B .

B Adhikari
Lamjung Campus-070

Course Outline (Micro syllabus)

Course Code: AGR 111
Course Title: Principles of Agronomy
Credit Hours: 3 (2+1)
Topic No. of
lectures

1. Overview of agriculture and agronomy 3

1.1 Definition of Agriculture, hunting and gathering system, shifting cultivation, subsistence 1
agriculture, traditional agriculture, commercial agriculture, green revolution

1.2 Definition of ecological agriculture, sustainable agriculture, soil less agriculture, precision 1
farming, contract farming, cooperative farming, periurban agriculture.

1.3 Definition of agronomy, relation of agronomy to other science, definition of food security, major 1
problems of Nepalese agriculture, role of agronomist in solving food problems

2. Weather and Climate 3

2.1 Definition of weather, climate, micro-climate, meteorology, agro-meteorology, major elements of 1

climate, solar radiation and its photosynthetic, photoperiodic, thermal and other effects on
growth.

2.2 Temperature, cardinal temperature, effect of temperature on biochemical reaction, photosynthesis 1

and respiration, growth substances and growth duration of crops, concept of growing degree
days.

2.3 Precipitation and its effect on crop production, arable land classification based on precipitation 1
(arid, semi arid, sub humid and humid), relative humidity and wind and their effect on crop
growth.
3. Tillage 2
3.1 Definition, brief history and objectives of tillage, soil tilth, types/methods of tillage (conventional 1
and conservation tillage), adventage and disadvantage of conventional tillage.
3.2. Definition of primary and secondary and inter tillage, conservation tillage (minimum, zero and 1
mulch tillage), advantage and disadvantage of conservation tillage.
4. Seed and seed quality 3
4.1 Definition of seed, seed technology, characteristics of quality seed (genetic, physiological, 1
physical, entomological, and pathological), importance of quality seed.
4.2 Different classes of seed (Breeder, foundation, certified seed I, certified seed II, improved seed), 2
seed germination, external and internal condition for seed germination, seed dormancy, causes of
seed dormancy, seed certification.
5. The cropping system 2
5.1 Definition of sole cropping, monoculture, cropping pattern, cropping system, farming system, 1

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multiple cropping, sequence cropping, intercropping, mixed cropping and relay cropping
5.2 Definition and method to calculate cropping index, cropping intensity, land equivalent ratio. 1
Definition of crop rotation, principles and advantage of crop rotation.

6. Plant type and plant population 1

6.1 Concept of ideal plant type and crop yield, crop density, optimum plant population, crop 1
geometry and their importance

7. Soil fertility and soil productivity 6

7.1 Definition of soil fertility and soil productivity, criteria of essentiality of elements, classification 2
of essential elements (structural, mineral, macro and micro nutrients), forms of elements
absorbed by plants, dynamics of nutrients in soil plant environments.

7.2 Manures and fertilizers: Importance of organic manures, classification of manures (bulky and 2
concentrated organic manures), brief description of FYM, compost, vermicompost, animal
manures, night soil, sewage and sludge, biogas slurry, oil seed cakes, green manures.

7.3 Fertilizers: Classification of fertilizers, nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers, 1

biofertilizer: saprophytes. symbiotic bacteria, blue green algae, azolla, azotobacter and
Mycorrhiza.

7.4 Factors affecting fertilizer use, time of fertilizer application, methods of fertilizer application, use 1
and limitation of organic manures, green manures, bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizer.

8. Weed Management 3

8.1 Definition of weed, losses caused by weeds, advantages and disadvantages of weeds 1

8. 2 Classification of weeds based on life cycle, cotyledons and morphological characters, modes of 1
weed seed dispersal (wind, water, animals and humans)

8.3 Concept of weed management, prevention, eradication, control, physical, chemical, biological 1
and chemical control methods, relative merit and demerit of different biological and chemical
control methods.

9. Irrigation and drainage 4

9.1 Principles of plant-soil- water relationship, importance of irrigation to crops, water use efficiency, 1
requirement and frequency of irrigation

9.2 Methods of irrigation: surface irrigation (flooding, check basin, basin/ring, border strip, furrow), 1
subsurface method, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, advantage and disadvantage of sprinkler
and drip irrigation, irrigation scheduling.

9.3 Drainage: Principles and objectives of drainage and drainage system, method of improving soil 1
drainage system

9.4 Adverse effect of water logging, types of drainage: surface drainage (open ditch drainage, 1

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random field ditch drainage, land smoothing, bedding/dead furrow), subsurface

10. Soil erosion 2

10.1 Definition of soil erosion, types of water erosion (sheet, rill, gully, ravines, stream bank and 1
landslides), factors affecting water erosion, losses due to water erosion.

10.2 Water erosion control practices, wind erosion (saltation, surface creep, suspension), factors 1
affecting wind erosion, losses due to wind erosion, wind erosion control

11. Rainfed farming and water harvesting technology. 1

11.1 Rainfed farming: difference between dry land farming and rainfed farming, importance of 1
rainfed farming in Nepal, management of rained farming and water harvesting technology.

Total 30

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1. Overview of agriculture and agronomy

1.1 Definition of Agriculture, hunting and gathering system, shifting cultivation, subsistence agriculture,
traditional agriculture, commercial agriculture, green revolution

Agriculture may be defined as the science, art and business of producing crops and animals
under human supervision. The word “agriculture”is derived from the Latin words “ager”
referring to the soil/land/field and “cultura” to its cultivation. It is very broad term, which
includes crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry etc. It is synonymous with
farming : the field or field dependent production of food, fodder and industrial organic materials.
The Greek "Geoponic" (cultivation in earth), "hydroponic" (culitvation in water) and "aeroponic"
(cultivation in air) refers to the three main spheres of agriculture.

Hunting and gathering System

Before agriculture, human (Homo erectus and H. sapiens) survived by hunting animals, fishing
and gathering plants for food. About 500 thousand years ago man started the use and control of
fire. They hunted a variety of animals and cooked their meat on fire. Apart from the meat of
animals, they gathered a variety of seeds, leaves and fruits from the jungle. The art of hunting
and gathering did not appear to have completely vanished/disappeared even with advent of
modern crop culture. Studies shows that pockets of surviving hunters and gathers still exist in the
areas where land and climate do not favour deliberate crop culture as profitable enterprise. These
areas include parts of the arctic region and pockets of tropical rain forest.

Shifting cultivation/ Swidden agriculture

This is a primitive agriculture system in which farmers clear small patches in the forest and burn
the dried biomass. They grow different crops on the cleared forestland for several years. When
the soil fertility declines, weed infestation began to occur and productivity goes down, they shift
on another area to slash and burn for cultivating land. After 10-15 years previous area again
become regenerated and ready for repeating the same. This system of cultivation still exists in
the forest area of South America and in many pockets of tropical rain forest. We can see this
practice in some districts of Nepal viz. Tanahun, Gorkha, Dhading and hilly districts of Mid to
Far Western Development Region.

Subsistence agriculture
This is a type of agriculture system in which, producer consumes a large part of the final
produce. Most subsistence agriculture also produces some of crops or animals very little for sale.
Many farmers of Nepal practiced the subsistence agriculture system.

Traditional agriculture
Agriculture system, which are based on indigenous knowledge and practices and have evolved
over many generations. Many farmers of South Asia including Nepal follow traditional
agriculture.

Commercial /Industrial/Modern agriculture

Agricultural system, which consider agriculture as an industrial enterprise. In this system inputs
and technology are applied to gain maximum profit. This type of agriculture system is now

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followed in the many countries of the world. Poultry industry of Chitwan, tea industry of Jhapa,
Ilam are the examples of industrial agriculture.

Green revolution

Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives,
occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the
world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. During 1960’s many countries were facing
food deficit. The scientists at International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC) were working
to improve the production of food crops. The initiatives, led by) Norman Borlaug, (a Pathologist
working at CIMMYT, Mexico) the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving
over a billion people from starvation, involved the development high yielding wheat varieties,
which were semi dwarf, adaptive, resistant to disease, responsive to fertilizer and irrigation.
These varieties were successfully introduced in many countries. Besides that farmers were
,,encouraged to use fertilizer, irrigation and pesticides. Improved varieties coupled with
production technology drastically increased the food production. Eventually Dr. Borlaug
received Nobel Prize in 1970. IRRI also developed high yielding, semi-dwarf, fertilizer
responsive rice varieties, which increased the rice production of Asian farmers (where >90% rice
is produced). This whole process of transformation of agriculture is known as green revolution.

1.2 Definition of ecological agriculture, sustainable agriculture, soil less agriculture, precision farming,
contract farming, cooperative farming, periurban agriculture.

Ecological agriculture/eco-farming
Ecological agriculture is the farming practices that enhance or at least do not harm the
environment and are aimed at minimizing the use of chemical inputs. The ecological agriculture
is based on the principles of increasing diversity, security of favourable soil condition for plant
growth particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil life, minimizing loss due to
flow of solar radiation, air, water and soil through microclimatic management, water
management and erosion control and minimizing loss from pest by means of prevention and safe
treatment.

Sustainable agriculture
Any agricultural practice or philosophy and approach of production system that makes
agriculture economically viable, ecologically sound, socially and culturally appropriate.
There are different models of sustainable agriculture evolved throughout the world. Some of
these models are Low Input Sustainable Agriculture (LISA), Low External Input Sustainable
Agriculture (LEISA), organic farming, biodynamic farming, regenerative agriculture,
permaculture and natural farming.

Soil less agriculture

The crop culture without soil is called soil less agriculture. Nutrient solution for plant growth is
formulated and made available to the crops. There are three types of soil less agriculture system.

a) Hydroponic system: Cultivation of crop in water is called hydroponic. In this system the,
roots of plants are continuously or intermittently submerged in nutrient solution and aerial parts

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are supported at the base with cardboard, plastic or wires. The continuous submergence limits the
oxygen supply and thus an aeration pumping system has to be provided for the growth of plants.

b) Aeroponic: Cultivation of crop in air is called aeroponic. In this system the plants are grown
in holes in panels of expanded polystyrene (or foam plastic) with roots suspended in mid air
beneath the panel and enclosed in a spraying box. Plant roots continuously or intermittently
saturated with a mist of nutrient solution.

c) Sand culture: Plants are grown in inorganic media like sand, gravel or in organic media like
coconut coir dust, saw dust etc and nutrient solution is given for plant growth.

