Energy 81 (2015) 262e273

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Design and experimental analysis of an efficient HVAC

(heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) system on an electric bus with
dynamic on-road wireless charging
In-Soo Suh a, *, Minyoung Lee a, Jedok Kim a, Sang Taek Oh c, Jong-Phil Won b
a
Graduate School for Green Transportation, KAIST, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
b
Korea Automotive Technology Institute, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
c
Seoul Industry Engineering Co., Gyunggi-Do, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The design, control and experimental verification of an HVAC (heating, ventilation, air-conditioning)
Received 5 August 2014 system to achieve high operational efficiency for an electric bus equipped with a dynamic wireless
Received in revised form charging capability are described in this paper. Target power capacities of the HVAC system have been set
13 November 2014
as 28 kW of cooling and 26 kW of heating with a 600 V in-vehicle environment with COPs (coefficient of
Accepted 13 December 2014
Available online 21 January 2015
performance) of more than 1.6 for cooling and 2.6 for heating, which are required for customer's comfort.
For an efficient HVAC system design, an integrated air-conditioning with a heat pump system is proposed
and analyzed to meet the objectives of the HVAC system, incorporating the waste heat recovery from the
Keywords:
Electrical vehicle
drive motor, its driver, and other wireless charging electric modules. In addition, a control algorithm for
HVAC operational energy management, considering the real-time power consumption and the wirelessly
High voltage delivered power, is also proposed and verified to secure an actual operational energy consumption target.
Driving range Through the component- and vehicle-level of the experimental performance verification, combined with
Wireless charging energy demand dynamic model, the proposed HVAC system is verified experimentally to meet target
power capacities and efficiency measures for cooling and heating, which are important to electric buses,
especially with dynamic wireless charging capability.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years, there have been increased interest and demand
for EVs (electric vehicles) as a green transportation technology. Due
to the limited specific energy and power of on-board batteries,
reducing energy consumption in EVs is very important for massive
introduction to the market in regard to longer driving range and
reduced total operating cost of ownership. During the vehicle
operation, the energy consumption due to the operation of HVAC
(heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) system has been proved to
be a significant part of the in total energy consumption, especially
for purely electric or hybrid or fuel-cell electric bus applications
[1e3].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ82 10 9125 5964 (mobile); fax: þ82 42 350 1251.
E-mail address: insoo.suh@kaist.ac.kr (I.-S. Suh).
For a passenger EV, the energy consumption due to heating and
cooling system can reduce the overall driving range by 40%e60%
under typical standard driving testing conditions [4,5]. Thus, there
is a strong interest in electric vehicles' climate control systems,
such as heating and cooling inside the cabin. Electric vehicles
including hybrid and full electric vehicles have the wasted heat to
warm up the passenger cabin and the climate control system has a
very significant effect on the energy consumption and driving range
per charge. In the case of very high ambient temperatures and high
solar radiation, almost half of the stored energy might be used for
cooling the passenger cabin and the battery, where the driving
range can be reduced significantly for pure EVs. Under such con-
ditions, the HVAC is the second-largest on-board consumer of
electrical energy [6,7]. An HVAC system in current automotive ap-
plications means the heating and AC (air-conditioning) system in
addition to the ventilation. An AC system usually adopts a vapor
compression refrigeration circuit using R134a as a working fluid to
obtain thermal comfort in the passenger cabin during summer. A

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.038
0360-5442/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273 263

