the other three categories
- Examples:
- Knee caps
 - Vertebrae of the spine
- Facial bones of the skull
- Irregular Bones in the Spine (Vertebrae)
Long Bone Structure and Function
- Bones as living structures
- Bones are very much organic, living structures that are highly enervated with both sensory and
motor neurone
- Bones require a rich supply of blood in order to continue the process of regenerating new bony
tissue
- Functions
- No one typical bone exists in the human skeleton - there are great differences in size and shape
among bones
- Significance of long bones:
- Site for bone marrow and red blood cells production and storage
- Involved with the articulations at many of the bodies’ joints
- Articulations:
- Has multiple related meanings: a joint or juncture between bones or cartilages in the skeleton of a
vertebrate; or the action or manner of jointing or interrelating the articulation of the limbs; or the
state of being jointed or interrelated
- Diaphysis
- Hollow cylindrical tube of the bone
- Functions to:
- Provide strength, structure and form - without being excessively heavy
- Comprised of compact bone with a thin layer of stingy bone on lining of inner surface
- Within the tube is the medullary cavity which contains bone marrow
- Epiphysis
- Composed of:
- Spongy bone with a thin layer of compact bone around the periphery
- Spaces of spongy bone contain red marrow
- Articular surface of the epiphysis is covered with articular cartilage
- Articular Cartilage
- Covers articular (joint) surfaces of a bone
- Softer than bone
- Purpose
- Provide cushioning and shock absorption for the joint
- Hyaline cartilage - a Material with poor blood supply, limiting its ability to heal and repair itself
if damaged
- Periosteum
- Surrounds the entire bone except for the articular surfaces
- Purposes:
- Provide a site for the attachment of tendons and ligaments (a strong band of connective tissue that
holds the bones together, supports the joint and directs the movement of the bones)
- Tendons and ligaments structures interlace into the periosteum fibres to form solid actors
 - House cells important in the formation and reparation of bone tissue
- House blood vessels that provide a vascular supply to the bone
- Medullary Cavity
- Tube like structure located within the diaphysis of long bones
- Contains red and yellow bone marrow
- Red bone marrow, yellow bone marrow, medullary cavity
- Endosteum
- Thin membrane that lines the inner surface of the bone within the medullary cavity
- Contains cells that are important in the formation and repair of bone
Bone Formation (bone contains dynamic, living tissue)
- Bone Structure
- Structure:
- Most noticeable characteristics result from its nonliving component
- About 30% of bone is living tissue, cells and blood vessels
- Blood vessels go in and out of the bone carrying oxygen and nutrients and taking away waste
- Bones contain marrow, which produces red blood cells and white blood cells
- Bone have nerves that can feel pressure and pain
- About 45% of bone is mineral
- Gives bone its hardness and rigidity and storing these minerals for future use
- Bone releases some of these minerals when other body parts, such as nerves, need them
- Bone also contains the proteins collagen (collagen fibres are strong, insoluble protein fibres
common in many connective tissues) and elastin (Elastin fibres are coiled protein fibres found
in connective tissues that allow the connective tissue to stretch and recoil)
- About 25% of bone is made up of water
- Bone tissue consists of:
- Compact bone (cortical or solid bone)
- Made up of structural units called Haversian systems:
- Composed of concentrically arranged layers of a hard inorganic matrix surrounding a
microscopic central Haversian canal
- Blood vessels and nerves pass through the canal
- Spongy bone (trabecular or cancellous bone)
- Network of hardened bars with spaces between them filled with marrow
- Bone tissue
- Made and maintained by several types of cells:
- Osteoblasts
- Make new bone by hardening the protein, collagen, with minerals
- Osteocytes
- Maintain bone, passing nutrients and wastes back and forth between the blood and bone
tissues
- Osteoclasts
- Destroy bone, releasing minerals into the blood
- These most noticeable characteristics result from its nonliving components
- Bone Growth
 - Is powerfully stimulated and controlled by hormones
- Childhood
- The growth hormone and thyroid hormones produce a surge in growth and regulate and ensure
proper bone growth dimensions
- Growth hormones
- An anterior pituitary hormones with the primary functions of stimulating growth through
increases in protein synthesis, cell size and rates of cell division. GH stimulates growth in
Bernal, especially bone growth
- Puberty
- Estrogen and testosterone stimulate the cartilage cells int he growth plate to accelerate
production, thereby causing a growth spurt
- Eventually acceleration slows; the growth plate cartilage cells are replaced by bony tissue and our
skeletal growth is complete
- Bone Remodelling
