Typical difficulties for learners

Sentence constituents and

word order

Sentence constituents: basic principles

1. Comprehension
The order of words and basic sentence constituents generally creates more problems for
learners when they speak and write than in comprehension. In reading, particularly if they
have time to stop and study bits of text that they don't understand, learners can usually
work out from context how the words group together and whether a constituent is
functioning, for example, as subject or object. Knowledge (explicit and/or unconscious) of
the rules for ordering constituents and words within constituents naturally makes the
process of comprehension faster and easier. In listening, learners may be tricked by
misplaced expectations about the order of constituents and words. These expectations may
be instinctive, and may operate even when the learner has explicit knowledge of the
appropriate rules. For example, learners may struggle to understand sentences in which the
indirect object comes before the direct object (e.g. I showed Mother the baby. I passed Mary
the salt.), initially understanding Mother and Mary respectively to be the direct and not the
indirect object. Problems like this occur when the learner 'expects' indirect objects 308 I
Sentence constituents: basic principles either to be introduced by a preposition (e.g ....
showed to Mother, passed to Mary) and/or to come in some other position in the sentence
(e.g. after the direct object).

2. Speaking and writing

The greatest problem that many learners have with the basic principles and patterns of
sentence constituents, is not one that leads to mistakes. It is that they over-use these basic
patterns, leading to stretches of language that are correct but over-simple in construction.
We consider this problem in more detail in Chapter 30. Word order within constituents may
be more of a problem for learners whose first languages are broadly similar to English, but
where there are minor differences in word order (most European languages) than for those
whose languages are very significantly different. Mistakes often persist once learners have
understood the principles of word order in English, and they are often then able to identify
and correct these mistakes themselves when they are pointed out.

3. Missing linking verb be

Many languages (including most Middle Eastern and Asian) do not require a verb to link
subjects and complements. Speakers of these languages, especially at low levels, are
particularly prone to mistakes such as: *My house very big

4. The position of subjects

Learners sometimes reverse the order of subjects and no-object verbs. This is particularly
common among speakers of Latin-based languages after conjunctions like when or because.
A: When did you move back to the city?
5. The position of adverbials
We don't usually place adverbials between verbs and their direct objects or dependent
infinitive or -ing forms. Learners, however, may instinctively place adverbials in this position.
*She opened with difficulty the door.

6. The position of direct objects

Learners sometimes place direct objects between auxiliary verbs and main verbs. *I'm afraid
I still haven't the book finished.

7. Verbs which require or don't require indirect objects

Learners may leave out indirect objects when they use verbs that need to be followed by
them. We usually find plenty of examples of this when learners are reporting what someone
has said using verbs like say, tell and explain. *She told []she was ill.

8. Problems within noun phrases

Some learners may place adjectives {or adjective phrases) after the nouns they modify. *We
live in a house very big.

9. 'Dummy' subjects
Learners often leave out 'dummy' subjects. *[]Was very cloudy yesterday. [It]

Sentence constituents: major variants

1. Comprehension
As long as learners are familiar with standard patterns of ordering sentence constituents,
variants on these don't usually prevent them from understanding short sentences (although they
may miss intended subtleties of emphasis). Variants may create difficulties of comprehension in
longer and more complex sentences, particularly if it isn't immediately clear what the subject of
the clause is (we explore these difficulties in Chapter 30), and the following two kinds of variant
can also confuse learners.

2. Word order after 'fronted' negative adverbs

In sentences like Rarely did he speak, learners may be deceived into thinking that a question is
intended when it isn't.

3. Speaking and writing

With the exceptions we look at below, variants are unlikely to lead to mistakes when learners
speak and write. What is a more common and may be a more significant (if less noticeable)
problem is that learners 'play safe: Partly from fear of making mistakes, they often miss (or
reject) opportunities to spotlight, emphasise or play down particular sections of information by
varying the order of constituents and words. They may also simply be unaware of the means for
doing this. It is most of all when we read what our students have written that we need to be
sensitive to unnecessary simplification and missed opportunities. And it is in our feedback to
individual learners on their writing that we can often encourage or show them how they can
 achieve dearer or more elegant expression of their ideas and intentions, by fronting information,
pushing it back or spotlighting it.

4. Question forms
It is very common for learners to ask questions without making the necessary changes (or
additions) to word order. These mistakes are obvious when the question contains a question
word (what, why, who, etc.). *When she came?

5. Avoiding dummy it
Learners whose first language is Spanish, Italian or Portuguese are inclined to leave out the
dummy subject it. 324 I Sentence constituents: major variants *Is nothing that we can do about
it.

6. Word order after 'fronted' negative adverbs

Iflearners choose to 'front' adverbs with negative meaning they may forget to invert the subject
and verb, or may not know that this is needed. *Not only he could swim when he was three but
he was also beginning to play the piano.