Nomenclature Pa available instantaneous power in a vehicle

PESS power drawn from an on-board energy storage system
ca specific heat capacity of air PWPT power delivered wirelessly to a vehicle
COP coefficient of performance Pr required power to drive a vehicle
DTM overall thermal inertia of inside cabin other than air Q_ AC heat transfer rate by air-conditioning
E consumed electrical energy Q_ ambient heat transfer rate delivered from ambient
Fd vehicle driving resistance force
Q_ cabin heat transfer rate inside a vehicle cabin
Frol rolling resistance force from ground and tire
interaction Q_ e heat transfer rate of evaporator for cooling
Fair air resistance force Q_ total total heat transfer rate inside a vehicle cabin
Facc accelerating resistance force tc time required reaching the target temperature
Fg hill-climbing force Tcabin , Ttarget temperature of cabin and target to cooling or
Dhc;i refrigerant enthalpy change of compressor for cooling heating
Dhe;i refrigerant enthalpy change of evaporator for cooling DTi temperature decrease due to cooling or increase due to
Dhe;o air enthalpy change of evaporator for cooling heating
m_ a mass flow rate of air V vehicle velocity
m_ r mass flow rate of refrigerant W _ work by compressor during cooling

heating system is to provide hot air to the passenger cabin during with an additional power source of 80 kW wirelessly from the on-
winter. While these functions were usually implemented as sepa- road powered track when the bus is driving on the power supply
rate circuits in conventional ICE (internal-combustion engine) track, as summarized in Table 1. While ICE edriven buses have
driven vehicles, an integrated air-conditioning and heat pump typical HVAC systems, an electric bus requires a fully electric one
system has been proposed recently to improve overall operational with a similar capacity to typical electric buses in the market to
efficiency for ICE or EVs [8]. respond to customers' demands [1]. In addition, the operating ef-
The HP (heat pump) concept is employed by reversing the di- ficiency of the electrical energy supplied from the limited capacity
rection of the refrigerant flow in the AC system and by combining of the on-board battery's energy should be emphasized in the
the heat from the waste heat recovery either from the ICE or electric design and control of the system.
components of EVs. Heat pump systems offer economical alterna- On-road dynamic wireless charged electric vehicles are being
tives of recovering heat from various sources for use in industrial, developed and demonstrated very actively in recent research
commercial, and residential applications. Recent advances in heat [19e30]. The application feature of WPT (wireless power transfer)
pump systems have focused on advanced cycle designs of both will be described and discussed in this paper. In this research, we
heat- and work-actuated systems, improved cycle components and consider WPT as an additional power source and as additional
exploiting a wider range of applications [8]. The waste heat re- vehicle electrical components during electric bus operation. The
covery by means of the Rankin Cycle is a promising approach for target electric bus and the related concept of the wireless power
achieving significant improvement in energy efficiency for ICE transfer system that is used for this paper's research are shown in
driven vehicles [9,10]. The recovered heat is examined for cabin Fig. 1, and the concept of wireless power transfer is described in
cooling for an absorption cooling cycle through energy and exergy Fig. 2. The wireless power transfer system for an electric bus,
analyses in hybrid electric vehicles, and the mechanical exergy loss applied to this research, is largely composed of the Power Supply
rates are analyzed on heat exchangers using waste heat recovery System, and the Vehicle's Power Pick-Up System, coupled with an
[11,12]. Various research efforts have been performed recently with induced magnetic field between the primary and secondary coils,
a strong emphasis on the energy efficiency in especially electric with the mutual inductance of M, as in Fig. 2. The electric power is
automotive applications [6,7,11e18]. delivered from the grid to PWM (pulse-width modulation) power
In this paper, the target vehicle is a pure electric bus, driven by a supply to the driving motor or an on-board ESS (energy storage
240 kW-rated AC induction motor with a high-voltage power of system) system through the proper compensating circuitry
580e680 V DC, supplied by a Li-polymer on-board battery system, operation between the primary and secondary coils. The mag-
netic field couplings or inductive power transfer with compen-
sating circuit tunings are well documented in the literature
Table 1 [30e32].
Specification of target bus. This paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, the objectives of
Item Specification Unit Value HVAC system research are defined as quantitative goals of required
Bus Seats 45
capacity and efficiency, the system architecture and modeling
Pick-up device Capacity [kW] 80 approach are described in Section 3, the experimental and simu-
Super capacitor Max voltage [V] 720 lation results are summarized and discussed in Section 4, and
Continued current [A] 150 Section 5 concludes the paper.
Battery Type Li-polymer
Nominal voltage [V] 620
Rated capacity [A] 40
2. Research objectives of the HVAC system
Energy [kWh] 25
Max. charge [A] 120
Max. discharge [A] 320 For typical ICE buses, the maximum power capacities are in the
Motor Type Induction motor range of 25 kW (about 85,300 Btu/hr) for cooling and 50 kW (about
Motoring power [kW] 240 170,000 Btu/hr) for heating, respectively. For electric buses, the
Efficiency [%] 93
required thermal comfort from the customer domain would remain
264 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the target bus and the concept of wireless charging system.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of wireless power transfer for an EV.
