Basic Welding Filler Metal Technology Correspondence Course Lesson I

BASIC
WELDING FILLER METAL

TECHNOLOGY
A Correspondence Course
LESSON I
THE BASICS OF ARC WELDING
TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON I
THE BASICS OF ARC WELDING
PART A. AN INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Section Nr. Section Title Page
1.1 Source and Manufacturing............................................................. 1
1.1.1 Rimmed Steel ................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Capped Steel .................................................................................... 2
1.1.3 Killed Steel ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.4 Semi-Killed Steel................................................................................ 3
1.1.5 Vacuum Deoxidized Steel ................................................................. 3
1.2 Classification of Steels.................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Carbon Steel ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Low Alloy Steel................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 High Alloy Steel ................................................................................. 4
1.3 Specifications ................................................................................. 5
1.4 Crystalline Structure of Metals ...................................................... 6
1.4.1 Grains and Grain Boundaries ........................................................... 7
1.5 Heat Treatment ................................................................................ 8
1.5.1 Preheat ............................................................................................. 8
1.5.2 Stress Relieving ................................................................................ 9
1.5.3 Hardening ......................................................................................... 9
1.5.4 Tempering ......................................................................................... 9
1.5.5 Annealing .......................................................................................... 9
1.5.6 Normalizing ....................................................................................... 10
1.5.7 Heat Treatment Trade-Off ................................................................. 10
1.6 Properties of Metals........................................................................ 10
1.6.1 Tensile Strength ................................................................................ 10
1.6.2 Yield Strength.................................................................................... 11
1.6.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength .................................................................. 11
1.6.4 Percentage of Elongation ................................................................. 11
1.6.5 Reduction of Area ............................................................................. 11
1.6.6 Charpy Impacts ................................................................................. 11
1.6.7 Fatigue Strength ............................................................................... 12
1.6.8 Creep Strength.................................................................................. 13
1.6.9 Oxidation Resistance ........................................................................ 13
1.6.10 Hardness Test ................................................................................... 13
1.6.11 Coefficient of Expansion ................................................................... 14
1.6.12 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................ 14
1.7 Effects of Alloying Elements .......................................................... 14
1.7.1 Carbon .............................................................................................. 14
1.7.2 Sulphur ............................................................................................. 14
1.7.3 Manganese ....................................................................................... 15
1.7.4 Chromium ......................................................................................... 15
1.7.5 Nickel ................................................................................................ 15
1.7.6 Molybdenum ..................................................................................... 15
1.7.7 Silicon ............................................................................................... 15
1.7.8 Phosphorus....................................................................................... 15
1.7.9 Aluminum .......................................................................................... 15
1.7.10 Copper .............................................................................................. 15
1.7.11 Columbium........................................................................................ 16
1.7.12 Tungsten ........................................................................................... 16
1.7.13 Vanadium .......................................................................................... 16
1.7.14 Nitrogen ............................................................................................ 16
1.7.15 Alloying Elements summary ............................................................. 16
PART B. ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING

1.8 Electricity for Welding ....................................................................... 17
1.8.1 Principles of Electricity ...................................................................... 17
1.8.2 Ohm’s Law ........................................................................................ 18
1.8.3 Electrical Power ................................................................................ 19
1.8.4 Power Generation ............................................................................. 20
1.8.5 Transformers .................................................................................... 22
1.8.6 Power Requirements ........................................................................ 24
1.8.7 Rectifying AC to DC .......................................................................... 25
1.9 Constant Current or Constant Voltage .............................................. 26
1.9.1 Constant Current Characteristics ...................................................... 26
1.9.2 Constant Voltage Characteristics ...................................................... 26
1.9.3 Types of Welding Power Sources ..................................................... 27
1.9.4 Power Source Controls ..................................................................... 28
Appendix A Glossary of Terms ............................................................................. 29
AN INTRODUCTION TO METALS
1.1 SOURCE AND MANUFACTURING

Metals come from natural deposits of ore in the earth’s crust. Most ores are contaminated with
impurities that must be removed by mechanical and chemical means. Metal extracted from the purified
ore is known as primary or virgin metal, and metal that comes from scrap is called secondary metal.
Most mining of metal bearing ores is done by either open pit or underground methods. The two
methods of mining employed are known as “selective” in which small veins or beds of high grade ore
are worked, and “bulk” in which large quantities of low grade ore are mined to extract a high grade
portion.
1.1.0.1 There are two types of ores, ferrous and nonferrous. The term ferrous comes from the Latin
word “ferrum” meaning iron, and a ferrous metal is one that has a high iron content. Nonferrous metals,
such as copper and aluminum, are those that contain little or no iron. There is approximately 20 times
the tonnage of iron in the earth’s crust compared to all other nonferrous products combined; therefore,
it is the most important and widely used metal.
1.1.0.2 Aluminum, because of its attractive appearance, light weight and strength, is the next most
widely used metal. Commercial aluminum ore, known as bauxite, is a residual deposit formed at or
near the earth’s surface.
1.1.0.3 Some of the chemical processes that occur during steel making are repeated during the welding
operation and an understanding of welding metallurgy can be gained by imagining the welding arc as a
miniature steel mill.
1.1.0.4 The largest percentage of commercially produced iron comes from the blast furnace process. A
typical blast furnace is a circular shaft approximately 90 to 100 feet in height with an internal diameter
of approximately 28 feet. The steel shell of the furnace is lined with a refractory material, usually a
hard, dense clay firebrick.
1.1.0.5 The iron blast furnace utilizes the chemical reaction between a solid fuel charge and the
resulting rising column of gas in the furnace. The three different materials used for the charge are ore,
flux and coke. The ore consists of iron oxide about four inches in diameter. The flux is limestone that
decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The lime reacts with impurities in the ore and floats
them to the surface in the form of a slag. Coke, which is primarily carbon, is the ideal fuel for blast
furnaces because it produces carbon monoxide gas, the main agent for reducing iron ore into iron
metal.
1.1.0.6 The basic operation of the blast furnace is to reduce iron oxide to iron metal and to remove
impurities from the metal. Reduced elements pass into the iron and oxidized elements dissolve into the
slag. The metal that comes from the blast furnace is called pig iron and is used as a starting material
for further purification processes.
1.1.0.7 Pig iron contains excessive amounts of elements that must be reduced before steel can be
produced. Different types of furnaces, most notably the open hearth, electric and basic oxygen, are
used to continue this refining process. Each furnace performs the task of removing or reducing
elements such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen by saturating the molten metal with
oxygen and slag forming ingredients. The oxygen reduces elements by forming gases that are blown
away and the slag attracts impurities as it separates from the molten metal.
1.1.0.8 Depending upon the type of slag that is used, refining furnaces are classed as either acid or
basic. Large amounts of lime are contained in basic slags and high quantities of silica are present in
acid slags. This differential between acid and basic slags is also present in welding electrodes for
much of the same refining process occurs in the welding operation.
1.1.0.9 After passing through the refining furnace, the metal is poured into cast iron ingot molds. The
ingot produced is a rather large square column of steel. At this point, the metal is saturated with
oxygen. To avoid the formation of large gas pockets in the cast metal, a substantial portion of the
oxygen must be removed. This process is known as deoxidation, and it is accomplished through
additives that tie up the oxygen either through gases or in slag. There are various degrees of oxidation,
and the common ingots resulting from each are as follows:
1.1.1 Rimmed Steel - The making of rimmed steels involves the least deoxidation. As the ingots
solidify, a layer of nearly pure iron is formed on the walls and bottom of the mold, and practically all the
carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur segregate to the central core. The oxygen forms carbon monoxide gas
and it is trapped in the solidifying metal as blow holes that disappear in the hot rolling process. The
chief advantage of rimmed steel is the excellent defect-free surface that can be produced with the aide
of the pure iron skin. Most rimmed steels are low carbon steels containing less than .1% carbon.
1.1.2 Capped Steel - Capped steel regulates the amount of oxygen in the molten metal through the
use of a heavy cap that is locked on top of the mold after the metal is allowed to reach a slight level of
rimming. Capped steels contain a more uniform core composition than the rimmed steels. Capped
steels are, therefore, used in applications that require excellent surfaces, a more homogenous
composition, and better mechanical properties than rimmed steel.
1.1.3 Killed Steel - Unlike rimmed or capped steel, killed steel is made by completely removing or tying
up the oxygen before the ingot solidifies to prevent the rimming action. This removal is accomplished by
adding a ferro-silicon alloy that combines with oxygen to form a slag, leaving a dense and homogenous
metal.
1.1.4 Semi-killed Steel - Semi-killed steel is a compromise between rimmed and killed steel. A small
amount of deoxidizing agent, generally ferro-silicon or aluminum, is added. The amount is just sufficient
to kill any rimming action, leaving some dissolved oxygen.
1.1.5 Vacuum Deoxidized Steel - The object of vacuum deoxidation is to remove oxygen from the
molten steel without adding an element that forms nonmetallic inclusions. This is done by increasing
the carbon content of the steel and then subjecting the molten metal to vacuum pouring or steam
degassing. The carbon reacts with the oxygen to form carbon monoxide, and as a result, the carbon
and oxygen levels fall within specified limits. Because no deoxidizing elements that form solid oxides
are used, the steel produced by this process is quite clean.
1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF STEEL The three commonly used classifications for steel are: carbon, low
alloy, and high alloy. These are referred to as the “type” of steel.
1.2.1 Carbon Steel - Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon, and it attains its strength and
hardness levels primarily through the addition of carbon. Carbon steels are classed into four groups,
depending on their carbon levels. Low Carbon Up to 0.15% carbon Mild Carbon Steels .15% to 0.29%
carbon Medium Carbon Steels 0.30% to 0.59% carbon High Carbon Steels .60% to 1.70% carbon
1.2.1.1 The largest tonnage of steel produced falls into the low and mild carbon steel groups. They are
popular because of their relative strength and ease with which they can be welded.
1.2.2 Low Alloy Steel - Low alloy steel, as the name implies, contains small amounts of alloying
elements that produce remarkable improvements in their properties. Alloying elements are added to
improve strength and toughness, to decrease or increase the response to heat treatment, and to retard
rusting and corrosion. Low alloy steel is generally defined as having a 1.5% to 5% total alloy content.
Common alloying elements are manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium.
Low alloy steels may contain as many as four or five of these alloys in varying amounts. 1.2.2.1 Low
alloy steels have higher tensile and yield strengths than mild steel or carbon structural steel. Since they
have high strength-to-weight ratios, they reduce dead weight in railroad cars, truck frames, heavy
equipment, etc.
1.2.2.2 Ordinary carbon steels, that exhibit brittleness at low temperatures, are unreliable in critical
applications. Therefore, low alloy steels with nickel additions are often used for low temperature
situations.
1.2.2.3 Steels lose much of their strength at high temperatures. To provide for this loss of strength at
elevated temperatures, small amounts of chromium or molybdenum are added.
1.2.3 High Alloy Steel - This group of expensive and specialized steels contain alloy levels in excess
of 10%, giving them outstanding properties.
1.2.3.1 Austenitic manganese steel contains high carbon and manganese levels that give it two
exceptional qualities, the ability to harden while undergoing cold work and great toughness. The term
austenitic refers to the crystalline structure of these steels.
1.2.3.2 Stainless steels are high alloy steels that have the ability to resist corrosion. This characteristic
is mainly due to the high chromium content, i.e., 10% or greater. Nickel is also used in substantial
quantities in some stainless steels.
1.2.3.3 Tool steels are used for cutting and forming operations. They are high quality steels used in
making tools, punches, forming dies, extruding dies, forgings and so forth. Depending upon their
properties and usage, they are sometimes referred to as water hardening, shock resisting, oil
hardening, air hardening, and hot work tool steel.
1.2.3.4 Because of the high levels of alloying elements, special care and practices are required when
welding high alloy steels.
1.3 SPECIFICATIONS Many steel producers have developed steels that they market under a trade
name such as Cor-Ten, HY-80, T-1, NA-XTRA, or SS-100, but usually a type of steel is referred to by
its specification. A variety of technical, governmental and industrial associations issue specifications for
the purpose of classifying materials by their chemical composition, properties or usage. The
specification agencies most closely related to the steel industry are the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
1.3.0.1 The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE)
have collaborated in providing identical numerical designations for their specifications. The first two
digits of a four digit index number refer to a series of steels classified by their composition or alloy
combination. While the last two digits, which can change within the same series, give an approximate
average of the carbon range. For example, the first two digits of a type 1010 or 1020 steel indicate a
“10” series that has carbon as its main alloy. The last two digits indicate an approximate average
content of .10% or .20% carbon, respectively. Likewise, the “41” of a 4130 type steel refers to a group
that has chromium and molybdenum as their main alloy combination with approximately .30% carbon
content.
1.3.0.2 The AISI classifications for certain alloys, such as stainless steel, are somewhat different. They
follow a three digit classification with the first digit designating the main alloy composition or series.
The last two digits will change within a series, but are of an arbitrary nature being agreed upon by
industry as a designation for certain compositions within the series. For example, the “3” in a 300
series of stainless steel indicates chromium and nickel as the main alloys, but a 308 stainless has a
different overall composition than a 347 type. The “4” of a 400 series indicates the main alloy as
chromium, but there are different types such as 410, 420, 430, and so forth within the series.
1.3.0.3 The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is the largest organization of its kind in
the world. It has compiled some 48 volumes of standards for materials, specifications, testing methods
and recommended practices for a variety of materials ranging from textiles and plastics to concrete and
metals.
1.3.0.4 Two ASTM designated steels commonly specified for construction are A36-77 and A242-79.
The prefix letter indicates the class of a material. In this case, the letter “A” indicates a ferrous metal,
the class of widest interest in welding. The numbers 36 and 242 are index numbers. The 77 and 79
refer to the year that the standards for these steels were originally adopted or the date of their latest
revision. 1.3.0.5 The ASTM designation may be further subdivided into Grades or Classes. Since many
standards for ferrous metals are written to cover forms of steel (i.e., sheet, bar, plate, etc.) or particular
products fabricated from steel (i.e., steel rail, pipe, chain, etc.), the user may select from a number of
different types of steel under the same classification. The different types are than placed under grades
or classes as a way of indicating the differences in such things as chemistries, properties, heat
treatment, etc. An example of a full designation is A285-78 Grade A or A485-79 Class 70. 1.3.0.6 The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) maintains a widely used ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code. The material specification as adopted by the ASME is identified with a prefix
letter “S”, while the remainder is identical with ASTM with the exception that the date of adoption or
revision by ASTM is not shown. Therefore, a common example of an ASME classification is SA 387
Grade 11, Class 1.
1.4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

When a liquid metal is cooled, its atoms will assemble into a regular crystal pattern and we say the
liquid has solidified or crystallized. All metals solidify as a crystalline material. In a crystal the atoms or
molecules are held in a fixed position and are not free to move about as are the molecules of a liquid or
gas. This fixed position is called a crystal lattice. As the temperature of a crystal is raised, more
thermal energy is absorbed by the atoms or molecules and their movement increases. As the distance
between the atoms increases, the lattice breaks down and the crystal melts. If a lattice contains only
one type of atom, as in pure iron, the conditions are the same at all points throughout the lattice, and
the crystal melts at a single temperature (see Figure 1).
LIQUID
27950F
SOLID-LIQUID TRANSFORMATION, PURE IRON