Passive constructions

1. Comprehension
Learners may fail to recognise a passive construction, thinking that the subject of a sentence is
the agent when it isn't. For example, in the following, they may understand that the man was
the attacker: A man was attacked by three women.

2. Speaking and writing

Non-use For most learners knowing when to use passive constructions is the greatest problem,
and they often don't use them where they would be appropriate. The following description of
wine production, for example, was written by a learner with a very good command of grammar
and vocabulary, and who was able to form passive sentences accurately and appropriately in
controlled exercises. She had no particular personal association with wine production, and
wanted to write simply about agriculture and economic activity in her country.

3. Leaving out auxiliary verbs

Learners may leave out the auxiliary verb before the past participle. *England beaten by Costa
Rica in the semi-final.

4. Choosing the wrong auxiliary verb

Learners sometimes mix up be, been and being. *Our house is be renovated.

5. Choosing the wrong form of the main verb

Learners may fail to use a past participle form of the main verb. *It has been shows that ...

6. Choosing the wrong preposition

Some learners may systematically use the wrong preposition to introduce the agent in passive
constructions. *Kennedy was killed from a man called Oswald.
7. Choosing the wrong verb
Learners sometimes try to construct a passive form of a no-object verb. *He was died in 1963.

8. Word order
Many learners make mistakes in the order of words in causative constructions, typically
combining the auxiliary have or get with the past participle. *I am having straightened my teeth.

9. Special cases
Speakers oflanguages closely related to English may translate literally from their own languages.
*I am born in 1952. (French and Italian)

Dscourse marKers

1. Comprehension
Discourse markers sometimes underline logical relations or attitudes that are already apparent
in the conversation or text, in which case misunderstanding them or failing to notice them is not
a significant problem. However, we also 362 1 Discourse markers sometimes use discourse
markers in order to make these things clear. In this case it may be crucial that we notice and
understand them. Misunderstanding may also occur because learners are mistaken about the
meanings of certain discourse markers. For example, they may associate sorry with apologising,
and they may misinterpret people using sorry to disagree or criticise.

2. Speaking and writing

Meaning Precise distinctions in meaning between discourse markers are often extremely subtle,
and learners usually build up an awareness of these only as a result of exposure to the items and
noticing how they are used over a considerable period of time. In the meantime, they may use
them in ways which are misleading or stylistically awkward. The easiest way to identify problems
of this nature is often by analysing written composition. For example, in the following, the
learner has used besides as though it merely introduces additional information (like moreover),
whereas, in fact, we generally use it to introduce additional arguments.
3. Style
Learners may understand the meaning of a discourse marker, without realising that it tends to
be used only in particular contexts. It sounds very odd when someone consistently uses
discourse markers where a simple conjunction (e.g. and or but) would do as well. Equally, some
of the more colloquial expressions can seem out of place in formal (e.g. academic) prose, and
some of the more formal markers will seem out of place in casual conversation.

4. Word order
While the position of many discourse markers is very flexible, the position of others is more
restricted. Learners may use these in inappropriate positions. *I anyway wanted to speak to him
before he left.

5. Form
Learners may forget the precise words and form of words in phrases. *Thanks God I had backed
up all the important files.
 Ellipsis and substitution

1. Comprehension
Learners often have considerable problems in understanding language that contains a lot of
ellipsis and substitution. This is particularly the case with listening (in reading we can 'go back'
and try to sort out the causes of any misunderstanding), and these features are especially
problematic for learners who don't already know a European language. We can help our
students by exposing them to language in which ellipsis and substitution take place and by
guiding them to recognise and understand these ( 1~ Jest;nn LlQS p;; ! 5~ Jfl 374 I Ellipsis and
substitution features so that they have realistic and informed expectations about authentic
language use (e.g. by asking them What information is missing? What does this word refer to?
and encouraging them to explore and discuss the text to find the answers). The texts in the
Consolidation exercises provide a further example of some of the difficulties learners of English
may face with understanding ellipsis and substitution.

2. Speaking and writing

Avoidance We choose what to leave out and what to substitute according to our assessment of
how much our readers or the people we are talking to already know. Learners tend to be very
cautious about this, and may provide more information than is necessary. We may choose not to
discourage this caution with learners who have difficulty in expressing themselves, but we need
to recognise this over-explicitness, and at some point we will want to encourage them to leave
more out and to make greater use of substitute forms.

3. Definite and indefinite pronouns

Learners often use definite instead ofindefinite pronouns. •we have never had a barbecue but I
would love to organise it.

4. Similarity, agreement and disagreement

Rather like question tags, learners often simplify the structure of phrases such as so do I, neither
should she, etc. *She left early and so I did.