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Figure 3.34 illustrates the effect of different levels of shot peening intensity on the fatigue strength of pearlitic Ductile
Iron with as-cast surfaces. Shot peening at the highest intensity level developed fatigue properties of the as-cast
surfaces to within 6 per cent of those with defect-free machined surfaces.

Figure 3.35 illustrates the influence of surface rolling on the bending fatigue properties of ferritic and pearlitic grades of
Ductile Iron. This Figure shows that v-notched samples, strengthened by rolling with a roller contoured to the notch
geometry, had fatigue strengths from 58 to 73 per cent higher than the unnotched samples of the pearlitic and ferritic
grades respectively. Table 3.3, which compares the reversed bending fatigue properties of different Ductile Iron
crankshafts, confirms the significant strengthening effect of fillet rolling. Fillet rolling of ascast crankshafts increased
fatigue strength from 30 ksi (207 MPa) to 83-97 ksi (572-669 MPa), an increase of 175-225 per cent over the as-cast
pearlitic iron. This Table also documents the even greater benefits accruing from austempering and fillet rolling (see
Section IV for more information on the fatigue properties of austempered Ductile Iron).

Table 3.3. Effect of fillet rolling and austempering on reversed

bending fatigue properties of crankshafts.

Endurance
limits,
Material/Processing ksi MPa
Crank type 202
Ductile IRON, as-cast 30* 207
Ductile IRON, as-cast, rolled fillets 97 669
Ductile IRON, asutempered 60 414
Ductile IRON, austempered, rolled fillets 143 986
Steel - 1046 Q & T 48* 331

Crank type 303

Ductile IRON, as-cast, rolled fillets 83 572

*Previously determined.

Surface Heat Treatment

Surface hardening by flame or induction heating is used to improve the resistance of Ductile Iron to both normal and
pitting fatigue failures. Conventional fatigue strength is improved by a combination of high surface hardness and
compressive surface stresses, while pitting fatigue is reduced by the increased surface hardness. Molten salt cyaniding
produces a two-layer "case" on Ductile Iron components which can result in increases in fatigue strengths from 63 to 80
per cent, as shown in Figure 3.36.

Designing for Fatigue Applications

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The design stress for fatigue should not exceed one-third of the fatigue limit measured under conditions that suitably
replicate the stress environment of the application. That is, notched data should be used when unavoidable stress
concentrations are present in the component, and bending, torsional and push-pull fatigue data should be used
according to the type of cyclic stress encountered by the component. The fatigue strength of Ductile Iron is frequency
sensitive, and test frequencies should not exceed those encountered when the component is in service. The fatigue
strength of Ductile Iron, like many other cast materials, is also influenced by both the cast section size and the
specimen size. Both of these factors should be considered when extrapolating laboratory fatigue data to actual
components, although the one-third safety factor may be sufficient to compensate for any degradation in fatigue
strength due to size factors. The fatigue strength of Ductile Iron can be optimized through a combination of production
and design practices which result in the following component characteristics.

 maximum pearlite content and CMMH

 high nodularity and nodule count
 reduced nodule size
 high degree of cleanliness
 minimum shrinkage and porosity in critical areas
 minimum carbide content
 freedom from degenerate graphite and dross on as-cast surfaces
 reduction of stress concentrations in component design
 fatigue-strengthening surface treatments

Thermal Fatigue

Thermal fatigue is a special type of fatigue in which thermal cycling produces stress/ strain cycles in the component
through differential expansion and contraction resulting from temperature gradients. The severity of thermal fatigue
increases with increased temperature, increased range over which the temperature is cycled and increased rates of
heating and cooling. Material properties which contribute to good thermal fatigue resistance are: high thermal
conductivity, low modulus of elasticity and high strength and ductility. For severe thermal fatigue conditions, the high
thermal conductivity and low modulus of high carbon Gray Iron make this material superior to both conventional and
alloyed ferritic Ductile Irons and Compacted Graphite (CG) Iron.