FIGURE 1
1.4.0.1 However, if the lattice contains two or more types of atoms, as in any alloy-steel, it may start to
melt at one temperature but not be completely molten until it has been heated to a higher temperature
(See Figure 2). This creates a situation where there is a combination of liquids and solids within a
range of temperatures.
1.4.0.2 Each metal has a characteristic crystal structure that forms during solidification and often
remains the permanent form of the material as long as it remains at room temperature. However, some
metals may undergo an alteration in the crystalline form as the temperature is changed. This is known
as phase transformation. For example, pure iron solidifies at 2795°F, the delta structure transforms into
a structure referred to as gamma iron. Gamma iron is commonly known as austenite and is a
nonmagnetic structure. At a temperature of 1670°F., the pure iron structure transforms back to the
delta iron form, but at this temperature, the metal is known as alpha iron. These two phases are given
different names to differentiate between the high temperature phase (delta) and the low temperature
phase (alpha). The capability of the atoms of a material to transform into two or more crystalline
structures at different temperatures is defined as allotropic. Steels and iron are allotropic metals.
1.4.1 Grains and Grain Boundaries - As the metal is cooled to its freezing point, a small group of
atoms begin to assemble into crystalline form (refer to Figure 3). These small crystals scattered
throughout the body of the liquid are oriented in all directions and as solidification continues, more
crystals are formed from the surrounding liquid. Often, they take the form of dendrites, or a treelike
structure. As crystallization continues, the crystals begin to touch one another, their free growth
hampered, and the remaining liquid freezes to the adjacent crystals until solidification is complete. The
solid is now composed of individual crystals that usually meet at different orientations. Where these
crystals meet is called a grain boundary.
1.4.1.2 A number of conditions influence the initial grain size. It is important to know that cooling rate
and temperature has an important influence on the newly solidified grain structure and grain size. To
illustrate differences in grain formation, let's look at the cooling phases in a weld.
1.4.1.3 Initial crystal formation begins at the coolest spot in the weld. That spot is at the point where
the molten metal and the unmelted base metal meet. As the metal continues to solidify, you will note
that the grains in the center are smaller and finer in texture than the grains at the outer boundaries of
the weld deposit. This is explained by the fact that as the weld metal cools, the heat from the center of
the weld deposit will dissipate into the base metal through the outer grains that solidified first.
Consequently, the grains that solidified first were at high temperatures for a longer time while in the
solid state and this is a situation that encourages grain growth. Grain size can have an effect on the
soundness of the weld. The smaller grains are stronger and more ductile than the larger grains. If a
crack occurs, the tendency is for it to start in the area where the grains are largest.
1.4.1.4 To summarize this section, it should be understood that all metals are composed of crystals of
grains. The shape and characteristics of crystals are determined by the arrangement of their atoms.
The atomic pattern of a single element can change its arrangement at different temperatures, and that
this atomic pattern or microstructure determines the properties of the metals.
1.5 HEAT TREATMENT The temperature that metal is heated, the length of time it is held at that
temperature, and the rate that it is cooled, all have an effect on a metal's crystalline structure. This
crystalline structure, commonly referred to as "microstructure," determines the specific properties of
metals. There are various ways of manipulating the microstructure, either at the steel mill or in the
welding procedure. Some of the more common ways are as follows:
1.5.1 Preheat - Most metals are rather good conductors of heat. As a result, the heat in the weld area
is rapidly dispersed through the whole weldment to all surfaces where it is radiated to the atmosphere
causing comparatively rapid cooling. In some metals, this rapid cooling may contribute to the formation
of microstructures in the weld zone that are detrimental. Preheating the weldment before it is welded
is a method of slowing the cooling rate of the metal. The preheat temperature may vary from 150°F to
1000°F, but more commonly it is held in the 300°F to 400°F range. The thicker the weld metal, the
more likely will it be necessary to preheat, because the heat will be conducted away from the weld zone
more rapidly as the mass increases.
1.5.2 Stress Relieving - Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. The amount of
expansion is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied. In a weldment, the metal closest to the
weld is subjected to the highest temperature, and as the distance from the weld zone increases, the
maximum temperature reached decreases. This nonuniform heating causes nonuniform expansion
and contraction and can cause distortion and internal stresses within the weldment. Depending on its
composition and usage, the metal may not be able to resist these stresses and cracking or early failure
of the part may occur. One way to minimize these stresses or to relieve them is by uniformly heating
the structure after it has been welded. The metal is heated to temperatures just below the point where
a microstructure change would occur and then it is cooled at a slow rate.
1.5.3 Hardening - The hardness of steel may be increased by heating it to 50°F to 100°F above the
temperature that a microstructure change occurs, and then placing the metal in a liquid solution that
rapidly cools it. This rapid cooling, known as "quenching," locks in place microstructures known as
"martensite" that contribute to a metal's hardness characteristic. The quenching solutions used in this
process are rated according to the speed that they cool the metal, i.e., Oil (fast), Water (faster), Salt
Brine (fastest).
1.5.4 Tempering - After a metal is quenches, it is then usually tempered. Tempering is a process
where the metal is reheated to somewhere below 1335°F, held at that temperature for a length of time,
and then cooled to room temperature. Tempering reduces the brittleness that is characteristic in
hardened steels, thereby producing a good balance between high strength and toughness. The term
toughness, as it applies to metals, usually refers to resistance to brittle fracture or notch toughness
under certain environmental conditions. More information on these properties will be covered later in
this lesson and in subsequent lessons. Steels that respond to this type of treatment are known as
"quenched and tempered steels."
1.5.5 Annealing - A metal that is annealed is heated to a temperature 50° to 100° above where a
microstructure change occurs, held at that temperature for a sufficient time for a uniform change to take
place, and then cooled at a very slow rate, usually in a furnace. The principal reason for annealing is to
soften steel and create a uniform fine grain structure. Welded parts are seldom annealed for the high
temperatures would cause distortion.
1.5.6 Normalizing - The main difference between normalizing and annealing is the method of cooling.
Normalized steel is heated to a temperature approximately 100° above where the microstructure
transforms and then cooled in still air rather than in a furnace.
1.5.7 Heat Treatment Trade-Off - It must be noted that these various ways of controlling the heating
and cooling of metals can produce a desired property, but sometimes at the expense of another
desirable property. An example of this trade-off is evident in the fact that certain heat treatments can
increase the strength or hardness of metal, but the same treatments will also make the metal less
ductile or more brittle, and therefore, susceptible to welding problems.
1.6 PROPERTIES OF METALS The usefulness of a particular metal is determined by the climate and
conditions in which it will be used. A metal that is stamped into an automobile fender must be softer
and more pliable than armor plate that must withstand an explosive force, or the material used for an oil
rig on the Alaska North Slope must perform in a quite different climate than a steam boiler. It becomes
obvious that before a material is recommended for a specific use, the physical and mechanical
properties of that metal and the weld metal designed to join it must be evaluated. Some of the more
important properties of metals and the means of evaluation are as follows:
1.6.1 Tensile Strength - Tensile strength is one of the most important determining factors in selecting
a metal, especially if it is to be a structural member, part of a machine, or part of a pressure vessel.
1.6.1.1 The tensile test is performed as shown in Figure 4. The test specimen is machined to exact
standard dimensions and clamped into the testing apparatus at both ends. The specimen is then pulled
to the point of fracture and the data recorded.
1.6.1.2 The tensile strength test gives us 4 primary pieces of information: (1) Yield Strength, (2)
Ultimate Tensile Strength, (3) Elongation, and (4) Reduction in Area.
1.6.2 Yield Strength - When a metal is placed in tension, it acts somewhat like a rubberband. When a
load of limited magnitude is applied, the metal stretches, and when the load is released, the metal
returns to its original shape. This is the elastic characteristic of metal and is represented by letter A in
Figure 5. As a greater load is applied, the metal will reach a point where it will no longer return to its
original shape but will continue to stretch. Yield strength is the point where the metal reaches the limit
of its elastic characteristic and will no longer return to its original shape.
1.6.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength - Once a metal has exceeded its yield point, it will continue to stretch
or deform, and if the load is suddenly released, the metal will not return to its original shape, but will
remain in its elongated form. This is called the plastic region of the metal and is represented by the
letter B in Figure 5. As this plastic deformation increases, the metal strains against further elongation,
and an increased load must be applied to stretch the metal. As the load is increased, the metal will
finally reach a point where it no longer resists and any further load applied will rapidly cause the metal
to break. That point at which the metal has withstood or resisted the maximum applied load is its
ultimate tensile strength. This information is usually recorded in pounds per square inch (psi).
1.6.4 Percentage of Elongation - Before a tensile specimen is placed in the tensile tester, two marks
at a measured distance are placed on the opposing ends of the circular shaft. After the specimen is
fractured, the distance between the marks is measured and recorded as a percentage of the original
distance. See Figure 5. This is the percentage of elongation and it gives an indication of the ductility of
the metal at room temperature.
1.6.5 Reduction of Area - A tensile specimen is machined to exact dimensions. The area of its
midpoint cross-section is a known figure. As the specimen is loaded to the point of fracture, the area
where it breaks is reduced in size. See Figure 5. This reduced area is calculated and recorded as a
percentage of the original cross-sectional area. This information reflects the relative ductility or
brittleness of the metal.
1.6.6 Charpy Impacts - Metal that is normally strong and ductile at room temperature may become
very brittle at much lower temperatures, and thus, is susceptible to fracture if a sharp abrupt load is
applied to it. An impact tester measures the degree of susceptibility to what is called brittle fracture.
1.6.6.1 The impact specimen is machined to exact dimensions (Figure 6) and then notched on one
side. Quite often, the notch is in the form of a "V" and the test in this case is referred to as a Charpy V-
Notch Impact Test. The specimen is cooled to a predetermined temperature and then placed in a
stationary clamp at the base of the testing machine. The specimen is in the direct path of a weighted
hammer attached to a pendulum (Figure 6).
1.6.6.2 The hammer is released from a fixed height and the energy required to fracture the specimen is
recorded in ft-lbs. A specimen that is cooled to -60°F and absorbs 40 ft-lbs of energy is more ductile,
and therefore, more suitable for low temperature service than a specimen that withstands only 10 ft-lbs
at the same temperature. The specimen that withstood 40 ft-lbs energy is said to have better
toughness or notch toughness.
1.6.7 Fatigue Strength - A metal will withstand a load less than its ultimate tensile strength but may
break if that load is removed and then reapplied several times. For example, if a thin wire is bent
once, but if it is bent back and forth repeatedly, it will eventually fracture and it is said to have exceeded
its fatigue strength. A common test for this strength is to place a specimen in a machine that
repeatedly applies the same load first in tension and then in compression. The fatigue strength is
calculated from the number of cycles the metal withstands before the point of failure is reached.
1.6.8 Creep Strength - If a load below a metal's tensile strength is applied at room temperature (72°F),
it will cause some initial elongation, but there will be no further measur- able elongation if the load is
kept at a constant level. If that same load were applied to a metal heated to a high temperature, the
situation would change. Although the load is held at a constant level, the metal will gradually continue
to elongate. This characteristic is called creep. Eventually, the material may rupture depending on the
temperature of the metal, the degree of load applied and the length of time that it is applied. All three of
these factors determine a metal's ability to resist creep, and therefore, its creep strength.
1.6.9 Oxidation Resistance - The atoms of metal have a tendency to unite with oxygen in the air to
form oxide compounds, the most visible being rust and scale. In some metals, these oxides will adhere
very tightly to the skin of the metal and effectively seal it from further oxidation as is evident in stainless
steel. These materials have high oxidation resistance. In other metals, the bond is very loose, creating
a situation where the oxides will flake off, and the metal gradually deteriorates as the time of exposure
is extended.
1.6.10 Hardness Test - The resistance of a metal to indentation is a measure of its hardness and an
indication of the material’s strength. To test for hardness, a fixed load forces an indenter into the test
material (Figure 7). The depth of the penetration or the size of the impression is measured. The
measurement is converted into a hardness number through the use of a variety of established tables.
The most common tables are the Brinell, Vickers, Knoop and Rockwell. The Rockwell is further divided
into different scales, and depending on the material being tested, the shape of the indenter and the load
applied, the conversion tables may differ. For example, a material listed as having a hardness of Rb or
Rc means its hardness has been determined from the Rockwell "B" scale or the Rockwell "C" scale.
1.6.11 Coefficient of Expansion - All metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. This
dimensional change is related to the crystalline structure and will vary with different materials. The
different expansion and contraction rates are expressed numerically by a coefficient of thermal
expansion. When two different metals are heated to the same temperature and cooled at the same
rate, the one with the higher numerical coefficient will expand and contract more than the one with the
lesser coefficient.
1.6.12 Thermal Conductivity - Some metals will absorb and transmit heat more readily than others.
They are categorized as having high thermal conductivity. This characteristic contributes to the fact
that some metals will melt or undergo transformations at much lower temperatures than others.
1.7 EFFECTS OF THE ALLOYING ELEMENTS Alloying is the process of adding a metal or a
nonmetal to pure metals such as copper, aluminum or iron. From the time it was discovered that the
properties of pure metals could be improved by adding other elements, alloy steel has increased by
popularity. In fact, metals that are welded are rarely in their pure state. The major properties that can
be improved by adding small amounts of alloying elements are hardness, tensile strength, ductility and
corrosion resistance. Common alloying elements and their effect on the properties of metals are as
follows:
1.7.1 Carbon - Carbon is the most effective, most widely used and lowest in cost alloying element
available for increasing the hardness and strength of metal. An alloy containing up to 1.7% carbon in
combination with iron is known as steel, whereas the combination above 1.7% carbon is known as cast
iron. Although carbon is a desirable alloying element, high levels of it can cause problems; therefore,
special care is required when welding high carbon steels and cast iron.
1.7.2 Sulphur - Sulphur is normally an undesirable element in steel because it causes brittleness. It
may be deliberately added to improve the machinability of the steel. The sulphur causes the machine
chips to break rather than form long curls and clog the machine. Normally, every effort is made to
reduce the sulphur content to the lowest possible level because it can create welding difficulties.
1.7.3 Manganese - Manganese in contents up to 1% is usually present in all low alloy steels as a
deoxidizer and desulphurizer. That is to say, it readily combines with oxygen and sulphur to help
negate the undesirable effect these elements have when in their natural state. Manganese also
increases the tensile strength and hardenability of steel.
1.7.4 Chromium - Chromium, in combination with carbon, is a powerful hardening alloying element. In
addition to its hardening properties, chromium increases corrosion resistance and the strength of steel
at high temperatures. Chromium is the primary alloying element in stainless steel.
1.7.5 Nickel - The greatest single property of steel that is improved by the presence of nickel is its
ductility or notch toughness. In this respect, it is the most effective of all alloying elements in improving
a steel's resistance to impact at low temperatures. Electrodes with high nickel content are used to weld
cast iron materials. Nickel is also used in combination with chromium to form a group known as
austenitic stainless steel.
1.7.6 Molybdenum - Molybdenum strongly increases the depth of the hardening characteristic of steel.
It is quite often used in combination with chromium to improve the strength of the steel at high
temperatures. This group of steels is usually referred to as chrome-moly steels.
1.7.7 Silicon - Silicon is usually contained in steel as a deoxidizer. Silicon will add strength to steel but
excessive amounts can reduce the ductility. Additional amounts of silicon are sometimes added to
welding electrodes to increase the fluid flow of weld metal.
1.7.8 Phosphorus - Phosphorus is considered a harmful residual element in steel because it greatly
reduces ductility and toughness. Efforts are made to reduce it to its very lowest levels; however,
phosphorus is added in very small amounts to some steels to increase strength.
1.7.9 Aluminum - Aluminum is primarily used as a deoxidizer in steel. It may also be used in very
small amounts to control the size of the grains.
1.7.10 Copper - Copper contributes greatly to the corrosion resistance of carbon steel by retarding the
rate of rusting at room temperature, but high levels of copper can cause welding difficulties.
1.7.11 Columbium - Columbium is used in austenitic stainless steel to act as a stabilizer. Since the
carbon in the stainless steel decreases the corrosion resistance, a means of making carbon ineffective
must be found. Columbium has a greater affinity for carbon than chromium, leaving the chromium free
for corrosion protection.
1.7.12 Tungsten - Tungsten is used in steel to given strength at high temperatures. Tungsten also joins
with carbon to form carbides that are exceptionally hard, and therefore have exceptional resistance to
wear.
1.7.13 Vanadium - Vanadium helps keep steel in the desirable fine grain condition after heat treatment.
It also helps increase the depth of hardening and resists softening of the steel during tempering
treatments.
1.7.14 Nitrogen - Usually, efforts are made to eliminate hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen from steel
because their presence can cause brittleness. Nitrogen has the ability to form austenitic structures;
therefore, it is sometimes added to austenitic stainless steel to reduce the amount of nickel needed,
and therefore, the production costs of that steel.
1.7.15 Alloying Elements Summary - It should be understood that the addition of elements to a pure
metal may influence the crystalline form of the resultant alloy. If a pure metal has allotropic
characteristics (the ability of a metal to change its crystal structure) at a specific temperature, then that
characteristic will occur over a range of temperatures with the alloyed metal. The range in which the
change takes place may be wide or narrow, depending on the alloys and the quantities in which they
are added. The alloying element may also effect the crystalline changes by either suppressing the
appearance of certain crystalline forms or even by creating entirely new forms. All these
transformations induced by alloying elements are dependent on heat input and cooling rates. These
factors are closely controlled at the steel mill, but since the welding operation involves a nonuniform
heating and cooling of metal, special care is often needed in the welding of low and high alloy steel.
1.8 ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING

1.8.1 Principles of Electricity - Arc welding is a method of joining metals accomplished by applying
sufficient electrical pressure to an electrode to maintain a current path (arc) between the electrode and
the work piece. In this process, electrical energy is changed into heat energy, bringing the metals to a
molten state; whereby they are joined. The electrode (conductor) is either melted and added to the
base metal or remains in its solid state. All arc welding utilizes the transfer of electrical energy to heat
energy, and to understand this principle, a basic knowledge of electricity and welding power sources is
necessary.
1.8.1.1 The three basis principles of static electricity are as follows: 1. There are two kinds of electrical
charges in existence - negative and positive. 2. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
3. Charges can be transferred from one place to another.
1.8.1.2 Science has established that all matter is made up of atoms and each atom contains
fundamental particles. One of these particles is the electron, which has the ability to move from one
place to another. The electron is classified as a negative electrical charge. Another particle, about
1800 times as heavy as the electron, is the proton and under normal conditions the proton will remain
stationary.
1.8.1.3 Material is said to be in an electrically uncharged state when its atoms contain an equal number
of positive charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons). This balance is upset when pressure
forces the electrons to move from atom to atom. This pressure, sometimes referred to as electromotive
force, is commonly known as voltage. It should be noted that voltage that does not move through a
conductor, but without voltage, there would be no current flow. For our purposes, it is easiest to think of
voltage as the electrical pressure that forces the electrons to move.
1.8.1.4 Since we know that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the tendency is for the
electrons to move from a position of over-supply (negative charge) to an atom that lacks electrons
(positive charge). This tendency becomes reality when a suitable path is provided for the movement of
the electrons. The transfer of electrons from a negative to a positive charge throughout the length of a
conductor constitutes an electrical current. The rate that current flows through a conductor is measured
in amperes and the word ampere is often used synonymously with the term current. To give an idea of
the quantities of electrons that flow through a circuit, it has been theoretically established that one
ampere equals 6.3 quintillion (6,300,000,000,000,000,000) electrons flowing past a fixed point in a
conductor every second.
1.8.1.5 Different materials vary in their ability to transfer electrons. Substances, such as wood and
rubber, have what is called a tight electron bond and their atoms greatly resist the free movement of
electrons. Such materials are considered poor electrical conductors. Metals, on the other hand, have
large amounts of electrons that transfer freely. Their comparatively low electrical resistance classifies
them as good electrical conductors.
1.8.1.6 Electrical resistance is primarily due to the reluctance of atoms to give up their electron
particles. It may also be thought of as the resistance to current flow.
1.8.1.7 To better understand the electrical terms discussed above, we might compare the closed water
system with the electrical diagram shown in Figure 8. You can see that as the pump is running, the
water will move in the direction of the arrows. It moves because pressure has been produced and that
pressure can be likened to voltage in an electrical circuit. The pump can be compared to a battery or a
DC generator. The water flows through the system at a certain rate. This flow rate in an electrical
circuit is a unit of measure known as the ampere. The small pipe in the fluid circuit restricts the flow
rate and can be likened to a resistor. This unit resistance is known as the ohm. If we close the valve in
the fluid circuit, we stop the flow, and this can be compared to opening a switch in an electrical circuit.
1.8.2 Ohm's Law - Resistance is basic to electrical theory and to understand this principle, we must
know the Ohm's Law, which is stated as follows: In any electrical circuit, the current flow in amperes is
directly proportional to the circuit voltage applied and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance.
Directly proportional means that even though the voltage and amperage may change, the ratio of their
relationship will not. For example, if we have a circuit of one volt and three amps, we say the ratio is
one to three. Now if we increase the volts to three, our amperage will increase proportionately to nine
amps. As can be seen, even though the voltage and amperage changed in numerical value, their ratio
did not. The term "inversely proportional" simply means that if the resistance is doubled, the current will
be reduced to one-half. Ohm's Law can be stated mathematically with this equation:
I = E ÷ R or E = I × R or R = E ÷ I (E = Volts, I = Amperes, R = Resistance (Ohms))
1.8.2.1 The equation is easy to use as seen in the following problems:

1) A 12 volt battery has a built-in resistance of 10 ohms. What is the amperage?
12 ÷ 10 = 1.2 amps
2) What voltage is required to pass 15 amps through a resistor of 5 ohms?

15 × 5 = 75 volts
3) When the voltage is 80 and the circuit is limited to 250 amps, what is the value of the resistor?
80 ÷ 250 = .32 ohms
1.8.2.2 The theory of electrical resistance is of great importance in the arc welding process for it is this
resistance in the air space between the electrode and the base metal that contributes to the transfer of
electrical energy to heat energy. As voltage forces the electrons to move faster, the energy they
generate is partially used to overcome the resistance created by the arc gap. This energy becomes
evident as heat. In the welding process, the temperature increases to the point where it brings metals
to a molten state.
1.8.3 Electrical Power - The word "watt" is another term frequently encountered in electrical
terminology. When we pay our electrical bills, we are actually paying for the power to run our electrical
appliances, and the watt is a unit of power. It is defined as the amount of power required to maintain a
current of one ampere at a pressure of one volt. The circuit voltage that comes into your home is a
constant factor, but the amperage drawn from the utility company depends on the number of watts
required to run the electrical appliance. The watt is figured as a product of volts times amperes and is
stated mathematically with the following equation:
W =E × I E = W ÷ I I = W ÷ E (W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)
1.8.3.1 The amperage used by an electrical device can be calculated by dividing the watts rating of the
device by the primary voltage for which it is designed.
1.8.3.2 For example, if an appliance is designed for the common household primary voltage of 115 and
the wattage stamped on the appliance faceplate is 5, then the amperage drawn by the appliance when
in operation is determined as shown: 5 ÷ 115 = .04 amperes 1.8.3.3 Kilowatt is another term common
in electrical usage. The preface "kilo" is a metric designation that means 1,000 units of something;
therefore, one kilowatt is 1,000 watts of power.
1.8.4 Power Generation - Electrical energy is supplied either as direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC). With direct current, the electron movement within the conductor is in one direction only.
With alternating current, the electron flow reverses periodically. Al- though some types of electrical
generators will produce current directly (such as batteries, dry cells, or DC generators), most direct
current is developed from alternating current.
1.8.4.1 Through experimentation, it was discovered that when a wire is moved through a magnetic field,
an electrical current is induced into the wire, and the current is at its maximum when the motion of the
conductor is at right angles to the magnetic lines of force. The sketch in Figure 9 will help to illustrate
this principle.
1.8.4.2 If the conductor is moved upwards in the magnetic field between the N and S poles, the
galvanometer needle will deflect plus (+). Likewise, if the conductor is moved downwards the needle
will deflect minus (-). With this principle of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy
understood, we can apply it to the workings of an AC generator.
1.8.4.3 Figure 10 is a simplified sketch of an AC generator. Starting at 0° rotation, the coil wire is
moving parallel to the magnetic lines of force and cutting none of them. Therefore, no current is being
induced into the winding.
1.8.4.4 From 0° to 90° rotation, the coil wire cuts an increasing number of magnetic lines of force and
reaches the maximum number at 90° rotation. The current increases to the maximum because the wire
is now at right angles to the lines of force.
1.8.4.5 From 90° to 180° rotation, the coil wire cuts a diminishing number of lines of force and at 180°
again reaches zero.
1.8.4.6 From 180° to 270°, the current begins to rise again but in the opposite direction because now
the wire is in closer proximity to the opposite pole.
1.8.4.7 One cycle is completed as the coil wire moves from 270° to 0° and the current again drops to
zero.
1.8.4.8 With the aid of a graph, we can visualize the rate at which the lines of force are cut throughout
the cycle. If we plot the current versus degree of rotation, we get the familiar sine wave as seen in
Figure 11.
1.8.4.9 With this sine wave, we can see that one complete cycle of alternating current comprises one
positive and one negative wave (negative and positive meaning electron flow in opposing directions).
The frequency of alternating current is the number of such complete cycles per second. For most
power applications, 60 cycles per second (60 Hertz) is the standard frequency in North America.
1.8.4.10 Some welders use a three-phase AC supply. Three-phase is simply three sources of AC

power as identical voltages brought in by three wires, the three voltages or phases being separated by
120 electrical degrees. If the sine waves for the three phases are plotted on one line, they will appear
as shown in Figure 12.
1.8.4.11 This illustrates that three-phase power is smoother than single-phase because the overlapping
three phases prevent the current and voltage from falling to zero 120 times a second, thereby
producing a smoother welding arc.
1.8.4.12 Since all shops do not have three-phase power, welding machines for both single-phase and
three-phase power are available.
1.8.5 Transformers - The function of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltage to a safe value
as the conditions demand. Common household voltage is usually 115 or 230 volts, whereas industrial
power requirements may be 208, 230, 380, or 460 volts. Transmitting such relatively low voltages over
long distances would require a conductor of enormous and impractical size. Therefore, power
transmitted from a power plant must be stepped up for long distance transmission and then stepped
down for final use
1.8.5.1 As can be seen in Figure 13, the voltage is generated at the power plant at 13,800 volts. It is
increased, transmitted over long distances, and then reduced in steps for the end user. If power
supplied to a transformer circuit is held steady, then secondary current (amperes) decreases as the
primary voltage increases, and conversely, secondary current increases as primary voltage decreases.
Since the current flow (amperes) determines the wire or conductor size, the high voltage line may be of
a relatively small diameter.
1.8.5.2 The transformer in a welding machine performs much the same as a large power plant
transformer. The primary voltage coming into the machine is too high for safe welding. Therefore, it is
stepped down to a useable voltage. This is best illustrated with an explanation of how a single
transformer works.
1.8.5.3 In the preceding paragraphs, we have found than an electrical current can be induced into a
conductor when that conductor is moved through a magnetic field to produce alternating current. If this
alternating current is passed through a conductor, a pulsating magnetic field will surround the exterior
of that conductor, that is the magnetic field will build in intensity through the first 90 electrical degrees,
or the first cycle. From that point, the magnetic field will decay during the next quarter cycle until the
voltage or current reaches zero at 180 electrical degrees. Immediately, the current direction reverses
and the magnetic field will begin to build again until it reaches a maximum at 270 electrical degrees in
the cycle. From that point the current and the magnetic field again begin to decay until they reach zero
at 360 electrical degrees, where the cycle begins again.
1.8.5.4 If that conductor is wound around a material with high magnetic permeability (magnetic
permeability is the ability to accept large amounts of magnetic lines of force) such as steel, the
magnetic field permeates that core. See Figure 14. This conductor is called the primary coil, and if
voltage is applied to one of its terminals and the circuit is completed, current will flow. When a second
coil is wound around that same steel core, the energy that is stored in this fluctuating magnetic field in
the core is induced into this secondary coil.
1.8.5.5 It is the build-up and collapse of this magnetic field that excite the electrons in the secondary
coil of the transformer. This causes an electrical current of the same frequency as the primary coil to
flow when the secondary circuit is completed by striking the welding arc. Remember that all
transformers operate only on alternating current.
1.8.5.6 A simplified version of a welding transformer is schematically shown in Figure 15. This welder
would operate on 230 volts input power and the primary winding has 230 turns of wire on the core. We
need 80 volts for initiating the arc in the secondary or welding circuit, thus we have 80 turns of wire in
the secondary winding of the core. Before the arc is struck, the voltage between the electrode and the
work piece is 80 volts. Remember that no current (amperage) flows until the welding circuit is
completed by striking the arc.
1.8.5.7 Since the 80 volts necessary for initiating the arc is too high for practical welding, some means
must be used to lower this voltage to a suitable level. Theoretically, a variable resistor of the proper
value could be used as an output control since voltage is inversely proportional to resistance as we saw
when studying Ohm's Law. Ohm's Law also stated that the amperage is directly proportional to the
voltage. This being so, you can see that adjusting the output control will also adjust the amperage or
welding current.
1.8.5.8 After the arc is initiated and current begins to flow through the secondary or welding circuit, the
voltage in that circuit will be 32 volts because it is then being controlled by the output control.
1.8.6 Power Requirements - We can make another calculation by looking back at Figure 15, and that
is power consumption. Earlier, we explained that the watt was the unit of electrical power and can be
calculated by the formula:
Watts = Volts × Amperes
1.8.6.1 From Figure 15, we can see that the instantaneous power in the secondary circuit is:
Watts = 32 × 300
Watts = 9600 Watts
1.8.6.2 The primary side of our transformer must be capable of supplying 9600 watts also (disregarding
losses due to heating, power factor, etc.), so by rearranging the formula, we can calculate the required
supply line current or amperage:
Amperage = Watts ÷ Volts
A = 9600 ÷ 230 = 41.74 Amps
1.8.6.3 This information establishes the approximate power requirements for the welder, and helps to
determine the input cable and fuse size necessary.
1.8.7 Rectifying AC to DC - Although much welding is accomplished with AC welding power sources,
the majority of industrial welding is done with machines that produce a direct current arc. The
commercially produced AC power that operates the welding machine must then be changed (rectified)
to direct current for the DC arc. This is accomplished with a device called a rectifier. Two types of
rectifiers have been used extensively in welding machines, the old selenium rectifiers and the more
modern silicon rectifiers, often referred to as diodes. See Figure 16.
1.8.7.1 The function of a rectifier in the circuit can best be shown by the use of the AC sine wave. With
one diode in the circuit, half-wave rectification takes place as shown in Figure 17.
1.8.7.2 The negative half-wave is simply cut off and a pulsating DC is produced. During the positive
half-cycle, current is allowed to flow through the rectifier. During the negative half-cycle, the current is
blocked. This produces a DC composed of 60 positive pulses per second.
1.8.7.3 By using four rectifiers connected in a certain manner, a bridge rectifier is created, producing full
wave rectification. The bridge rectifier results in 120 positive half-cycles per second, producing a
considerably smoother direct current than half-wave rectification. See Figure 18.
1.8.7.4 Three-phase AC can be rectified to produce an even smoother DC than single-phase AC.
Since three-phase AC power produces three times as many half-cycles per second as single- phase
power, a relatively smooth DC voltage results as shown in Figure 19.
1.9 CONSTANT CURRENT OR CONSTANT VOLTAGE