similar. And, the integrated operation of a highly efficient system
should be especially emphasized for electric buses mainly because
of limited energy capacity of traction batteries. In addition, electric
buses requires complete heating sources, different from the ICE-
driven buses. Thus, the operating efficiency along with the
required capacities of the HVAC system of electric buses are
important prerequisites for the overall thermal management.
The research objective is to propose, analyze, and verify a fully
electrical and i-HVAC (integrated HVAC) system for the high-
voltage (nominal 600 V) application of an electric bus, which is
operated with external wireless power supply capability, in view
of the cooling and heating capabilities and the overall efficiency.
The target cooling and heating target powers have been set as
28 kW (about 95,500 Btu/hr) and 26 kW (about 88,700 Btu/hr),
respectively, with the high COP ((coefficient of performance),
defined in later sections) of 1.6 for cooling and 2.6 for heating,
Table 2
Specification of target HVAC system for the bus.
Specification Unit
Cooling capacity [kW]
Heating capacity [kW]
COP of cooling cycle
COP of heating cycle
Condenser heat capacity [kW]
Heat core heat capacity [kW]
Compressor [kW]
*COP: coefficient of performance.
while the typical system COP of air-conditioning and heating for
automotive in-vehicle applications are below 1.3 and 2.3, respec-
tively [18e21]. This i-HVAC system shows unique characteristics,
in view of the large capacity of cooling and heating with full
electrical operation capability, the highest COP range in this class
of power capacity, and an ability to operate under 600 V, as
summarized in Table 2. In order to achieve the required power
capacity and target energy efficiency, we applied the waste heat
recovery from electric power drive systems and other power
electronics by adopting a heat pump concept. Several major
components, such as a common refrigerant compressor, a PTC
(positive temperature coefficient) heater, and a heat exchanger,
are described to enable i-HVAC system design and to evaluate the
required performance. The bench-level evaluation results, fol-
lowed by component-level ones, are described and analyzed in
view of the power capacity, energy consumption, and efficiency of
the component and HVAC system-level.
In addition, the vehicle-level of the i-HVAC system perfor-
mance is evaluated and verified in order to ensure that the i-
HVAC's energy consumption is less than 20% (of cooling) and 25%
(of heating) of the total electrical energy consumption during EV
Value
operation, so that the driving range reduction due to HVAC oper-
28 ation should be less than 20%, as an industry-favorable research
26
objective. A creative energy management control algorithm of
1.6
2.6 HVAC, which is described in Section 3.3, is proposed to meet the
40 target energy consumption when the vehicle is operated on the
26 on-road dynamic wireless charging routes, considering the vehicle
11.3 operation conditions, remaining on-board battery SOC (state of
charge) level, expected on-road wirelessly delivered energy, and
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
Fig. 3. Research objectives on fully electric i-HVAC system.
priority ratings that include customer comfort and overall energy
management schemes. The overall research objectives are sum-
marized in Fig. 3.
3. System architecture and modeling
3.1. Integrated HVAC system
Differently from the conventional HVAC system on current
buses, we propose an integrated air-conditioning and heating sys-
tem specifically for a high-voltage electric bus, while achieving the
required capacity and efficiency measures and incorporating the
waste heat recovery system. For an i-HVAC (integrated HVAC)
system, the electrical heat pump type should be considered, which
was first applied to commercial electric vehicles in the 1990s [6].
While there is very little literature about the experimental perfor-
mance of the system, due to the industrial nature of the topic, the
steady-state cooling and heating operations of i-HVAC using R12
and R134a refrigerant working fluid were simulated considering
the change of heating and cooling capacities, COP and power con-
sumption with a fixed compressor speed at ambient temperature
[5,6].
The cooling cycle of the proposed i-HVAC system is shown in
Fig. 4. The system is composed of a laminated type of evaporator, a
Fig. 4. Components and operation of cooling cycle of the proposed i-HVAC system.
265
scroll-type electrical compressor, a parallel-type condenser, a heat
exchanger, and a set of three-way valves and E-TXV (electrical
thermostatic expansion valves) for proper flow control. The
compressor is selected as operating with three-phase 380e460 V
AC, with PWM (pulse-width modulation) speed control over a
3e15 bar range of working fluid pressure. A three-way valve can
support fluid pressure up to 35 bar, as designed. The refrigerant
with higher pressure and higher temperature compressed by the
electrical compressor will become lower pressure and lower tem-
perature by passing through the condenser and expansion valve.
The cooling of the vehicle cabin can be achieved by utilizing lower
temperature refrigerant.
The heating cycle of the proposed i-HVAC system is composed of
a compressor and an inverse heat exchanger, which are common
components as with the cooling cycle, and additional coolant PTC
heaters, as shown in Fig. 5. The higher temperature with higher
pressure refrigerant out of the electrical compressor is used for
heating of the cabin, through the cabin heating system, and Fig. 6
shows the schematic operational energy flow as shown. The
coolant PTC heater next to the motor, as an auxiliary heating sys-
tem, is for rapid heating when the vehicle is started and the motor
is cold. The circuit composed of an electric pump, motor, radiator,
and heat exchanger on the left-hand side of Fig. 5 shows the waste
heat recovery feature of the heating system, of which details are
266 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273