- Process of bone deposition and breakdown
- Keeps bones strong by repairing tiny cracks that might form in the tissue
- Process highly controlled by hormones such as calcitonin (CT) and the parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Determine the timing and rate of production and release of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- Responsible for keeping blood calcium levels fairly steady
- Calcitonin (CT)
- A hormone recreated by the thyroid gland when blood calcium levels are high. It stimulated the
removal of calcium from the blood and inhabits the breakdown of bone
- Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
- A hormone released from the parathyroid gland that increases blood calcium levels by stimulating
osteoclasts to breakdown bone. PTH, also called parathormone, is secreted when blood calcium
levels are too low
- Bone Remodelling and Estrogen
- In women, estrogen plays a role in bone remodelling
- Estrogen
- Promotes the absorption of calcium from the digestive system stimulating bone formation
- Impairs the ability of osteoclasts to break down bone
Bone Repair and Healing
- Bone Breaks and Fractures
- Despite their great strength bones occasionally break
- Bones break when the physical force applied to them is greater than the strength of the bone
- Fractures are more common in:
- Children when bones have not reached peak density
- Older adults when bones have become less sense and more brittle
- Steps in Bone Tissue Healing
- Step 1- Blood clot
- Bleeding from the bone tissue and the periosteum occurs
- Bleeding then slows and is halted by the formation of a blood clot or hematoma
- Within a few days connective tissue cells, called fibroblasts, are formed and grow inward from
the periosteum and invade the clot
 - Step 2 - Cartilaginous Callus Formation
- Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that form a mass called callus, which links the broken surfaces
of the bone
- Some fibroblasts form cartilage producing cells that secrete cartilage into the callus
- Step 3 - Bony Callus Formation
- Osteoblasts from the periosteum invade the callus and begin to transform the newly deposited
cartilage into bony material - changing it to a bony callus
- Step 4 - Bone Remodelling
- Fracture is healed and bone is remodelled restoring bone to its original shape
Joint Design and Classification
- Joint
- Defined as a puncture between two or more bones
- At this juncture, the bones are joined to one another by various soft tissues
- Also known as an articulation
- Means “to move”
- Joint Classification - Classified structurally by the amount of movement they permit
- Fibrous Joints
- Examples:
- Sutures of the skull of an adult
- Also known as immoveable joints because they permit very little or no movement at all
- Held together by connective tissue
- Cartilaginous joints
- Examples:
- Found in the vertebrae
- Slightly moveable
- Synovial joints
- Examples:
- Hip, knee and shoulder
- Fully moveable joints
- Most complex joint structures
- Include a joint cavity
- Muscles of body permit us to produce thousands of positions by means of synovial joints
Joint Structure and Functions
- Movement
- Primary functions of a joint
- To allow for movement
- Movements that occur at these joints are created by muscular contractions
- Role of a muscular contraction
- To create a force on the bones of the joint
- That force can create a movement
- Joints allow for movement
- Muscles create movement
 - Joint capsules and ligaments limit movement
- Functions
- Many joints of the body are weight bearing joints:
- Bear the weight of the body parts located above them
- Almost every joint of the lower extremities and all spinal joints of the axial body are weight-
bearing joints
- Weight-bearing joints need to be very stable
- Shock Absorption
- Joints can function to absorb shock
- This is especially important for weight-bearing joints
- Primary means by which joints absorb shock
- Cushioning effects of the fluid within the joint cavity
- Stability
- Primary function of a joint is to allow movement to occur
- Excessive motion would create an unstable joint
- A joint must maintain its structural integrity so that it does not become injured or dislocated
- Mobility
- Each joint of the body finds a balance between mobility and stability
- Mobility and stability are opposing principles
- A more stable joint is less mobile
- A more mobile joint is less stable
- The amount of mobility/stability is determined by:
- Shapes of the bones of the joint
- Ligaments
- Joint capsule
- Joint Capsule
- The joint capsule of a synovial joint connects the bone of a joint and encloses the joint capsule
- Outer fibrous membrane
- Inner membrane
- Secretes synovial fluids into the joint (synovial) cavity
- Joint capsule is comprised of two distinct layers
- Synovial Fluid, along with articular (hyaline) cartilage, is an essential structure that permits the joint
to function as it is designed
- Synovial Fluid:
- A viscous clear fluid within the synovial cavity that acts as both shock absorber and lubricant
between the bones