Welding power sources are designed in many sizes and shapes. They may supply either AC or DC, or
both, and they may have various means of controlling their voltage and amperage output. The reasons
for this is that the power source must be capable of producing the proper arc characteristics for the
welding process being used. A power source that produces a satisfactory arc when welding with
coated electrodes will be less than satisfactory for welding with solid and flux cored wires.
1.9.1 Constant Current Characteristics - Constant current power sources are used primarily with
coated electrodes. This type of power source has a relatively small change in amperage and arc power
for a corresponding relatively large change in arc voltage or arc length, thus the name constant current.
The characteristics of this power source are best illustrated by observing a graph that plots the volt-
ampere curve. As can be seen in Figure 20, the curve of a constant current machine drops down- ward
rather sharply and for this reason, this type of machine is often called a "drooper."
1.9.1.1 In welding with coated electrodes, the output current or amperage is set by the operator while
the voltage is designed into the unit. The operator can vary the arc voltage somewhat by increasing or
decreasing the arc length. A slight increase in arc length will cause an increase in arc voltage and a
slight decrease in amperage. A slight decrease in arc length will cause a decrease in arc voltage and a
slight increase in amperage.
1.9.2 Constant Voltage Characteristics - Constant voltage power sources, also known as constant
potential, are used in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, and as the name implies, the voltage
output remains relatively constant. On this type of power source, the voltage is set at the machine and
amperage is determined by the speed that the wire is fed to the welding gun. Increasing the wire feed
speed increases the amperage. Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases the amperage.
1.9.2.1 Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, just as it does
in welding with a coated electrode. However, when using a constant voltage power source and a wire
feeder that delivers the wire at a constant speed, arc length caused by operator error, plate
irregularities, and puddle movement are automatically compensated for by the characteristics of this
process. To understand this, keep in mind that with the proper voltage setting, amperage setting, and
arc length, the rate that the wire melts is dependent upon the amperage. If the amperage decreases
this melt-off rate decrease and if the amperage increases, so does the melt-off rate.
1.9.2.2 In Figure 21, we see that condition #2 produces the desired arc length, voltage, and amperage.
If the arc length is increased as in #1, the voltage increases slightly; the amperage decreases
considerably, and therefore, the melt-off rate of the wire decreases. The wire is now feeding faster than
it is melting off. This condition will advance the end of the wire towards the work piece until the proper
arc length is reached where again, the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate. If the arc length is
decreased as in #3, the voltage drops off slightly, the amperage is increased considerably, and the
melt-off rate of the wire increases. Since the wire is now melting off faster than it is being fed, it melts
back to the proper arc length where the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate. This is often referred to
as a self-adjusting arc. These automatic corrections take place in fractions of a second, and usually
without the operator being aware of them.
1.9.2.3 There are a variety of different welding machines, each with its own unique internal design. Our
purpose is not to detail the function of each part of the machine, but to emphasize that their main
difference is in the way they control the voltage and amperage output.
1.9.3 Types of Welding Power Sources - A great variety of welding power sources are being built
today for electric arc welding and we shall mention some of the major types briefly. Welding power
sources can be divided into two main categories: static types and rotating types.
1.9.3.1 Static Types - Static type power sources are all of those that use commercially generated
electrical power to energize a transformer that, in turn, steps the line voltage down to useable welding
voltages. The two major categories of static power sources are the transformer type and the rectifier
type.
1.9.3.1.1 The transformer type produce only alternating current. They are commonly called "Welding
Transformers." All AC types utilize single-phase primary power and are of the constant current type.
1.9.3.1.2 The rectifier types are commonly called "Welding Rectifiers" and produce DC or, AC and DC
welding current. They may utilize either single phase or three phase input power. They contain a
transformer, but rectify the AC or DC by the use of selenium rectifiers, silicon diodes or silicon
controlled rectifiers. Available in either the constant current or the constant voltage type, some
manufacturers offer units that are a combination of both and can be used for coated electrode welding,
non-consumable electrode welding and for welding with solid or flux cored wires.
1.9.3.2 Rotating Types - Rotating type power sources may be divided into two classifications:
1. Motor-Generators
2. Engine Driven
1.9.3.2.1 Motor-generator types consist of an electric motor coupled to a generator or alternator that

produces the desired welding power. These machines produced excellent welds, but due to the
moving parts, required considerable maintenance. Few, if any, are being built today.
1.9.3.2.2 Engine driven types consist of a gasoline or diesel engine coupled to a generator or

alternator that produces the desired welding power. They are used extensively on jobs beyond
commercial power lines and also as mobile repair units. Both rotating types can deliver either AC or
DC welding power, or a combination of both. Both types are available as constant current or constant
voltage models.
1.9.4 Power Source Controls - Welding power sources differ also in the method of controlling the
output current or voltage. Output may be controlled mechanically as in machines having a tapped
reactor, a moveable shunt or diverter, or a moveable coil. Electrical types of controls, such as magnetic
amplifiers or saturable reactors, are also utilized and the most modern types, containing silicon
controlled rectifiers, give precise electronic control.
1.9.4.1 A detailed discussion of the many types of welding power sources on the market today is much
too lengthy a subject for this course, although additional information on the type of power sources for
the various welding processes will be covered in Lesson II.
1.9.4.2 Excellent literature is available from power source manufacturers, however, and should be
consulted for further reference.
APPENDIX A
LESSON I - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AISI — American Iron and Steel Institute
Allotropic — A material in which the atoms are capable of transforming into two or more crystalline
structures at different temperatures.
Alternating — An electrical current which alternately travels in either direction in a Current conductor.
In 60 cycles per second (60 Hz) AC, the frequency used in the U.S.A., the current direction reverses
120 times every second.
Ampere — Unit of electrical rate of flow. Amperage is commonly referred to as the “current” in an
electrical circuit.
ASME — American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM — American Society for Testing and Materials
Atom — The smallest particle of an element that posses all of the characteristics of that element. It
consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Carbon Steel — (Sometimes referred to as mild steel.) An alloy of iron and carbon. Carbon content is
usually below 0.3%.
Conductor — A material which has a relatively large number of loosely bonded electrons which may
move freely when voltage (electrical pressure) is applied. Metals are good conductors.
Constant Current — (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power source which will produce a
relatively small change in amperage despite changes in voltage caused by a varying arc length. Used
mostly for welding with coated electrodes.
Constant Voltage — (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power source which will produce a
relatively small change in voltage when the amperage is changed substantially. Used mostly for
welding with solid or flux cored electrodes.
Direct Current — An electrical current which flows in only one direction in a conductor. Direction of
current is dependent upon the electrical connections to the battery or other DC power source.
Terminals on all DC devices are usually marked (+) or (-). Reversing the leads will reverse the
direction of current flow.
Electron — Negatively charged particles that revolve around the positively charged nucleus in an
atom.
Ferrous — Containing iron. Example: carbon steel, low alloy steels, stainless steel.
Hertz — Hertz (Hz) is the symbol which has replaced the term “cycles per second.” Today, rather than
saying 60 cycles per second or simply 60 cycles, we say 60 Hertz or 60 Hz.
High Alloy Steels — Steels containing in excess of 10% alloy content. Stainless steel is considered
a high alloy because it contains in excess of 10% chromium.
Induced Current or Induction — The phenomena of causing an electrical current to flow through a
conductor when that conductor is subjected to a varying magnetic field.
Ingot — Casting of steel (weighing up to 200 tons) formed at mill from melt of ore, scrap limestone,
coke, etc.
Insulator — A material which has a tight electron bond, that is, relatively few electrons which will move
when voltage (electrical pressure) is applied. Wood, glass, ceramics and most plastics are good
insulators.
Kilowatt — 1,000 watts
Low Alloy Steels — Steels containing small amounts of alloying elements (usually 1½% to 5% total
alloy content) which drastically improves their properties.
Non-Ferrous — Containing no iron. Example: Aluminum, copper, copper alloys.
Ohm — Unit of electrical resistance to current flow.
Phase Transformation — The changes in the crystalline structure of metals caused by temperature
and time.
Proton — Positively charged particles which are part of the nucleus of atoms.
Rectifier — An electrical device used to change alternating current to direct current.
SAE — Society of Automotive Engineers

Transformer — An electrical device used to raise or lower the voltage and inversely change the
amperage.
Volt — Unit of electromotive force, or electrical pressure which causes current to flow in an electrical
circuit.
Watt — A unit of electrical power. Watts = Volts x Amperes
LESSON II
COMMON ELECTRIC ARC
WELDING PROCESSES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON II
COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES
2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
2.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING ............................................... 1
2.2.1 Equipment & Operation ..................................................................... 2
2.2.2 Welding Power Sources .................................................................... 2
2.2.3 Electrode Holder................................................................................ 4
2.2.4 Ground Clamp ................................................................................... 4
2.2.5 Welding Cables ................................................................................. 4
2.2.6 Coated Electrodes ............................................................................ 4
2.3 GAS-TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING .................................................. 5
2.3.1 Equipment & Operation ..................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Power Sources .................................................................................. 7
2.3.3 Torches.............................................................................................. 10
2.3.4 Shielding Gases ................................................................................ 11
2.3.5 Electrodes ......................................................................................... 12
2.3.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 13
2.4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING .......................................................... 13
2.4.1 Current Density .................................................................................. 14
2.4.2 Metal Transfer Modes ........................................................................ 15
2.4.3 Equipment and Operation .................................................................. 17
2.4.4 Power Source.................................................................................... 18
2.4.5 Wire Feeder ...................................................................................... 19
2.4.6 Welding Gun ...................................................................................... 20
2.4.7 Shielding Gases ................................................................................ 21
2.4.7.1 Short Circuiting Transfer ................................................................... 22
2.4.7.2 Spray Arc Transfer ........................................................................... 23
2.4.7.3 Pulse Spray Transfer ......................................................... 23
2.4.8 Electrodes ......................................................................................... 23
2.5 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING ....................................................... 24
2.5.1 Self-Shielded Process ....................................................................... 24
2.5.2 Gas Shielded Process....................................................................... 25
2.5.3 Current Density .................................................................................. 26
2.5.4 Equipment ......................................................................................... 26
2.5.5 Power Source.................................................................................... 26
2.5.6 Wire Feeder ...................................................................................... 26
2.5.7 Welding Guns .................................................................................... 26
2.5.8 Shielding Gases ................................................................................ 27
2.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING ....................................................... 27

2.6.1 Submerged Arc Flux .......................................................................... 28
2.6.2 The Welding Gun ............................................................................... 28
2.6.3 Power Sources .................................................................................. 28
2.6.4 Equipment ......................................................................................... 28
2.6.5 Electrodes ......................................................................................... 29
2.6.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 29
2.7 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING .......................... 30
2.7.1 Electroslag Welding........................................................................... 30
2.7.2 Flux ................................................................................................... 30
2.7.3 Process ............................................................................................. 30
2.7.4 Equipment......................................................................................... 31
2.7.5 Summary .......................................................................................... 31
Appendix A - GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................. 32
COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

2.1 INTRODUCTION After much experimentation by others in the early 1800's, an Englishman
named Wilde obtained the first electric welding patent in 1865. He successfully joined two small pieces
of iron by passing an electric current through both pieces producing a fusion weld. Approximately
twenty years later, Bernado, a Russian, was granted a patent for an electric arc welding process in
which he maintained an arc between a carbon electrode and the pieces to be joined, fusing the metals
together as the arc was manually passed over the joint to be welded.
2.1.0.1 During the 1890's, arc welding was accomplished with bare metal electrodes that were
consumed in the molten puddle and became part of the weld metal. The welds were of poor quality
due to the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere forming harmful oxides and nitrides in the weld
metal. Early in the Twentieth Century, the importance of shielding the arc from the atmosphere was
realized. Covering the electrode with a material that decomposed in the heat of the arc to form a
gaseous shield appeared to be the best method to accomplish this end. As a result, various methods
of covering electrodes, such as wrapping and dipping, were tried. These efforts culminated in the
extruded coated electrode in the mid-1920's, greatly improving the quality of the weld metal and
providing what many consider the most significant advance in electric arc welding.
2.1.0.2 Since welding with coated electrodes is a rather slow procedure, more rapid welding processes
were developed. This lesson will cover the more commonly used electric arc welding processes in use
today.
2.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Shielded Metal Arc Welding*, also known as manual metal arc welding, stick welding, or electric arc
welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes. Welding is performed with the
heat of an electric arc that is maintained between the end of a coated metal electrode and the work
piece (See Figure 1). The heat produced by the arc melts the base metal, the electrode core rod, and
the coating. As the molten metal droplets are transferred across the arc and into the molten weld
puddle, they are shielded from the atmosphere by the gases produced from the decomposition of the
flux coating. The molten slag floats to the top of the weld puddle where it protects the weld metal from
the atmosphere during solidification.
Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead shape. More information on
coating functions will be covered in subsequent lessons.
* Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is the terminology approved by the American Welding
Society.
2.2.1 Equipment & Operation - One reason for the wide acceptance of the SMAW process is the
simplicity of the necessary equipment. The equipment consists of the following items. (See Figure 2)
1. Welding power source
2. Electrode holder
3. Ground clamp
4. Welding cables and connectors
5. Accessory equipment (chipping hammer, wire brush)
6. Protective equipment (helmet, gloves, etc.)
2.2.2 Welding Power Sources - Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either alternating current (AC)
or direct current (DC), but in either case, the power source selected must be of the constant current
type. This type of power source will deliver a relatively constant amperage or welding current
regardless of arc length variations by the operator (See Lesson I, Section 1.9). The amperage
determines the amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads
produced will be uniform in size and shape.
2.2.2.1 Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC power source depends on the type of welding to be done
and the electrodes used. The following factors should be considered:
1. Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range of electrode
types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some will work properly
only on DC.
2. Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy sections and light
gauge work. Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC because it is easier to strike and maintain the
DC arc at low currents.
3. Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great, AC is the best
choice since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with DC. Even though welding cables
are made of copper or aluminum (both good conductors), the resistance in the cables becomes greater
as the cable length increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken between the electrode and the
work will be somewhat lower than a reading taken at the output terminals of the power source. This is
known as voltage drop.
4. Welding Position (See Appendix A - Glossary of Terms) - Because DC may be operated at