Fig. 5. Components and operation of heating cycle of the proposed i-HVAC system.

Fig. 6. Energy flow of the proposed i-HVAC system for heating mode.

shown in Fig. 7. The heat generated by coolant flow inside the
driving motor system, including the drive motor, auxiliary motor,
motor driver (inverter), auxiliary motor driver (aux inverter), and
DCeDC converters, and inside the regulator (an electrical device
converting AC voltage of wireless power from the pick-up to the
required DC voltage to the battery and drive motor) is converted to
thermal energy through the heat exchanger, as in Fig. 7. The heat
exchanger is connected to the inverse heat exchanger of the main i-
HVAC system for the heat pump operation. It is observed in a bench
testing that the waste heat recovery power was 34 kW at the
cooling water temperature was at 15  C, with a refrigerant mass
flow rate of 650 kg/h and a coolant flow rate of 20 kg/L.
3.2. System modeling and performance measures
the power over time, (4). The available instantaneous power of the
bus is the power from the pick-up and is directly drawn from the
on-board ESS. These equations can be used to calculate the dynamic
power and energy balance applied to any given velocity profile,
such as the FTP-75 standard drive cycle and actual test tract in later
sections.
3.2.2. Thermal management modeling of HVAC system
Considering the overall heat balance inside a vehicle cabin, the
total heat rate can be expressed with the sum of individual
contribution from sources, as in (5) [14].
Q_ total ¼ Q_ cabin þ Q_ AC þ Q_ ambient (5)

3.2.1. Vehicle dynamic performance model

The vehicle driving resistance force and required electric power
during operation can be calculated as [7,32]

Fd ¼ Frol þ Fair þ Facc þ Fg : (1)

Pr ¼ Fd V (2)

Pa ¼ PESS þ PWPT (3)

Z
Ei ¼ Pi dt; ði ¼ r; aÞ (4)

From (1), the required instantaneous power by the bus can be Fig. 7. Waste heat recovery system from the coolant flow of electric drive system of the
calculated and the consumed energy can be obtained by integrating target bus.
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273 267