Classification of Synovial Joints

- Six Types of Synovial Joints
- Planar Joints
- Have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved faces
- Allow for gliding movements - referred to as gliding joints
- Range of motion is limited and does not involve rotation
- Found in
 - Carpal bones in hands
- Tarsal bones in feet
- Between vertebrae
- Hinge Joints
- The slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other bone
- One bone moves while the other remains stationary - like the hinge of a door
- Example
- Elbow
- Knee (sometimes classified as modified hinge joint)
- Pivot Joints
- Consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone
- Structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis
- Example:
- First and second vertebra of the neck
- Wrist joint
- Condyloid Joints
- Consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another
bone
- Sometimes called ellipsoidal joint
- Allows angular movement along two axes
- Example:
- Joints of the wrist and fingers
- Saddle Joints
- End of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and convex portions that fit together
- Allow angular movement similar to condyloid joints, but with a greater range of motion
- Example:
- Thumb joint
- Ball and Socket Joints
- Possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cupcake socket of another bone
- Allow the greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all directions
- Example:
- Shoulder joints
- Hip joints
Muscles Fibers
- Muscle Types
- There are three kinds of muscles:
- Cardiac Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Skeletal Muscle
- All muscles have 4 common characteristics
- Excitable
- They respond to stimuli
 - Contractile
- They have the ability to shorten
- Extensible
- They have the ability to stretch
- Elastic
- They can return to their original length after being shortened or stretched
- Skeletal Muscles Functions
- Skeletal muscles have multiple functions:
- Support internal organs
- Help generate heat when required
- Assist in the movement of lymph and blood
- Major role of skeletal muscles:
- The production of movement
- Muscle Fibers
- Individual muscles cells are called:
- Muscle fibers
- These fibers, when bundled together by connective tissue are called:
- Fascicles
- Fascicles bundles together form:
- Muscle tissue
- Layered bundling of fibers within connective tissue sheaths is necessary so that muscles can produce
adequate contractile strength
- Striated Muscles
- Skeletal Muscles:
- Called striated muscles because of the striped appearance of the fibers
- Stripes are caused by:
- Myofibrils
- A rod like bundle of contractile proteins (myofilaments) found in skeletal and cardiac muscle
essential to muscle contraction
- Comprised of actin and myosin protein filaments
- Within these individual filaments are thousands of contractile units known as sarcomeres
- Muscle Stimulus
- Contraction of muscle fibers also requires an impulse or stimulus
- Impulse comes rom motor neurone, activating the release of the calcium ions
- Contractions represent mechanical work and work requires an energy source
- Every time actin and myosin filaments bonds are attached and detached energy is required
- Sources of energy can be the following:
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- Creatine phosphate (CP)
- Anaerobic metabolic pathways
- Aerobic metabolic pathways
- The energy spruce utilized will depend on the duration and intensity of the exercise:
 - Prolonged exercise will require an adequate store of glucose in order for the muscular work to
continue

Muscles Working Cooperatively

- Synergistic Muscles
- Muscles generally work in pairs or in groups
- Synergistic muscles:
- Muscles working cooperatively to create specific movements
- Example:
- Muscles of the arms (biceps and triceps), shoulders (deltoid) and chest (pectorals) working
cooperatively to perform a bench press movement
- Synergy with agonist
- In actions requiring synergy there is always a primary muscle working to complete the action
- In bench press, the primary muscle, or agonist, is the pectorals
- Agonist:
- Although a number of muscles may be involved in an action, the principal muscle involved is
called the agonist or prom mover
- Synergy with Assisting Muscles
- Complex movements such as the bench press require assisting muscles to complete the action
- Assisting muscles in the bench press are the biceps and triceps
- Muscles work to provide a stable platform to perform the action
- Example:
- With the bench press movement, the deleted muscles provides this stability
- Synergy with Agonists and Antagonists
- Synergy also occurs with pairs of muscles
- When one muscle contracts to produce movement the opposing muscle must relax
- Example:
- Biceps curl movement
- Biceps muscle (agonist) contracts, pulling the forearm up, flexing the arm
- Triceps muscle must relax (antagonist) and stretch for that movement to occur
- When the forearm is lowered and extended under a technical load, the triceps do the work of
contraction and biceps relaxes, lengthening
- Antagonist:
- A muscle that opposes the action of another, “the biceps and triceps are antagonistic muscles”.
When the agonist contracts the antagonist must relax
- Connection of Muscles to the Skeletal System
- For muscles to assist in movement they must be directly connect to the joints of the skeleton
- Connection of muscles to the skeletal system is achieved by a tendon:
- A band of connective tissue
- Tendons transfer the force produced from the muscles to the bone:
- The end of the muscle that remains quite stable during a contraction is called its origin
- The end attached to the bone that moves is the insertion
- Origin
 - Skeletal muscles are attached to bones one each end by tendons. The organ is the fixed
attachment
- Insertion
- Skeletal muscles are attached to bones on each end by tendons. The insertion moved with
contraction
- Example: Biceps Curl
- Origin is the attachment of the biceps muscle near the shoulder and the insertion is the end of the
biceps where it attaches in the elbow, the joint where the movement is occurring