lower welding currents, it is more suitable for overhead and vertical welding than AC. AC can
successfully be used for out-of-position work if proper electrodes are selected.
5. Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the weldment. In
weldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic field can affect the arc by making
it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is especially troublesome when welding in corners. AC
seldom causes this problem because of the rapidly reversing magnetic field produced.
2.2.2.2 Combination power sources that produce both AC and DC are available and provide the
versatility necessary to select the proper welding current for the application.
2.2.2.3 When using a DC power source, the question of whether to use electrode negative or positive
polarity arises. Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and reverse polarity and others on DC
negative or DC positive polarity only. Direct current flows in one direction in an electrical circuit and the
direction of current flow and the composition of the electrode coating will have a definite effect on the
welding arc and weld bead. Figure 3 shows the connections and effects of straight and reverse
polarity.
2.2.2.4 Electrode negative (-) produces welds with shallow penetration; however, the electrode melt-off
rate is high. The weld bead is rather wide and shallow as shown at "A" in Figure 3. Electrode positive
(+) produces welds with deep penetration and a narrower weld bead as shown at "B" in Figure 3.
2.2.2.5 While polarity affects the penetration and burn-off rate, the electrode coating also has a strong
influence on arc characteristics. Performance of individual electrodes will be discussed in succeeding
lessons.
2.2.3 Electrode Holder - The electrode holder connects to the welding cable and con- ducts the
welding current to the electrode. The insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the weld joint
and feed the electrode over the weld joint and feed the electrode into the weld puddle as it is
consumed. Electrode holders are available in different sizes and are rated on their current carrying
capacity.
2.2.4 Ground Clamp - The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the work piece. It
may be connected directly to the work or to the table or fixture upon which the work is positioned.
Being a part of the welding circuit, the ground clamp must be capable of carrying the welding current
without overheating due to electrical resistance.
2.2.5 Welding Cables - The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of the welding
circuit. They must be very flexible and have a tough heat-resistant insulation. Connections at the
electrode holder, the ground clamp, and at the power source lugs must be soldered or well crimped to
assure low electrical resistance. The cross-sectional area of the cable must be sufficient size to carry
the welding current with a minimum of voltage drop. Increasing the cable length necessitates increasing
the cable diameter to lessen resistance and voltage drop. The table in Figure 4 lists the suggested
American Wire Gauge (AWG) cable size to be used for various welding currents and cable lengths.
2.2.6 Coated Electrodes - Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded metal arc welding.
Electrodes used for welding mild or carbon steels are quite different than those used for welding the low
alloys and stainless steels. Details on the specific types will be covered in subsequent lessons.
2.3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding* is a welding process performed using the heat of an arc established
between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work piece. See Figure 5. The electrode, the
arc, and the area surrounding the molten weld puddle are protected from the atmosphere by an inert
gas shield. The electrode is not consumed in the weld puddle as in shielded metal arc welding. If a
filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading the molten puddle as shown in.
2.3.0.1 Gas tungsten arc welding produces exceptionally clean welds no slag is produced, the chance
inclusions in the weld metal is and the finished weld requires virtually no cleaning. Argon and Helium,
the primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases. Inert gases do not chemically combine with
other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen,
from forming compounds that could be detrimental to the weld metal.
2.3.0.2 Gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding almost all metals — mild steel, low alloys,
stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, nickel and nickel alloys,
magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium, and others. This process is most extensively used for
welding aluminum and stainless steel alloys where weld integrity is of the utmost importance. Another
use is for the root pass (initial pass) in pipe welding, which requires a weld of the highest quality. Full
penetration without an excessively high inside bead is important in the root pass, and due to the ease
of current control of this process, it lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality welds, it is
usually necessary to provide an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent oxidation of the inside
weld bead. * Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is the current terminology approved by the American
Welding Society, formerly known as "TIG" (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding.
2.3.0.3 Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic operation. In manual
operation, the welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc into the weld joint. The filler metal
is fed manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In automatic applications, the torch may be
automatically moved over a stationary work piece or the torch may be stationary with the work moved
or rotated in relation to the torch. Filler metal, if required, is also fed automatically.
2.3.1 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION – Gas tungsten arc welding may be accomplished with relatively
simple equipment, or it may require some highly sophisticated components. Choice of equipment
depends upon the type of metal being joined, the position of the weld being made, and the quality of the
weld metal necessary for the application. The basic equipment consists of the following:
1. The power source
2. Electrode holder (torch)
3. Shielding gas
4. Tungsten electrode
5. Water supply when necessary
6. Ground cable
7. Protective equipment
Figure 6 shows a basic gas tungsten arc welding schematic.
2.3.2 Power Sources - Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten arc welding. They
are the constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere curve. This type of power source produces
very slight changes in the arc current when the arc length (voltage) is varied. Refer to Lesson I,
Section 1.9.
2.3.2.1 The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness of the metal to be
welded. Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the
polarity also becomes an important factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite the
effects of polarity in SMAW as described in paragraphs 2.2.2.3 through 2.2.2.5. In SMAW, the
distribution of heat between the electrode and work, which determines the penetration and weld bead
width, is controlled mainly by the ingredients in the flux coating on the electrode. In GTAW where no
flux coating exists, heat distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled solely by the
polarity. The choice of the proper welding current will be better understood by analyzing each type
separately. The chart in Figure 7 lists current recommendations.
2.3.2.2 Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is produced when the electrode is connected to the
negative terminal of the power source. Since the electrons flow from the electrode to the plate,
approximately 70% of the heat of the arc is concentrated at the work, and approximately 30% at the
electrode end. This allows the use of smaller tungsten electrodes that produce a relatively narrow
concentrated arc. The weld shape has deep penetration and is quite narrow. See Figure 8. Direct
current electrode negative is suitable for welding most metals. Magnesium and aluminum have a
refractory oxide coating on the surface that must be physically removed immediately prior to welding if
DCSP is to be used.
2.3.2.3 Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is produced when the electrode is connected to the
positive terminal of the welding power source. In this condition, the electrons flow from the work to the
electrode tip, concentrating approximately 70% of the heat of the arc at the electrode and 30% at the
work. This higher heat at the electrode necessitates using larger diameter tungsten to prevent it from
melting and contaminating the weld metal. Since the electrode diameter is larger and the heat is less
concentrated at the work, the resultant weld bead is relatively wide and shallow. See Figure 8.
2.3.2.4 Aluminum and magnesium are two metals that have a heavy oxide coating that acts as an
insulator and must be removed before successful welding can take place. Welding with electrode
positive provides a good oxide cleaning action in the arc. If we were to study the physics of the welding
arc, we find that the electric current causes the shielding gas atoms to lose some of their electrons.
Since electrons are negatively charged, these gas atoms now are unbalanced and have an excessive
positive charge. As we learned in Lesson I, unlike charges attract. These positively charged atoms (or
positive ions as they are known in chemical terminology) are attracted to the negative pole, in this case
the work, at high velocity. Upon striking the work surface, they dislodge the oxide coating permitting
good electrical conductivity for the maintenance of the arc, and eliminate the impurities in the weld
metal that could be caused by these oxides.
2.3.2.5 Direct current electrode positive is rarely used in gas-tungsten arc welding. Despite the
excellent oxide cleaning action, the lower heat input in the weld area makes it a slow process, and in
metals having higher thermal conductivity, the heat is rapidly conducted away from the weld zone.
When used, DCEP is restricted to welding thin sections (under 1/8") of magnesium and aluminum.
2.3.2.6 Alternating current is actually a combination of DCEN and DCEP and is widely used for
welding aluminum. In a sense, the advantages of both DC processes are combined, and the weld bead
produced is a compromise of the two. Remember that when welding with 60 Hz current, the electron
flow from the electrode tip to the work reverses direction 120 times every second. Thereby, the intense
heat alternates from electrode to work piece, allowing the use of an intermediate size electrode. The
weld bead is a compromise having medium penetration and bead width. The gas ions blast the oxides
from the surface of aluminum and magnesium during the positive half cycle. Figure 8 illustrates the
effects of the different types of current used in gas-tungsten arc welding.
2.3.2.7 DC constant current power sources - Constant current power sources, used for shielded
metal arc welding, may also be used for gas-tungsten arc welding. In applications where weld integrity
is not of utmost importance, these power sources will suffice. With machines of this type, the arc must
be initiated by touching the tungsten electrode to the work and quickly withdrawing it to maintain the
proper arc length. This starting method contaminates the electrode and blunts the point which has
been grounded on the electrode end. These conditions can cause weld metal inclusions and poor arc
direction. Using a power source designed for gas tungsten arc welding with a high frequency stabilizer
will eliminate this problem. The electrode need not be touched to the work for arc initiation. Instead, the
high frequency voltage, at very low current, is superimposed onto the welding current. When the
electrode is brought to within approximately 1/8 inch of the base metal, the high frequency ionizes the
gas path, making it conductive and a welding arc is established. The high frequency is automatically
turned off immediately after arc initiation when using direct current.
2.3.2.8 AC Constant Current Power Source - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, always
incorporates high frequency, and it is turned on throughout the weld cycle to maintain a stable arc.
When welding with AC, the current passes through 0 twice in every cycle and the arc must be
reestablished each time it does so. The oxide coating on metals, such as aluminum and magnesium,
can act much like a rectifier as discussed in Lesson I. The positive half-cycle will be eliminated if the
arc does not reignite, causing an unstable condition. Continuous high frequency maintains an ionized
path for the welding arc, and assures arc re- ignition each time the current changes direction. AC is
extensively used for welding aluminum and magnesium.
2.3.2.9 AC/DC Constant Current Power Sources - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, are
available, and can be used for welding practically all metals. The gas tungsten arc welding process is
usually chosen because of the high quality welds it can produce. The metals that are commonly
welded with this process, such as stainless steel, aluminum and some of the more exotic metals, cost
many times the price of mild steel; and therefore, the power sources designed for this process have
many desirable features to insure high quality welds. Among these are:
1. Remote current control, which allows the operator to control welding amperage with a hand control
on the torch, or a foot control at the welding station.
2. Automatic soft-start, which prevents a high current surge when the arc is initiated.
3. Shielding gas and cooling water solenoid valves, which automatically control flow before, during
and for an adjustable length of time after the weld is completed.
4. Spot-weld timers, which automatically control all elements during each spot-weld cycle. Other
options and accessories are also available.
2.3.2.10 Power sources for automatic welding with complete programmable output are also available.
Such units are used extensively for the automatic welding of pipe in position. The welding current is
automatically varied as the torch travels around the pipe. Some units provide a pulsed welding current
where the amperage is automatically varied between a low and high several times per second. This
produces welds with good penetration and improved weld bead shape.
2.3.3 Torches - The torch is actually an electrode holder that supplies welding current to the tungsten
electrode, and an inert gas shield to the arc zone. The electrode is held in a collet like clamping device
that allows adjustment so that the proper length of electrode protrudes beyond the shielding gas cup.
Manual torches are designed to accept electrodes of 3 inch or 7 inch lengths. Torches may be either
air or water-cooled. The air-cooled types actually are cooled to a degree by the shielding gas that is
fed to the torch head through a composite cable. The gas actually surrounds the copper welding cable,
affording some degree of cooling. Water-cooled torches are usually used for applications where the
welding current exceeds 200 amperes. The water inlet hose is connected to the torch head.
Circulating around the torch head, the water leaves the torch via the current-in hose and cable
assembly. Cooling the welding cable in this manner allows the use of a smaller diameter cable that is
more flexible and lighter in weight.
2.3.3.1 The gas nozzles are made of ceramic materials and are available in various sizes and shapes.
In some heavy duty, high current applications, metal water-cooled nozzles are used.
2.3.3.2 A switch on the torch is used to energize the electrode with welding current and start the
shielding gas flow. High frequency current and water flow are also initiated by this switch if the power
source is so equipped. In many installations, these functions are initiated by a foot control that also is
capable of controlling the welding current. This method gives the operator full control of the arc. The
usual welding method is to start the arc at a low current, gradually increase the current until a molten
pool is achieved, and welding begins. At the end of the weld, current is slowly decreases and the arc
extinguished, preventing the crater that forms at the end of the weld when the arc is broken abruptly.
2.3.4 Shielding Gases - Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas tungsten arc
welding. In some applications, mixtures of the two gases prove advantageous. To a lesser extent,
hydrogen is mixed with argon or helium for special applications.
2.3.4.1 Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both are inert gases,
which means that they do not readily combine with other elements. They will not burn nor support
combustion. Commercial grades used for welding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38% heavier than air
and about 10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize when present in an electric arc. This
means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a negative charge. These unbalanced
gas atoms, properly called positive ions, now have a positive charge and are attracted to the negative
pole in the arc. When the arc is positive and the work is negative, these positive ions impinge upon the
work and remove surface oxides or scale in the weld area.
2.3.4.2 Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting and ease of use
make it most desirable for manual welding. Argon produces a better cleaning action when welding
aluminum and magnesium with alternating current. The arc produced is relatively narrow. Argon is
more suitable for welding thinner material. At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc voltage
than argon. Since welding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces more available
heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for welding heavy sections of metal that have high heat
conductivity, or for automatic welding operations where higher welding speeds are required.
2.3.4.3 Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications where higher heat input and the desirable
characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively heavy gas, blankets the weld area at
lower flow rates. Argon is preferred for many applications because it costs less than helium.
2.3.4.4 Helium, being approximately 10 times lighter than argon, requires flow rates of 2 to 3 times that
of argon to satisfactorily shield the arc.
2.3.5 Electrodes - Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are available in diameters from .010" to 1/4"
in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24". The most commonly used sizes, however, are
the .040", 1/16", 3/32", and 1/8" diameters.
2.3.5.1 The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten arc welding. When
welding with DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The included angle at which the tip is ground
varies with the application, the electrode diameter, and the welding current. Narrow joints require a
relatively small included angle. When welding very thin material at low currents, a needlelike point
ground onto the smallest available electrode may be necessary to stabilize the arc. Properly ground
electrodes will assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead width.
2.3.5.2 When welding with AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary. When proper welding
current is used, the electrode will form a hemispherical end. If the proper welding current is exceeded,
the end will become bulbous in shape and possibly melt off to contaminate the weld metal.
2.3.5.3 The American Welding Society has published Specification AWS A5.12-80 for tungsten a arc
welding electrode that classifies the electrodes on the basis of their chemical composition, size and
finish. Briefly, the types specified are listed below:
1) Pure Tungsten (AWS EWP) Color Code: Green Used for less critical applications. The cost is
low and they give good results at relatively low currents on a variety of metals. Most stable arc when
used on AC, either balanced wave or continuous high frequency.
2) 1% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-1) Color Code: Yellow Good current carrying capacity,
easy arc starting and provide a stable arc. Less susceptible to contamination. Designed for DC
applications of nonferrous materials.
3) 2% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) Color Code: Red Longer life than 1% Thoriated
electrodes. Maintain the pointed end longer, used for light gauge critical welds in aircraft work. Like
1%, designed for DC applications for nonferrous materials.
4) .5% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-3) Color Code: Blue Sometimes called "striped"
electrode because it has 1.0-2.0% Thoria inserted in a wedge-shaped groove throughout its length.
Combines the good properties of pure and throated electrodes. Can be used on either AC or DC
applications.
5) Zirconia Tungsten (AWS EWZr) Color Code: Brown Longer life than pure tungsten. Better
performance when welding with AC. Melts more easily than thorium-tungsten when forming rounded or
tapered tungsten end. Ideal for applications where tungsten contamination must be minimized.
2.3.6 Summary - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is one of the major welding processes today. The quality
of the welds produced and the ability to weld very thin metals are the major features. The weld metal
quality is high since no flux is used, eliminating the problem of slag inclusions in the weld metal. It is
used extensively in the aircraft and aerospace industry, where high quality welds are necessary and
also for welding the more expensive metals where the weld defects become very costly. Metals as thin
as .005" can be welded due to the ease of controlling the current.
2.3.6.1 The major disadvantages of the process are that it is slower than welding with consumable
electrodes and is little used on thicknesses over 1/4" for this reason. Shielding gas and tungsten
electrode costs make the process relatively expensive.
2.4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING
Gas Metal Arc Welding* is an arc welding process that uses the heat of an electric arc established
between a consumable metal electrode and the work to be welded. The electrode is a bare metal wire
that is transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle.
* Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is the current technology approved by the American Welding
Society. Formerly known as "MIG" (Metal Inert Gas) Welding.
The wire, the weld puddle, and the area in the arc zone are protected from the atmosphere by a
gaseous shield. Inert gases, reactive gases, and gas mixtures are used for shielding. The metal
transfer mode is dependent on shielding gas choice and welding current level. Figure 9 is a sketch of
the process showing the basic features.
2.4.0.1 Gas metal arc welding is a versatile process that may be used to weld a wide variety of metals
including carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper and
copper alloys, and nickel alloys. It can be used to weld sheet metal or relatively heavy sections. Welds
may be made in all positions, and the process may be used for semiautomatic welding or automatic
welding. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed speed, voltage, amperage, and gas flow are all preset
on the control equipment. The operator needs merely to guide the welding gun along the joint at a
uniform speed and hold a relatively constant arc length. In automatic welding, the gun is mounted on a
travel carriage that moves along the joint, or the gun may be stationary with the work moving or
revolving beneath it.
2.4.0.2 Practically all GMAW is done using DCEP (Electrode positive). This polarity provides deep
penetration, a stable arc and low spatter levels. A small amount of GMAW welding is done with DCEN
and although the melting rate of the electrode is high, the arc is erratic. Alternating current is not used
for gas metal arc welding.
2.4.1 Current Density - To understand why gas metal arc welding can deposit weld metal at a rapid
rate, it is necessary that the term "current density" be understood. Figure 10 shows a 1/4" coated
electrode and a 1/16" solid wire drawn to scale. Both are capable of carrying 400 amperes. Notice that
the area of the 1/16" wire is only 1/16 that of the core wire of the coated electrode. We can say that the
current density of the 1/16" wire is 16 times greater than the current density of the 1/4" wire at equal
welding currents. The resultant melt-off rate of the solid wire is very high. If we were to increase the
current through the 1/4" coated electrode to increase the current density, the resistance heating through
the 14" electrode length would be excessive, and the rod would become so hot that the coating would
crack, rendering it useless. The 1/16" wire carries the high current a distance of less than 3/4", the
approximate distance from the end of the contact tip to the arc.
2.4.2 Metal Transfer Modes
2.4.2.1 Spray transfer is a high current density process that rapidly deposits weld metal in droplets
smaller than the electrode diameter. They are propelled in a straight line from the center of the
electrode. A shielding gas mixture of Argon with 1% to 2% Oxygen is used for welding mild and low
alloy steel, and pure Argon or Argon-Helium mixtures are used for welding aluminum, magnesium,
copper, and nickel alloys. Welding current at which spray transfer takes place is relatively high and will
vary with the metal being welded, electrode diameter, and the shielding gas being used. Deposition
rates are high and welding is usually limited to the flat or horizontal fillet position. See Figure 11.
2.4.2.2 Globular transfer takes place at lower welding currents than spray transfer. There is a
transition current where the transfer changes to globular even when shielding gases using a high
percentage of argon are used. When carbon dioxide (CO2) is used as a shielding gas, the transfer is
always globular. In globular transfer, a molten drop larger than the electrode diameter forms on the end
of the electrode, moves to the outer edge of the electrode and falls into the molten puddle.
Occasionally, a large drop will "short circuit" across the arc, causing the arc to extinguish momentarily,
and then instantaneously reignite. As a result, the arc is somewhat erratic, spatter level is high, and
penetration shallow. Globular transfer is not suitable for out-of-position welding. See Figure 11.
2.4.2.3 Short circuiting transfer is a much used method in gas metal arc welding. It is produced by
using the lowest current-voltage settings and the smaller wires, usually .030", .035", and .045"
diameters. The low heat input makes this process ideal for sheet metal, out- of-position work, and poor
fit-up applications. Often called "short arc welding" because metal transfer is achieved each time the
wire actually short circuits (makes contact) with the weld puddle. This happens very rapidly. It is
feasible for the short circuit frequency to be 20-200 times a second, but in practice, it occurs from 90-
100 times a second. Each time the electrode touches the puddle, the arc is extinguished. It happens
so rapidly that it is visible only on high speed films.
2.4.2.4 Pulse transfer is a mode of metal transfer somewhat between spray and short circuiting. The
specific power source has built into it two output levels: a steady background level, and a high output
(peak) level. The later permits the transfer of metal across the arc. This peak output is controllable
between high and low values up to several hundred cycles per second. The result of such a peak
output produces a spray arc below the typical transition current.
2.4.2.4.1 Figure 11 shows the transfer method. The arc is initiated by touching the wire to the work.
Upon initial contact, a bit of the wire melts off to form a molten puddle. The wire feeds forward until it
actually contacts the work again, as at 1 in Figure 11, and the arc is extinguished. The short circuiting
current causes the wire to neck down, as shown in 1, until it melts off, as shown at 2. As soon as the
wire is free of the puddle, the arc is reignited and a molten ball forms at the end of the electrode, as at
3. The wire continues to move forward until it makes contact with the puddle, and the cycle is repeated.
2.4.2.5 Gas metal arc spot welding is a variation of the process that allows spot welding of thinner
gauge metals, or of a thin gauge metal to a heavier section. The gun is placed directly against the work
and is equipped with a special nozzle to allow escape of the shielding gas. When the trigger switch is
actuated, the following sequence takes place. The shielding gas flows for a short interval before wire
feeding starts; wire feeding starts; the arc is initiated and continues for a preset time (usually a few
seconds). The welding current and wire feeding stops, and the shielding gas flows for a short interval
before it automatically stop. The process is also useful for tacking welding pieces in position prior to
running the final weld bead.
2.4.3 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - The equipment used for gas metal arc welding is more
complicated than that required for shielded metal arc welding. Initial cost is relatively high, but the cost
is rapidly amortized due to the savings in labor and overhead achieved by the rapid weld metal
deposition.
2.4.3.1 The equipment necessary for gas metal arc welding is listed below:
1) Power source
2) Wire feeder
3) Welding gun
4) Shielding gas supply
5) Solid electrode wire
6) Protective equipment
2.4.3.2 The basic equipment necessary for semiautomatic gas metal arc welding is shown in Figure 12.
2.4.4 Power Source - A direct current, constant voltage power source is recommended for gas metal
arc welding. It may be a transformer-rectifier or a rotary type unit. The lower open circuit voltage and
self-correcting arc length feature, as described in Lesson I, makes it most suitable. Constant voltage
power sources used for spray transfer welding and for flux cored electrode welding (to be covered later)
are the same. However, if the unit is to be used for short-circuiting arc welding, it must have "slope" or
slope control. Slope control is a means of limiting the high short-circuit current that is characteristic of
this type welder. Figure 13 shows the effect of slope on the short- circuiting current.
2.4.4.1 If we were short-arc welding at approximately 150 amperes and 18 volts, as shown in Figure 13,
and had no slope components in the power source, the current at short-circuit or when the wire touches
the work, would be over 1400 amperes. At this high current, a good length of the wire would literally
explode off the end, cause much spatter, and the arc would be erratic. With the slope components in
the circuit, the short-circuiting current is in the neighborhood of 400 amperes, and the molten ball is sort
of pinched off the end of the wire more gently. For those with an electrical background, it might be
added that in some machines, slope is achieved by adding a reactor in the AC secondary of the power
source. In others, a slope resistor is added in the DC output portion of the circuit. Slope may be
adjustable for varying wire diameters or it may be fixed, giving a good average value for .035" and .045"
diameter wires, the two most popular sizes.
2.4.4.2 Another factor influencing the arc in short-circuiting welding is the rate that the amperage
reaches the short-circuiting current level. Using the example in Figure 13, we know that the current
goes from 150 amperes to 400 amperes during each shorting period. If we were to plot the current rise
on a graph, as in Figure 14, we would see that the current rise if very rapid, as shown by the broken
line.
This rapid current rise can be by using a device called an (sometimes called a stabilizer) output circuit
of the welder. An merely an iron core wound turns of heavy wire. It does current flow, but it acts
somewhat like a fly wheel or damper by retarding the rate of rise as shown by the solid line. By
preventing the rapid current rise, the arc becomes smoother, spatter is reduced, and bead shape and
appearance are improved. Because the inductor influences the time function, its design determines arc
on-off time, and short-circuit frequency. Some power sources have a selector that can switch in several
different inductance values to finely tune the arc.
400 AMPS
WITHOUT INDUCTANCE
WITH INDUCTANCE
150 AMPS
TIME - MILLISECONDS EFFECT OF INDUCTANCE ON CURRENT RISE

FIGURE 14
2.4.4.4 Welding power sources designed for gas metal arc welding have a 115 volt outlet to provide
power to operate the wire feeder. They also have a receptacle to receive the electrical power required
to close the main contactor in the power source, which turns on the welding power to the welding gun
when the gun trigger is actuated.
2.4.4.5 Additional advancements in equipment technology have introduced many new models.
Inverters, as well as microprocessor controls, have created the greatest attention. In addition,
multipurpose machines have provided the user with greater flexibility with a variety of capabilities.
2.4.4.6 Global competition will continue to have a profound influence on future advancements in arc
welding equipment. As energy prices rise, greater demands for more efficient equipment will follow.
2.4.5 Wire Feeder - When welding with a constant voltage power source, as is the case in most gas
metal arc welding applications, the prime function of the wire feeder is to deliver the welding wire to the
arc at a very constant speed. Since the wire feed speed determines the amperage, and the amperage
determines the amount of heat at the arc, inconsistent wire feed speed will produce welds of varying
penetration and bead width. Advanced electronics technology makes it possible to design motor speed
controls that will produce the same speed, even though the load on the motor varies or the input
voltage to the motor may fluctuate.
2.4.5.1 A limited amount of gas metal arc welding is performed with constant current type power
sources. In this case, the motor speed automatically varies to increase or decrease the wire feed
speed as the arc length varies to maintain a constant voltage.
2.4.5.2 The wire feeder also controls the main contactor in the power source for safety reasons. This
assures that the welding wire will only be energized when the switch on the welding gun is depressed.
2.4.5.3 The flow of shielding gas is controlled by a solenoid valve (magnetic valve) in the wire feeder to
turn the shielding gas on and off when the gun switch is actuated. Most feeders utilize a dynamic
breaking circuit to quickly stop the motor at the end of a weld to prevent a long length of wire protruding
from the gun when the weld is terminated. Most feeders have a burn-back circuit that allows the
welding current to stay on for a short period of time after wire feeding has stopped, to allow the wire to
burn back exactly the right amount for the next arc initiation.
2.4.5.4 The feed rolls, sometimes called drive rolls, pull the wire off the spool or reel, and push it
through a feed cable or conduit to the welding gun. These rolls must usually be changed to
accommodate each different wire diameter, although some rolls are designed to feed a combination of
sizes.
2.4.6 Welding Gun - The function of the welding gun, sometimes referred to as a torch, is to deliver the
welding wire, welding current, and shielding gas to the welding arc. Guns are available for semi-
automatic operation and for automatic operation, where they are fixed in the automatic welding head.
2.4.6.1 Guns for GMAW have several characteristics in common. All have a copper alloy shielding gas
nozzle that delivers the gas to the arc area in a nonturbulent, angular pattern to prevent aspiration of
air. The nozzle may be water cooled for semiautomatic welding at high amperage and for automatic
welding where the arc time is of long duration. Welding current is transferred to the welding wire as the
wire travels through the contact tip or contact tube located inside the gas nozzle (Refer to Figure 9).
The hole in the contact tip through which the wire passes is only a few thousandths of an inch larger
than the wire diameter. A worn contact tip will result in an erratic arc due to poor current transfer.
Figure 15 shows a few different semiautomatic gun configurations that are commonly used for GMAW.
CURVED NECK
PISTOL TYPE
SELF CONTAINED
PULL TYPE
SEMI-AUTOMATIC GMAW GUN TYPES