Assuming the compression process is adiabatic, the compressor

power absorbed by the refrigerant in cooling and heating can be
evaluated as

_
W_ ¼ mr Dhc;i : (10)
hc
The ratios of the cooling and heating capacities to the
compressor power provide the energetic performance of the sys-
tem in the air-conditioning and heating modes, respectively. Thus,
the coefficient of the performance of the compressor can be
expressed as

Q_ e
COPc ¼ (11)
W _
The overall system COP can be obtained by applying a similar
approach to that of the compressor's COP by adding up the total
power consumption of the components as

Q_
COPs ¼ P e (12)
W_

Fig. 8. Measured COP for the cooling mode (a) With various compressor speed at
ambient 35  C (b) With various ambient temperatures.

The target temperature change for cooling and heating inside

the cabin is calculated by Eq. (6), considering the customer's de-
mand and total heat generation. The temperature changes can be
positive or negative for heating and cooling, respectively, depend-
ing on the positive or negative values of the total heat rate quantity
in this equation.

Q_ total
DTi ¼ Dt (6)
_
ma ca þ DTM
The required heat rate for cooling can be calculated as in (7),
considering the target bulk temperature with the required time for
the cabin temperature to reach the comfort temperature with 1  C.

ðm_ a ca þ DTMÞðTcabin  Ttarget Þ

Q_ AC ¼ ðQ_ cabin þ Q_ ambient Þ 
tc
(7)
Referring to Figs. 4 and 5, the cooling and heating capacities in
cooling and heating modes can be expressed in terms of the mass
flow rate and the enthalpies of the air at the inlet and outlet of in-
vehicle units, such as the evaporator in cooling and the condenser
in heating modes respectively. For the cooling mode, the heat rate
through the evaporator can be expressed as in (8).

Q_ e ¼ m_ a Dhe;o (8)
Since the air flow over the evaporator exchanges heat with only
the refrigerant, the refrigerant mass flow rate can be calculated as

