TRAINING COURSE ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY TESTING AND SAFETY - (RT-1) (VOLUME - 1) Compiled by GURSHARAN SINGH Isotope Division, BARC AND M.J. SUBRAMANYA Radiological Physics and Advisory Division, BARC RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS AND ADVISORY DIVISION BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE MUMBAI 400 085 1997poep yp > CONTENTS . Non-Destructive Testing Methods . Properties of Materials . Defects in Materials ). Material Defects and Failures in Service . X-ray Technology . Radiation Sources . Gamma Radiography Equipment . Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording . Lead and Fluorescent Screens . Work Parameters and Conditions . Evaluation of Radiographic Quality Defectology Selection of Radiography Techniques Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test Methods Advances in Radiography1A, NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS 1: INTRODUCTION "Non-destructive testing (NDT)' is testing materials without destroying them. The materials after inspection do not change in their size, shape, physical or chemical properties. There are six major NDT methods viz., visual and optical aids, radiography testing, ultrasonic testing, eddy current testing, magnetic particle testing and dye penetrant testing. These are regularly used by industry. Each of these methods, has its own flaw detection capability and therefore no method can replace other methods. These methods are discussed in brief. 2: TYPES OF NDT METHODS Commonly employed NDT methods can be broadly divided into two groups : i) Methods for detection of internal defects ii) Methods for inspection of surface/sub-surface defects 3: METHODS FOR INTERNAL FLAWS 3.1 : Radiographic Method Basic principle of radiographic testing is shown in figure 1.1. The radiation transmitted through a material, is recorded on an X-ray film. In this method, different types of radiations and films are used, depending upon the type of information required g Source vransmitted intensity ‘hrough the object cea trend of Fig. 1.1 : Principle of Radiography Testing.3.1.1: X and Gamma Radiography Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and assemblies. ‘The image of a material produced on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object. Industrial X-ray machines in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of metal thicknesses upto 7.5 cm steel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are used for higher thicknesses... Artificially produced radioisotopes, emitting gamma radiations, such as iridium-192 and cobalt-60 have many advantages over X-ray machines, Equipment used for gamma radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of steel equivalents. 3.2 : Ultrasonic Method Ultrasound waves are generated by piezo electric transducers which convert electrical energy to mechanical vibrations and vice-versa. ‘These waves are made to fall on the material to be tested. As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected, refracted, scattered or transmitted depending upon the structure of the material. Longitudinal waves Shear waves a. Pulsecho Method b, Transmission Method Fig. 1.2 : Ultrasonic Methods Most commonly used frequency range for industrial inspection is 0.5 - 25 mega hertz. Three important methods of ultrasonic testing are pulse-echo, transmission and resonance techniques. 3.2.1 ; Pulse-Echo Method ln this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted into the material to be tested. Ina homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back surface. In case of a defect, the original pulse reflects back from the defect location and returns to the transducer before the return of back surface echo pulse as shown in figure 1.2a. A single transducer can serve both as transmitter and receiver.3.2.2 : Transmission Method In this method, two separate transducers are used on either side of the material, one as transmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.2b) Variation in intensity across the transmitted beam indicates the soundness of the material. Attenuation of the sound beam is indicative of coarse grain structure of the material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size of the medium, scattering process predominates. Transmission method is less sensitive. 3.2.3 : Resonance Method ‘This method is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates or sheets and also in case of bonded materials. In this method, ultrasonic wave of continuously varying frequency is fed into the material. The frequency is varied till a standing wave is set up within the material, causing it to resonate at the fundamental frequency or multiples of it at a greater amplitude as shown in figure 1.3. ‘The resonance is sensed by an instrument. Change in resonant frequency is an indication of discontinuity. | KE] "4 Litt Fig. 1.3 : Principle of Resonance method. 4: METHODS FOR SURFACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS 4.1: Visual and Dye Penetrant Testing Methods Examination of cracks and other irregularities on the surface under visible light is the cheapest, simplest and quickest NDT method. However, all defects cannot be seen, by unaided eyes. ‘Therefore, techniques to increase the contrast of the discontinuity to make it visible, are used. Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to seep into the surface cracks to provide contrast against the background.4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing Rayleigh waves are ultrasonic shear waves propagated near the surface of a material. Waves of frequencies in the range of 1-10 MHz are used for detection of surface cracks and other defects. The technique is used, where access is limited. 