FIGURE 15
2.4.6.2 The curved neck or "goose neck" type is probably the most commonly used. It allows the best
access to a variety of weld joints. The wire is pushed to this type of gun by the feed rolls in the wire
feeder through a feed cable or conduit that usually is 10 or 12 feet in length. The shielding gas hose,
welding current cable, and trigger switch leads are supplied with the welding gun.
2.4.6.3 The pistol type gun is similar to the curved neck type, but is less adaptable for difficult to reach
joints. The pistol type is also a "push" type gun and is more suitable for gas metal arc spot welding
applications.
2.4.6.4 The self contained type has an electric motor in the handle and feed rolls that pull the wire from
a 1 or 2 pound spool mounted on the gun. The need for a long wire feed cable is eliminated, and wires
feed speed may be controlled by the gun. Guns of this type are often used for aluminum wire up to
0.045" diameter, although they may also be used for feeding steel or other hard wires.
2.4.6.5 The pull type gun has either an electric motor or an air motor mounted in the handle that is
coupled to a feeding mechanism in the gun. The spool of wire is located in the control cabinet that may
be located as far as fifty feet from the gun. When feeding such long distances, a set of "push" rolls
located in the control cabinet assist in feeding the wire. This then becomes known as a push-pull feed
system and is especially useful in feeding the softer wires such as aluminum.
2.4.7 SHIELDING GASES - In gas metal arc welding, there are a variety of shielding gases that can be
used, either alone or in combinations of varying degrees. The choice is dependent on the type of metal
transfer employed, the type and thickness of metal, the bead profile (See Figure 16), penetration, and
speed of welding. In our discussion, we will deal with the more common choices used for the various
transfer processes.
FERROUS METAL NONFERROUS METAL
CO2 ARGON + CO2 ARGON + O2 ARGON HELIUM
2.4.7.1 Short Circuiting Transfer - Straight carbon dioxide (CO2) is often used for short circuiting arc
welding because of its low cost. The deep penetration usually associated with CO2 is minimized
because of the low amperage and voltage settings used with this process. Compared to other gas
mixes, CO2 will produce a harsher arc and therefore, greater spatter levels. Usually, this is minimized
by maintaining a short arc length and by careful adjustment of the power supply inductance. The
temperatures reached in welding will cause carbon dioxide to decompose into carbon monoxide and
oxygen. To reduce the possibility of porosity caused by entrapped oxygen in the weld metal, it is wise
to use electrodes that contain deoxidizing elements, such as silicon and manganese. If the current is
increased above the short circuiting range, the use of carbon dioxide tends to produce a globular
transfer.
2.4.7.1.1 Mixing argon in proportions of 50-75% with carbon dioxide will produce a smoother arc and
reduce spatter levels. It will also widen the bead profile, reduce penetration, and encourage "wetting".
Wetting, i.e., a uniform fusion, along with joining edges of the base metal and the weld metal, minimizes
the weld imperfection known as undercutting (See Figure 17).
UNDERCUT WETTING
FIGURE 17
2.4.7.1.2 The 75% Argon/25 CO2 mixture is often chosen for short circuit welding of thin sections,
whereas the 50-50 combination works well on thicker sections.
2.4.7.1.3 It should be noted that shielding gases can affect the metallurgy of the weld metal. As an
example, a combination of argon and carbon dioxide may be used for welding stainless steel, but as
the carbon dioxide breaks down, excessive carbon may be transferred into the weld metal. Corrosion
resistance in stainless steel is reduced as the carbon content increases. To counteract this possibility,
a less reactive mixture of 90% helium - 7-1/2% argon - 2-1/2% CO2 is sometimes chosen. This
combination, known as a trimix, provides good arc stability and wetting.
2.4.7.2 Spray Arc Transfer - Pure argon produces a deep constricted penetration at the center of the
bead with much shallower penetration at the edges (Figure 16). Argon performs well on nonferrous
metals, but when used on ferrous metals, the transfer is somewhat erratic with the tendency for the
weld metal to move away from the center line. To make argon suitable for spray transfer on ferrous
metals, small additions of 1 to 5% oxygen have proven to provide remarkable improvements. The arc
stabilizes, becomes less spattery, and the weld metal wets out nicely. If the percentage of argon falls
below 80%, it is impossible to achieve true spray transfer.
2.4.7.2.1 Pure helium or combinations of helium and argon are used for welding nonferrous metals.
The bead profile will broaden as the concentration of helium increases.
2.4.7.3 Pulse Spray Transfer - The selection of shielding gas must be adequate enough to support a
spray transfer. Material type, thickness, and welding position are essential variables in selecting a
particular shielding gas. The following is a list of recommended gases:
Carbon Steel Argon/CO2/O2/He (He less than 50%)

Alloy Steel Argon/CO2/O2/He (He less than 50%)
Stainless Argon/O2/CO2 (CO2 max. 2%)
Copper, Nickel, & Cu-Ni Alloys Argon/Helium
Aluminum Argon/Helium
2.4.8 Electrodes - The solid electrodes used in GMAW are of high purity when they come from the mill.
Their chemistry must be closely controlled and some types purposely contain high levels of deoxidizers
for use with CO2 shielding. 2.4.8.1 The electrode manufacturer draws down the electrode to a finished
diameter that, with GMAW, is usually quite small. Diameters from .030" thru 1/16" are common. 2.4.8.2
Most steel GMAW electrodes are copper plated as a means of protecting the surface. The copper
inhibits rusting, provides smooth feeding, and helps electrical conductivity. 2.4.8.3 Information on types
and classifications will be covered in a future lesson.
2.5 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is quite similar to GMAW as far as operation and equipment are
concerned. The major difference is that FCAW utilizes an electrode that is very different from the solid
electrode used in GMAW. The flux cored electrode is a fabricated electrode and as the name implies,
flux material is deposited into its core. The flux cored electrode begins as a flat metal strip that is
formed first into a "U" shape. Flux and alloying elements are deposited into the "U" and then the shape
is closed into a tubular configuration by a series of forming rolls.
2.5.0.1 The flux cored electrode is a continuous electrode that is fed into the arc where it is melted and
transferred into the molten puddle. As in GMAW, the flux cored process depends on a gas shield to
protect the weld zone from detrimental atmospheric contamination. With FCAW, there are two primary
ways this is accomplished (See Figure 18). The gas is either applied externally, in which case the
electrode is referred to as a gas shielded flux cored electrode, or it is generated from the decomposition
of gas forming ingredients contained in the electrode's core. In this instance, the electrode is known as
a self-shielding flux cored electrode. In addition to the gas shield, the flux cored electrode produces a
slag covering for further protection of the weld metal as it cools. The slag is manually removed with a
wire brush or chipping hammer.
2.5.1 Self Shielded Process - The main advantage of the self shielding method is that its operation is
somewhat simplified because of the absence of external shielding equipment. Although self shielding
electrodes have been developed for welding low alloy and stainless steels, they are most widely used
on mild steels. The self shielding method generally uses a long electrical stick-out (distance between
the contact tube and the end of the unmelted electrode) commonly from one to four inches. Electrical
resistance is increased with the long extension, preheating the electrode before it is fed into the arc.
This enables the electrode to burn off at a faster rate and increases deposition. The preheating also
decreases the heat available for melting the base metal, resulting in a more shallow penetration than
the gas shielded process.
2.5.1.1 A major drawback of the self shielded process is the metallurgical quality of the deposited weld
metal. In addition to gaining its shielding ability from gas forming ingredients in the core, the self
shielded electrode contains a high level of deoxidizing and denitrifying alloys, primarily aluminum, in its
core. Although the aluminum performs well in neutralizing the affects of oxygen and nitrogen in the arc
zone, its presence in the weld metal will reduce ductility and impact strength at low temperatures. For
this reason, the self shielding method is usually restricted to less critical applications.
2.5.1.2 The self shielding electrodes are more suitable for welding in drafty locations than the gas
shielded types. Since the molten filler metal is on the outside of the flux, the gases formed by the
decomposing flux are not totally relied upon to shield the arc from the atmosphere. The deoxidizing
and denitrifying elements in the flux further help to neutralize the affects of nitrogen and oxygen present
in the weld zone.
2.5.2 The Gas Shielded Process - A major advantage with the shielded flux cored electrode is the
protective envelope formed by the auxiliary gas shield around the molten puddle. This envelope
effectively excludes the natural gases in the atmosphere without the need for core ingredients such as
aluminum. Because of this more thorough shielding, the weld metallurgy is cleaner which makes this
process suitable for welding not only mild steels, but also low alloy steels in a wide range of strength
and impact levels.
2.5.2.1 The gas shielded method uses a shorter electrical stickout than the self shielded process.
Extensions from 1/2" to 3/4" are common on all diameters, and 3/4" to 1-1/2" on larger diameters.
Higher welding currents are also used with this process, enabling high deposition rates to be reached.
The auxiliary shielding helps to reduce the arc energy into a columnar pattern. The combination of high
currents and the action of the shielding gas contributes to the deep penetration inherent with this
process. Both spray and globular transfer are utilized with the gas shielded process.
2.5.3 Current Density - Flux cored arc welding utilizes the same principles of current density, as
explained in section 2.4.1, but there is one significant difference between the flux cored electrode and
the solid electrode. With the flux cored electrode, the granular core ingredients are poor electrical
conductors and therefore, the current is carried primarily through the outer metal sheathing. When an
equal diameter cross section of the two are compared (See Figure 19), it is seen that the flux cored
electrode has a smaller current carrying area than the solid electrode. This greater concentration of
current in a smaller area increases the burn off rate.
CURRENT PATH 1/16” FLUX-CORED 1/16” SOLID

ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
FIGURE 19
2.5.3.1 When all other factors are equal, the deposition rate of the flux cored electrode is somewhat
higher than the solid electrode.
2.5.4 EQUIPMENT - The equipment used for flux cored arc welding is the same as shown previously in
Section 2.3.2.2, Figure 12, with the exception that the self shielded method does not need the external
gas apparatus.
2.5.4.1 Flux cored arc welding is done with direct current. All of the gas shielded electrodes are
designed for DCEP operation. The self shielded electrodes are either designed specifically for DCEN
or DCEP.
2.5.5 Power Source - The recommended power source is the direct current constant voltage type. The
constant current type can be used but with less satisfactory results.
2.5.6 Wire Feeder - The function of the wire feeder in FCAW is the same as discussed in the section
on GMAW. Since the flux cored electrode is tubular in construction, precautions must be taken not to
flatten the electrode. To facilitate feeding by means other than pressure alone, specially designed feed
rolls with knurled or grooved surfaces are used. Some feeders use four feed rolls rather than two to
minimize unit pressure on the electrode.
2.5.7 The Welding Gun - As compared to GMAW, the main difference in FCAW welding guns is in
those used with the self shielding process. The gun is somewhat more compact due to the absence of
an external gas shielding nozzle. Since the self shielding process normally requires a longer electrode
extension, the self shielding gun may have an insulated guide tube (Refer back to Figure 18) to give
stability to the electrode. Water cooled guns are available for high duty semi-automatic welding and for
automatic welding.
2.5.7.1 Flux cored welding generates fumes, that for environmental reasons, must be removed from the
welding area. This is usually done with an external exhaust system, but welding guns with internal
fume extractors have been developed. They are heavier than the regular gun and must be properly
maintained so that the extracting mechanism does not disturb the shielding gas.
2.5.8 SHIELDING GASES - Carbon dioxide is the most widely used gas for auxiliary shielding of the
flux cored electrode. The other commonly used gas is a mixture of 75% Argon and 25% CO2. 2.5.8.1 A
carbon dioxide shield produces deep penetration and the transfer is globular. As previously discussed,
CO2 will dissociate in the heat of the arc. To counteract this characteristic, deoxidizing elements are
added to the core ingredients of the electrode. The deoxidizers react to form solid oxide compounds
that float to the surface as part of the slag covering.
2.5.8.2 The addition of Argon to CO2 will increase the wetting action, produce a smooth arc arc, and
reduce spatter. The transfer is spray-like, and the penetration is somewhat less than with the straight
carbon dioxide.
2.5.8.3 While some flux cored electrodes are designed to operate well on both the 100% CO2 or the
75/25 mixture, others are formulated specifically for the CO2 shield or the Argon/ CO2 mixture. If the
recommended gas is not used with these electrodes, the weld chemistry may be affected. The reason
for this is that inert gas, such as Argon, does not react with the other elements; therefore, allowing them
to be transferred across the arc into the weld metal. An electrode designed for CO2 shielding contains
deoxidizing elements, such as silicon and manganese. If a high percentage of Argon is used in the
shielding medium, a large portion of these elements may pass into the weld metal causing the weld
metallurgy to be less ductile than intended.
2.5.8.3 The opposite happens with electrodes formulated for a 75/25 mixture. These electrodes are
usually designed for high yield and tensile strength. If a high percentage of CO2 is used with them, the
CO2 may react with the elements needed to attain these strength levels, thereby preventing them from
passing into the weld metal.
2.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is different from the previously
explained arc welding processes in that the arc is not visible. The arc is submerged beneath loose
granular flux. A continuous electrode is fed by automatic drive rolls through an electrode holder where
current is picked up at the contact tube. The electrode moves into the loose flux and the arc is initiated.
The flux is deposited from a separate container that moves at the same pace as the electrode assuring
complete coverage (See Figure 20).
2.6.1 Submerged Arc Flux - The flux helps form the molten puddle, slows the cooling rate, and acts as
a protective shield. The flux, which is in close contact with the arc, is fused into a slag cover and that
which is not fused is collected for reuse. The flux can contain alloying elements that, when molten, will
pass into the weld metal affecting the metallurgy. Some fluxes are specifically prepared for their alloy
altering capabilities while others, known as neutral fluxes, are chosen when a minimal alloy change is
desired. Although these latter fluxes are called "neutral", they still have the ability to slightly alter the
weld chemistry.
FLUX HOPPER
LOOSE GRANULAR FLUX
BASE MOLTEN PUDDLE

METAL
FUSED SLAG COVER
SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL
2.6.2 The Welding Gun - Although there are hand-held welding guns for the submerged arc process,
the majority of SAW is done with fully automatic equipment. The basic components include a wire
feeder, a power source, a flux delivery system, and in some instances, an automatic flux recovery
system.
2.6.3 Power Sources - The power source can be a constant current AC transformer, or it may be a DC
rectifier or generator of either the constant current or constant voltage variety. The power source must
be rated for high current output. When current requirements exceed the value of a single machine, two
or more of the same type may be connected in parallel.
2.6.4 Equipment - Most submerged arc welding is done with DCEP because it provides easy arc
starting, deep penetration and excellent bead shape. DCEN provides the highest deposition rates but
minimum penetration. Alternating current is often used as a trailing arc in tandem arc applications. In
this type of application, the leading DCEP arc provides deep penetration, and the closely trailing AC arc
provides high deposition with a minimum of arc blow.
2.6.5 Electrodes - A variety of ferrous and nonferrous electrodes are used in submerged arc welding.
They are usually solid electrodes refined with the appropriate alloys at the steel mill, and then shipped
to electrode manufacturers where they are drawn down to a specific diameter and packaged. There is
another type of sub arc electrode known as a composite electrode, that is fabricated in the same
manner as a flux cored electrode. A chief advantage of this type is that the alloying elements can be
added to the core of the electrode more cheaply than a steel mill can produce those same alloys in a
solid form. The electrodes for SAW vary in diameter from 1/16 inch to 1/4 inch with the larger
diameters being the most widely used.
2.6.6 Summary - Submerged arc welding has some advantages over other welding processes. Since
the radiance of the arc is blanketed by the loose flux, there is no need for a protective welding hood
(although safety glasses are recommended), there is no spatter and only a very minimal amount of
fumes escape from under the blanket. High welding currents, quite commonly in the 300 to 1600
ampere range, are used. These high currents, combined with fast travel speeds, make SAW a high
deposition process that is especially suitable for applications that require a series of repetitious welds.
Some setups allow two or more electrodes to be fed simultaneously into the joint, further increasing the
deposition rate and speed.
2.6.6.1 Although SAW has these advantages, it does have some limitations. The flux must be
deposited and collected for every welding pass. This requires additional equipment and handling. Also
because of the loose flux, the process is limited to the flat and horizontal positions. The equipment for
SAW is commonly quite bulky which limits its mobility, and although the process works well on thick
materials, it usually is not satisfactory for thin gauge material. The process requires care in the
operation. The amperages commonly used may cause excessive heat buildup in the base metal that
may result in distortion or brittleness.
2.7 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING
Electroslag Welding (ESW) and Electrogas Welding (EGW) comprise only a minor portion of all
welding done in the country, but they are uniquely adapted to certain applications, primarily the joining
of very thick materials. The joining of a 12 inch material along a 40 foot line is not an uncommon
application for the Electroslag process.
2.7.1 Electroslag Welding (See Figure 21) is technically not an arc welding process, although it
utilizes a current carrying consumable electrode. The only time there is an arc between the electrode
and the work piece is when current is initially charged through the electrode. This initial charge heats a
layer of loose flux that becomes molten and extinguishes the arc.
2.7.2 Flux - The flux used in ESW is high in electrical resistance. As current is applied, enough heat is
generated from this resistance to keep the flux, base metal, and electrode in a molten state. This axis
of the weld joint is on a vertical plane. The two pieces of metal, usually of the same thickness, are
positioned so that there is an opening between them. One or more electrodes are fed into the opening
through a welding bead that travels vertically as the joint is filled. To contain the molten puddle, water
cooled copper shoes or dams are placed on the sides of the vertical cavity. As the weld joint solidifies,
the dams move vertically so as to always remain in contact with the molten puddle.
2.7.3 Process - A variation of ESW is the consumable guide method. The process is the same with
this method except that the guide tube that feeds the electrode to the molten pool is also consumed.
The chief advantage with this method is the elimination of the electrode holder which must move
vertically with the weld pool. Also since the guide tube is consumed, the deposition rate is slightly
increased with this method.
2.7.4 Equipment - The equipment used in ESW is all automatic and of special design. The power
source may use either AC or DC current. The electrode may be either solid or flux cored, although if
the flux cored is used, it must be specially formulated so as not to contain its normal amount of slag
forming ingredients.
2.7.5 Summary - Electrogas Welding is similar to ESW as far as the mechanical aspects are
concerned. The equipment is automatic, the welding head travels vertically, and the molten puddle is
retained by shoes on the sides of the joint. The difference is that Electrogas Welding utilizes an arc
and it is externally gas shielded. The power source is also limited to DC operation. The electrodes
used in EGW can be either solid or flux cored.
APPENDIX A
LESSON II - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Arc Blow - Deviation of the direction of the welding arc caused by magnetic fields in the work piece
when welding with direct current.
Straight Polarity - Welding condition when the electrode is connected to the negative terminal and the
work is connected to the positive terminal of the welding power source.
Reverse Polarity - Welding condition when the electrode is connected to the positive terminal and the
work is connected to the negative terminal of the welding power source.
Slag - The brittle mass that forms over the weld bead on welds made with coated electrodes, flux cored
electrodes, submerged arc welding and other slag producing welding processes. Welds made with the
gas metal arc and the gas tungsten arc welding processes are slag free.
Manual Arc Welding - Welding with a coated electrode where the operator's hand controls travel
speed and the rate the electrode is fed into the arc.
Semi-Automatic Welding - Welding with a continuous solid wire or flux cored electrode where the
wire feed speed, shielding gas flow rate, and voltage are preset on the equipment, and the operator
guides the hand held welding gun along the joint to be welded.
Slag Inclusion - A weld defect where slag is entrapped in the weld metal before it can float to the
surface.
Root Pass - The initial pass in a multi-pass weld, usually requiring 100% penetration.
Gas Ions - Shielding gas atoms that, in the presence of an electrical current, lose one or more
electrons and therefore, carry a positive electrical charge. The provide a more electrically conductive
path for the arc between the electrode and the work piece.
High Frequency - (as applied to gas-tungsten arc welding) An alternating current consisting of over
50,000 cycles per second at high voltage, low amperage that is superimposed on the welding circuit in
GTAW power sources. It ionizes a path for non-touch arc starting and stabilizes the arc when welding
with alternating current.
Inert Gases - Gases that are chemically inactive. They do not readily combine with other elements.
Flux - In arc welding, fluxes are formulations that, when subjected to the arc, act as a cleaning agent
by dissolving oxides, releasing trapped gases and slag and generally cleaning the weld metal by
floating the impurities to the surface where they solidify in the slag covering. The flux also serves to
reduce spatter and contributes to weld bead shape. The flux may be the coating on the electrode,
inside the electrode as in flux cored types, or in a granular form as used in submerged arc welding.
Current Density - The amperes per square inch of cross-sectional area of an electrode. High current
density results in high electrode melt-off rate and a concentrated, deep penetrating arc.
Slope or Slope Control - A necessary feature in welding power sources used for short circuiting arc
welding. Slope Control reduces the short circuiting current each time the electrode touches the weld
puddle (See Section 2.5.3).
Inductance - (as applies to short circuiting arc welding) A feature in welding power sources designed
for short circuiting arc welding to retard the rate of current rise each time the electrode touches the weld
puddle.
Contact Tip - That part of a gas metal arc welding gun or flux cored arc welding gun that transfers the
welding current to the welding wire immediately before the wire enters the arc.
Spray Transfer - Mode of metal transfer across the arc where the molten metal droplets are smaller
than the electrode diameter and are axially directed to the weld puddle. Requires high voltage and
amperage settings and a shielding gas of at least 80% argon.
Globular Transfer - Mode of metal transfer across the arc where a molten ball larger than the
electrode diameter forms at the tip of the electrode. On detachment, it takes on an irregular shape and
tumbles towards the weld puddle sometimes shorting between the electrode and work at irregular
intervals. Occurs when using shielding gases other than those consisting of at least 80% argon and at
medium current settings.
Pulse Transfer - Mode of metal transfer somewhat between spray and short circuiting. The specific
power source has built into it two output levels: a steady background level, and a high output (peak)
level. The later permits the transfer of metal across the arc. This peak output is controllable between
high and low values up to several hundred cycles per second. The result of such a peak output
produces a spray arc below the typical transition current.
Short-circuiting Transfer - Mode of metal transfer in gas metal arc welding at low voltage and
amperage. Transfer takes place each time the electrode touches or short-circuits to the weld puddle,
extinguishing the arc. The short-circuiting current causes the electrode to neck down, melt off, and
then repeats the cycle.
Trimix or Triple Mix - A shielding gas consisting of approximately 90% helium, 7-1/2% argon, and 2-
1/2% carbon dioxide used primarily for short-circuiting arc welding of stainless steels. Maintains
corrosion resistance of the stainless steel and produces good wetting and excellent weld bead shape.
Electrical Stick-Out - In any welding process using a solid or flux cored wire, the electrical stick-out is
the distance from the contact tip to the unmelted electrode end. Sometimes called the "amount of wire
in resistance". This distance influences melt-off rate, penetration, and weld bead shape.
Out-of-Position Welds - Welds made in positions other than flat or horizontal fillets.
Weld Positions:
HORIZONTAL FILLET
FLAT
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
POSITIONED FILLET
HORIZONTAL BUTT
LESSON III
COVERED ELECTRODES FOR
WELDING MILD STEELS
An Introduction to Mild Steel