Q_ e
m_ r ¼ (9) Fig. 9. Measured COP, compressor work and heat transfer rate during the heating
Dhe;i mode (a) w.r.t. ambient temperature, (b) w.r.t. coolant flow rate.
268 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
3.2.3. Measured cooling and heating performance from bench
As industry practices, the system COP of air-conditioning and
heating for automotive in-vehicle applications are typically below
1.3 and 2.3, respectively [18e21], while the proposed system in this
paper targeted 1.6 for cooling thanks to the heap pump system and
waste heat recovery feature with the newly designed scroll-type
compressor. The compressor has an 11.3 kW power rating with a
maximum pressure of the refrigerant of 14.8 bar. The high-voltage
inverter is also built with 15 kW of power and 93% efficiency. An
actual measurement has been performed on the bench. The com-
mon compressor, in Figs. 4 and 5, was operated with variable PWM
frequency for speed control, while the air inlet temperature was
changed from 27 to 35  C with the ambient temperature being set
as 35  C simulating a typical summer. The measured results are
summarized in Fig. 8. With increasing of the speed of the
compressor, the COP of cooling was reduced from 1.8 to 1.6, because
the increased energy consumption of the compressor is greater
than the increase of the evaporation heat rate. With higher indoor
temperature, the COP of cooling stands relatively constant, while
the required cooling power was increased, as shown in Fig. 8.
The experiments of heating functions with varied ambient
temperatures and condenser coolant flow rates are performed in-
side the environmental chamber, simulating the vehicle-level of a
complete system. Instead of having an accurate coolant flow rate
with a certain temperature from a waste heat recovery block, the
constant temperature of coolant inlet temperature was applied. The
Fig. 10. Overall heating performance compared with pure electric heaters (a) over ambient temperature (b) over condenser flow rate.
experimental results are summarized in Figs. 9 and 10, which show
that, with the increased ambient temperature, the heating COP was
decreased, which results from the required heat rate for heating
being reduced. And the overall COP of heating is measured to be
above 2.6, which means that the ratio of heating capacity was 2.6
times that of the electrical compressor's input work to the system.
For accurate vehicle-level evaluation, the waste heat quantity
should be supplied instead of the fixed temperature to the evapo-
rator inlet; however, this experiment provides a good indication of
the overall heating system performance with the freedom to
change critical variables, like ambient temperature and inlet
coolant temperature.
When the ambient temperature is set as 10  C with 18 kW of
waste heat supply, the outlet temperature of the evaporator's water
decreased 0.5  C, so lowering the waste heat supply should be
limited. At this critical condition of the heating mode, the heat rate
from a heat core to a bus cabin is 28.1 kW and the average tem-
perature of the heat core was 48.7  C, while the water temperature
at the evaporator is 3.7  C and the average water temperature is
51  C.
To evaluate the relative heating performance, the electric power
consumption of the heat pump system with the waste heat re-
covery was compared to that of a purely electric water heater
system as the ambient temperature was changed from 0 to 20  C,
where the target cabin temperature was maintained at 25  C for
customer comfort.
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
The results verify that the heat pump system with auxiliary
waster heat recovery can reduce electric power consumption by
63e71%, as summarized in Fig. 10. The lower the ambient tem-
perature is, the greater the reduction rate will be, because the
system recovers more thermal energy from the waste heat. Thus,
less electric power is required for thermal energy recovery when
the difference between the cabin and ambient temperature is
larger. In addition, the experiment verifies that the feasibility of a
continuous heating operation to maintain a comfortable cabin
temperature, when the ambient temperature is within the exper-
imental range. The auxiliary heater system has been verified by
performing a bench-level testing, and the heating performance
measurements are shown in Fig. 9.
3.3. Vehicle-level HVAC system power control
For driving range extension and monitoring the battery's SOC
(status of charging) status, the i-HVAC system power control is
necessary. As shown Fig. 11, all the required power values on the
vehicle-level are considered for real-time vehicle-level power
control, such as driving power over vehicle operation conditions,
battery SOC level, and wireless power delivery upon the power
supply track, in addition to the driver's control input inside the
vehicle [27,28]. Upon the estimation of required power level, the
controller can effectively control the available and excess power
during operation. In order to achieve 20% (for cooling) and 25% (for
heating) of the total energy consumption, the controller should be
able to respond to the driver's desired control step between level 1
to 5 (as shown Fig. 12) or automatically downgrades the input
command if there is not enough power.
Considering the main power drive system and the required
power management of the air-conditioning, here we define the
‘main power consumption’ and ‘marginal power consumption.’ The
main power supply sources are from the regulator, whose power is
received from the on-road power supply while the bus is running,
from the battery and super capacitor system, and from the regen-
erative brake energy. The main power consumption refers to the
power consumed by the drive motor and other necessary devices
Fig. 11. Functional consideration on the HVAC system power control for various
vehicle operation environment.
269
Fig. 12. Power consumption control strategy of i-HVAC operation for different oper-
ating conditions.
for a normal vehicle operation. The marginal power means the
remaining power from the main drive, which can be utilized for the
air-conditioning system operation.
The entire supply power changes depending on the combination
of the power source. The power source combination is distin-
guished by charging conditions and non-charging conditions,
largely, depending on whether the bus is driving on the dynamic
power supply or not. Under the dynamic charging conditions, the
battery and the regulator simultaneously act as the power source.
During non-charging conditions, the battery and the super capac-
itors are the power source. The super capacitor is only utilized
when the required vehicle acceleration is over a certain value.
During non-charging conditions, when the bus is off the power
supply system, the bus is operated with it battery power only.
Fig. 12 shows the range of optimal control scheme of HVAC
when the main battery's SOC levels are within a certain pre-defined
range, as defined in the region of ‘highly affordable power level for
HVAC operation.’ When the power level is in ‘low affordable power
level for HVAC operation,’ the compressor speed control scheme
has several different speed steps depending on the required tem-
perature command from the bus operator, as denoted by DT or DF,
which means the required temperature difference between the
ambient and bus cabin. For the HVAC system's functional control,
the vehicle operation conditions and status of the energy storage
needs to be considered, which are unique features of electric
Fig. 13. Compressor speed control strategy over the battery's SOC level.
270
Fig. 14. Top view of the test track with dynamic wireless charging capability.
vehicles, in general. In addition to these functional requirements,
the dynamic charging on/off and the pick-up power capacity should
be considered in the overall power and energy measurement, as
depicted in Fig. 12.
Fig. 15. Vehicle speed over time while driving on the test track.
Fig. 16. Instantaneous measured vs. simulated power results for comparison.
I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
The HVAC controller, in this paper, includes the dynamic wire-
less charging capacity in view of on-board stored energy and
instantaneous power requirement for driving, hence a unique al-
gorithm has been designed and verified. The practical application
example is shown in Fig. 13, which shows the compressor's speed
control scheme over the main battery's SOC level for cooling. When
the SOC is under 30%, it is intended to stop the air-conditioning
while the bus operating should be limited when the SOC is under
20%. And a compressor speed control scheme with five steps is
proposed and applied to this research over the range of battery SOC
levels [23].
4. Experiment and simulation on a vehicle
4.1. Test drive cycle and experimental evaluation
The proposed i-HVAC system has been installed on an electric
bus in Fig. 1, with a dynamic wireless charging system of 100 kW
capacity, and with 80% of nominal system transfer efficiency. In
order to measure the instantaneous power and cumulative energy
consumption, the bus was operated on a test track that had
installed dynamic wireless charging power supply, as shown in
Fig. 14. The track had one static charging section of 2.5 m, and each
section of 25 m, 60 m, and 100 m power supply tracks for dynamic
charging, as noted numbers 2, 3, and 4, respectively, in Fig. 14.
The typical vehicle driving speed over time on the test track is
shown in Fig. 15, and the measured and simulated instantaneous
power of the vehicle is shown in Fig. 16, which shows that the
dynamic performance model to obtain the vehicle's required power
is well correlated with the test results; thus, the simulation can be
used for FTP-75 standard test cycle simulation in the following
section.
Fig. 17 shows the measured available power in the vehicle while
turning on the heating and air-conditioning driving on the test
track. It also shows the HVAC control action downgraded from Step
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273 271