Muscle Development
- Muscle Fiber Types
- Muscle fibers are one of three types:
- Fast twitch
- Designed to provide powerful, rapid responses, but work more efficiently using the anaerobic
energy pathway
- Slow twitch
- Designed for endurance, contracting more slowly, but providing sustained, strong contractions
working efficiently with the aerobic pathways
- Mixed fibers - fast and slow
- Our muscle fibre ration is a determining factor regarding muscle development and strength potential
- Developing Muscle Tissue
- Number of muscle fibers cannot increase
- Individual muscle fibers can grow in size
- The growth of muscle fibers is known as hypertrophy
- Muscle fibers will respond to a repeated load or demand placed on them and have the potential to
increase in size
- Difficult to predict the changes or adaptations that will occur as a consequence of a repeated demand
- Acronym SAID suggests that one will respond physiologically to imposed demands based on the
level of intensity of that demand
- Intensity:
- Product of the percentage of maximum load each contraction represents and the number of times
this demand is repeated as well as the rest interval between contractions
- Training programs are most effective when hey are specifically created for the individual
- Developing Muscular Strength
- Higher volume of muscular load (more repetitions) with a lesser percentage of maximum effort with
each repetition will improve strength without causing hypertrophy
- Strength increases because neuromuscular efficiency improves
- Improve our ability to perform a specific muscular movement because we learn how to efficiently
recruit more muscle fibers
- Adapt metabolically, increasing our ability to utilize energy sources and oxygen at the cellular level
- Benefits of Muscular Activity
- Muscular activity benefits the health of musculoskeletal system
- Repeated mechanical load on muscle improves
- Bone density
- Muscle tone
 - Range of motion in joint
- Amount of muscular hypertrophy may be difficult to predict, but muscular activity and exercise will
avoid potential atrophy of muscles and loss of joint functions from inactivity

Wrap up
- Movement is achieved by the bodies’ joints
- Skeletal system includes joints of varying capacities of range of motion
- Most of the movement and positions produced by the musculoskeletal system is carried out by the
most moveable joints known as synovial joints
- Skeletal muscles are comprised of individual cells known as fibers
- When contracted, these fibers can produce the forces required to change the position of body parts
adjacent a specific joint
- The skeletal system has many important functions in the body:
- Structural support
- Provides levers for movement
- Protection of underlying structures
- Blood cell production
- Fat storage within yellow marrow
- Storage of minerals such as calcium and phosphorous
- No one typical bone exists in the human skeleton as there are great differences in size and shape among
bones
- Bones are classified by their shape:
- Long
- Short
- Flat
- Irregular
- Bones in general, and long bones in particular, are organic, living structures
- Bones are highly enervated with both sensory and motor neurons
- Require a rich supply of blood in order to continue the continuous process of regenerating new bony
tissue
- Long bones are constructed of a proximal and distal epiphysis
- Composed of:
- Spongy bone
- Diaphysis (constructed mostly of hard compact bone)
- Medullary cavity
- Red marrow endosperm
- Yellow marrow
- Periosteum
- When a bone breaks a very consistent and predictable series of steps occurs:
- Formation of blood clot
- Formation of a cartilaginous callus
- Formation of a bony callus
- Bone remodelling
- Joints are classified structurally by the amount of movement they permit
 - Fibrous joints, such as the sutures of the skull of an adult are immoveable joints because they permit
very little or no movement at all
- Synovial joints are classified into six different categories on the basis of shape and structure of the joint
- Planar
- Hinge
- Pivot
- Condyloid
- Saddle
- Ball-socker-joints
- The Sliding Filament Model:
- Muscle fibers contract due to the sliding of actin filaments past myosin filements, thereby shortening
(contracting) their length
- Integral to the process is an impulse deriving from a motor neurone to activate the release of calcium
ions
- Muscles working cooperatively to create specific movement are known as synergistic muscles
- In actions requiring synergy there is always a primary muscle working to complete the action, there
agnostic, a cooperating muscle that relaxes, the antagonist, and often asking and stabilizing muscles as
well
- Muscular strength will develop by putting repeated demands on muscles and joint when there is
sufficient intensity to initiate a physiological adaptation