Covered Electrodes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON III
COVERED ELECTRODES FOR WELDING MILD STEELS
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF COVERED ELECTRODES.... 1

3.2 MANUFACTURING COVERED EELCTRODES 1
3.2.1 Functions of Electrode Coatings 3
3.2.2 Classification of Coating Ingredients 4
3.3 AWS SPECIFICATION A5.1-91 6
3.3.1 Chemical Composition of Weld Metal 7
3.3.2 Mechanical Properties (AWS A5.1-91) 7
3.3.3 Individual Electrode Characteristics 8
3.4 SELECTING THE PROPER MILD STEEL ELECTRODE 11
3.4.1 Typical Electrode Use by Welding Classification 12
3.4.2 Electrode Deposition 14
3.5 ACID AND BASIC SLAG SYSTEMS 15
3.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MILD STEEL 15
3.7 ESAB SUREWELD MILD STEEL COVERED ELECTRODES FEATURES & DATA 16
3.7.1 SUREWELD 10P (AWS E6010) 16
3.7.2 SUREWELD 710P (AWS E7010-P1) 17
3.7.3 SUREWELD 810P (AWS E8010-P1) 18
3.7.4 SUREWELD SW14 (AWS E6011) 19
3.7.7 6013LV (AWS E6013) 21
3.7.8 SUREWELD SW15-IP (AWS E7014) 22
3.7.9 SUREWELD 70LA-2 (AWS E7016) 23
3.7.10 ATOM ARC 7018 (AWS E7018) 24
3.7.11 ATOM ARC 7018AC (AWS E7018) 25
3.7.12 SUREWELD 7024 (AWS E7024) Conforms to 7024-1 26
Appendix A GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................... 27

3.1 Development of Covered Electrodes
During the 1890's, arc welding was accomplished with bare metal electrodes. The welds produced
were
porous and brittle because the molten weld puddle absorbed larg quantities of oxygen and nitrogen
from the atmosphere. Operators noticed that a rusty rod produced a better weld than a shiny clean rod.
Observations also showed than an improved weld could be made by wrapping the rod in newspaper or
by
welding adjacent to a pine board placed close to and parallel with the weld being made. In these cases,
some degree of shielding the arc form the atmosphere was being accomplished. These early
observations
led to the development of the coated electrode.
3.1.0.1 Around 1920, the A.O. Smith Corporation developed an electrode spirally wrapped with paper,
soaked in sodium silicate, and then baked. This was the first of the cellulosic type electrodes.
It produced an effective gas shield in the area and greatly improved the ductility of the weld metal.
3.1.0.2 Because of the method used to manufacture these paper covered electrodes, it was difficult
to effectively add other ingredients to the coating. In 1924, the A.O. Smith Corporation began work
on coatings that could be extruded over the core wire. This method allowed the addition of other
flux ingredients to further improve or modify the weld metal and by 1927, these electrodes were
being produced commercially.
3.1.0.3 Since 1927, many improvements have been made and many different types of electrodes have
been developed and produced. Through variations in the formulations of the covering and the amount
of covering on the mild steel core wire, many different classifications of electrodes are produced today.
3.2 Manufacturing Covered Electrodes
Mild steel covered electrodes, also commonly called coated electrodes, consist of only two major
elements;
the core wire or rod and the flux covering. The core wire is usually low carbon steel.
It must contain only small amounts of aluminum and copper, and the sulfur and phosphorous levels
must be kept very low since they can cause undesirable brittleness in the weld metal. The raw material
for the core wire is hot-rolled rod (commonly called "hot rod"). It is received in large coils, cleaned,
drawn down to the proper electrode diameter, straightened, and cut to the proper electrode length.
3.2.0.1 The coating ingredients, from which there are literally hundreds to choose, are carefully
weighed, blended in a dry state, wet mixed, and compacted into a large cylinder that fits into the
extrusion press. The coating is extruded over the cut core wires which are fed through the extrusion
press at a rapid rate. The coating material is removed from the end of the electrode that is clamped
into the electrode holder to assure electrical contact, and also from the welding end of the electrode to
assure easy arc initiation.
3.2.0.2 The electrodes are then stamped with the type number for easy identification before entering
the ovens, where they go through a controlled bake cycle to insure the proper moisture content before
packaging.
3.2.0.3 Of the many quality control checks made during the manufacturing process, one of the most
important is the procedure that insures that the coating thickness is uniform. In shielded metal arc
welding, the coating crater, or the cup-like formation of the coating, that extends beyond the melting
core wire, performs the function of concentrating and directing the arc. See Figure 1.
CONCENTRIC COATING NON-CONCENTRIC COATING
GOOD ARC DIRECTION POOR ARC DIRECTION
CONCENTRATED ARC EFFECT OF COATING CONCENTRICITY
FIGURE 1
3.2.0.4 Concentration and direction of the arc stream is attained by having a coating crater, somewhat
similar to the nozzle on a water hose, directing the flow of weld metal. When the coating is not
concentric to the core wire, it can cause the condition shown at B in Figure 1. The poor arc direction
causes inconsistent weld beads, poor shielding, and lack of penetration. The electrode burns off
unevenly, leaving a projection on the side where the coating is the heaviest. This condition is often
referred to as "fingernailing."
3.2.1 Functions of Electrode Coatings - The ingredients that are commonly used in coatings can be
classified physically in a broad manner as liquids and solids. The liquids are generally sodium silicate
or potassium silicate. The solids are powdered or granulated materials that may be found free in
nature, and need only concentration and grinding to the proper particle size. Other solid materials
used are produced as a result of chemical reactions, such as alloys or other complex synthetic
compounds.
3.2.1.1 The particle size of the solid material is an important factor. Particle size may be as coarse as
fine sand, or as minute as sub-sieve size.
3.2.1.2 The physical structure of the coating ingredients may be classified as crystalline, fibrous or
amorphous (non-crystalline). Crystalline materials such as rutile, quartz and mica are commonly used.
Rutile is the naturally occurring form of the mineral titanium dioxide and is widely used in electrode
coatings. Fibrous materials such as wood fibers, and non-crystalline materials such as glasses and
other organic compounds are also common coating ingredients.
3.2.1.3 The functions of the coating on covered electrodes are as follows:
a) Shielding of the Weld Metal - The most important function of a coating is to shield the weld metal
from the oxygen and nitrogen of the air as it is being transferred across the arc, and while it is in the
molten state. This shielding is necessary to ensure the weld metal will be sound, free of gas pockets,
and have the right strength and ductility. At the high temperatures of the arc, nitrogen and oxygen
combine readily with iron to form iron nitrides and iron oxides that, if present in the weld metal above
certain minimum amounts, will cause brittleness and porosity. Nitrogen is the primary concern since it
is difficult to control its effect once it has entered the deposit. Oxygen can be counteracted by the use
of suitable deoxidizers. In order to avoid contamination from the air, the stream of molten metal must
be protected or shielded by gases that exclude the surrounding atmosphere from the arc and the
molten weld metal. This is accomplished by using gas-forming materials in the coating that break down
during the welding operation and produce the gaseous shield.
b) Stabilization of the Arc - A stabilized arc is one that starts easily, burns smoothly even at low
amperages, and can be maintained using either a long or a short arc length.
c) Alloying Additions to Weld Metal - A variety of elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
vanadium and copper can be added to the weld metal by including them in the coating composition. It
is often necessary to add alloys to the coating to balance the expected loss of alloys of the core wire
during the welding operation, due to volatization and chemical reaction. Mild steel electrodes require
small amounts of carbon, manganese and silicon in the deposit to give sound welds of the desired
strength level. A portion of the carbon and manganese is derived from the core wire, but it is necessary
to supplement it with ferromanganese and in some cases ferrosilicon additions in the coating.
d) Concentration of the Arc Stream - Concentration or direction of the arc stream is attained by
having a coating crater form at the tip of the electrodes as discussed earlier. Use of the proper binders
assures a good hard coating that will maintain a crater and give added penetration and better direction
to the arc stream.
e) Furnish Slag for Fluxing - The function of the slag is (1) to provide additional protection against
atmospheric contamination, (2) to act as a cleaner and absorb impurities that are floated off and
trapped by the slag, (3) to slow the cooling rate of the molten metal to allow the escape of gases. The
slag also controls the contour, uniformity and general appearance of the weld. This is particularly true
in fillet welds.
f) Characteristics for Welding Position - It is the addition of certain ingredients, primarily titanium
compounds, in the coating that makes it possible to weld out-of-position , vertically, and overhead.
Slag characteristics, primarily surface tension and freezing point, determine to a large degree the ability
of an electrode to be used for out-of-position work.
g) Control of Weld Metal Soundness - Porosity or gas pockets in weld metal can be controlled to a
large extent by the coating composition. It is the balance of certain ingredients in the coating that have
a marked effect on the presence of gas pockets in the weld metal. The proper balance of these is
critical to the soundness that can be produced. Ferromanganese is probably the most common
ingredient used to attain the correctly balanced formula.
h) Specific Mechanical Properties to the Weld Metal - Specific mechanical properties can be
incorporated into the weld metal by means of the coating. High impact values at low temperature, high
ductility, and increases in yield and tensile properties can be attained by alloy additions to the coating.
i) Insulation of the Core Wire - The coating acts as an insulator so that the core wire will not short-
circuit when welding in deep grooves or narrow openings; coatings also serve as a protection to the
operator when changing electrodes.
3.2.2 Classification of Coating Ingredients - Coating materials can be classified into the following 6
major groups:
a) Alloying Elements - Alloying elements such as molybdenum, chromium, nickel, manganese and
others impart specific mechanical properties to the weld metal.
b) Binders - Soluble silicates such as sodium and potassium silicates, are used in the electrode
coating as binders. Functions of binders are to form a plastic mass of coating material capable of being
extruded and baked. The final baked coating should be hard so that it will maintain a crater and have
sufficient strength so that it will not spall, crack or chip. Binders are also used to make coating non-
flammable and avoid premature decomposition.
c) Gas Formers - Common gas forming materials used are the carbohydrates, hydrates, and
carbonates. Examples would be cellulose (such as wood flock), the carbonates of calcium and
magnesium, and chemically combined water as is found in clay and mica. These materials evolve
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and water vapor (H2O) at the high temperature of the
welding arc. Free moisture is another gas-forming ingredient that is found particularly in cellulosic type
electrodes and is a part of the formulation in amounts of 2%-3%. It has a marked influence on the arc
and is a necessary ingredient in the E6010 type electrode.
d) Arc Stabilizers - Air is not sufficiently conductive to maintain a stable arc, so it becomes necessary
to add coating ingredients that will provide a conductive path for the flow of current. This is particularly
true when welding with alternating current. Stabilizing materials are titanium compounds, potassium
compounds, and calcium compounds.
e) Fluxes and Slag Formers - These ingredients are used primarily to give body to the slag and
impart such properties as slag viscosity, surface tension, and melting point. Silica and magnetite are
materials of this type.
f) Plasticizers - Coatings are often very granular or sandy, and in order to successfully extrude these
coatings, it is necessary to add lubricating materials, plasticizers, to make the coating flow smoothly
under pressure. Sodium and potassium carbonates are often used. 3.2.2.1 The chart in Figure 2
shows typical coating constituents and their functions for two types of mild steel electrodes. Note that
the moisture content in the cellulosic E6010 is much higher than in the low hydrogen E7018 type. The
moisture in the E6010 coating is necessary to produce the driving arc characteristic and is not harmful
when welding the lower strength steels. Hydrogen can cause problems when welding the higher
strength steels and will be discussed in detail in Lesson IV.
3.3 AWS SPECIFICATION A5.1-91
This American Welding Society (AWS) specification has been developed over the years by a filler
metals committee, composed of members who represent electrode producers, such as ESAB, users
from the welding industry, and independent members from colleges, universities and independent
laboratories. This balanced membership is required to prevent prejudice from entering into the
specifications.
3.3.0.1 Individual Mild Steel electrodes are classified by the manufacturer according to the above
specification on the basis of the mechanical properties (also called physical properties) of the weld
metal, the type of covering, the welding position of the electrode, and the type of current (AC or DC).
The classification system is designed to give certain information about the electrode and the weld metal
produced from it. The significance of the AWS designations are shown in tabular form in Figure
3. 3.3.0.2 These classifications, with the AWS Specification A5.1-91, are assigned by the manufacturer
of the electrodes according to the results of his own tests. The American Welding Society does not
approve or disapprove electrodes.
3.3.0.3 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) uses the AWS Electrode Specifications
word for word by adding the letters SF before the specification number. Thus, AWS Specification A5.1-
91 becomes ASME Specification SFA5.1. The classification and requirements are the same.
3.3.1 Chemical Composition of Weld Metal (AWS A5.1-91) –
Chemical requirements are as follows:
a) Classifications E6010, E6011, E6012, E6013, E6020, E6022 and E6027 have no requirements.
b) Classification E7018 and E7027 must have no more than 1.60% Manganese, 0.75% Silicon,
0.30% Nickel, 0.20% Chromium, 0.30% Molybdenum, and 0.08% Vanadium.
c) Classifications E7014, E7015, E7016, E7024, E7028 and E7048 must have no more than 1.25%
Manganese, 0.90% Silicon, 0.30% Nickel, 0.20% Chromium, 0.30% Molybdenum, and 0.08%
Vanadium.
3.3.2 Mechanical Properties (AWS A5.1-91) –
Physical tests are performed on all specimens in the "as-welded" condition. This means that the
weldment or weld metal is not subjected to any type of heat treatment. Tensile test specimens for all
electrode classifications other than the low hydrogen types (E7015, E7016, E7018, E7028 and E7048)
are aged at 200°F to 220°F for forty-eight (48) hours prior to being subjected to the tensile test. This is
not considered heat treatment. It simply accelerates the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld metal
welded with the cellulosic or titania type of electrodes.
3.3.2.1 Classifications E6010, E6011 and E6027 weld metals are required to have more than 62,000
psi tensile strength, 50,000 psi yield strength, 22% elongation in two inch gauge, and 20 ft-lb at -20°F
Charpy V-notch impact.
3.3.2.2 Classification E6020 weld metals are required to have more than 62,000 psi tensile strength,
50,000 psi yield strength, 22% elongation in two inch gauge, and no Charpy V-notch impact
requirements.
3.3.2.3 Classifications E6012 and E6013 weld metals are required to have more than 67,000 psi
tensile strength, 55,000 psi yield strength, 17% elongation in two inch gauge, and no Charpy V-notch
impact requirements.
3.3.2.4 Classification E6022 weld metals are required to have more than 67,000 psi tensile strength,
no requirement for yield strength and no Charpy V-notch requirements.
3.3.2.5 Classifications E7014 and E7024 weld metals are required to have more than 72,000 psi
tensile strength, 60,000 psi yield strength, 17% elongation in two inch gauge, and no Charpy V-notch
impact requirements.
3.3.2.6 Classifications E7015, E7016, E7018, D7027 and E7048 are required to have more than
72,000 psi tensile strength, 60,000 psi yield strength, 22% elongation in two inch gauge, and 20 ft-lb at
-20°F Charpy V-notch impacts.
3.3.2.7 Classification E7028 is required to have more than 72,000 psi tensile strength, 60,000 psi yield
strength, 22% elongation in two inch gauge, and 20 ft-lb at 0°F Charpy V- notch impacts.
3.3.3 Individual Electrode Characteristics
a) E6010 electrodes were originally developed to provide improved welding operation and weld metal.
The coating is mostly wood pulp or flour modified with mineral silicates, deoxidizers, and sodium
silicate. The amount of coating on the electrode is low, about 10-12% by weight. Because the wood
pulp burns away during welding, the slag is minimal and is usually easily removed. The arc has deep
penetration and with proper manipulation of the arc, good welds can be deposited in all positions. Most
of the ships built in the United States during World War II were welded with this classification of
electrode. Special formulations of this classification are used to weld line pipe joints in the vertical-down
position. Reasonably sound welds can be deposited in open root butt joints (see Appendix A -
Glossary) with this electrode.
b) E6011 electrodes are similar to E6010 except that sufficient potassium compounds have been
added to the coating to stabilize the arc stream and allow the electrode to be used on alternating
current. Penetration is slightly less than that of the E6010 type.
c) E6012 electrodes have several common names. In Europe, they are called rutile (see Glossary)
electrodes. Many welders call them cold rods. The coating contains large percentages of the mineral
rutile (titanium dioxide), i.e., the titania referred to in the classification. The arc has low penetration, and
with proper manipulation wide gaps can be bridged. Although the specification calls for operation on
either AC or DC, the arc is smoother and spatters level lower when direct current is used.
d) E6013 electrodes also contain a large percentage of titanium dioxide in their coating. They are
designed to have a low penetrating arc allowing thin sheet metal to be welded without burn-through.
The coating contains sufficient potassium compounds to stabilize the arc sufficiently for welding with
alternating current.
e) E7014 electrodes are related to 6013 electrodes except that iron powder has been added and a
heavier coating is applied to the core wire. This results in higher deposition rates with the E7014
electrode than with the E6013.
f) E7015 electrodes were the first of the low hydrogen electrodes. They were developed in the 1940's
to weld hardenable steels such as armor plate. All of the previously discussed electrodes have
appreciable amounts of hydrogen in their coatings in the form of water or chemically combined
hydrogen in chemical compounds. When hardenable steel is welded with any of those electrodes
containing considerable hydrogen, "underbead cracking" commonly occurs. These cracks appear in
the base metal usually just below, and parallel to, the weld bead. Limestone and other ingredients that
are low in moisture are used in the coating, eliminating this hydrogen induced cracking. The coating is
a low hydrogen, sodium type that limits these electrodes to be used only with direct current, reverse
polarity. E7015 electrodes are not generally available today having been replaced by the E7016 and
E7018 type.
g) E7016 electrodes are very similar to the E7015 type except that the use of potassium in the coating
allows these electrodes to be used with alternating current as well as direct current, reverse polarity.
h) E7018 electrodes are the more modern version of the low hydrogen electrode. The addition of
considerable amounts of iron powder to the covering results in a smoother arc with less spatter. This
modern balance of covering ingredients results in a great improvement in arc stability, arc direction and
ease of handling in all welding positions.
i) E6020 electrodes have a coating that consists mainly of iron oxide, manganese compounds and
silica. They have a spray-type arc and produce a heavy slag that provides protection of the molten
weld metal. The molten weld metal is very fluid, limiting the use to flat or horizontal fillet welds.
j) E6022 electrodes are for high speed, high current single pass welding of sheet metal. They are not
generally available today.
k) E7024 electrodes have a coating similar to the E6012 and E6013 types, but have a very heavy
coating that contains 50% iron powder by weight. Run at relatively higher currents, the deposition rate
is high. Welds are limited to the flat and horizontal fillet positions. Penetration is relatively low. AC or
DC, either polarity may be used.
l) E6027 electrodes are also a high iron powder type, the coating consisting of 50% iron powder by
weight. Current may be AC or DC, either polarity. The penetration is medium and the weld beads are
slightly concave with good side wall fusion. As with all high iron powder electrodes, deposition rate is
high.
m) E7028 electrodes are much like the E7018 electrodes except that the coating is heavier and
contains 50% iron powder by weight. Unlike the E7018 electrode, they are suitable for flat and
horizontal fillet welding only. Deposition rate is very high.
n) E7048 electrodes are much like the E7018 electrodes except they are designed for exceptionally
good vertical-down welding.
3.4 SELECTING THE PROPER MILD STEEL COVERED ELECTRODE
Many factors must be considered when selecting the proper electrode for a given application. Some
items to be considered are:
a) Type of Base Metal - Welding mild steels or low carbon steels (carbon content below 0.30%) with
mild steel coated electrodes presents no problems as far as tensile strength is concerned since the
tensile strength of the weld metal usually exceeds the tensile strength of the base metal. However,
chemistry of the base metal is important. Welds made on free machining steels that have relatively
high sulfur content, will be porous unless welded with a low hydrogen type electrode such as E7018.
Sometimes off analysis steels or mild steels of doubtful analysis are encountered. In this case, one of
the low hydrogen types would be the best choice.
b) Position of the Weld - Weld position will determine whether an all-position electrode or a flat and
horizontal type electrode should be used. Higher welding currents, and therefore, higher deposition
rates are possible when welding flat or horizontally. Whenever possible, the work should be positioned
both for ease of welding and to attain the highest welding speed.
c) Available Equipment - Electrode choice will depend on whether AC or DC welding machines are
available. If both currents are available, consider these general facts. 1. For deepest penetration, use
DC reverse polarity (Electrode Positive). 2. For lower penetration and higher deposition rate, use DC
straight polarity (Electrode Negative). 3. For freedom of arc blow, use AC.
d) Plate Thickness - When welding sheet metal, low penetration electrodes should be chosen.
Heavier plate may demand an electrode with deep penetration. Very heavy plate may require a deep
penetrating electrode for the initial or root pass, and a higher deposition type for succeeding passes.
e) Fit-Up - Some electrodes are more suitable than others for bridging gaps between the members to
be welded. This is termed "poor fit-up" and some electrode manufacturers produce electrodes that are
specially formulated for this purpose.
f) Welding Costs - The major factors that affect welding costs are labor and overhead, deposition rate,
efficiency of the electrode being used and the cost of the electrodes. The cost of electrical power is
also a factor to a lesser degree. By far, the largest factor is labor and overhead.
g) Welder Appeal- Welder appeal is definitely important, although this factor must not be allowed to
subordinate other more significant criteria.
3.4.1 Typical Electrode Use by Welding Classification
3.4.1.1 The E6010 and E6011 classification electrodes would most likely be used for welding a mild
steel joint in the vertical position with an open root. If there are only AC power sources available, the
choice between these two must be the E6011 type. Many times arc blow is encountered when welding
with direct current. The use of E6011 electrodes on alternating current eliminates the arc blow.
3.4.1.2 The E6012 classification electrodes are largely used today in repair and welding of less critical
structures. Carbon steels with some rust present can be welded with this type of electrode. It can be
used to bridge or weld across wide gaps. The use of this electrode, however, has diminished greatly in
the past few years. Before the advent of the low hydrogen electrodes and other welding processes, the
E6012 electrode made up 60% of the total production of electrodes. Today, it represents about 6% of
the total production in the United States.
3.4.1.3 The E6013 classification of covered mild steel electrodes was originally designed to have low
arc penetration and flat smooth weld beads. These features allowed the electrode to weld sheet metal.
Today, many 6013 electrodes are used instead of 6012 electrodes because of the smoother arc, less
spatter and more uniform weld bead surface.
3.4.1.4 The E7014 classification of covered mild steel electrodes, as indicated earlier, have iron powder
added to the coating formulation of the E6013 electrodes. This addition allows the electrode to be
welded at higher currents, resulting in higher deposition rates and deposition efficiencies. Applications
for the E7014 are similar to those of the E6013 electrodes.
3.4.1.5 The E7016 covered mild steel electrodes are, as indicated earlier, low hydrogen with a basic
slag system. This combination of attributes allows the electrode to be used to weld some of the higher
carbon steels and some low alloy steels. This electrode has diminished in usage because of its lower
deposition rate and lower deposition efficiency than the more modern E7018 electrode.
3.4.1.6 The E7018 classification is the low hydrogen iron powder electrode. The appreciable amount of
iron powder in the coating and the somewhat heavier amount of coating on the core wire allow the
electrodes to be used at higher currents than those used with the E7016. The smooth arc and easy
welding with the E7018 electrode make it a welder's favorite. The relatively high welding currents and
the addition of the iron powder melting into the weld metal result in higher deposition rates and higher
deposition efficiencies. The E7018 covered mild steel electrode deposits the highest quality weld metal
available from manual arc welding. The only major disadvantage of the E7018 is the need to be kept
dry. Electrodes that have picked up moisture by exposure to the atmosphere or other sources deposit
porous weld metal. Also E7018 electrodes cannot be used to weld the root pass in an open butt joint
without excess porosity. When E7018 electrodes are to be used in butt welds, the root should be
closed by a backing bar, ceramic back-up tape, or consumable insert. If a backing bar is used, it must
be removed after the joint is welded by the gas metal arc or the gas tungsten arc process and
successive passes applied with E7018 for a high quality weld metal deposit.
3.4.1.7 The E7024 classification of covered mild steel electrodes is the result of heavy additions of iron
powder to the E6012 formulation and large increases in the amount of coating on the core wire. About
50% of the coating is iron powder. Very high deposition rates and deposition efficiencies result from
this combination of more coating and iron powder. The electrode is limited to welding horizontal fillets
and flat positions. The quality of the weld metal is not as high as that from E7018 electrodes since the
ductility of E7024 weld metal is lower.
3.4.2 Electrode Deposition –
The deposition rate of a given electrode influences the total cost of depositing weld metal substantially.
The deposition rate is the weight of weld metal deposited in a unit of time. Deposition rate increases as
the welding current increases within the limits of a given electrode. As can be seen in Figure 4, a 5/32"
diameter E7024 electrode can deposit weld metal more than twice as fast as a 5/32" diameter E6010
electrode. It is apparent that a substantial saving in labor and overhead can be achieved if one of the
higher deposition electrodes can be used.
3.4.2.1 The deposition efficiency of a given electrode also has an effect on welding costs. The
deposition efficiency is the weight of the weld metal deposited compared to the weight of the electrode
consumed, expressed as a percentage.
3.4.2.2 When welding with coated electrodes, some of the electrode weight is lost as slag, spatter,
fumes, gases, and stubs. If an electrode is 65% efficient, it means that for every 100 pounds of
electrodes consumed, 65 pounds of weld metal will be produced. Stub loss, the part of the electrode
that is thrown away, is not considered in the deposition efficiency, since the stub length will vary with
the operator or the application. Figure 5 illustrates how stub loss affects efficiency. An 6010 electrode
has an actual average efficiency of 71.5% before the allowance for stub loss. A 2" stub results in the
efficiency dropping to 63.8%. If 6" stubs are thrown away, 100 pounds of electrodes will produce only
42.6 pounds of weld metal. Methods of calculating total weld costs will be covered in a subsequent
lesson.
3.5 ACID AND BASIC SLAG SYSTEMS
The type of slag produced from covered electrodes has a definite effect on the quality of the weld
metal. The E6010, 6011, 6012, 6013, 7014, 7024 and other cellulosic and rutile electrodes, produce
slags that are predominantly silicon dioxide (sand) and have an acidic behavior. Acid slag systems do
no refining of the weld metal. In contrast, the slag from the E7016, E7018 and other low hydrogen
electrodes is made up mostly of lime and fluorspar, two items that are basic in chemical behavior. Basic
slags do some refining of the weld metal, resulting in lower nonmetallic inclusion content.
3.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MILD STEEL COVERED ELECTRODES
Of all the welding done in the United States, approximately half of it is done with covered electrodes via
the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process. Every imaginable shape and structure made of
medium or low carbon steel has been welded with mild steel covered electrodes. The welding
advantages of this process are several. It is the simplest welding process available. All that is needed
is a constant current power source, two electrical leads and the electrode. It is the most flexible
welding process in that it can be used in any position on almost any thickness of carbon steel in any
location. The disadvantages are that the covered mild steel welding has lower deposition rates than
other processes, thus making it less efficient. Also, the use of covered mild steel electrodes requires
more welders training than the semi-automatic and automatic welding processes.
3.7 ESAB SUREWELD MILD STEEL COATED ELECTRODES FEATURES AND DATA
3.7.1 SUREWELD 10P (AWS E6010) - This is an all-position cellulosic (wood flour) electrode that is
especially suited for pipe welding but also functions as an excellent general purpose 6010 wire. As a
pipe welding electrode, it produces the consistent, deep penetration required to maintain a proper
keyhole when welding in open root pipe joints. Recommended for API grades A25, A, B, and X42
grade pipe and for general structural, ship, barge, and storage tank fabrication.
Typical mechanical properties are:

Yield Strength - 67,100 psi
Tensile Strength - 79,800 psi
Elongation (2" Gauge) - 29%
Charpy V-Notch Impact Resistance - 27 ft-lbs @ 0°F
22 ft-lbs @ -20°F
The typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

Carbon 0.12%
Phosphorus 0.009%
Manganese 0.28%
Sulfur 0.017%
Silicon 0.18%
DEPOSITION RATE DATA: SUREWELD 10P*

3.7.11 ATOM ARC 7018AC (AWS E7018) - This iron powder low hydrogen electrode was specifically
designed for optimum performance on AC power sources. This electrode features easier arc starting,
improved restrike, and smoother metal transfer than a standard E7018 electrode on AC. Typically, this
electrode is used as a tacking electrode.
3.7.12 SUREWELD 7024 (AWS E7024) Conforms to 7024-1 - The Sureweld 7024 electrode is
approved by the American Bureau of Shipping. It is a high speed electrode using heavy concentrations
of iron powder in the coating. Used with high welding currents, it produces high deposition rates in
horizontal fillet and flat welding positions. The electrode has excellent operator appeal and produces
equal leg 45° fillets that eliminate over welding. The welds have excellent appearance and a self-
cleaning slag. The 7024 electrode is ideal for making high speed horizontal fillets and lap welds on
mild steel and some low alloy steels in weldments such as earth moving and construction equipment,
truck bodies, ships, barges and railcars.
Typical mechanical properties of 7024 weld metal are:
Yield Point - 71,000 psi

Tensile Strength - 81,000 psi
Elongation (2" Gauge) - 26%
Reduction of Area - 63%
Charpy V-Notch Impact Value - 25 ft-lbs @ 0°F
The typical chemical composition of 7024 weld metal is:
Carbon 0.06% Phosphorus 0.010%

Manganese 0.80% Sulfur 0.018%
Silicon 0.27%
APPENDIX A
LESSON III - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Electrode Core Wire - The steel wire about which the coating is applied. The electrode size is
determined by the diameter of the core wire.
Electrode Coating - The mixture of chemicals, minerals and metallic alloys applied to the core wire.
The coating controls the welding current, the welding position, and provides a shielding atmosphere,
deoxidizers to clean the weld metal, and the welding slag that absorbs impurities from the weld metal. It
also helps shape the weld bead and becomes an insulating blanket over the weld bead.
Mild Steel - An alloy of mostly iron with low content of alloying elements such as carbon and
manganese.
Low Alloy Steel - An alloy of iron with alloy additions, usually in the range of 1½ to 5%.
Hardenable Steel - An alloy of iron that is subject to hardening when rapidly cooled.
Deposition Rate - The weight of weld metal deposited compared to the time of welding. It is usually
expressed in pounds per hour.
Deposition Efficiency - The relationship of the electrode used to the amount of the weld metal de-
posited, expressed in percent, i.e.; DE = Weight of Weld Metal ÷ Weight of Electrode Used
Arc Blow - Welding with direct current may set up a magnetic field in the steel plate being welded.
This magnetic field causes the arc to flutter and blow, creating difficulty in controlling the arc.
Cellulose - A chemical of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. As used in mild steel electrode coatings, it
consists of wood pulp or flour.
Rutile - The natural form of the mineral titanium dioxide (TiO2).
Titania - The synthetic form of titanium dioxide (TiO2). In this text the terms rutile and titania have the
same significance.
Root Pass - The initial weld bead deposited in a multi-pass weld requiring high weld integrity.
Root Opening - The intentional gap between members to be joined to assure 100% penetration in
groove type welds.
LESSON IV
COVERED ELECTRODES FOR
WELDING LOW ALLOY STEELS
AN INTRODUCTION TO LOW
ALLOY COVERED ELECTRODES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON IV
COVERED ELECTRODES FOR WELDING
LOW ALLOY STEELS
4.1 LOW ALLOY STEELS ...................................................................... 1

4.2 Consequence of Hydrogen in Low Alloy Steel .................................. 1
4.2.1 Preheat ............................................................................................. 3
4.3 MANUFACTURING LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODES .................. 3
4.3.1 Storage and Reconditioning.............................................................. 4
4.3.2 Moisture Resistant Coating ............................................................... 4
4.4 AWS SPECIFICATION FOR LOW ALLOY ELECTRODES.............. 5
4.4.1 Effect of Alloying Elements ............................................................... 6
4.4.2 Mechanical Properties (AWS A5.5-96) ............................................. 7
4.4.3 Impact Properties.............................................................................. 8
4.5 SELECTING THE PROPER LOW ALLOY ELECTRODE ................ 8
4.5.1 Service Conditions ............................................................................ 8
4.5.2 Joint Design ...................................................................................... 9
4.5.3 Equipment......................................................................................... 10
4.6 LOW HYDROGEN IRON POWDER ELECTRODES ....................... 11
4.6.1 Atom Arc 7018 (AWS E7018) ........................................................... 11
4.6.2 Atom Arc 7018 Mo (AWS E7018-A1)................................................ 11
4.6.3 Atom Arc 8018N (AWS E8018-C2) ................................................... 12
4.6.4 Atom Arc 8018CM (AWS E8018-B2) ................................................ 13
4.6.5 Atom Arc 8018W (AWS E8018-G).................................................... 13
4.6.6 Atom Arc 9018CM (AWS E9018-B3) ................................................ 14
4.6.7 Atom Arc 9018-B3L (AWS E9018-B3L) ............................................ 14
4.6.8 Atom Arc 10018 (AWS E10018-M) ................................................... 15
4.6.9 Atom Arc 10018MM (AWS E10018-D2) ........................................... 15
4.6.10 Atom Arc 12018 (AWS E12018-M).................................................... 16
4.6.11 Atom Arc "T" (AWS E11018-M) ......................................................... 16
4.6.12 Atom Arc 9018HT (AWS E9018G) .................................................... 17
4.6.13 Atom Arc 4130 (No AWS Classification) ............................................ 17
4.6.14 Atom Arc 4130 LN (No AWS Classification) ...................................... 17
Appendix A Stick Electrode Data Charts - Atom Arc Electrodes .......................... 19
Appendix B Glossary of Terms ............................................................................. 20

COVERED ELECTRODES FOR WELDING
LOW ALLOY STEELS
4.1 LOW ALLOY STEELS Low alloy steels, as discussed in Lesson I, are those steels to that have
small amounts of alloying elements added for specific purposes; i.e., to increase strength, toughness,
corrosion and rust resistance, or to alter the response to heat treatment. Nearly every steel
manufacturer makes a family of low alloy steels that are usually sold under trade names such as
Maynari R, Corten, Man-ten, and many others. Many of the steels are designed to develop their
specific properties such as high strength or toughness in the hot rolled and controlled cooling condition,
rather than by subsequent heat treatment. Other compositions of low alloy steels are designed to
develop specific properties following heat treatments. Examples of these types are U.S. Steel T-1,
Armco Steel SS-100, Great Lakes Steel NA XTRA 100, all of which are quenched and tempered to
reach high strength with good toughness. Covered low alloy welding electrodes are designed, in most
cases, to match the properties of the low alloy steels rather than to match the exact chemical
composition of the steel. Exceptions to this are the chromium molybdenum electrodes that need to
contain about the same amounts of the alloy ingredients as the steel in order to match the properties of
the steel.
4.2 CONSEQUENCE OF HYDROGEN IN LOW ALLOY STEEL One of the reasons that low alloy
steels are becoming more popular is because of the extensive research that was conducted in the
development of electrodes for welding them. Although special precautions and care are required in
welding the low alloy steels, they can now be joined with a high degree of reliability. But that was not
always so. During World War II when there was a dramatic increase in the use of high strength low
alloy steel, there was also a corresponding increase in weld defects. It was quickly realized that
hardenable steels could not be welded in the same manner and with the same electrodes as were then
commonly used for welding the lower strength mild steels. Through extensive research, it was found
that entrapped hydrogen was the culprit in causing weld defects, and the term "hydrogen
embrittlement" became synonymous with red flags warning of impending disaster.
4.2.0.1 When hydrogen bearing compounds such as water, minerals, or chemicals are present in the
electrode coating, as is common with mild steel electrodes, the chemically combined hydrogen is
dissociated into atomic hydrogen by the heat of the welding arc. The molten weld metal has the
capacity to dissolve the atomic hydrogen. However, as soon as the weld metal solidifies, it loses the
ability to hold the hydrogen in solution and the hydrogen is either expelled into the atmosphere or
moves throughout the weld zone. Steel and weld metal are not as solid as they appear to the naked
eye, being filled with tiny submicroscopic pores. The hydrogen atoms are smaller than the crystalline
structure of the steel or the weld metal, and the hydrogen can move about somewhat freely in the steel,
just as air can move through a filter. The hydrogen atoms move out of the weld metal into the heat
affected zone. The heat affected zone (HAZ) is an area of critical importance in welding, especially in
welding high strength steels.
4.2.0.2 The heat affected zone (See Figure 1) is that area of the weld joint that did not become molten
in the welding process, but underwent a microstructure change as a result of the heat induced by the
arc. This zone can become a weak link in the normally very strong joint. First of all, the grain struc-
ture of the HAZ is less refined and therefore, weaker than the surrounding unaffected base metal or
the once molten weld metal. And secondly, if the HAZ is permitted to cool too rapidly in certain steels, a
hard brittle crystalline structure, known as Marsenite, is locked in place. The relatively large pores of
the heat affected zone are a natural collect- ing place for atomic hydrogen. When two hydrogen atoms
meet, they immediately unite to form molecular hydrogen. The resulting molecules are larger than the
crystalline structure of the metal and can no longer move about freely. As more and more hydrogen
atoms come into the pores, form molecules, and are trapped, tremendous pressure can develop. Mild
steel and lower strength steels are sufficiently plastic to move a little with the hydrogen pressure and
not cause the steel to crack. Steels that have high hardness and high strength do not have sufficient
plasticity to move with the pressure, and if enough hydrogen is present, cracking of the steel occurs.
4.2.0.3 This hydrogen caused defect, known as underbead cracking (See Figure 2), begins in the HAZ
making it particularly sinister since the crack is not immediately apparent to the eye. It occurs after the
metal has cooled from about 400°F to room temperature, and it is sometimes referred to as "cold
cracking". The defect may occur immediately after cooling, or it may take hours, days, or even months
before it happens.
4.2.1 Preheat - Steels that are highly hardenable by a rapid cooling in the heat affected zone require
preheat and interpass temperature control. As preheat is applied to the steel, the cooling rate of the
steel from higher temperatures is slowed. Maintaining a constant temperature between each welding
pass also helps to control this cooling. Slower cooling rates prevent the steel from being excessively
hardened and thus, minimizes the chance of underbead cracking. When this technique is combined
with the use of low hydrogen electrodes, a high degree of reliability can be expected from the welds.
4.3 MANUFACTURING LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODES
The discovery of hydrogen related weld defects initiated the development of low hydrogen electrodes.
The functions of the coating with low hydrogen electrodes (i.e., shielding, arc stabilizers, alloy additions,
etc.) are much the same as those listed in Lesson III for Mild Steel Covered Electrodes, but the coating
is formulated with ingredients that lack hydrogen in their chemical composition. This is primarily
accomplished by eliminating organic and chemical compounds high in moisture content. In fact, control
of the moisture levels in the coating is critical in the manufacture and use of low hydrogen electrodes.
4.3.0.1 In addition to eliminating hydrogen in the coating formula, the manufacturing process entails a
high temperature bake cycle. After the coating is extruded onto the core in the same manner as a mild
steel coated electrode, the low hydrogen electrodes are given an initial low temperature bake (300-
400°F), and then rebaked in a separate high temperature oven (800- 900°F) for a specified period of
time. This procedure practically eliminates all moisture, and to guard against the reabsorbing of
moisture that is naturally present in the atmosphere, the electrodes are immediately packaged in
hermetically sealed metal containers following the high temperature bake.
4.3.1 Storage and Reconditioning - All low hydrogen electrodes will absorb some moisture from the
air after the electrode container is opened. Therefore, those electrodes that are not intended for use
within a given period of time must be stored in a vented oven and maintained at a constant
temperature.
4.3.1.1 Various structural and military codes allow only specified times of exposure. These may be
anywhere from 30 minutes to 8 hours depending on the electrode alloy, the relative humidity in the work
area, and the critical nature of the application. If the low hydrogen electrodes are exposed to the
atmosphere beyond these time limits, they must be scrapped or reconditioned by rebaking in a vented
oven for a specified time at a specific temperature.
4.3.1.2 The recommended storage and rebake temperatures for Atom Arc low hydrogen electrodes are
follows:
STORAGE RECONDITIONED
225-300°F 1 hr. @700°F
4.3.2 Moisture Resistant Coating - Moisture absorption is of special concern to end- users such as
shipbuilders and oil rig fabricators who are situated in areas of the world that have a high level of
relative humidity. As the temperature and relative humidity increase, the chance of absorbing moisture
in the low hydrogen coating is greatly increased. To combat this possibility, major electrode
manufacturers have in recent years developed low hydrogen electrodes with moisture resistant
coatings. These coatings low the rate of moisture absorption in electrodes that have been exposed to
the air for extended periods, thus adding an extra degree of reliability to low hydrogen electrodes.
4.3.2.1 The following graphs (figure 3) give an idea of the effectiveness of a moisture resistant coating.
The tests were conducted on Atom Arc 7018 electrodes. The method of moisture testing chosen by
ESAB is that described in Section 25 of the AWS A5.5-96 Specification. This method was chosen
because it satisfies the AWS specifications and is sensitive only to water, making it one of the most
accurate and reliable methods of moisture determination currently in use.
4.3.2.2 The AWS structural code and military specifications allow a maximum of 0.40% and 0.20%
moisture content, respectively, for E70XX low hydrogen electrodes. As shown on the preceding
graphs, the Atom Arc 7018 electrode satisfied this low moisture requirement for exposure times beyond
those normally allowed in field use.
4.4 AWS SPECIFICATION FOR LOW ALLOY
ELECTRODES A5.5-96
With very few exceptions, low alloy electrodes are made by adding the appropriate alloying elements to
the electrode coating rather than having a core wire that matches the low alloy steel. Low alloy covered
electrodes are classified according to the American Welding Society filler metal specification A5.5-96.
This specification contains the mechanical property requirements and stress relieved condition, the
chemical requirements, and the weld metal soundness requirements. Electrodes are classified under
this specification according to the mechanical properties and chemical composition of the weld metal,
the type of covering, and the welding position of the electrode. The classification of the electrode is
designated by the manufacturer according to the results of his own tests. The manufacturer, thereby,
guarantees his electrode to meet the requirements of the AWS specification.
4.4.0.1 The letter-number designations for low alloy electrode classifications mean much the same as
with mild steel electrodes, except that the major alloy composition is indicated by a letter-number suffix.
For example, E7018-A1 indicates an electrode (letter E); with a minimum of 70,000 psi tensile
strength (70); is weldable in all positions (1); is iron powder low hydrogen (8); and contains nominally
1/2% molybdenum (A1). The full list of nominal alloy compositions for this specification is contained in
Table 1.
4.4.1 Effect of Alloying Elements
4.4.1.1 Molybdenum - When mild steel weld metal is stress relieved, the yield point is lowered 3,000
psi or more and the tensile strength is also lowered 3,000 psi or more. When 1/2% of molybdenum is
added to the weld, both the yield point and the tensile strength remain constant from the as-welded to
the stress relieved condition. The presence of molybdenum also increases the tensile strength of the
weld metal.
4.4.1.2 Chromium - When chromium is added to the weld metal, the corrosion and high temperature
scaling resistance are increased. The combination of chromium and molybdenum allows the weld
metal to retain high strength levels at medium high temperatures.
4.4.1.3 Nickel - Mild steel weld metal usually becomes brittle at temperatures below -20°F. The
addition of 1-3% nickel to the weld metal enables the weld metal to remain tough at considerably lower
temperatures. The presence of the nickel also makes the weld metal more resistant to cracking at
room temperature.
4.4.1.4 Manganese - The presence of 1-1/2% to 2% manganese in weld metal increases the tensile
strength and when 1/3% molybdenum is added in combination, the high strength weld metal is crack
resistant.
4.4.1.5 It should be noted that the A5.5-96 specification covers not only the low alloy low hydrogen
electrodes, but also low alloy versions of the cellulosic, titania, and iron oxide type electrodes. A full list
of all the electrodes covered by this specification is presented in Table 2.
4.4.2 Mechanical Properties (AWS A5.5-96) - Since many low alloy steels require some post-weld
heat treatment to relieve the internal stresses generated from the welding process, physical testing on
the weld metal of most low alloy electrodes is required to be performed after the specimen has been
stress-relieved. Only the E8016-C3, E8018-C3, E9018-M, E11018-M, and E12018-M types are
permitted to be tested in the as-welded condition for classification purposes.
4.4.3 Impact Properties - Since many low alloy steels are developed for low temperatures service,
impact properties of the weld metal designed to join these steels are very important. Except for those
types already mentioned, all impact testing is performed on specimens after they have been stress-
relieved. Table 3 lists the minimum charpy v-notch impacts required in the A5.5 specification.
4.5 SELECTING THE PROPER LOW ALLOY ELECTRODE
As stated earlier, low alloy electrodes are often selected to match the properties of the steel to be
welded rather than matching the exact chemical composition of the steel. These properties (i.e.,
strength, toughness, creep, and corrosion resistance) reflect the type of service for which the steel is
intended. The letter-number suffix of the electrode classification gives an indication of that service.
Whenever possible, the electrode should be selected on the basis of the appropriate strength levels
and the intended service of the weldment.
4.5.1 Service Conditions - The large family of "proprietary" steels that are sold in the as rolled,
controlled, cooled condition have a 50,000 psi minimum yield point and 70,000 psi minimum tensile
strength. Electrodes that deposit low hydrogen weld metal of those strength levels are used to weld
them.
4.5.1.1 Some of the low alloy high strength steels are intended for use at subzeros temperatures.
Nickel bearing low hydrogen electrodes (C1, C2, C3 types) are available for such low temperature
applications.
4.5.1.2 Chromium molybdenum low alloy steels are used for moderately high temperature service.
Piping, tubing, boilers, etc., that are used extensively in power generating plants, are fabricated from
these steels. Chrome-moly low hydrogen electrodes (B1, B2, B3, etc.) are produced to weld these
steels.
4.5.1.3 Many bridges and outdoor structures are constructed from "weathering" grade steels. These
are low alloy steels that, on exposure to the atmosphere, develop a thin, tightly adhering layer of rust
that prevents further rusting and eliminates the need for painting. Low alloy electrodes with additions of
chromium and copper are available for welding these steels.
4.5.1.4 Quenched and tempered low alloy steels usually develop high strength with good toughness.
These types are used where substantial savings in the weight of the structure is important. Quite often,
but not exclusively, these steels are used by the military. One of the more exotic applications for
quenched and tempered low alloy steels is in the fabrication of the pressure hulls for nuclear
submarines. The "M" series of high tensile low hydrogen electrodes is intended to weld these steels.
4.5.1.5 High tensile line pipe for the transmission of oil and gas is being used with greater frequency
today. Low alloy cellulosic electrodes of the 7010 and 8010 variety are used for field welding.
4.5.2 Joint Design - In fillet welding of high strength quenched and tempered steels, toe cracking
alongside the welds (see Figure 4) is frequently a problem. The toe cracking is caused by the high
strength weld metal having a higher yield point and tensile strength than the steel.
4.5.2.1 When the weld area shrinks on cooling from the welding temperature, something must give, and
because the yield and strength levels of the steel are lower than those of the weld metal, cracking
occurs in the heat affected zone of the steel. The solution to this problem is to use a lower strength
weld metal and increase the fillet size to meet the weld joint strength requirements.
With a somewhat lower strength weld metal as the filler, the yield point of the weld metal is reached
during the shrinkage on cooling. The weld metal stretches without overloading in the heat affected
zone of the steel and there is no cracking.
4.5.3 Equipment - The electrode selected will operate only on the appropriate power source. Table 4
lists the type of current for which each class of electrode is designed.
TABLE 4. Current Requirements for AWS Electrode Classes
Electrode Class Current