Precision farming
In large area of field there is always variation in different aspects. That variation may be yielding
potential, incidence of weeds, insects and diseases etc. This special variability can be detected
with special scientific system like GPS (Global Positioning System), remote sensing etc. After
detecting the variability in the field, site-specific crop management practices can be applied. The
equipment like Variable Rate Technology (VRT) is now available, which can adjust seed,
fertilizer and pesticides according to need of specific site. This system of farming is called
precision or prescription farming.

Contract farming
This is a farming practice in which land is taken on contract for cultivation of crops. Much big
company, transnational cooperation takes land on lease and grows crops on large scale for profit.
This system is also called corperate farming. In Nepal, the poor, land less and small landholders
also enter into production relation of share tenancy, as there is no option for them other than to
sit idle and remain semi starved at home. Land reform act of 1964 made sharecropper as the legal
tenant. Thus there are lands, which have dual ownership of landlord and tenant.

Cooperative farming
This is a farming practice in which land, equipment, labour and benefit are shared equally among
the members of community or group involved in agricultural production. Kibutz in Israel is one
of the examples of co-operative farming. There may be some different form of cooperative
farming where only the part of production system or marketing system are shared among the
members of co-operative.

Peri-urban agriculture
In urban and semi urban area (periphery of city areas) vacant space, balcony, rooftop, backyard
space is utilized to grow vegetable, ornamental, herbal and fruit crops. Small animals like swine,
goat, poultry, pigeon, duck, rabbit, etc are raised either for commercial use or for home
consumption.

Hanging pots, baskets, sacs, plastic bottles, containers etc. are kept in sunny areas to utilize
vertical space and to grow crops either for beautification or for home consumption. Growers
generally utilize the garbage, recycled waste, and available local resources for cultivation. Plastic
tunnels, greenhouse, hydroponics and advanced technology are also used for commercial
production. As the consumers are available in nearby market, this type of agriculture is

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remunerative and successful in the city. Urban agriculture is also done to utilize extra time after
office and business work, to supply fresh vegetable for home consumption, to protect
environment and beautify home. This type of agriculture is flourishing in many cities of the
world.
1.3 Definition of agronomy, relation of agronomy to other science, definition of food security, major
problems of Nepalese agriculture, role of agronomist in solving food problems

Agronomy
The term agronomy has been derived from two Greek words: Agros: means field and nomos
means management. Thus agronomy has been defined as “the branch of agricultural science that
deals with principles and practices of crop production and field management”.
Or
“Agronomy is the art and science of crop production covering soil, tillage, seed, sowing time,
methods of seeding, manures and fertilizers use with their time of application, irrigation
schedule, pesticide application, post harvest techniques and efficient and economic management
of farm”.

Relation of Agronomy with Other Disciplines of Agricultural Sciences

1) Soil science
Soil is the medium of plant growth. It can provide nutrient elements, air and water to the plants.
Before planting the agronomical crops the knowledge about soil mineral composition, soil
texture, water holding capacity, nutrient movement and absorption capacity, biological aspects in
relation to soil pests and diseases and beneficial organisms and soil pH are necessary. Without
the knowledge of soil, agronomy would not be completed.

2) Genetics, Plant Breeding and Bio-technology

Application of genetics in relation to plant breeding and proper choice of varieties under various
and specific agro-climatic condition is helpful to increase the yield and quality aspects of field
crops. The agronomist should study these sciences properly because for the development of any
variety/cultivars, the principles of genetics, plant breeding, biotechnology etc are commonly
used. In recent time the need for tissue culture and genetic engineering is highly emphasized and
appreciated to the pace of conventional plant breeding techniques.

3) Plant pathology
Different disease pathogens attack the plant from seeding to harvesting and storage.
Understanding the effect of the several fungal, bacterial and viral diseases, factors affecting their
development and control measures are very much essential for successful crop production with
higher crop productivity.

4) Entomology
Understanding the effect of various crop pests such as insects, mites, nematodes, rodents etc,
factors affecting their development and control measures are needed for successful crop
production.

5) Agri-botany and Crop Physiology

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Any studies of agronomical crops related to morphology, anatomy and reproduction of plants are
based on botany and its applications. The knowledge of various plant physiological processes
such as photoperiod sensitivity and stress tolerance helps an agronomist to manipulate crops to
fit into multiple cropping systems if needed.

6) Weed science
Weed not only reduce the crop yield as a result of competition but also impair the quality of
produce through contamination. Therefore, understanding of the deleterious effect of weed
competition and contamination and their suitable control measures is also essential for successful
crop production.

7) Seed technology
“Seed technology may be defined as the methods through which the genetic and physical
characteristics of seed could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development,
evaluation and release, seed production, processing, storage and certification. Seed technology is
an interdisciplinary science, which deals from varieties release to all aspect of seed handling.
Plant breeder, agronomist, botanist, pathologist, entomologist and physiologist can work together
on the various aspects of seed technology.

8) Post harvest technology

All the crops that a farmer harvest from his farm can neither be sold nor consumed immediately
and some of the products are to be stored for long or short period or have to be processed before
use. Hence, the knowledge about storability, processing and processing quality is of great
importance for successful crop husbandry.

9) Agro-meteorology
An understanding of the effects of various components of climate and weather on crops such as
solar radiation, temperature, rainfall, humidity, hailstorm, wind and its velocity, other
atmospheric composition etc. is a prerequisite for successful crop production.

10) Agri-engineering
An understanding of principles and practices of irrigation and drainage management, soil and
water conservation and appropriate implements and machines are very essential for crop
production.

11. Extension and rural sociology

Agronomy is also related with the principles and methodology followed in extension and rural
sociology. Different developed new technologies or varieties and practices must be reached to
the farmers and expansion of these programs could help to meet local needs of rural and urban
societies. Besides the understanding of above mentioned disciplines related to agricultural
sciences, an agronomist must have the better understanding of agricultural statistics and
computer science, agri-economics and marketing, agri-resource management, farm management,
biochemistry etc.

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Definition of food security

Food security is the practices of managing the essential food materials to global, regional or
national level. For people to be food secure that is to have access at all times to the food
required for a healthy and productive life. There must be both availability of food and
access to food. Access to food by households (and individuals) is conditioned by poverty.
The poor usually lack adequate means to secure access to food.

Over 1.1 billion people in developing countries were living in poverty in 1990, more than 500
million in conditions of extreme poverty. South Asia is the home of about 50% of the developing
world’s poor (more than 500 million people). Today there are more than 700 million people who
do not have access to sufficient food to meet their needs for a healthy and productivity life. They
often go hungry and do not know when they will have their next meal. Many of these hungry
adults and children also suffer from diseases associated with hunger and poverty. Hunger and
food insecurity have a significant effect on health and nutrition of both adults and children. They
can lead to growth failure in children.

South Asia is the home of about half of the developing world’s hungry and food insecure people,
but this population group is growing rapidly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Much of the poverty and
food insecurity is in rural areas, mainly in low potential areas such as arid zones, but urban
poverty is also growing rapidly.

Major key factors that influence future food production and consumption
Global and regional food production and consumption during the next 10-20 years will be
influenced by a large number of factors. Changes in the following four sets of factors are likely
to be particularly important:
1. Economic growth and economic policies
2. Population growth and urbanization
3. Rural infrastructure, agricultural production technology, and access to modern inputs.
4. Natural resource management and environmental considerations.

Major food problems and its causes in Nepal

Nepal is an economically underdeveloped country which has much more serious problem of food
scarcity to feed for the people. We have about 20.5 million populations with growth rate of 2.6%
per year. Even if this growth rate stagnates there will be 43.19 millions people by the year 2025
AD. This shows that the country wills double its populations half a decade earlier than does the
world. So in the next 30 years, we will have to produce more food than has been produced in all
of the history of the nation. The current food production is far behind the population growth. In
the last 10 years, the food production has increased by 15% where as the populations has
increased by 25%. Other reasons of food insecurity observed in some parts Nepal are due to:
population growth, yield stagnation, conversion of agricultural land for other purposes,
utilization of staple food crops in increasing livestock industries, degradation of natural
resources, low income and lack of purchasing power of people, regional imbalance in food
production, food distribution etc.

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Major problems of Nepalese Agriculture

1) Land fragmentation
a. Small parcel of land scattered at different places. b. Difficult to manage modern
technology.

2) Poor infrastructure development

Lack of irrigation, rural roads, electricity, cold storage, market and rural agro-based
industries.

3) Lower investment in farming

a. Poor farmer b. Difficult to get credit for poor farmer

4) Decline farm profitability

a. High input cost b. Labour migration from rural area to urban area and other country.
c. Yield stagnation. d. Lower price of farmer production

5) Environmental degradation
a. Decline soil fertility. B. Soil erosion c. Flood and natural calamities.

Role of Agronomist in solving food problems

Agronomists as well as all other agriculturists are confronted with the problem of providing food
for a world population that continues to grow at an accelerated rate. Food production can be
augmented either by expansion of cultivated land area or by increased yield on present
agricultural land. Cultivating more land was widely practiced in the past to increase production
which is seldom possible today. To meet the above objective agronomist may perform following
roles:
1) Develop suitable agronomic package of practice (POP) for prime agricultural land.
2) Develop suitable soil/crop/water management for marginal and degraded land.
3) Develop suitable resource conserving agronomic practices to best utilize the scarce
resources.
4) Develop low cost production technology to reduce the cost of production.
5) Study alternative crops/varieties in different environment to meet increasing food demand
of population.
6) Study to understand the process that can limit or increase the productivity of crops.
7) Integrate other disciplines of agricultural science to improve the productivity and quality
of food crops.
8) Study the farming system as a whole to improve the overall income of the farmer.
9) Develop different activities for watershed management and conservation of natural
resources
10) Develop nutrient management and efficient water management technology.
11) Develop weed and other pest management practices.

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2. Weather and Climate

2.1 Definition of weather, climate, micro-climate, meteorology, agro-meteorology, major elements of climate,
solar radiation and its photosynthetic, photoperiodic, thermal and other effects on growth.

Weather
Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere including temperature,
rainfall and humidity. Weather is not the same everywhere. It is defined as the condition of the
atmosphere at a given place (within village, city or even a district) and at a given time (short
term i.e. hourly, daily or weekly) as regards heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain etc. It
is expressed by numerical values of meteorological parameters. Perhaps it is hot, dry and sunny
today where you live, but in other parts of the world it is cloudy, raining or even snowing.
Everyday, weather events are recorded and predicted by meteorologists worldwide. Weather is
presented daily by radio or TV as sunny days, amount of rainfall,, maximum and minimum
temperatures, humidity etc. The study of the effect of weather elements on crop production may
help the farmer to effectively plan for all his agricultural activities.