4.3 : Magnetic Particle Testing This method is applicable only to materials which can be magnetised. The object is magnetised by applying high alternate or direct currents (A.C or D.C) and flow of magnetic powders is observed either in dry or wet process. Surface discontinuity, such as grinding cracks, forging laps and seams, etc. can be easily detected. In some cases, sub-surface defects about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed. COL Fig. 1.4 : Principle of Eddy Current Testing 4.4: Eddy Current Testing ‘The method employs alternating currents in the range (50-5000 kHz), and is useful for detection of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When a coil carrying alternating current is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in figure 1.4, eddy currents are induced on the surface layer, Strength of these eddy currents depends on a large number of surface variables.Depth of inspection depends upon type of material and frequency of the alternating current and it is about 1-10 mm. 5: LEAK TESTING Leak testing method is used to check fabricated components and systems, for nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, electronic valves, vacuum equipment, gas containers, etc, A leak is passage of 2 gas from one side of the wall of the container (o the other side, under pressure or concentration difference. It is measured as ec/sec. Depending upon the range of leak detection capability, a number of test methods are available. Some examples are; pressure drop/rise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia sensitised paper, with detection capabilities upto 10% cc/sec. Halogen diode sniffer, Helium mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities in the range 107 - 10" ce/see,1B. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION Selection of a material for a given job depends upon its physical and mechanical properties, Most structural materials are subject to external forces, which generate internal mechanical stresses. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its continued functioning. Hence, itis important for the NDT personnel to know the normal material properties, as well as effect of discontinuity upon the material serviceabil 2: TYPES OF PROPERTIES The application for which a material is used, determines which property is most important. 2.4: Chemical Properties Chemical properties (reaction with other materials) are of interest, mainly because of the need for resistance to corrosion 2.2 : Physical Properties Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures - eg., density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, melting point, ete. 2.3 : Mechanical Properties Mechanical properties of materials like strength, hardness, are most important in manufacturing processes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying loads. 2.3.1 : Tensile Strength A stress strain diagram is used to describe many of the mechanical properties important in the strength of a material. It shows the stress-strain behaviour of the material under gradually applied and increasing tensile stress. It indicates three regions : a. Elastic Region at Low Stresses - indicates that the longitudinal strain produced by stresses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress. Plastic Region at Medium Stresses : indicates that at a certain stress level an abrupt increase in strain occurs and the material is said to yield. c. Necking Region at High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate strength is reached, the material starts to neck into larger strains, until the material ruptures and breaks into two parts, Strains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic strain to rupture are referred to as “ductile”. Those which undergo little or no plastic strain, prior to rupture,are referred to as "brittle" 2.3.2 : Toughness and Notch-Toughness The toughness of a material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth round bar) to absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness of a material, is defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy in the presence of a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact load. 2.3.3 : Creep Creep is the flow of material over a period of time, when under a load too small to produce any measurable plastic deformation at the time of application. The simplest type of creep test is made by just hanging a weight on the test specimen and observing its elongation, as a function of time by using a microscope or other sensitive detector of strain. 2.3. : Fatigue Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material to withstand repeated applications of stress which in itself is too small to produce appreciable plastic deformation. Fatigue, usually is a more critical design criterion than any other, for the structural safety and reliability of machinery or structural components. 2.3: : Hardness ‘The hardness of a material is measured by hardness tester. ‘Three types of hardness test are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick and rough indication of the mechanical properties of a metal. ArH1C. DEFECTS IN MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION A discontinuity can occur any time in the history of a piece of metal. If it is introduced during the initial production from the molten state, it is termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused during further processing, fabrication or finishing, it is called processing discontinuity. Finally, if it arises during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or both, it is called service discontinuity. 