Lesson 3: Movement Classification and Analysis

Anatomical Reference Position and Directional Terms

- Anatomical position
- Standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body
- Used to name the location of body parts, structures and points on the body
- Anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body
- The standard position
- Standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toe forward
- It does not matter how the body being described is oriented, the terms are used as if it is an
anatomical position
- Example:
- A scar in the anterior (front) region would be present on the palm side of the wrist
- Anterior:
- Describe the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral
- Using Precise Anatomical Terminology - eliminates ambiguity
- Anatomists and health care providers use terminology that can be bewildering to the uninitiated
- Purpose of this language: To increase precision and reduce medical errors
- Example: Is a scar “above the wrist” located:
- On the forearm two or three inches away from the hand?
- At the base of the hand?
- On the palm-side or back-side?
- Directional Terms
 - Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the
body
- Proximal
- Describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
- Example:
- The proximal end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone
- Distal
- Describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
- Example:
- The hand is located at the distal end of the forearm
- Lateral
- Describes the side or direction toward the side of the body
- Farther from the midline of the body
- Example:
- The little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot
- Medial
- Describes the middle or direction toward the middle fo the body
- Example:
- The big toe is located at the medical side of the foot
- Deep
- Describes a position farther from the surface of the body
- Superficial
- Closer to the surface of the body
- Posterior
- Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body
- Also referred to as dorsal
- Example:
- Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body
- Anterior
- Nearest to the front (ventral)
- Ventral
- Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body
- example:
- The kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg
- Inferior
- Describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper
- Near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column)
- Also referred to as caudal
- Superior
- Describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper
- Also referred to as cranial
Planes and Axes of Rotation
- Anatomical Planes
- A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body
- 3 planes:
- Sagittal plane
- Divides vertically into right and left side
- Frontal plane
- Divides into anterior (front) and posterior (rear) portions
- Transverse plane
- Divides horizontally into upper and lower portions
- Axes of Rotation
- In reference to human anatomy, an axis of notation is an imaginary line that projects through the
pivot/rotation point in a join
- Sagittal
- Frontal
- Transverse
- Each movement in the 3 planes of motion occur about an axis of rotation
- Axis:
- Intersection between two planes
- The arm moves in the sagittal plane of motion around an axis of rotation that occurs at the elbow,
which allows for flexion and extension
- Because flexion and extension occur in an anterior and posterior direction, the axis of rotation is
perpendicular to it and projects through the joint
- 3 axis of rotation:
- Anterior-Posterior Axis
- Imagine a pin that inserts through a joint from front to back (anteriorly and posteriorly),
effectively pinning down the joint to limit its potential freedom of motion
- Example:
- You can think of a pin entering through the front of the hip joint and exiting out the back
- Because of the pin’s position, the only movement allowed about this axis is lateral
movement (abduction or adduction) in the frontal plane
- Mediolateral Axis
- We take our imaginary pin and insert it from a lateral, or side, approach
- Elbow example:
- The axis projects from the medial side of the joint and extends out the lateral side
- The position of the pin allows only forward and backward movement (flexion and
extension) in the sagittal plane about this axis
- Longitudinal Axis
- If we insert our pin through the joint from top to bottom, it will allow movement in the
transverse plane only (i.e., rotation)
- Imagine a long pin entering the top of the cervical spine and exiting out the lumbar spine
- The pin would effectively precent the spine from bending forward, backward or side-to-side
- But it would allow the spine to twist along a transverse plane
- Joints and Planes of Movement
- Joints rotate in these axes, allowing movement to occur in the planes
 - Some only rotate in one axis, while others rate in multiple axes
- Uniaxial or Uniplanar Joints (Hinge Joints)
- Rotate in 1 axis, allowing movement in 1 plane
- Example:
- The elbow joint allows movement forward and backward in the sagittal plane
- Biaxial or Biplanar Joints
- Rotate in 2 axes, allowing movement in two plans
- Example:
- The foot and hand both move laterally, or side-to-side, in the frontal plane and forward and
backward in the sagittal plane
- Triaxial or Multiplayer Joints
- Rotate in all three axes allowing movement in all three planes
- Example:
- The shoulder joint allows forward and backward movement in the sagittal plane, lateral, or
side-to-side movement, in the frontal plane and internal and external rotation in the transverse
plane