Climate
The dictionary meaning of climate is “the prevailing weather conditions of an area”. Climate is
defined as the aggregation or summation of weather conditions over a given region during a
comparatively longer period. Climate is the average weather pattern in a place over many
years.The intensity and duration of light, temperature, humidity, direction and velocity of wind,
quantity and pattern of precipitation etc. over a relatively long period of time (month, season or
year) and larger territory (zone, state, country or part of continent) constitute the climate of any
place. Climate is described by the normals and averages, e.g. cold season, tropical or temperate
climate etc. Climate can be studied as two categories for agricultural purposes as:

a) Macro-climate
It refers to the climate of relatively large part of the earth surface, which is observed and
recorded by a network of meteorological stations and forms the basis for the characterization of
zonal and regional climates.

b) Micro-climate
The climate of extremely small area is called microclimate. It is the weather condition of plant
stand or around plant canopy or from the ground surface of the plant stand to the deepest root
zone in the soil. It is characteristics of climate determined by the type and height of the plant
cover. It is influenced by the climatic elements like temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind velocity
etc.
Elements of weather and climate

There are several elements that make up the weather and climate of a place. The major of these
elements are five: temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and rain. Analysis of these elements can
provide the basis for forecasting weather. These same elements make also the basis of
climatology study, of course, within a different time scale rather than it does in meteorology.

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Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a deep blanket of gases and suspended liquids and solids that entirely
envelops the earth. It is colourless, tasteless and odour less mixture of gases that surround the
earth. It extends upto a height of about 1600 kms. However 99% of total mass of a atmosphere is
within 40 kms from the earth. Based on vertical temperature differences atmosphere is divided
into five major layers or strata which are troposphere (upto 20 km), stratosphere (20–50 km),
mesosphere (50-80 km) thermosphere (about 500 km from earth surface) and exosphere
(extends up to 3290 km from the earth)..
The composition of troposphere excepting water vapor and dust particles is as follows-

Constituent Percentage by volume

a. Nitrogen 78.0841
b. Oxygen 20.9476
c. Carbon dioxide 0.0318
d. Argon 0.2340
e. Neon 0.001818
f. Helium 0.000524
g. Methane 0.0002
h. Nitrogen Oxide 0.00005
i. Krypton 0.000114
j. Hydrogen 0.00005
k. Xenon 0.0000087
l. Ozone 0.000001

Meteorology
It is a branch of physical science that deals with the study of physical processes in the
atmosphere that produces weather. The radiation, temperature, humidity and wind movement are
responsible for changing the state of atmosphere. In other words it is a science of atmosphere and
its attendant activities.

Agro-meteorology
Agricultural meteorology is defined as a branch of applied meteorology which deals with the
response of crops to the physical environment. The living organisms studied in agro-meteorology
are restricted to cultivated plants, livestock, insects, pests and organism of agricultural
importance. Agro-meteorology also deals with agroclimatology, instrumentation and weather
forecasting.

The field of interest of agro-meteorology extends from the soil surface layer to the depth upto
root penetrates. In the atmosphere it is interested in the air layer near the ground in which crop
and higher organisms grow and animals live, to the highest levels in the atmosphere through
which the transport of seeds, spores, pollen and insects may take place.

Major elements of climate

The characteristics of atmosphere are called as the elements of climate. They include solar
radiation, temperature, wind speed and direction, precipitation, humidity, cloudiness and

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evaporation. The elements are recorded daily at specified time using various instruments
installed in meteorological stations.

Solar radiation
Solar radiation is the source of energy for all the physical processes taking place in the
atmosphere. The sun supplies virtually all the energy (99.9%) received by the earth. Sun is a hot
gaseous body with a surface temperature of about 6000oC and emits huge quantities of energy.
This energy is used to drive the process of photosynthesis, evaporation, heating the soil and air.
Sun emits energy in the form of electro-megnetic radiation. Almost the constant amount of solar
radiation (1.94 cal/cm2/min) is emitted by sun continuously, which is called solar constant
(energy falling in one minute on a surface area of one square centimeter at the outer boundary of
the atmosphere). Solar radiation comes through the space without any change or loss. When it
enters the atmosphere, it undergoes changes and losses occur before reaching the earth due to
absorption by atmosphere, reflection by clouds and scattering by dust particles. It consists of
stream or flow of particles. These particles are called photons. Earth intercepts only a very
minute part (1 in 2 x 10 9) of the total energy. Solar radiation performs mainly two essential
functions.

1. It provides light for direct growth and development functions in the plants.
2. It provides heat that governs and indirectly affects various physiological processes in the
plant.

The instrument that is used to measure total incoming radiation is called pyranometer. Intensity,
duration and quality of solar radiation, which control growth and development in the plants. The
duration of radiation controls photoperiodism and the intensity and quality control the
physiological processes in the plants.

Effect of solar radiation on crop production

1. Photoperiodic effect

Day length is called photoperiod or light period. Day length is defined as the duration from the
sunrise to sunset, which also includes the morning and evening twilights. Photoperiodism is the
response of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods within a 24-hour cycle. The
aspects of plant growth and development that are affected by photoperiod include flowering,
vegetative growth, internode elongation; tuber, rhizome and bulb formation, sex expression, the
formation of pigments such as anthocyanin, the number and size of root nodules, fruit set, leaf
fall and dormancy. It has been observed that the initiation of the reproductive phase in the plants
is initiated when certain duration of light period is obtained. Based on the duration of light period
required, the plants are classified as a) short day plants b) long day plants and c) day neutral
plants.

Long day plant (LDP) and short day plant (SDP) apply to crops that are sensitive to photoperiod
while Day neutral plants (DNPs) are not sensitive, that is, they do not exhibit photoperiodism.
Long-day plants are those in which crop response occurs when daylength is in excess of a critical
length while the response of short-day plants occurs when daylength is below a certain critical
length. Photoperiodic response also differs with variety within a species.

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SDP are those whose reproductive phase is initiated when period of shorter light duration
(maximum of about 12 hours) is provided e.g. chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum sp.), poinsettia
(Euphorbia pulcherrima), soybean (Glycine max), Maryland Mammoth tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum), and cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium); etc. Similarly, the long day plants require
longer light duration (minimum of 13 hours) for the initiation of reproductive phase e.g. Swiss
chard or sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), raddish (Raphanus sativus), rye (Secale cereale), spinach
(Spinacea oleracea), and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) etc. Day neutral plants on the other
hand do not have any specific requirements of duration of light period for the initiation of the
reproductive phase e.g. sunflower (Helianthus annuus), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris),
garden pea (Pisum sativum), and corn (Zea mays).

2. Photosynthetic effect
Solar radiation intensity has its influence on photosynthesis of the plants. It is affected by
quantity and quality of light. In general higher is the solar radiation higher is the photosynthetic
rate. Normally, higher solar radiation intensity is suitable for most of the crop plants but the
requirement varies with plant to plant, with their varieties and with their stages of growth. The
radiation that utilized in the photosynthesis process includes the wave lengths ranging from 0.36-
0.76 micron known as photosynthetic active radiation.

Not all the waves in solar radiation spectrum are equally important in plant growth and
development processes. For example the radiation below 0.25 micron is harmful to the plants and
that above 0.76 micron has almost heat or thermal effects only. In the colour spectrum of solar
radiation wave of different colour bands have different effects on the plants. Yellow, orange and
red bands are important in photoperiodism. Similarly, blue, orange and red rays are important in
photosynthesis.

3. Photothermic effect
Another important influence of solar radiation intensity is in terms of increase in the plant
temperature with the increase in the level of solar radiation intensity. The temperature of the air
and soil affects all the growth processes of plants. Higher heat builds up in the plants result in
increased transpiration demand. Plants increase their transpiration demand in order to dissipate
the heat to maintain required plant temperature. Light also influenced on stomata and their
opening and closing also. Usually leaves developing under full sunlight condition have reduced
size and closer arrangement of stomata than the plants grown in shade.

4. Seed dormancy and germination

Solar radiation or light also influenced on seed dormancy and germination. Depending upon the
light requirement during seed germination, seeds of some plant species are classified as
positively photoblastic and negatively photoblastic seed. Seeds of some plant species like lettuce,
tobacco etc will not germinate in the absence of light and are called positively photoblastic seed.
On the other hand, seeds of onions and amaranthus will remain dormant if exposed to light and
these are called negatively photoblastic seed.

5. Chemical composition of crops

Cool bright conditions favor the conversion of starch into sugar. Crops grown in sufficient light
have decreased acidity of cell sap, high C:N ratio, low K, Ca and P content.

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2.2 Temperature, cardinal temperature, effect of temperature on biochemical reaction, photosynthesis and
respiration, growth substances and growth duration of crops, concept of growing degree days.

Temperature
The measure of intensity of heat energy or hotness or coldness of a substance is called as
temperature. It is measured in metric system i.e. in Celsius scale in which 0 is the freezing point
and 100 is the boiling point. Radiation from the earth is the primary source of heat energy.
Temperature gradually increases from sunrise reaching maximum at about 2.00 p.m. It decreases
gradually reaching a minimum before sunrise. The temperature differences between the
maximum and minimum is called as diurnal range of temperature. The growth of higher plants is
restricted to temperature between 0-60oC and crop plants are further restricted to a narrower
range of 10-40oC. However each species and variety of plants and each age group of plants has
its own upper and lower temperature limits. Beyond three limits a plant gets considerable
damaged and gets even killed. Temperature below 6 oC is lethal to most plants. The upper lethal
temperatures for most plants range from 50-60oC depending upon the species, stage of growth
and length of exposure to high temperature. For example coconut and pineapple thrive only
when temperatures are always above 21oC for at least part of the growing season. Cotton,
sugarcane and rice will not grow if temperatures are below 15 oC. Many vegetables require
temperature at least 8oC.

Cardinal temperature
Every plant community has its own minimum, optimum and maximum temperature for survival
known as their cardinal temperature. The three temperatures of vital activity have been
recognized which are often termed as cardinal points. These critical low and high temperatures
are required for better growth and development of crops. They differ with the crop, variety,
physical stages of the crop plants etc. The three types of temperature ranges are:

1. Minimum temperature
Minimum temperature is the temperature at which any plant can continue its activity and below
which no growth occurs. For typical cool season, it ranges between 0 and 5 oC and for hot season
crops between 15 and 18oC.