2: CASTING DEFECTS Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. ‘The discontinuity that can occur during casting process are given below ; a. Non-metallic inclusions : Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, are caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-metallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape, b. Porosity : It is spherical or nearly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas in the molten material, c. Pipe : The moiten metal, after being poured into a mold, starts to cool and it solidifies, The solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot. On solidification, the molten metal contracts. Since the centre of the ingot is the last to cool and solidify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the centre. This results in a cavity called "PIPE". It may extend from the top towards the interior of the ingot along the axis. 4. Cold-shut : Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, it hits the mold too hard and spatters small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal reaches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures. ©. Hot tear (shrink crack) : Hot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having light and heavy sections, the light sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, as they are hotter and do not shrink as fast. £, Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage of the solidifying metal, just as a "PIPE" is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in the cast product, unlike the “pipe” in the ingot, which always occurs oiily at the top portion of the ingot.8. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also occur in the casting at the mold gate, ie., at the entrance to the mold through which the molten metal is poured. Shrinkage occurs, if metal at the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath is still molten. Shrinkage which occurs at the gate appear as a number of small holes called “micro shrinkage". Micro shrinkage can also occur deeper within the metal, if the mold is improperly designed. h. Blow holes : Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mold itself. 3: FORGING DEFECTS Forging is the process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing, Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be cold forged. The defects that can occur during forging are given below: a. Forging lap : A forging lap is discontinuity caused by folding of metal into a thin plate on the surface of the forged material. It is due to the mismatching of the mating surfaces of the two forging dies in “closed-die forging” or abrupt changes in grain direction. It is always open to the surface. b. Forging bursts or cracks : It is a rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Forging a metal at too low a temperature can cause this defect. They may be internal or may occur at the surface. 4: WELDING DEFECTS Welding is the process of joining metals, Two basic types of welding are used, fusion welding and pressure welding, 4.1: Fusion welding I is essentially a casting process, in which a metal is melted and cast in the joint and is made to fuse with the parts to be.joined. The metal is supplied by filler rods, which are generally of composition similar to the metal being welded. There are cases in which no filler rod is used - for example, in thin sheet, where part of the sheets are melted to produce the filler metal. 4.2 ; Pressure welding In this process, pressure and heat are applied to the pieces to be welded. The pressure produces plastic deformations, the heat then produces recrystallization across the boundary, resulting in the formation of new crystals which are an integral part of both pieces and thus the welding takes place. All critical welds require NDT for assurance of quality or as a means to enable repairs.‘The possible defects (Fig. 1.5) that can occur in fusion weldments are listed below: 1 453 1. Overlap 2. Lack of Fusion 3. Undercut 4, Porosity 5. Crack 6. Slag Inclusion Fig. 1.5 : Typical Weld Defects 2. Overlaps : A fin of surplus metal on the end of a billet may be caught and folded into the surface during subsequent rolling. The bent-over metal, while forced tightly against the main stock, will not bond to it. ‘The resulting lap is a possible initiation point for a fatigue crack b. Crater cracks : Crater cracks are caused in the weld bead by improper use of heat source, ither when a weld is started or stopped. A crater crack can also occur at the temporary stop of the weld. Crater cracks are primarily of three types - transverse, longitudinal and multiple star-shaped. c. Stress cracks : These are cracking of weld metal and base metal in or near the weld zone and they are usually caused by high stresses set up by localised dimensional changes. Stress cracks are most likely to occur when weldments are of heavy sections. These cracks usually occur transverse to the weld in a single pass weld and longitudinal in a multiple pass weld. 4. Porosity : Porosity is the term for the gas pockets or voids free of any solid material that are frequently found in weld metals. Porosity can come from gases released by the cooling weld metal and from gases formed by chemical reactians in the weld metal. Porosity may be scattered uniformly throughout the entire weld, isolated in small areas or concentrated at the root. Gas pores are usually spherical in shape, although they may also occur as non-spherical pockets along grain boundaries. Most welds contain some amount of porosity which may be micro or macro in size. e. Slag inclusions : This term is used to describe the oxides and other non-metallic solid materials that are entrapped in the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. Slag inclusions may be caused by contamination of the weld metal by the atmosphere, but in most cases, they are generally derived from electrode covering materials or fluxes, employed in are welding operations. In multilayered welding operations, failure to remove the slag between passes will result in slag inclusions in these zones. Slag inclusions, are generally linear and may occur either as short particles or long bands, f. Tungsten inclusions : in the gas tungsten arc-welding process, the occasional touching of the electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal, particularly in manual operation, or excessive currents during arc welding may transfer particles of the tungsten into the weld 1.10metal. ‘These are calied ‘tungsten inclusions’ 8. Lack of fusion : Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion, as it is frequently termed, describes the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or interweld passes to fuse together completely. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at side wall or in the interpass region. Lack of fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either rounded or sharp edges depending on how it is formed. h, Lack of penetration : Lack of penetration is due to failure of weld metal to extend into the root of the joint. The most frequent cause for this type of defect is the unsuitable groove design for the selected welding process. i, Undereut : During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the weld preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant, at the edge of the weld bead. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation, etc.'D, MATERIAL DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN SERVICE 1: INTRODUCTION The response of metals to various stages of manufacture, construction or service life can vary widely depending upon chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical working, surface conditions, presence of discontinuity and other material characteristics 2: CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE Products and structures may be subjected to a number of service conditions, as mentioned below, which may result in discontinuity. . stationary load, dynamic load, unidirectional or multidirectional, multi-directional - more serious, high temperature, pressure creating stress above a material's elastic limit corrosive environment, vibrations, excess loading, . improper maintenance and ageing. rem mgaoge 3: TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE There are two generally accepted types of material failure in service: one is the easily recognized "FRACTURE! or separation into two or more parts; the second is the less easily recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION" or change of shape and/or position. 4: SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES 4.1; Corrosion Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding or contacting medium which may be liquid, gas or some combination of the two. This deterioration can be either uniform or localized. To some degree, corrosion can influence all metals, but the effect varies widely depending upon the combination of the metal and the corrosive agent. 4.2 : Fatigue Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called "FATIGUE FAILURES" Most service failures occur as a result of tensile stress.4.3; Wear Wear is probably the most important factor in the deterioration of machinery with moving components, often limiting both the life and the performance of such equipment. Wear is the Joss of material from the surface. Wear is affected by a variety of conditions, such as the type of lubrication, loading, speed, temperature, materials, surface finish and hardness. 4.4 : Overstress It may happen when a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its design load. When this happens, the component may undergo plastic deformation or fracture, to relieve the high stress within the part.2A, X-RAY TECHNOLOGY 1: INTRODUCTION X-rays were discovered by a German scientist, Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. Some of the properties of X-rays are given below. . X-rays are electromagnetic radiations, similar to visible light, with higher energy. ‘They can pass through matter and get absorbed/scattered in the process. . They can affect X-ray/photographic films. . They can excite and ionize atoms of the medium, through which they pass. . They can cause injury to biological systems. 2: X AND GAMMA RAYS X and gamma rays have similar properties. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus, whereas X-rays are generated outside the nucleus when high speed electrons interact with atoms, Gamma rays have definite, discrete energies, whereas, X-rays have continuous energies. The maximum energy of X-rays depends on the incident electron energy (Fig. 2.1) Characteristic H-rays i’ of Tungsten Applied Voltage = 200 KV ™~S o 30 100 150 200) Fhoton Energy (keV) Fig. 2.1 : Typical X-ray Spectra . 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of X-ray Equipment for Radiography a. Advantages 1. X-ray machines have higher radiation output (about 45 R/min at $0 om from a 200 kV, 1SmA X-ray unit, compared to 40 R/h at 50 cm from a 20 Ci iridium-192 source), enabling larger turnover of workload. 2. They have small focal spot size, which helps to obtain sharper images.3. Use of X-rays results in better image contrast, as X-rays have continuous spectrum. 4, X-ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when they are switched 'OFI b. Disadvantages 1, X-ray units are bulky, for use at intricate & inaccessible locations. 2. They require electric power for operation, 3. They require high capital investment. 