Introduction to Movement
- Joints and Movement
- Synovial joints (diarthrosis joints) are the most common type of joint and provide the body with the
greatest capacity for movement
- Anatomical structure:
- Determines the freedom of movement at any particular joint
- Basic Movements
- Movement at a specific synovial joint is largely achieved through the contraction of the primary
muscle (agonist) and the concurrent relaxation of the opposing muscle (antagonist)
- Movement are presented in pairs, whenever possible
- Important Note
- Each movement described represents an isolated movement occurring at a specific joint
- Isolating the moment facilitates our understanding of the specific action being examined
- In our everyday lives, it is much more likely that these individual actions will be combined
sequentially to create much more complex movement patterns. This true:
- In our activities of daily living:
- In adulatory moment as we move from place to place
- Within the domain of recreation and sport
Sagittal Plane
- movements that occur in the sagittal plane
- Flexion and extension
- Are movements that occur in the sagittal plane
- Refer to increasing and decreasing the angle between two body parts
- Flexion
- A movement that decreases the angle between two body parts
- Extension
 - A movement that increases the angle between two body parts
- Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion
- Terms used to describe movements at the ankle
- They refer to the two surfaces of the foot:
- The dorm (superior surface)
- The plantar surface (the sole)
- Dorsiflexion
- Flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly
- Plantarflexion
- Extension at the ankles so that the foot points inferiorly
- Protraction and retraction
- Protraction
- Describes the anterolateral movement of the scapula movement of the scapula on the thoracic
wall that allows the shoulder to move anteriorly (i.e., “reaching out” to something)
- Retraction
- The posnerormedial movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall, which causes the shoulder
region to move posteriorly (i.e., picking something up)
- Thoracic wall
- Division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus and trachea
- Please note:
- There is a small amount of rotation; therefore, some of the movement is also in the transverse
plane

Frontal Plane
- Movements that occur in the frontal plane
- Abduction and Adduction
- Terms used to describe movements towards or away from the midline of the body
- Abduction
- A movement away from the midline - just as adducting someone is to take them away
- Adduction
- A movement towards the midline
- Adduction of the hip squeezes the legs together
- Fingers and toes:
- The midline used is of the hand and foot respectively
- Adducting the fingers spreads them out
- Elevation and Depression
- Elevation:
- Movement in a superior direction
- Depression:
- Movement in an inferior direction
- Inversion and Eversion
- Inversion and eversion are moments which occur at the ankle joint, referring to the rotation of the
foot around its long axis
- Inversion:
 - The moment of the sole towards the median plane - so that the sole faces in a medical direction
- Eversion:
- The movement of the sole away from the median plane - so that the sole faces in a lateral
direction
- Opposition and Reposition
- A pair of movements that are limited to humans and some great apes, these terms apply to the
additional movements that the hand and thumb can perform in these species
- Opposition
- Brings the thumb and little finger together
- Reposition
- Movement that moves the thumb and the little finger away from each other, effectively
reversing opposition
- Please note:
- There is also some rotation in the movement therefore it includes the transverse plane
- Lateral Hip Flexion
- From the anatomic position, left or right lateral hip flexion describes the limited movement in the
frontal plane that allows one to bend sideways from the hip
- Lateral Hip Flexion
- Radial and Ulnar Deviation
- From the anatomic position, radial and ulnar deviation describes movement at the wrist
- Ulnar Deviation
- Movement of bending the wrist to the little finger, or ulnar bone, side
- Radial Deviation
- Movement of bending the wrist to the thumb or radial bone, side
Transverse Plane
- Movements that occur in the transverse plane
- Medial and Lateral Rotation
- Medial and lateral rotation describe moments of the limb around their long axis
- Medical Rotation:
- Rotational movement towards the midline
- Lateral Rotation
- Rotating movement away from the midline
- Pronation and Supination
- Supination
- The supine (face up) position - your hand resting and keeping your shoulder and elbow still,
turning your hand palm up
- Pronation
- The prone (face down) position - your hand resting, flipping your hand onto its front, palm
down
- Please note:
- These terms also apply to the whole body: when lying flat on the back, the body is supine and
when lying flat on the front, the body is prone
- Circumduction
 - Can be defined as a conical moment of a limb extending from the joint at which the movement is
controlled
- Sometimes talked about as a circular motion, but is more accurately conical due to the “cone”
formed by the moving limb