2. Optimum temperature
The temperature at which a plant functions best is called as the optimum temperature. For cool
season crops it ranges between 25 and 31oC and for hot season crops between 37oC.

3. Maximum temperature
The maximum temperature tolerance varies greatly with the crop species. Above which plant
growth stops. The tolerable maximum temperature for hot season is 44-50 oC and cool season
crop is 31-37oC. The cardinal temperature for some of the important cereal crops for
germination are given as under:

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Cardinal temperature of different crop’s seed germination :

Crop’s Seed Temperature ( OC )
Minimum Optimum Maximum
Rice 11 32 41
Maize 9 33 42
Wheat 4 25 32
Soybean 9 30 41
Barley 4 22 36

1. Effect of temperature on biochemical processes

Temperature affects different types of biochemical processes in plant system. These are
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration etc. Biochemical reactions are conducted by the
presence of different types of enzymes. Any chemical reaction increases with increase in
temperature. These reactions increase with increase in temperature up to a limit beyond which
the rate of reaction decreases.

a) Photosynthesis
The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis is little than on other processes. Very
high and very low temperatures effect the photosynthetic rate adversely. According to Mathaei
(1904) the rate of photosynthesis increases with the rise in temperature from 5 0 to 370C beyond
which there is a rapid fall. Between 50 to 370C, the rate of photosynthesis is doubled for every
100C increase in temperature. In desert and C4 plants photosynthesis may run relatively at high
temperature.

Rate of photosynthesis is reduced due to reduction in temperature. If the light is not a limiting
factor in photosynthesis, the biochemical processes associated with photosynthesis may be
limited by the temperature. When maize plants are subjected to treatment of 10 oC for 10 days,
the rate of photosynthesis is also reduced by 33% of the untreated plants. Temperature also
enhances the production of chloroplast due to which the chlorophyll synthesis will be influenced.
At low temperature, leaves become yellow due to degradation of chlorophyll. Temperature also
governs the rate of leaf emergence and expansion. Leaves emerge at shorter interval with
increase in temperature.

b) Respiration
The rate of respiration increases with the rise of temperature up to a certain level, but beyond the
optimum limit the respiration rate shows marked decrease. The rate of respiration becomes
doubled at the increase of 100C above the optimum temperature provided other factors are
favorable. In fact, respiration continues to increase after gross photosynthesis has reached its
limitation by CO2 diffusion and enzyme kinetics. Thus the net photosynthesis is reduced.
Photosynthesis is independent to soil temperature but respiration is affected. Higher is the soil
temperature, higher is the respiration, lower is the soil temperature lower is the respiration.
Temperature strongly affects respiration within the range of 0-35 oC. The rate of respiration
increases about 2-4 times for each 10oC rise in temperature. With further increment in
temperature upto 40oC the rate of respiration decreases. Enzymes begin to denature rapidly at
higher temperature beyond 40oC.

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c) Transpiration
Transpiration increases when the magnitude of the differences in temperatures between the leaf
surface and adjacent air. Temperature also affects cuticular transpiration also. A rise in
temperature brings about increase in the rate of transpiration.

d) Flower Initiation
In many crops (such as sugar beet, wheat) low temperature is required for flower initiation. The
phenomenon of acquisition or acceleration of the ability to flower by chilling / low temperature
treatment is termed as vernalization.

e) Activities of growth substances

At optimum temperature the activity of auxin, gibberellins and cytokinins (growth promoters)
are high and activity of abscisic acid (growth regulator) is low with the result that growth rate is
increased. At high and low temperature, the balance of growth substances change and affect
growth.

f) Induction of sterility
The occurrence of various cytological abnormalities in meiosis during the formation of the
generative cell has been thought to constitute the primary cause of spikelets sterility. These
abnormalities due to cold injury at the boot stage of rice plant. Sterility can also occur due to loss
of stickiness of stigma and consequently failure of fertilization.

2. Other effect of temperature on crop production

Temperature extremes can be hazardous against successful crop production. Some important
problems caused by extreme high or low temperature are given below:
a) Heat injury: High temperature accelerates the rate of transpiration causing desiccation which
may result in temporary or permanent wilting. High temperature adversely affects mineral
nutrition, shoot growth and pollen development resulting in low yield. The critical
temperature above which plants gets killed is called thermal ‘death point’. The temperature
above 50°C may kill many annual crops. The limit varies with plants; shade loving plants are
killed at lower temperature.

b) Chilling injury: If the plants grown in hot temperature are exposed to low temperature, they
will be killed (or) severely injured. . Injury depends upon the nature and condition of
plants. Protoplasm freezes when the temperature drops below freezing point. When the
night temperature is below 15°C field crops may show yellowing symptoms (eg) Tropical
annuals.

c) Freezing injury: When the plants are exposed to low temperature, water freezes into ice
crystals in the intercellular spaces. (eg) Cell dehydration in temperate crops (potato, tea etc.,)

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d) Suffocation: Formation of thick cover of ice/snow on the soil surface prevents the entry of
oxygen and crop suffers. This prevents the respiration and lead to accumulation of harmful
substances. The lack of O2 diffusion in the plant roots takes place due to covered of
snow on the field, which causes suffocation of roots of plant. In this situation, ice in
contact with roots inhibits diffusion of CO2 and respiratory products, which may
become harmful to plants.
e) Heaving: Lifting of plants along with soil from its actual position by ice, crystals. This is a
mechanical lifting.

Growing degree day (GDD)

Growing degrees (GDs) is defined as the number of temperature degrees above a certain
threshold base temperature, which varies among crop species. The base temperature is that
temperature below which plant growth is zero. GDs are calculated each day as maximum
temperature plus the minimum temperature divided by 2 (or the mean temperature), minus the
base temperature. GDUs are accumulated by adding each day’s GDs contribution as the season
progresses. The threshold varies with different species of plants and for majority ranges from
4.50 to 12.50C. The growing degree-days are calculated with an equation written as :

n
GDD = (T max + T min) – Tb
i =1

Where Tmax is maximum temperature and Tmin is minimum temperature of the day and Tb is the
lowest temperature at which there is no growth of crops which is also called base temperature.
Base temperature of rice, wheat and maize is 10, 4.5 and 10oC, respectively.

GDDs are typically measured from the winter low. Any temperature below Tbase is set to Tbase
before calculating the average. Likewise, the maximum temperature is usually capped at 30 °C
because most plants and insects do not grow any faster above that temperature. However, some
warm temperate and tropical plants do have significant requirements for days above 30 °C to
mature fruit or seeds.

For example, a day with a high of 23 °C and a low of 12 °C (and a base of 10 °C) would
contribute 7.5 GDDs.

A day with a high of 13 °C and a low of 10 °C (and a base of 10 °C) would contribute 1.5 GDDs.

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Examples:

Maize Zea mays 2700 GDD to crop maturity (there may be confusion between
Celcius and Fahrenheit, 2700 is probably Fahrenheit)
1100-1300 GDD to maturity depending on cultivar and soil
Beans Phaseolus vulgaris
conditions
Sugar
Beta vulgaris 130 GDD to emergence and 1400-1500 GDD to maturity
beet
Barley Hordeum vulgare 125-162 GDD to emergence and 1290-1540 GDD to maturity
Wheat Triticum aestivum 143-178 GDD to emergence and 1550-1680 GDD to maturity

The intensity of growing season is represented by the accumulation of temperature units above
the growth threshold (base temperature). The unit used is degree-day, which used into account
the amount by which the daily mean temperature exceeds the stated minimum, usually 5 oC.
Thus, a day of 15oC would count as 10 degree days. The concept of degree days can be used to
estimate the suitability of a crop for a given climatic region assuming water is available. This can
also provide an index for comparing the thermal needs of plants as well as for indicating the
suitability of a location for a particular crop. Calculation of GDD is useful for predicting
harvesting dates and secondly, they are useful to select optimum date of planting.

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2.3 Precipitation and its effect on crop production, arable land classification based on precipitation (arid,
semi arid, sub humid and humid), relative humidity and wind and their effect on crop growth.

Precipitation and its effect on crop production:

Any type of condensed moisture that fall from atmosphere to the earth's surface called
precipitation. Rainfall, snowfall, hail, dew, fog and mist are different forms of precipitation.
Rainfall and snowfall are important source of moisture in crop production. Rainfall occurs when
temperature is high and as snow fall when temperature is low. The study of rainfall over a long
period is called climatology. It reveals general pattern of rainfall of a particular place. It helps in
understanding the amount, intensity, distribution and other rainfall characteristics. Rainfall is
measured by using raingauges. The mean of the total rainfall received during the past 10 years is
known as decennial rainfall. It gives fair idea of the amount of rainfall of a particular region.
Precipitation helps to maintain efficient cropping system, decisions on time of sowing,
scheduling of irrigation, time of harvesting, designing farm ponds, tanks, irrigation projects etc.
The state of soil moisture is controlled by rainfall, the evaporation rate and soil characteristics.
The supply of soil moisture may range from wilting point (when no water is available for plant
use) to field capacity (when the soil is fully saturated with moisture but is stilled dried). When
soil moisture is excessive all the soil pores are completely filled with water and a water logged
condition prevails. In such a situation free movement of air within the soil is impeded and
compounds toxic to the roots of plants may be formed. At the other extreme is the condition of
drought in which the amount of water required for evaporation exceeds the amount available in
the soil. Unless this water deficit is replenished by rainfall or irrigation the plant will begin to
wilt and die. Thus, like extremely low and high temperatures, too much or too little water is not
good for agriculture.

Different forms of precipitation

A. Drizzle: Drizzle is the rain of very light intensity composed of fine droplets less than 0.5 mm
in diameter, barely reaching the ground.

B. Mist: When the water droplets completely evaporate before reaching the ground it is called
mist.

C. Glaze of freezing rain: When rainfalls on any material or on ground having subfreezing
temperatures, it freezes into a sheet of coating of ice, which is known
as glaze of freezing rain.
D. Rime: It is a freezing fog. It forms a thick, frosty deposit when objects subfreezing
temperature encounters a fog.
E. Snow: It is solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals of flakes. Snow is formed by
sublimation of water vapour at subfreezing temperatures. When temperature of air
falls below a certain limit before any water vapour is condensed, water vapour passes
directly from vapour state to solid state.
F. Sleet: It is also solid precipitation in the form of small particles of clear ice which are
originally formed as rain drops and are later frozen as the fall through a layer of cold
air.

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G. Hail: Hail is similar to sleet, but it is larger in size. Hail consists of hard rounded pllets of ice
and compact snow. It is formed by strong vertical air currents carrying rain water
droplets upward instead of falling. Due to very low temperature in the higher region i.e.
when the temperature is below freezing, water becomes ice and falls to the ground.