Fig. 17. Measured instantaneous available power and power consumption by HVAC driving on the test track.

1 to Step 2 when the available power crosses 78 kW. By integrating
the measured power over time, the consumed energy during
heating can be calculated as 21.4% of the total energy consumed by
vehicle operation. For the air-conditioning, the consumed energy
was calculated as 18.8% of the total consumed energy of vehicle
operation. It should be noted that the HVAC controller is operated
as expected, while the energy consumption by HVAC is controlled
within 20% for cooling and 25% for heating of the total energy
consumption.
In order to verify that the HVAC energy consumption target is
met during the FTP-75 cycle, a dynamic simulation with an HVAC
controller has been applied to standard FTP-75 drive cycle. As
shown Fig. 18, by turning on the air-conditioning system, the
driving range per charge has been reduced 29%, as a basis.
In order to select the location of power supply track on the FTP-
75 standard drive cycle, three scenarios are proposed; the power
supply track is installed when the required driving power exceeds
60 kW, 80 kW and 100 kW into the simulation model.
4.2. Simulation on FTP-75 with dynamic on-road wireless power
supply track
With the scenario, the battery SOC change during the FTP-75
drive cycle is shown in Fig. 19. It should be noted that the actual
test during the FTP-75 cycle for an electric bus can require enor-
mous efforts, especially with on-road wireless charging facility
combined with a typical chassis dynamometer in a test cell envi-
ronment. It should also be noted that an outdoor test without the
proper ambient air control of surrounding the electric bus is usually
a difficult task as well. Thus, the simulation approach described
here with dynamic performance model with an imaginary wireless