Planes and Axes of Movement

Wrap Up
- We turned our attention in this lesson to broadening our understanding of movement
- Almost all movement in our daily lives is complex, involving sequences of specific actions at
multiple joints
- Even seemingly simple movement such as walking, are, in fact, highly complex
- Involves multiple joints, multiple actions at those joints, and a specific sequence of movements to
produce the desired outcome
- This holds true for:
- Actions of daily living like reaching for food in a kitchen cupboard
- Complex actions such as those seen in sports
- Elements of movement:
- Anatomical reference position:
- The body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward; the upper
limbs are held out to each side and the plans of the hands face forward
- Directional terms:
- superior/inferior
- anterior/posterior
- Superficial/deep
- Medial/lateral
- Proximal/distal
- Elements of Movement:
- Plane:
- An imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body
- Sagittal plane:
- Divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides
- Frontal plane:
- Divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion
- Transverse plane:
- Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portion
- Axes of rotation:
- Mediolateral axis
- Anterior-posterior axis
- Longitudinal axis
- The most common movements that occur in each of the 3 planes:
- Flexion/extension
- Dorsiflexion/plantarflexion
- protraction/retraction
 - Abduction/adduction
- Elevation/depression
- Inversion/eversion
- Opposition/reposition
- Lateral hip flexion
- Radial/ulnar deviation
- Medial/lateral rotation
- Pronation/supination
- Circumduction

Lesson 4 - Back Health and Posture

Spinal Functions and Structures

- 33 vertebrae
- 23 intervertebral discs (axial skeleton)
- Extends from skull to pelvis
- Contains spinal cord
- Largest segment of the body
- Most important unit for movement
- Pivotal role in extremity function
- Vertebrae
- Cervical Spine
- Uppermost part of the spine
- Seven vertebrae (C1-C7), top to bottom
- First two vertebrae are specialized to allow for neck movement
- C1 (atlas) sits between the skull and the rest of the spine
- C2 (axis) has a bony projection (odontoid process) that fits within a hole in the atlas to allow
rotation of the neck
- Thoracic Spine
- There are 12 vertebrae (T1 to T12) in the chest section, called the thoracic spine
- The ribs attach to the spine on the thoracic vertebrae
- Lumbar Spine
- Also called lower back
- Five vertebrae (L1 to L5)
- Some people have six vertebrae
- Connects the thoracic spine and pelvis
- Bears the bulk of body’s weight
- Largest vertebrae
- Sacrum
- Large bone
- Several fused vertebrae
- Base of the spine
- Back of the pelvis
 - Above the coccyx (tailbone)
- Body of the Vertebra
- Anterior portion of the vertebrae supports body weight
- Increases in size and thickness going down the vertebral column
- Separated and strongly united by an intervertebral disc
- Body of the vertebra, vertebrae and intervertebral discs
- Spinous Process
- Projects posteriorly at the midline of the back
- The transverse and spinous processes serve as important muscle attachment sites
- Superior Articular Process
- Extends or face upward
- Inferior Articular Process
- Faces or projects downward on each side of a vertebrae
- Superior + Articular:
- The paired superior articular processes of one vertebra join with the corresponding paired inferior
articular processes from the next higher vertebra. These junctions form sightly moveable joints
between the adjacent vertebrae
- Spinous Process (Vertebral Spine)
- The shape and orientation of the articular processes vary in different regions of the vertebral column
and play a major role in determining the type and range of motion available in each region
-
Lesson 5: Cardiovascular System