Based on the amount of annual rainfall, the earth place is classified under four main regions.

a) Arid region: That region where annual rainfall is less than 250 mm. Crop production is
dependent on supplemental water supply through irrigation in these areas.

b) Semi-arid region: Those areas where annual rainfall is about 250-500mm and crop
production of these areas requires either farming practices that conserve water
or needs additional irrigation when there is uneven and erratic rainfall.

c) Semi-humid region: Those areas where annual rainfall is about 750-1000mm and these areas
are allow the cultivation of different types of crops.

d) High humid region: Areas that have annual rainfall of more than 1000 mm and these areas
are suitable for cultivation of water requiring crops like rice, jute etc.

Relative humidity RH)

RH is the ratio of actual water vapour content to the saturated water vapour content at a given
temperature and pressure expressed in percentage (%). Liquid water is converted into vapour by
evaporation for which necessary energy is provided by solar radiation in the form of temperature.
Water vapour is colourless, odourless and tasteless and consists of minute droplets of water
suspended in the air. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere depends upon wind and
temperature. Wind distributes the water vapour in the atmosphere. Higher the temperature more
is the amount of water vapour that can be held by the atmosphere. The air is said to be saturated
when it holds maximum amount of water vapour at a particular temperature. If the temperature
rises, the atmosphere becomes unsaturated as it can accommodate some more water vapour.

Relative humidity is the ratio between the amount of water vapour present in the air and the
amount of water vapour required for saturation at a particular temperature and pressure.

Mathematically,
Relative humidity (RH) = Water vapour present in the air x 100
Water vapour required for saturation

Regarding the variation of RH, the mean maximum relative humidity occurs in the early
morning, mean minimum, relative humidity occurs in the early afternoon and low RH in the
afternoon is due to expansion of air and thus increases the total water vapour capacity

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For example, when the water vapour required for saturation of a parcel of air is 50 gm and the
actual amount of water vapour present is 40 gm, the RH is 80%. When RH is 80%, it means that
there is a deficit of 20 % water vapour for saturation. Evaporation from the soil and transpiration
by plants continue to fill the deficit. It indicates that if RH is low or deficit is more, there is
possibility of more evaporation and transpiration. Relative humidity (RH) directly influences the
water relations of plant and indirectly affects leaf growth, photosynthesis, pollination, occurrence
of diseases and finally economic yield. It is very important for successful plant life and
determined the rate of evaporation and transpiration. The higher the relative humidity the less is
the evapo-transpiration and vice versa. High humidity favours the growth of fungi and other crop
pests. About 70-80% RH is considered optimum for crop production.    

Wind
Air in motion is called wind. It is air in horizontal motion which travels from a high pressure
area to a low pressure area. Due to differences in surface conditions of the earth and angle of
incidence of sun's rays, a different amount of solar radiation is absorbed at different areas. Air
from high pressure area rushes towards low pressure areas causing horizontal movement of air. It
is an important climatic element and has direct and indirect influence in crop production. Wind is
indirectly responsible for causing rainfall and changing the humidity of a certain places. Directly,
the gentle wind is responsible for promoting photosynthesis by supplying CO 2 in the deeper leaf
layer of plant canopy. Gentle wind helps to pollinate the crop plants, water uptake, conduct
proper metabolism, and regulates the temperature of plant canopy. Hot dry wind is harmful for
crop plants because such wind accelerates the transpiration and evaporation from the soil causing
desiccation of plants. It also affects the photosynthesis by the closing of stomata. High wind
velocity causes lodging of crops, breakage of plant parts, shattering of grains, flower drops and
uprooting of whole plant. In desert and light soil containing field the high wind velocity causes
more soil erosion also.

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3. Tillage
3.1 Definition, brief history and objectives of tillage, soil tilth, types/methods of tillage (conventional and
conservation tillage), advantage and disadvantage of conventional tillage.

Introduction
Dictionary meaning of tillage is “the preparation of land for crop bearing”. Tillage refers to the
physical manipulation of soil by using different tools and implements in good tilth for better
germination of seed and subsequent growth of crops. Tillage includes all operations and practices
which are used for getting change in physical characters of soil. Tillage includes activities such
as ploughing, harrowing, discing, planking, leveling, and other various intercultural operations.

It is most important and time consuming operation in the field crop production and about 30% of
the total cost of cultivation is for tillage operations. Jethro Tull, called a father of tillage purposed
a theory in 1731 AD that plants absorb minute or fine particles of soils directly from the field.
Therefore he suggested that a number of ploughing and other operations is very essential for
making fine particles of soils. His theory was given in famous book “Horse-hoeing husbandry”.
From the scientific research and evidences it is proved that plant cannot take direct fine soil
particles from the field and the tillage operations are carried out only to prepare seed bed for
sowing crops.

Tillage was considered as an ‘art’ and in recent years research evidences has focused tillage as
‘science’. After harvest of crop, soil becomes hard and compact. This may be due to beating
action of rain drops, irrigation and subsequent drying, movement of intercultural implements,
and labour cause soil compaction. Weeds and crop stubbles are also present in the field, which
may disturb for the sowing of seeds. Seed require loose, friable soil with sufficient air and water
for good germination. Therefore a lot of cultural operations are needed to prepare the virgin soils
into a good seed bed. Tillage operations and methods of land preparation vary from place to
place and even in the same place, depending upon the climate and crops cultivated.

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Historical Perspective of Tillage

Tillage is the oldest agricultural operation as old as the man started cultivation and has
been considered as one of the important practices for crop production. In the beginning
of the cultivation man used to till his land with hand tools made out of either wood or
bone or stone. With the advancement of Roman Civilization man and animal driven
implements were developed for land preparation. There was no any change in tillage
implements for many years except iron share, which was introduced and fitted in wooden
plough. After two centuries i.e. JethroTull (1731) a farmer from England developed horse
hoe for sowing seeds. He was recommended more and more ploughing should be done to
make soil particle finer and finer or smaller or smaller. He also stressed the need of tillage
to prepare good seed bed for easy sowing of seeds and nutrients uptake. His views were
that if the soil particles are become very fine, the plant can take these fine particles as a
food. It means if more fine particles will be there, plant will get more food through the
root. At that time Jethro tull idea contributed a lot for the development of tillage
equipments for crop production. At that time more and more ploughing became one of
the important features of crop production.

Most of the present forms of tillage implements made out of wood or iron or combinations of
iron and wood have been designed, developed and manufactured in the 20 th century. After 1950
efforts made to improve the tillage operations aimed of reducing the cost of cultivation,
timeliness of operation achieving desired quality of work. It is normally considered that around
30% of the total cost of cultivation is involved in tillage operations.

Objectives of Tillage
There are several objectives of tillage operation among them the most important objectives of
tillage are listed as below.
1. To improve the structure of soil by breaking up the soil mass into loose particles which is
essential for suitable seed bed preparation? Good seed bed is necessary for early seed
germination and initial stand of the crop.
2. To conserve soil moisture through mulching and brings water to root zone from ground water
table.
3. To remove crop stubbles, weeds and their parts like bulb, stolons etc. which is essential for
clean cultivation.
4. To conserve soil moisture through higher infiltration, reduce runoff and increase depth of soil
for moisture storage due to which the rain water could be absorbed easily and soil erosion
can be minimized.
5. To increase oxidation decomposition or mineralization of soil organic matter and increase the
organic carbon content and nutrient availability of the soil.
6. To increase soil aeration which helps in multiplication of beneficial soil microorganisms,
earthworms and degradation of herbicide and pesticide residues and harmful allelopathic
chemicals exuded by roots of previous crop or weeds.

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7. To break the hard pans and compacted layers increase the depth of root penetration. Roots
proliferate profusely in loose soil which helps in better nodulation in legumes, better
anchoring of plants for better mechanical support, inducing drought resistance etc.
8. To incorporate the applied manures and fertilizers and soil reclaiming materials into the soil
by soil inversion action of tillage. Incorporation of manures and fertilizers reduce
volatilization loss.
9. To destroy insect- pest eggs, dormant pupae and fungal spores and their breeding places,
which are present on top layers of soil. They are exposed to sun’s heat or to birds resulting in
reduced pest attack on the succeeding crop.

Soil tilth
Tilth is the term used to express the physical condition of soil i.e. distribution of soil aggregates
and friability of soil resulting from tillage. Soil tilth is the physical condition of soil. A soil is
said to in good tilth when it is soft, friable and properly aerated. Such soil permits easily
infiltration of water and are retentive of moisture for satisfactory growth of plant. A soil with
good tilth is quite porous, friable or mellow and has capacity of free drainage of water upto water
table. When the soil is good tilth soil would be roughly equal capillary and non capillary pores.
Good tilth soil has high water retentive capacity, good aeration and adequate infiltration
capacity. This facilitates free movement of air and moisture in the soil and increase infiltration.
With the increase in non capillary pores in good tilth soil, the soil aeration, the activity of soil
microorganisms and chemical reactions will be increased. For the availability of oxygen in the
rooting zone and to improve the moisture retention capacity of soil, the total porosity and
distribution of pore sizes are very important. Soil tilth is not static but changes with time. When
the land is continuously cropped by using heavy implements, continue heavy rainfall and erosion
by water and wind may destroy the soil tilth. Soils with larger aggregates (more than 5 mm
diameter) are necessary for irrigated agriculture while higher percent of smaller aggregates (1-2
mm in diameter) are desirable for dry land agriculture. The activities of wetting and drying of
soil, or freezing and thawing of soil often regenerates desirable soil tilth.

Concept of Tillage
The ultimate aim of tillage is to manipulate the soil from a known condition into different desired
conditions by mechanical means. Broadly speaking tillage includes all those operations before
and after seed placement, which is concerned with bringing about desired changes in soil
structures, condition for seed germination and growth of the crops such as pulverization, cutting,
inversion, movement of soil etc. The performance of tillage tolls is largely dependent on the soil
condition, tool shape and mode of operation. The force applied by tillage tool brings a fixed
change in the soil condition. The desirable change of soil condition should be evaluated
quantitatively. Considerable advancement has been made in last 50 years in tillage tolls design.
However very little efforts have been made with regards to measurements of the reaction of
tillage tool on soil and its effect on plant growth and yield. An appropriate and adequate
procedure however is essential to measure and specify the tillage tolls. This would not only
optimize the tillage operation but also save the energy input apart from improving the quality of
works. The tillage of the soil consists of two types of operations, which are:

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A) First part: Very elaborative and difficult operation of preparing the soil suitable for sowing.
This part comprises of series of operations like ploughing, harrowing, planking etc (to open, to
break up the clods and soil to pulverized condition). This part can be accomplished by:
a. Manual labour: Digging and preparing the ground with hand tools.
b. Use of bullock pairs or any other draft animals and driven implements.
c. Use of mechanical power and power driven implements (Tractor and tractor driven
implements). All these implements come under preparatory of primary tillage.