3 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS X-rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material (target). ‘omic number of the target atom and with ran X-ray machine, less than one per cent of the ys and the remaining power appears as heat. If material may melt, X-ray produ increase in the incident electron ener electrical power supplied is converted this heat is not removed efficiently, ch ion Although X-ray intensity is different for di target maierial, the distribution of X-ray energies for all targets is similar, the maximum energy being the energy of the incident electrons. In an X-ray machine, if the potential difference between the filament and the target or the applied kilovoltage is 200 kV, then the energy of the electrons hitting the target is 200 keV and the maximum energy of the X-rays would be 200 keV. A typical X-ray spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.1. ‘The continuous X-ray spectrum will also contain one or more sharp peaks. ‘These peaks are of definite energies, dependent on the target element, hence are called characteristic X-rays. The quality of an X-ray beam can be described by its Half Value Thickness (HVT). The HVT is a function of the effective energy of the X-ray beam, which is approximately 1/3rd of the applied kilovoltage, It also depends upon the nature of the power supply and the added filtration. . Fig. 2.2 : Hooded Anode X-ray Tube.‘The essential requirements for the production of X-rays are a a source of electrons (heated tungsten filament), ». high voltage supply to accelerate the electrons, c. a target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to X-rays ‘The cross-section of a typical X-ray unit is shown in Fig, 2.2. The target is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm. When the electrons hit the target, much of the energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly removed. Copper, is used for the purpose of heat removal. Certain anodes are hollow in construction, so that primary coolants can be circulated through the same to remove the generated heat. Mineral oil is also sometimes used around the X-ray unit, to remove heat and serve as electrical insulator. ‘The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage, whereas, the intensity is decided by the current flowing through the filament (millamperage). Selection of the target material is based on the following properties: 1, The target material should have a high melting point. 2. It should possess a high atomic number. 3. It should possess high thermal conductivity (to dissipate the heat quickly). 4 It should have low vapour pressure at high temperatures (1 prevent evaporation of the target material and its deposition on the wails of the X-ray tube, as this would cause absorption of X-rays and disturbance in the insulation properties of the tube). ‘Tungsten, having an atomic number 74, and melting point 3400°C is the most preferred target material. X-ray tube is contained in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness. ‘The power ratings, viz., kilovoltage (kVp), tube. current (mA), besides the cooling pattern, decides the structure of an X-ray unit, 4: REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBE 1. An industrial X-ray tube must be capable of operating continuously for indefinite periods at maximum loading 2. Itshould be able to pass appreciable current over the lowest range of operating voltages. This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, which necessitate low voltage techniques, within reasonable exposure periods. 3. It should possess the smallest possible focal area. For maximum radiographic definition, a point source of radiation is one of the requirements. Modern X-ray tubes have very small focal areas.4. The design safety should include sufficient shielding material (say lead or equivalent steel) so that the leakage radiation level at every rating combination (KY, mA) does not exceed I R/h at | metre from the target. 5: SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBES Industrial radiography involves inspection of objects of various materials and in many shapes and sizes. For objects containing organic compounds, eg., food stuff, plastic insulating materials, etc., the required voltage is in the range of 50-100 kV. The examination of light ‘metal and steel castings, welds in pipelines, pressure vessels, ships and bridges and weapons of war, requires kilovoltage in the range 150 kV - 2 MV. Most frequently used voltage is between 150 kV and 400 kV. Portable X-ray units, in the voltage range 150 kV to 250 kV are used for field radiography. X-ray units of higher voltage are generally stationary ones, for use in enclosed installations. X-ray units can also be used as cabinet installations with incorporated lead shielding and safety interlocks (eg., the unit becomes operable, by actuation of certain microswitches, only when the object occupies a preset position in front of the beam port), 5.1: Fluoroscopy The fluoroscopy technique is used for continuous production line scanning of die castings, in food processing industry, etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray source, fluorescent screen (zinc cadmium sulphide) and leaded glass barrier. ‘The equipment is normally supplied in shielded enclosures. The object to be examined is placed in between X-ray beam and fluorescent screen. A shadow image is produced on the screen and it is viewed through television monitor system or by the use of image intensifiers. 5.2 : Fine Focus Tube The use of fluorescent screens, for examination of castings and assemblies at considerable magnification, is made possible by using a tube with a very fine focus of about 0.2 mm in diameter. The small size of the spot reduces geometric unsharpness and also produces image magnification. Electron beam Fig. 2.3 : Rod Anode System5.3 : Rod Anode Tube ‘The examination of confined spaces, like the pipes of a steam boiler or the cylinder heads of an internal combustion engine, has given rise to an X-ray equipment with the target at the end ofa long tube. The target and therefore, the whole anode is earthed, so that the source of radiation can be pushed into the cavities mentioned above. In X-ray units used for circumferential radiography, the target is placed at right angle to the tube axis and as a result, the radiation emerges all round in the form of a disc. For unidirectional beam, the target is at 45° inclination (Fig. 2.3). 