Fig. 18. Result of simulation during the FTP-75 driving cycle (a) Comparison of the power of ‘air-conditioner on’ and ‘air-conditioner off’ (b) Comparison of the energy of ‘air-
conditioner on’ and ‘air-conditioner off’.
272 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
Fig. 19. Battery SOC level change for three different scenarios of wireless charging
power supply track installation.
power supply module can be very useful in evaluating the HVAC
performance during the FTP-75 cycle.
Out of these three scenarios of charging power supply track
installation, in Fig. 19, only the 60 kW-case showed continuous
vehicle operation without any down-time of vehicle charging, so
the HVAC control simulation was performed in this case, which
means the charging power supply tracks are installed when the
required power exceeds 60 kW.
For air-conditioning system control, Fig. 20 (a) shows the battery
SOC increasing from 50% to 80% since more energy was wirelessly
delivered from on-road charging power supply tracks than overall
consumed energy due to the vehicle driving over FTP-75 cycle with
air-conditioning mode operation.
Fig. 20. Results of the cooling mode simulation over the FTP-75 drive cycle with
wireless charging power supply track (a) Battery SOC over time (b) Cabin temperature
over time.
The vehicle-level HVAC controller is designed to compare the
consumed energy by air-conditioning system with 20% of the total
energy consumed at each time step. If it exceeds the 20% limit, the
controller will lower the HVAC control step, which results in
increasing cabin temperature. Fig. 20 (b) shows that the cabin
temperature is being maintained between 23.5  C and 24.5  C from
the initial temperature of 41  C, which also indicates that the
required electric energy operating air-conditioning system is below
20% of the total energy consumption, while keeping the target
cabin temperature, as intended the control algorithm in Fig. 21 (a).
For heating mode control, Fig. 21 (a) shows the battery SOC
increasing from 50% to 58% since there is more energy being
received from the on-road charger than the overall consumed en-
ergy due to the vehicle driving over the FTP-75 cycle with the
heating system turned on. The vehicle-level HVAC controller is
designed to compare the consumed energy by heating system with
25% of the total vehicle-level consumed energy at each time step. If
the energy consumed by the heating system exceeds 25% of the
Fig. 21. Results of heating mode simulation over FTP-75 drive cycle with wireless
charging power supply track installed (a) Battery SOC over time (b) Cabin temperature
over time.
 I.-S. Suh et al. / Energy 81 (2015) 262e273
total consumed energy, the controller will reduce the HVAC control
step, resulting in decreased cabin temperature. Fig. 21 (b) shows
that the cabin temperature is being maintained between 19.8  C
and 21.0  C from the initial temperature of 15  C, which also in-
dicates that the consumed energy by the heating system is main-
tained below 25% of the total energy consumption of the whole
vehicle, intended as the control algorithm of Fig. 21 (b).
5. Conclusion
The design and efficient energy management control of HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning) to achieve high opera-
tional efficiency for an electric bus equipped with dynamic wireless
charging capability have been discussed and verified experimen-
tally in this paper.
For a highly efficient HVAC system design, an integrated air-
conditioning and heap pump system has been proposed and veri-
fied to meet the objectives of HVAC system, incorporating the waste
heat recovery feature from the drive motor, its motor driver, and
other wireless power transfer electronic modules, such as a regu-
lator. In addition, operational energy management control on a
vehicle-level, considering real-time in-vehicle power consumption
and wirelessly delivered power, has also been discussed and vali-
dated to secure actual operational energy consumption target over
local test track and FTP-75 drive cycle, incorporated with dynamic
wireless charging power supply tracks. The target energy con-
sumption by cooling and heating has been met at less than 20% and
25% of the total electrical energy consumption of the electric bus
respectively, considering the driving range reduction due to HVAC
operation under typical demand conditions.
Acknowledgments
This research is sponsored by the National Research Foundation
of Korea (NRF) grant funded by Korean Ministry of Science, ICT &
Future Planning (MSIP), and the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry
and Energy (MTIE).
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