B) Second part: These are the light type of operations and are known as inter cultivations done
after the crop is sown/ planted, germinated and is about 3-4 weeks old. This operation has to be
least once or may be repeated depending upon the weed infestation, crops grown and physical
condition of the soil. This part can also be accomplished by manual labour, bullock driven
implements, power driven implements. These operations come under the secondary tillage.

Types of Tillage:
There are two types of tillage system which are applied for tillage operation. These are:
A) Conventional tillage or Traditional tillage
Conventional tillage refers to different types of tillage operations performed before, during and
after field preparation for seeding, transplanting and cultivating the crops. The soil is opened
with MB plough for primary tillage. Conventionally it is though that land should be prepared
thoroughly with repeated ploughings. After ploughing, the fields are left with large clods with
some weeds and stubbles partially uprooted. Harrowing is done to a shallow depth to crust the
clods and to uproot the remaining weeds and stubbles. Disc harrows, cultivators, blade harrows
etc. are used for secondary tillage.

Advantages of conventional tillage

1. Deep ploughing turns out large sized clods when it is done in summer, which is baked by
the hot sun. These clods crumble due to alternate heating and cooling.
2. Summer deep ploughing kills pests due to exposure of pupae to hot sun.
3. Deep tillage also improves the soil moisture content of the soil.
4. The plant residues protect the soil against the beating action of rain drops, keep the
surface of the soil open and increase the infiltration of water compared to a bare soil.

Disadvantages
1. In conventional tillage system the soil is subjected to wind and water erosion because
only about 15% organic residues are left on the field surface.
2. The timing of operation is too difficult to meet the requirements and costs of energy and
labour are too high and in most of the cases it is uneconomical.
3. Hard pans formation may take place in the soil by the continuous use of heavy
implements, which restrict root growth of crop.
4. The heavy loss of soil, water and plant nutrients takes place in conventional tillage
compared to conservation tillage.

Due to such problems or limitations associated with conventional tillage the need of optimizing
the type and frequency of tillage operations has become a pressing issue. In this context zero or
minimum tillage or reduced tillage is most often suggested.

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B. Modern concept of tillage or Conservation Tillage

Traditionally it is thought that repeated ploughing is essential during field preparation. By the
analysis of cost benefit ratio of crop production it was observed that repeated ploughing was not
cost effective. Modern concept of tillage is developed by emphasizing minimal cultivation.
Under this system of tillage sowing operations are carried out with little disturbance to the crop
residues. Considering the time loss for tillage operations, minimum and zero tillage have been
developed and this concept is together known as conservation tillage.

The objective of conservation tillage is to reduce the loss of soil, water, plant nutrients etc.
According to this concept a large amount of organic residue should be left in the soil surface to
increase the organic matter content in the soil which helps to protect the soil surface from the
beating action of rain drops, increase the infiltration of water, improve the soil structure and
maintained the soil fertility and productivity also. This system is frequently referred to as
stubble mulching, eco-fallow, limited tillage, reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no tillage,
conservation tillage, direct drill etc. This system of tillage is widely adopted in western countries.

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3.2. Definition of primary and secondary and inter tillage, conservation tillage (minimum, zero and mulch
tillage), advantage and disadvantage of conservation tillage.

Based on the purpose and onset of operation, tillage may be classified into following
categories:

Types of tillage

1.. On–season tillage 2. Off-season tillage 3. Special purpose

tillage

i) Post harvest
i) Sub-soiling
A. Preparatory B. Inter tillage tillage
tillage
ii) Leveling

iii) Blind tillage

a Primary tillage ii) Summer
tillage

iv) Clean tillage

b Secondary iii) Winter

tillage tillage v) Mulch tillage

vi) Wet tillage

iv) Fallow
tillage

vii) Contour tillage

viii) Minimum
tillage

ix) Zero tillage

1. On season tillage
Tillage operations are carried out in normal season or main season of planting and intercultural
operations of any crop is called on season tillage. According to the types of implements used
and time of operation on-season tillage can be classified under two major headings:
a) Preparatory tillage
b) Inter tillage

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a) Preparatory tillage:
Tillage operations that are carried out after the harvest of previous crop and before sowing and /
or planting of succeeding crop are known as preparatory tillage operations. Preparatory tillage
operations include primary and secondary tillage operations.

i) Primary tillage
The operations performed for initial cutting or opening and inverting the hard or compact soil,
(new land or virgin land and cultivated land) to a depth of 10-30 cm. It is performed immediately
after harvesting of the previous crop or untilled fallow or to bring virgin land under cultivation
(as it is in shifting cultivation) at the beginning of the new crop season. During primary tillage
the soil is inverted, weeds are uprooted and stubbles are incorporated into the soil. The
equipments used in these operations are generally heavy implements requiring more energy per
unit area. The main objective of primary tillage operation include deep opening and loosening of
the soil to bring about a desirable tilth through heavy equipments like Mould Board (MB)
plough or disc plough. Opening of trenches or ridges and furrows, shattered, twisted, inverted
and sheared for further preparation are the important operations performed in primary tillage.
This operation is done once, twice or thrice per year in normal and settled agriculture and once in
4-5 years in dry land agriculture which depends upon the soil type, agro-climatic conditions and
the nature of the farming. Primary tillage implements may be bullock drawn and tractor drawn.
Bullock drawn primary tillage implements are mould board plough (MB plough), country plough
(indigenous plough or desi plough) and tractor drawn implements are mould board plough, disc
plough, disc harrow in light soil, sub soil plough, chisel plough etc.

ii) Secondary tillage

It refers to those operations, which are performed after primary tillage but before and after seed
placement to prepare a good tilth of soil. Pulverization of soil by breaking clods with the help of
running harrow, cultivators, plankers, rollers, various types of power driven implements,
fertilizer cum seed drills, pudlers, levelers etc. come under secondary tillage. Breaking of clods
and crust, uprooting and removing weeds and other crop residues, incorporation of manures and
agro-chemicals, closing of cracks, preparing ridge and furrows, irrigation and drainage channels
preparation in the field etc are different activities performed in secondary tillage operation.
Implements used for these operations are both bullock drawn and tractor drawn and relatively
lighter and less energy requiring per unit area.

Only secondary tillages may be sufficient as preparatory tillage in cropping under upland soil
conditions and also when the preceding crop is harvested by tillage operations as well as in other
similar situations.

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b) Inter tillage
Tillage operations that are carried out for manipulating the soil after the seed is sown or young
plant has emerged are known as inter tillage operations. Inter tillage operations are also called
intercultural operations. The main objectives of intercultural operations are to control weeds,
increase porosity by pulverizing the soil and make dust mulch in the soil surface for reducing the
evaporation loss. Placement of fertilizers (top dressing), weeding, intercultural hoeing, earthing
up etc are intercultural operations. By increasing porosity of the soil there will be increased in
the initial rate of intake of water in the beginning of the rainy season, increase infiltration of
water, reduce runoff loss and provides aeration in the root zone. The depth of intercultural
operation depends upon the type and condition of crop, rooting depth, season of planting, type of
soil etc. Equipments used during intercultural operations are hoe, spades, cultivators etc.

2. Off-season tillage
Preparatory tillage operations that are performed during the off season or before the main crop is
cultivated is known as off-season tillage. It is done for conditioning the soil suitably for the
forthcoming main season crop. Different working schedules are made during uncropped seasons.
Activities like leveling to desirable grade, leaching to remove salts, lowering of seasonal water
table and reducing the population of harmful flora and fauna in the soil are performed during off-
season. Off season tillage is categorized into four types which are i) post harvest tillage ii)
Summer tillage iii) Winter tillage iv) Fallow tillage.

3. Special purpose tillage

Tillage operation performed to serve special purposes are called special purpose tillage. These
are: i) sub soiling ii) leveling iii) blind tillage iv) clean tillage v) contour tillage vi) wet tillage
vii) minimum tillage, viii) zero tillage and ix) mulch tillage. Brief description of some of the
tillage practices are given below.

i) Minimum tillage
Minimum tillage operation is a practice in which the tillage operations are reduced to the
minimum number necessary for ensuring good seed bed preparation. Tillage number can be
reduced by omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost and
by combining agricultural operations. This method is normally followed in those situations
where crop residues are left in situ in the field for decomposition. It is easy to adopt in coarse and
medium textured soils and is practiced for a period of 2-3 years.

Concept of minimum tillage

It is usually observed that the farmer’s plough their field repeatedly in order to get higher yields
of crops. He believes that the more number of ploughing can get a better yield of crops. He
thinks that by repeated number of harrowing and planking, his field will be very well leveled, he
will have good seed bed which will facilitates his sowing, uniform germination better mixing of
fertilizers and manures, better nutrient availability, ultimately good crop growth and good yield.
With recent advancement in weed management i.e. control of weeds by use of herbicides, it has
now become possible to control weeds before and after sowing of crops and the field can be
brought to desired condition for sowing of crops provided there is optimum soil moisture in the
field. Under such situation there is no need of more number of ploughing, harrowing and
planking the field before seeding.

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Advantages of minimum tillage:
1. Minimum tillage practices can save a lot of power energy, labour and time and sowing of
seeds can be done on time.
2. It is especially of greater importance when harvesting and threshing of one crop coincides
with immediate sowing of another crop.
3. This system is found to be an alternative to the conventional tillage system where soils
are subject to wind and water erosion, the timing of tillage operation is too difficult, the
requirements and cost of energy and labour are too high and performance is insufficient.
4. Minimum tillage practices can improve soil conditions due to decomposition of plant
residues in situ.
5. Higher infiltration caused by the decomposition of dead roots.
6. Less resistance to root growth due to improved soil structure.
7. Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage practices.