For medium severity thermal fatigue, ferritic Ductile Iron and CG Iron provide superior cracking resistance but may fail
by distortion. Pearlitic and alloy Ductile Irons provide the best performance for low severity thermal fatigue conditions.
Figure 3.37 shows the increasing superiority of ferritic, pearlitic and alloy Ductile Irons in the Buderus Test in which
o o
thermal fatigue resistance is ranked by measuring the number of cycles between 650 C (1200 F) and room
temperature required to produce bridge cracking between two holes in the test specimen. Performance of exhaust
manifolds follows closely the ranking shown in this Figure. Ferritic Ductile Iron exhaust manifolds have been used
widely due to a combination of good thermal fatigue strength and resistance to graphitization. Recent demands for
increased service temperatures have resulted in the use of "Si-Mo" Ductile Irons containing 4-5% Si and up to 1% Mo.
The increased strength and oxidation resistance of these alloys have resulted in excellent performance at service
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temperatures up to 750 C (1380 F).

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Fracture Behaviour

Ductile Iron, like most ferrous materials, exhibits fracture behaviour which varies according to composition,
microstructure, temperature, strain rate, and stress state. At low temperatures, brittle failure occurs by the formation of
cleavage cracks, producing a facetted, shiny fracture surface. Very little deformation is associated with this type of
fracture, resulting in low absorption of energy and low toughness. As the temperature increases, producing a decrease
in flow stress, failure occurs by plastic deformation, primarily by the formation, growth and coalescence of voids. The
resultant fracture surface will be dull gray, and the energy absorbed will be high, meaning very good fracture toughness.
Fracture in ferrous materials traditionally has been characterized according to appearance and absorbed energy, with a
Nil-Ductility-Transition (NDT) temperature quoted to indicate the change from brittle to ductile behaviour. In addition to
transition temperature, upper shelf energies were quoted to define toughness in the ductile fracture region.

Fracture Testing

The Charpy test has been used for many years to characterize both the transition temperature and fracture energy for
Ductile Iron, and a large body of Charpy impact energy data has been accumulated. The Charpy test is a dynamic
fracture test in which a notched (see Figure 3.38) or unnotched test piece is struck an impact blow by a swinging
pendulum. The effect of the notch on the fracture behaviour of ferritic Ductile Iron is shown in Figure 3.39. The shape
of the notch is also important and must be considered, "V" shaped notches being more severe and producing lower
strengths than "U" notches. The complex, triaxial stress state and increased strain rate at the root of the notch
o o
combine to restrict plastic deformation, increasing the transition temperature by 110 F (60 C) and reducing the upper
shelf energy by 75 per cent. The effect of strain rate on fracture behaviour is illustrated in Figure 3.40, in which the
results of dynamic (impact) tests of pre-cracked, notched Charpy bars are compared to quasi-static (slow bend) test
o o
results. The increased loading rate of the impact test produced a 115 F (64 C) increase in the transition temperature.
Figure 3.39 and Figure 3.40 highlight the sensitivity of fracture behaviour to test conditions and emphasize the strain
rate sensitivity of Ductile Iron.

Recent advances in fracture mechanics have resulted in the use of the Dynamic Tear Test, ASTM E604, and the
fracture toughness tests, ASTM E399 and ASTM E813,(see Figure 3.38 for sample geometry) to determine crack
propagation properties, which are considered more relevant to the assessment of the flaw tolerance of a stressed
component. This section will use data obtained from standard and modified Charpy tests and from dynamic tear and
fracture toughness tests to characterize the fracture behaviour of Ductile Iron. The large body of standard Charpy data
will be used to illustrate the relative effects of microstructure, composition, heat treatment and stress environment on
fracture behaviour. Data from the other tests are offered to provide the designer with the quantitative information
required to make materials selection and component design decisions. Again, fracture toughness informatio is more
relevant and Ductile Iron compares well with steel in toughness levels where it is not shown to be as good with Charpy
data.

Impact Properties Effect of Microstructure

The impact properties of Ductile Iron are influenced significantly by matrix microstructure. As shown in Figure 3.41,
Ductile Irons with annealed ferritic matrices exhibit the lowest ductile-to-brittle transition temperature and highest upper

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