5.4: Crawler X-ray Units ‘These units are useful for cross-country pipe line inspection, with automatic movement from Joint to joint and are becoming increasingly popular. The power input is obtained from diesel generators. 6: X-RAY GENERATOR CIRCUITS The power supply required for the operation of an X-ray tube are a, a low voltage, to heat the filament, b. ahigh voltage, to accelerate the electrons. ‘The filament of an X-ray tube is normally operated at 6-12 volts with 5-6 amps of current. ‘This is derived from the mains line using a step down transformer. The high voltage is usually obtained from a step-up transformer. To maintain the target at positive potential with respect to the filament, different types of rectification circuits are used, viz., half-wave rectification, full-wave rectification and constant potential units. There are various advantages of using a constant potential X-ray unit. It yields better X-ray output than that produced by a pulsating potential having the same peak kilovoltages. It gives 2 more penetrating beam, as required in industrial radiography. 7: LINEAR ACCELERATOR To obtain high energy X-rays in the MeV range, for inspection of very thick objects, linear accelerators are used. In these, the X-ray intensity can be of the order of few hundred Roentgen per minute at one metre.2B. RADIATION SOURCES Radioisotopes are broadly classified as J. maturally occurring and 2. artificially made. Potassium-40, uranium-238 and its daughter products are some of the naturally occurring radioisotopes. Of these naturally occurring radioisotopes, radium-226(encapsulated) was used carlier in industrial radiography. Radioisotopes, presently used in industrial radiography viz. cobalt-60, iridium-192, thulium-170, are artificially produced. 2: PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES. There are three methods of producing artificial radioisotopes; by, a. activating elements with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, b. processing fission products fcom spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor, ©. bombarding elements with charged partictes from particle accelerators. 2.1: Production by Activation Process When a target element is bombarded with neutrons in a reactor, activation may occur mainly by one of the following processes depending on the energy of the neutrons. 59 & (a-ryreaction = eg. 5-Co (n,2) Sco b. (np)reaction : eg. sco (np) Sire 27, 24, AI (nya) Na ©. (nya)reacti . (nayreaction : eg. 1 Iridium-192 is also obtained by a process similar to *a', by bombardment of neutrons. When a target containing *m' gram of the element of interest is exposed to a neutron flux of *$' nlem*sec. the activity induced in the target (S,) is given by the relation 6X mx eX “ S= aerate [1-299 ] Bg Where, _S, is activity in becquerels (Bq) tis time of irradiation T is half-life of radioisotope produced (¢ & T are in same units) «@ is cross section in barns (10 cm?) for the reaction A is mass number of the target elementFor production of iridium-192, cobalt-60 and thulium-170 radiography sources, thin metal discs of purity better than 99.9 per cent are used as targets 2.2 : Production by Nuclear Fission Caesium-137, used sometimes in industrial radiography is produced by nuclear fission. Ina nuclear reactor, uranium atom splits (undergoes fission) into two different elements with the release of neutrons and enormous amount of energy, Caesium-137 and strontium-90, two radioisotopes, commonly used both in industrial and medical applications, are produced by this method. Caesium-137, because of its chemical form, is now discouraged for use in industrial radiography. 3: SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have suitable radiation energies, higher radiation output, reasonably long half-life and possibility of economic production at high specific activities. Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are two commonly used radioisotopes in industrial radiography. Table 2.1 gives the characteristics of these (wo radioisotopes. TABLE 2.1 : CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES Source Half-life Production Gamma Radiation Useful Process Energy Output Range of (MeV) —R/M/Ci_— Thickness atl metre in Stee! (mm) 192, 191 0.296 to Thad 1) A 10- 60 al EOD ggg 0-88 60 59 LI7& CK 7 1 50-200 37? S39 7087) yg 3 3.4 : Specific Acti ity The specific activity of a radioisotope is measured in gigabequerels per gram (GBq/g) or curies per gram (Ci/g). A high specific activity indicates that a radioisotope of given activity will be of smaller mass, In industrial radiography, to obtain a sharper image, the size of the source should also be small. This is achieved by a source of higher physical density. Iridium-192,with a physical density 22.4 g/ec and half life 74.5 days, is a very good source for industrial radiography. 4: FABRICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES Fabrication of a sealed radioisotopes involves sealing of the active material in an inactive capsule, resistant enough to withstand, under normal conditions of use, dispersion of active ‘materials. Generally, stainless steel is used as the encapsulation material. Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT), Mumbai-400 094, fabricates and supplies cobalt-60 and iridium-192 radiography sources for use in a variety of equipment and in a range of activity values. Although there are differences in shapes and sizes of source assemblies, the inner source capsule, loaded in these, are similar in shape and dimensions. It is a stainless steel capsule with dimensions: 8mm length, 4.5mm diameter. Each iridium-192 pellet is of dimension 2.5mm diameter and 0.3mm thickness. The number of pellets in a capsule depends on the activity required. A 1000 GBq capsule may have four or five such pellets.