Disadvantages
1. Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipments.
2. Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial
problematic weeds.
3. Seed germination is lower; more N has to be added because rate of decomposition of
organic matter is slow.

ii) Zero tillage

Zero tillage is a tillage system in which mechanical manipulation of soil is completely avoided
and the control of unwanted vegetation is done by using other methods than the mechanical
means. It is also called no-tillage or reduced tillage and is done especially in wind and water
erosion areas and in the field where timing of tillage operation is too difficult and requirements
of energy and labour for tillage are too high. Use of herbicides for controlling weeds and
mulching on the surface of seed bed is the normal practices in zero tillage. In zero tilled soils the
structure of soil is homogenous with more number of earthworm, increase organic matter content
reduce runoff due to presence of mulches.

Zero tillage method is highly effective under sloppy lands where soil and water erosion are
heavy. In mechanize system machines accomplish four tasks in one operation i.e. clean a narrow
strip over the crop row, open the soil for seed insertion, place the seed and cover the seed
properly. No tillage method has been successfully adopted for planting grasses and legumes.

In zero tillage system different herbicides are used to control unwanted vegetation. Before
sowing, broad spectrum and non selective herbicides with relatively short residual effect are
used. During subsequent stages, selective and persistent herbicides are needed. The herbicides
applied should not cause injury to the succeeding crop.

This system is found to be an alternative to the conventional tillage system where soils are
subject to wind and water erosion, the timing of tillage operations is too difficult, the
requirements and costs of energy and labour are too high and performance is insufficient.

In the rice-wheat system, field preparation is difficult for sowing wheat which may be due late
season for wheat sowing because of long duration varieties of rice, difficultly in field preparation
in marshy land etc. In such condition zero tillage practice is useful to the farmers. Application of
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non-selective herbicide like Paraquat @ 2 liters a.i. per ha to kill rice stubbles and other
vegetations is essential. Wheat seed is drilled in between the rice stubbles and covered with
mulch. This mulch provides clothing that adequately protects the soil from erosion without
presenting problems of weed control, soil fertility, infiltration of rain water and aeration.
Undisturbed soil appears more dense and firm and bears the characteristic structure, texture and
other physical, chemical and biological capacities of typical soils rich in organic matter. The
activity of earthworm increases resulting in biological turning and opening of the soil, forming
tunnels and mittens in or on the soil. Undisturbed decayed roots also provide channels.

There are certain disadvantages of zero tillage. The seedling establishment in zero tillage is
about 20% less than in conventional methods that’s why the seed rate should be increased by
20%. This practice reduces labour cost but crowd work into a shorter time period immediately
prior to planting. Land improvement, reclamation of problem soils, cultivation of tuber, root and
rhizome crops that bear economic yield in subterranean parts are seriously affected in the zero
tillage system of farming.

iii) Mulch Tillage

Mulch tillage involving one or more tillage trips which disturbs the entire soil surface and is
done prior to and/or during planting. During tillage operation mulch materials, surface clods or
crop residues are least disturbed. In dry farming areas where less irrigation and high speed of
desiccating wind flow is common, this type of tillage is most practiced. Light and subsurface soil
stirring type tillage tools such as chisels, field cultivators, disks, sweeps or blades are common
used. Weed control is accomplished with crop protection products and/or cultivation.

4. Seed and seed quality

4.1 Definition of seed, seed technology, characteristics of quality seed (genetic, physiological, physical,
entomological, and pathological), importance of quality seed.

Seed
A true seed may be defined as a fertilized mature ovule that posses an embryonic plant, stored
food material and a protective coat or coats, which is viable and has got capacity to germinate.

Basically the seed is made up of the embryo, the endosperm or other food reserves and the seed
coat. However, the broad definition of seed includes all plant propagules including rhizomes,
tubers, bulbs cuttings, grafts and all vegetatively propagated materials besides mature ovules.
Actually these are not true seeds, these are seed materials and used for multiplying the plants.

Grain
Grain is the part of commercial produce used for human and animal consumption. Certain
characteristics of grains are given below:

 Grains are produced by unplanned programme.

 Scientific knowledge is not strictly used for grain production.
 Varietal purity is unknown.
 Rouging of off type plants, diseased plants and objectionable weeds are not followed.
 Grains are not scientifically processed, treated, packed and labeled.
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 Grain quality is not controlled by seed certification agency.
 Grains are concerned about the endosperm (quantity) where as seed is concerned about
the embryo (quality).
 Grains can not be used as quality seed.

Seed Technology
Seed technology comprises techniques of seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed
testing and certification, marketing and distribution and their related research on these aspects.

Feistrizer (1975) define “Seed technology as the methods through which the genetic and
physical characteristics of seed could be improved. It involves such activities as variety
development, evaluation and release, seed production, processing, storage and certification”.

Seed quality
Seed is said to be quality if it is scientifically produced (under the supervision of seed certifying
agency) and is distinctly superior in terms of genetic purity or varietal purity, freedom from
admixture of weeds and other crop seeds, seed health, high germination and vigor, seed
treatment and safe moisture content etc. Which are the important parameters to determine the
seed quality.

It is the degree of excellence in regards to the characteristics referred to above that determines
the seed quality. If the seed lot posses high genetic purity and high germination percentage and a
minimum of inert, weed and other crop seeds and free from diseases, it is said to have high
quality and if it is lacking in any of these, it is said to be low quality.

Quality seed
To become a quality seed, it should pass the certain standard fixed for certified seeds. It implies
that if a seed lot meets the certification standards, it is good quality seed and if it does not meet
the certification standards it is obviously of a lower quality seed. Seed is said to be quality if it
posses the following characteristics:

1. Improved variety
The variety must be truly superior to existing one. It must be latest and best suited to the area in
regards to production potential and other characteristics.

2. Genetic purity
There should not be any genetic deterioration in the variety. If the seed posses all the genetic
qualities that breeder has placed in the variety it is said to be genetically pure. Genetic purity is
directly responsible for higher yield. There should not be off type plant and no varietal mixture.

3. Physical purity
Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of seed lots. It must be clean and
processed, free from inert materials, weed seeds and other crop seeds or variety. Higher the
content of pure seed the better would be the seed quality.

4. Physiological quality

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Quality seed should have high germination capacity and seed vigour. It should have bold and
plumpy grain. It must be dried to proper moisture percent. High germination percentage and
vogour results into raising of an excellent crop having adequate plant population and uniform
growth. Seed moisture is the most critical factor to determine viability during storage. The seed
size, weight and specific gravity have been found positive correlation with seed germination and
vigour in many crops.

5. Entomological quality
The quality seed must be free from insects. The quality seed lot very much depends on its health.
It should be free from insects and must be treated with proper chemicals.

6. Pathological quality
The quality seed must be free from diseases. The quality seed lot very much depends on its
health. It should be free from seed borne diseases and must be treated with proper chemicals.

7. Other characteristics
Seed colour often reflects the condition during seed maturation. Good normal colour and shine
have been regarded as invaluable quality guides by the farmers from the time immemorial.

Importance of quality seed

1. Quality seed is a basic input in crop production
Quality seed is a basic input in crop production. All other inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, weed
control; plant protection, labour etc. will be useless if seed do not germinate.

2. Quality seed has high genetic potential

Proper use of agricultural inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection etc increases the
productivity of a crop. But if the quality of seed is poor, it will not increase the productivity of
crop in same proportion because of lower genetic potential of the seed.

3. Quality seed improve the productivity of crops

It has been found that use of quality seed increased the productivity of crops by 10-30% as
compared to local seed. Quality seed with all other recommended inputs would further increase
the productivity of crops. Use of uncertified seed, local seed, and seed without source has
damaged the crop in many places. Thus quality seed play vital role in reducing food deficit by
increasing production.

4. Quality seed is a carrier of new technology

Quality seed shows good response of other agricultural inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, weed
control etc. It encourages the farmers to use other inputs. When new wheat seed from Mexico
was introduced in different countries, farmers started to use fertilizers, irrigation also. This
brought green revolution. Thus quality seed is a carrier of new technology.

5. Quality seed cut down the seed requirement

Quality seed has high germination capacity and more seed vigour. We can reduce the seed rate
by 10-30% by the use of improved seed as compared to local seed.

6. High quality produce

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Quality seed has no varietal mixture, off type plant, weed seed. So, we can get better quality
produce. We can get more market prices from such produce.

7. Less chances of insect, disease and weed appearance

Quality seed is free from insects, diseases and weed seeds. Thus the chances of appearing
insects, diseases and weed are less than local seed. The cost of production can be reduced by the
use of high quality seed.

4.2 Different classes of seed (Breeder, foundation, certified seed I, certified seed II, improved seed), seed
germination, external and internal condition for seed germination, seed dormancy, causes of seed dormancy,
seed certification.

Classes of seed
The seeds are evolved, tested and if found good they are multiplied and distributed to the farmers
for commercial production of the crop. Therefore according to the nature and precautions with
which the seeds are produced, they are classified into the following groups:

1) Breeder or nucleus seed

Breeder seeds or vegetatively propagated material is directly controlled by the originating or
sponsoring plant breeding programme. It is produced as a result of hybridization selection and
mutation. They posses all the required genetic characters and produced directly under the
supervision of the plant breeder. It is the source for the production of foundation seed. Breeder
seed is available in small quantity. These seeds are of a high genetic value and being very little
quantity and are very costly. Breeder seed has golden tag.

2. Foundation seed
Foundation seed is the progeny of breeder seed and second grade seed in order of its genetic
purity. Production of foundation seed is done generally by government farm or by certain
organizations (NARC, Cooperatives, National Seed Company, NGOs). The foundation seed is
relatively less pure compared to the breeder seed. It has white tag and available in limited
quantity.

3. Certified seed (1st generation)

Certified seed 1st generation is the progeny of foundation seed. Its production is done in such a
way that specific genetic identity and purity is maintained according to standards specified for
the crop being certified. This seed is also produced in government farm or by certain
organizations. During the period of seed production, the seed inspectors inspect the field and the
seed thus produced is processed, bagged and tagged in the presence of the seed technicians of the
seed-certifying agency. After proper leveling the seed is sold to the leader farmers or certain
organizations. It has tag with blue border.

4. Certified seed (2nd generation)

Certified seed II generation is the progeny of certified seed 1 st generation. It is produced seed
producing farmer's field with the supervision of seed certifying agencies. It is relatively less pure
compared to previous three seed categories. It has tag with green border. It is source seed for
improved seed production. It is available in sufficient quantity.

5. Improved seed
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Improved seed is the progeny of certified seed 2nd generation. It is produced in the farmer's field
with supervision of certifying agencies. They have a wide range of adaptability, tolerance to
adverse condition of environment such as drought, flood and frost. Their quality is acceptable to
the local market and consumers. It is available in sufficient quantity. It has yellow tag and is used
for commercial cultivation of crop.

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Seed germination
Germination is the emergence and development of a seedling from the seed embryo, which is
able to produce a normal plant under favorable condition. All the viable seeds which have
overcome dormancy (if any) either naturally or artificially will readily germinate under suitable
environmental conditions necessary for seed germination i.e water, oxygen, temperature and in
some case light.

Types of germination
There are two kinds of seed germination, which are:
1. Epigeal germination (cotyledons above the ground).
2. Hypogeal germination (cotyledons below ground)

1. Epigeal germination
In epigeal germination, the cotyledons are raised above the ground where they continue to
provide nutritive support to the growing points. During root establishment the hypocotyls begins
to elongate in an arch which breaks through the soil, pulling the cotyledon and enclosed plumule
(epicotyl) through the ground and projecting them into the air. Afterward the cotyledons open,
plumule growth continues and the exhausted cotyledons wither and fall to the ground. It is found
in bean, soybean, black gram, green gram, groundnut, pigeon pea, sunflower, pine seeds etc.

2. Hypogeal germination
In hypogeal germination the cotyledons remain beneath the soil, while the plumule pushes
upward and emerges above the ground. The plumule elongates in hypogeal germination whereas
in epigeal germination, the hypocotyls is the rapidly elongating structure. Regardless of their
above ground or below ground locations, the cotyledons continue to provide nutritive support to
the growing points throughout germination. Most cereals or monocots except onion are hypogeal
type of germination. Some winter pulses have also hypogeal germination eg. pea, gram, lentil
etc.

Factors affecting germination

Internal as well as external factors affect the germination of seeds. The process of germination is
quite complex and both factors interact for modifying germination pattern. The major
environmental factors affecting seed germination are:

A) External factor
a) Temperature
b) Moisture
c) Air (O2 and CO2)
d) Light

B) Internal factors
a) Reserved food materials
b) Dormancy
c) Viability
d) Poisons and inhibitors

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C) Agronomic and other factors
a) Pre harvest and post harvest operations
b) Special treatments
c) Ecological condition for germination
d) Salinity condition for germination

Seed Dormancy
Dormancy is defined as the inactive period of seed embryo, during which growth slows or
completely ceased. During dormant period the growths of the seeds remain suspended and they
are said to be in rest stage or dormant stage and this phenomenon is called as dormancy of seeds.

All the viable seeds have capacity to germinate if placed under suitable conditions necessary for
germination. While in certain plants such seeds will immediately germinate after harvest in other
they fail to germinate, which may due to internal factor and environmental factors or external
factors.

Factors Causing Dormancy of Seed

A) Internal Factor

1. Physical dormancy (Due to impermeable seed coat)

The seeds of certain plants (families of papilionaceae, malvaceae, liliaceae, chenopodiaceae and
solanaceae) have very hard seed coats, which are impermeable to water. The seed remain
dormant in the soil until the impermeable layer of testas decay by the action of soil
microorganism. Sometimes the hard seed coat is ruptured or weakened by the use some
machines, acids or other means before sowing, the process is known as scarification. The
degree of hardness depends on the degree of maturity, the ripening conditions and the storage
time.

2) Physiological Dormancy
Sometimes, the dormancy of seeds results due to the presence of certain germination inhibitors
(abscisic acid, ferulic acid, dormin etc.) either in some parts of the seeds such as testa,
endosperm, embryo or in embryo surrounding structures like the juice or the pulp of fruit
(tomato) and glumes (oats). Abscisic acid acts as the germination inhibitor in dormant groundnut
(Arachis hypogea), cotton etc. Dormancy due to immaturity of the embryo which fails to develop
fully by the time the seeds are shed. In such case the seeds germinate only after a period of rest
during which the development of embryo inside the seeds is completed.

3) Genetical dormancy
The structural and physiological factors controlling dormancy are under control of specific
genes. In this case dormancy is primarily determined by genetic makeup of seeds and varies
widely among species and even within species. The intensity of dormancy in rice varieties is
controlled by a varying number of partially dominant genes that have cumulative unequal effect.

B) External factor
i) Low temperature or chilling requirement
In certain plants such as apple, rose, peach etc the seeds remain dormant after harvest in the
autumn because they have a low temperature of chilling requirement for germination. In nature
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this requirement is fulfilled by the winter temperature. In such case the seeds remain dormant
throughout the winter season and germinate only in the following spring. Such a chilling
treatment is known as stratification. The moistened seeds are usually preconditioned at
temperature between 3-10oC.

ii) Light sensitive seeds

In many species the germination of the seeds is affected by light resulting in seed dormancy.
Such light sensitive seeds are called as photoblastic. The seeds of certain plants eg lettuce
(Lactua sativa), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) etc are
positively photoblastic and germinate only after they have been exposed to light. On the other
hand, the seeds of certain plants eg. Nigella damascena, Silene armeria, Allium sp are negatively
photoblastic and their germiantion is inhibited by light.

Seed certification
Seed certification is a legally organized programme for quality control of seed and propagating
materials of genetically distinct crop varieties during seed multiplication programme. In
certification programme seed is produced by farmers through using careful quality control
mechanisms like field inspection during growing season and seed inspection following harvest
by legally authorized agency. High quality seed should equal or exceed the bench mark of
standards set for genetic and physical purity, germination, vigour and should be free from seed
borne disease and insect pest damage.

High quality seed can be produced by controlling the production protocol of seed certifying
agency in two ways:
1) By monitoring seed multiplication and processing operations to avoid or minimize the risk of
mechanical or genetical contamination for maximize biological efficiency of seed crop.

2) By fixing minimum field and seed standards of different crop species to facilitate certification
and assuring dependability of the product to the users.

Seed quality control is a very important component of seed programme. Without controlling the
quality of seed during production, cleaning, grading, drying, storage and marketing operations, it
is not possible to carry forward a seed programme. Quality control aims to make available the
seeds of improved varieties and hybrids of assured standards to the farmers so as to improve the
agriculture production and productivity. Seed quality is usually controlled through seed
legislation, certification and seed testing.

Objective of certification
To ensure genuineness and quality of seed to the users or purchasers to increase the production
and productivity of any crop is the main objective of seed certification.

Organization of certification
The organization and structure of a seed certification agency differ country to country. In some
country it is done by either Department of agriculture or State Agriculture Universities or Crop
Improvement Association etc. In Nepal, the by laws of Seed Act (1988) have been approved by
the parliament. Seed certification is done by seed certification agency i.e. Seed Quality Control
Center under Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Nepal. The process of seed
certification is initiated by an application given by the seed grower for certifying the seed to the
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certifying agency. If a seed lot ratifies the prescribed purity and quality requirements, the
certification authority issues suitable tags of certification for affixing them to the seed bags under
certification. The inspections are conducted at three levels: 1) Field inspection 2) Inspection
during seed processing and 3) Laboratory testing

1. Field inspections
The purpose of field inspections is to examine the seed crop in the field and to determine its
suitability for certification. Seed certification inspectors do field inspections. During field
inspections, observations are made on isolation distance, the presence of off-type plants, error in
planting, planting ratio in the case of hybrid varieties, presence of objectionable weeds and plants
of other crops, and the incidence of disease transmissible through seed. Generally 2-4 inspections
are carried out at different phonological stages of crop. Foundation seed crops are also subjected
to the same number of field inspections as those for certified seed, however, the requirements are
more strict. During field inspections, objectionable weed plants and plant infected by designated
(seed borne) diseases are specifically monitored.

2. Inspection during seed processing

This inspection is done to determine whether the seeds have been dried to appropriate moisture
level, and whether the correct processing procedure is being followed or not. Another purpose of
such inspections is to determine whether appropriate care is taken to avoid mechanical mixtures
during seed processing. This is not common practice in Nepal.

3. Laboratory testing or seed tests

Laboratory testing consists of series of seed tests designed to determine the quality seed. Before
certification, seed lots are subject to test to determine the quality of seeds. A) Purity test b)
germination or seed viability test and c) moisture content test.
Seed tests are conducted on small sample sizes (about 25 gm) so it is essential that the samples
used for seed tests are representative of the lot and the samples should be drawn randomly from
the seed lots.

a) Purity test: It denotes the percentage of seeds (by weight) belonging to the variety under
certification. It is calculated by arithmetic method.

Cultivar purity test: This test determines the amount of seeds of other varieties of the same
crop in a seed lot. The sample size should be large, and it can be conducted by examination of
seed in the laboratory, examination of seedlings grown in a growth chamber or green house and
field plot tests or grow-out tests.

b) Germination and viability test

It is determined as percent of seeds that produce or likely to produce seedlings under suitable
environment. Germination test and tetrazolium chloride test are two tests for this purpose.
Germination test is conducted in the controlled condition, the result is based on the percentage of
seed that produce healthy root and shoot. In tetrazolium method, treating the seed with the
chemical 2,3, 5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride determined the percentage of viable seeds in short.
It is colour less but develops intense red colour when living cells reduces it. This test is
completed in about within 4 hours, but it is difficult to apply in crop with small seed size.

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c) Moisture test: It is determined as percent water content of seeds. The moisture content is
determined by drying the seed samples in an oven or with the help of moisture meter. Moisture
meter measures the resistance of seeds to an electrical current, which varies with the moisture
content. The use of moisture meters requires calibration and a certain degree of technical skill on
the part of the user. But moisture meter are very efficient and extremely rapid, so a large number
of samples can be handled in a relatively short period. Moisture content is determined easily and
very fast by electronic moisture meters also.

After doing all the above tests, if the seed lot under test meets the requirements set by the
concerned country authority, then the certifying agency duly certified the seed lot, and the seed is
sold for cultivation. If the requirements are not met, the particular seed lot is not permitted to sale
and grows commercially.

Minimum certification standard of maize seed:

Particulars Standard for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (min) 98% 98%
Innert matter (max) 2% 2%
Other crop seeds (max) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds none none
Germination 85% 85%
Moisture (max) 12% 12%
Source: Rana, D. S. 1997. Guidelines for Seed Quality Control and Minimum Seed Certification Standards. HMG/FAO
Improvement of Seed Quality Control services Project Kathmandu.

Phases of Seed Certification

Certification shall be completed in six broad phases listed as under:
a. Receipt and scrutiny of application.
b. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the seed used for raising the
seed crop
c. Field inspections to verify conformity to the prescribed field standards;
d. Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and packing;
e. Seed sampling and analysis, including genetic purity test and/or seed health test, if any, in
order to verity conformity to the prescribed standards; and
f. grant of certificate and certification tags, tagging and sealing.

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