EXX10-X* DCRP
EXX11-X AC or DCEP
EXX13-X AC or DC either polarity
EXX15-X DCEP
EXX16-X AC or DCEP
EXX18-X AC or DCEP
EXX20-X AC or DCEN (horizontal fillet)
AC or DC either polarity (flat)
EXX27-X AC or DCEN (horizontal fillet)
AC or DC either polarity (flat)
* "X” indicates a variable in the classification.

4.6 ESAB ATOM ARC LOW HYDROGEN IRON POWDER
ELECTRODES - FEATURES AND DATA
4.6.1 Atom Arc 7018 (AWS E7018) - Although this electrodes is really of the mild steel category and
classification, the mechanical properties of the weld metal are sufficient to meet the similar properties of
the 50,000 psi yield and 70,000 psi tensile strength steels. Usually, preheat and interpass temperature
control of those steels is not necessary when welding with Atom Arc 7018, although heavier
thicknesses of steel may require some preheat. Common applications include: welding carbon steels,
high sulfur steels, enameling steels, and some low alloy, high tensile steels.
Typical Mechanical Properties of Weld Metal
As Welded Stress-Relieved
Yield Point, psi 68,500 62,000
Tensile Strength, psi 75,000 72,000
% Elongation (2") 31 32
% Reduction 75.5 77
Charpy V-Notch Impact @72°F. 125 ft.-lbs. 130 ft.-lbs.
@-20°F. 70 ft.-lbs. 75 ft.-lbs.
Typical Chemical Composition of Weld Metal
C Mn Silicon
0.06% 1.10% 0.50%
4.6.2 Atom Arc 7018 Mo (AWS E7018-A1) - This electrode, which deposits 1/2% molybdenum weld
metal, is useful in welding power piping and pressure vessels of molybdenum bearing steels designed
for use at elevated temperatures. Typical applications include: welding of low carbon and carbon-moly
tubes and piping, forged alloy steel pipe flanges, fittings and valves for high temperature service,
carbon-moly steel boiler and superheater tubes, manganese-moly and manganese-moly-nickel
pressure vessel plates, high strength structural steel and steel castings for highway service.
APPENDIX B LESSON IV - GLOSSARY OF TERMS Quench - The rapid cooling of steel from a
temperature above the transformation temperature. This results in hardening of the steel.
Temper - Reheating of steel to a temperature below the transformation temperature following the
quenching of steel. This usually lowers the hardness and strength and increases the toughness of the
steel.
Stress Relieved - The reheating of a weldment to a temperature below the transformation temperature
and holding it for a specified period of time. A frequently used temperature and time is 1150°F. for 1 hr.
per inch of thickness. This reheating removes most of the residual stresses put in the weldment by the
heating and cooling during welding.
Transformation Temperature - The temperature at which the crystal structure of the steel changes,
usually about 1600°F.
Heat Affected Zone - The area of the base metal that did not become molten in the welding process,
but did undergo a microstructure change as a result of the heat induced into that area. If the HAZ in
hardenable steels is cooled rapidly, the area becomes excessively brittle.
Underbead Cracking - A weld defect that starts in the heat affected zone and is caused by excessive
molecular hydrogen trapped in that region. It is sometimes referred to as cold cracking, since it occurs
after the weld metal has cooled.
Low Hydrogen Electrodes - Stick electrodes that have coating ingredients that are very low in
hydrogen content. The low hydrogen level is achieved primarily by keeping the moisture content of the
coating to a bare minimum.
Weathering Steel - Low alloy steel that is specially formulated to form a thin tightly adhering layer of
rust. This initial layer prevents further rusting and thus, the need to paint the steel is eliminated. The
main alloys in this steel are copper and chromium.
Toe Cracking - A weld defect that occurs at the toe of the weld metal. The cracking occurs when the
weld metal does not stretch with the base metal because the yield and tensile strength of the weld
metal is greater than the steel.
LESSON V
WELDING FILLER METALS
FOR STAINLESS STEELS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON V
WELDING FILLER METALS
FOR STAINLESS STEELS
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO STAINLESS STEEL ...................................... 1
5.2 DIFFERENCES IN STAINLESS AND CARBON STEELS .............. 3
5.3 STAINLESS STEEL TYPES ............................................................ 5
5.4 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ................................................ 6
5.4.1 Carbide Precipitation ........................................................................ 6
5.4.2 Ferrite in Austenitic Stainless Steels .................................................. 7
5.5 CALCULATION OF FERRITE CONTENT IN STAINLESS STEEL . 8
5.6 SPECIAL FERRITE REQUIREMENT IN STAINLESS STEEL
ELECTRODES 10
5.7 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS ............................................. 10
5.8 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS ..................................................... 11
5.9 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS ...................................................... 12
5.10 ELECTRODE SELECTION ............................................................. 12
5.11 WELDING DISSIMILAR STEELS .................................................... 13
5.12 STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES AND FILLER METALS ......... 16
5.12.1 Covered Stainless Electrodes............................................................ 16
5.12.2 Arcaloy Lime Coated Electrodes ....................................................... 17
5.12.3 Arcaloy AC-DC Titania Coated Electrodes ........................................ 17
5.12.4 Arcaloy Plus Electrodes ..................................................................... 17
5.13 ARCALOY COVERED ELECTRODE PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS........ 18
5.13.1 Arcaloy 308L and 308L Plus .............................................................. 18
5.13.3 Arcaloy 309 Cb.................................................................................. 18
5.13.4 Arcaloy 309MoL ................................................................................ 19
5.13.5 Arcaloy 310 ....................................................................................... 19
5.13.6 Arcaloy 310 Cb.................................................................................. 19
5.13.7 Arcaloy 310Mo .................................................................................. 19
5.13.8 Arcaloy 312 ....................................................................................... 19
5.13.10 Arcaloy 316LF5 ................................................................................. 20
5.13.12 Arcaloy 318 ....................................................................................... 20
5.13.13 Arcaloy 320 and 320LR ..................................................................... 20
5.13.14 Arcaloy 347 and 347 Plus .................................................................. 21
5.13.15 Arcaloy 410 ....................................................................................... 21
5.14 ARCALOY BARE STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES ................. 21
5.15 APPLICATIONS AND COMPOSITIONS OF ARCALOY BARE STAINLESS

ELECTRODES ................................................ 22
5.15.1 Arcaloy ER308L ................................................................................ 22
5.15.2 Arcaloy ER308LSi ............................................................................. 22
5.15.3 Arcaloy ER309L ................................................................................ 22
5.15.4 Arcaloy ER310 .................................................................................. 22
5.15.5 Arcaloy ER312 .................................................................................. 23
5.15.6 Arcaloy ER316L ................................................................................ 23
5.15.7 Arcaloy ER316LSi ............................................................................. 23
5.15.8 Arcaloy ER347 .................................................................................. 23
5.16 CORE-BRIGHT STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED
ELECTRODES ................................................................................. 23
5.17 CORE-BRIGHT STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODE APPLICATIONS
AND PROPERTIES ....................... 24
5.17.1 Core-Bright 307................................................................................. 24
5.17.2 Core-Bright 308 Mo ........................................................................... 24
5.17.3 Core-Bright 308LTo ........................................................................... 24
5.17.4 Core-Bright 309L ............................................................................... 25
5.17.5 Core-Bright 316L ............................................................................... 25
5.17.6 Core-Bright 347................................................................................. 25
5.18 FERRITE CONTENT OF CORE-BRIGHT WELD METALS ............ 25
5.19 SHIELD-BRIGHT & SHIELD-BRIGHT X-TRA STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED
ELECTRODES ...................... 26
ELECTRODE APPLICATIONS & PROPERTIES ... 26
5.20.1 Shield-Bright 308L ............................................................................. 26
5.20.2 Shield-Bright 309L ............................................................................. 27
5.20.3 Shield-Bright 309LMo ........................................................................ 27
5.20.4 Shield-Bright 316L ............................................................................. 27
5.20.5 Shield-Bright 317L ............................................................................. 28
5.20.6 Shield-Bright 347............................................................................... 28
5.21 ARCALOY NICKEL ALLOY COVERED WELDING ELECTRODES - FEATURES AND
DATA .................................................................... 29
5.21.1 Arcaloy 9N10 Nickel-Copper ............................................................. 29
5.21.2 Arcaloy 8N12 Nickel-Chromium-Iron .................................................. 29
5.21.3 Arcaloy Ni-9 ....................................................................................... 30
5.21.4 Arcaloy Ni-12 ..................................................................................... 31
5.22 ELECTRODES FOR WELDING CAST IRON .................................. 32
5.22.1 Nickel-Arc 55 ..................................................................................... 32
5.22.2 Nickel-Arc 550................................................................................... 33
5.22.3 Nickel-Arc 99 ..................................................................................... 33
5.22.4 Nicore 55 .......................................................................................... 33
5.22.5 Cupro Nickel Electrodes .................................................................... 34
Appendix A - GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................................. 35

WELDING FILLER METALS FOR STAINLESS STEELS
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO STAINLESS STEEL Stainless steel, introduced commercially during the early
1930's, presented industry with a new "wonder metal" with its shiny surface and ability to resist rust and
corrosion. This new steel alloy also presented welding problems that had not been previously
encountered. It took many years of research and experimentation to develop successful welding filler
metals and welding procedures for this "rustless iron" as it was then called.
5.1.0.1 Most of us think of stainless as an attractive metal used for trim on our stoves and automobiles,
or as bright, easy-to-clean cooking utensils and cutlery. Besides being used for its corrosion resisting
properties, however, stainless steel is used for low temperature applications and for applications where
its resistance to scaling at high temperatures is important.
5.1.0.2 Stainless steel is basically an alloy of iron and chromium. As the amount of chromium added to
a steel alloy is increased, the corrosion resistance increases until the amount of chromium reaches
11% to 12%, at which point it is considered a stainless steel. The graph in Figure 1 shows how the
amount of chromium affects the rate of corrosion in a semi-rural, outdoor air environment. Corrosion
rate will vary with the corrosive media to which the stainless steel is exposed and with the type of
stainless employed.
5.1.0.3 The mechanism by which chromium imparts corrosion resistance to steel has been well
established. Essentially, the chromium combines with oxygen of the atmosphere to form a stable non-
metallic oxide film on the surface of the steel. This film protects the steel by acting as a protective
coating. As the chromium content of the steel increases, the tenacity, impermeability and strength of
this film increases, imparting greater and greater corrosion resistance. This film is too thin to be seen.
What we do see is the shiny, unoxidized steel just below this film.
5.1.0.4 In Lesson I we learned that the application of heat to metals can change the microstructure
and thereby, the properties of that metal. The fabricator of ordinary carbon steel understands that
successful welds depend upon how that material behaves under the heat of the arc. With that
information as a guide, welds can be produced that satisfy the mechanical requirements of the welded
joint. With stainless steel, however, other aspects such as preservation of corrosion resistance and
heat resistance must also be considered.
5.1.0.5 Stainless steel may be welded by most of the common arc welding processes. Shielded metal-
arc welding with coated electrodes is still probably the most widely used process. Other commonly
used processes are flux cored arc welding, gas metal-arc welding, gas tungsten-arc welding and
submerged arc welding as discussed in Lesson II.
5.1.0.6 The cost of stainless steel is approximately six times that of mild steel. For this reason, it is
important that the proper electrodes or filler metals are selected and the proper welding procedures are
followed to minimize rework or scrap losses due to faulty welds. An understanding of the peculiarities
of the four types of stainless steel, and how they compare to mild or carbon steels, will help to avoid
costly mistakes.
5.1.0.7 There are four primary grades of stainless steel: austenitic, martensitic, ferritic, and duplex. The
names are metallurgical terms derived from the crystal structure of the steel at room temperature and
will be covered in more detail later in this lesson. Figure 2 shows the basic differences and the
composition of the four types.
5.1.0.8 That group of stainless steels that contain both chromium and nickel (austenitic grade) is more
readily and satisfactorily welded than those that contain less than 5% nickel (martensitic and ferritic
grades). Weld joints produced in austenitic stainless steels are strong, ductile and tough in their as-
welded condition. They do not normally require preheat or post weld heat treatment. On the other
hand, the martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are characterized by hardness or brittleness after
welding, and preheat and post-heating is necessary to improve their properties.
5.1.0.9 Austenitic stainless is commonly referred to as the "chrome-nickel" type and the martensitic and
ferritic steels are commonly called the "straight chrome" types.
5.2 DIFFERENCES IN STAINLESS AND CARBON STEELS
The behavior of stainless steel in the heat of the arc differs from that of mild steel. Figure 3 shows that
the rate of expansion of the chromium-nickel types is about 50% greater than that of carbon steel. This
means that distortion from warping must be compensated for to a greater extent.
CARBON
STEEL
CHROMIUM
- NICKEL
TYPES
STRAIGHT
CHROMIUM
TYPES
.020 .040 .060 .080 .100 .120

INCHES EXPANSION PER FOOT
1000°F TEMPERATURE RISE
RATE OF EXPANSION
FIGURE 3
5.2.0.1 When welding an austenitic stainless steel to a carbon steel, the different rates of expansion
can cause cracking due to internal stresses unless the proper electrode and welding procedure is used.
The expansion of the straight chromium types is about the same as or slightly less than that of carbon
steels.
5.2.0.2 The melting temperature of all stainless steels are lower than that of carbon steel as shown in
Figure 5, and both chrome-nickel and straight chrome types are much more fluid in the melted state.
Therefore, less heat (welding current) is required to weld stainless steels compared to carbon steels.
CARBON
STEEL
CHROMIUM
- NICKEL
TYPES
STRAIGHT
CHROMIUM
TYPES
2000 2250 2500 2750 3000
5.2.0.3 The electrical resistance of both the chrome-nickel and the straight chrome types is
considerably higher than that of the plain carbon steels as shown in Figure 5. This higher resistance
creates more resistance heating in the stainless steel electrode and in the base plate. Lower welding
current or amperage is required to avoid overheating the electrode. The electrical resistance of the
chrome-nickel alloys is about six times that of carbon steel and may be substantially higher if the
stainless is cold-worked. The straight chrome types have electrical resistances varying from three to
six times that of carbon steel.
CARBON
STEEL
CHROMIUM
- NICKEL
TYPES
STRAIGHT
CHROMIUM
TYPES
MICROHMS/SQ 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
CM/CM AT 20°C.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
FIGURE 5
5.2.0.4 The chrome-nickel stainless alloys conduct heat only 40% to 50% as fast as carbon steel and in
the straight chrome types, heat conductivity is 50% to 65% that of carbon steel as shown in Figure 6.
This means that the heat remains in the vicinity of the arc for a longer period of time instead of being
dispersed throughout the weldment rapidly, as it does when welding materials of high thermal
conductivity. This is another reason that lower amperages are required to weld these steels.
CARBON
STEEL
CHROMIUM
- NICKEL
TYPES
STRAIGHT
CHROMIUM
TYPES
AT 20° - 100° C .020 .040 .060 .080 .100 .120
CAL/SEC/SQ CM
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
FIGURE 6
5.3 STAINLESS STEEL TYPES
As already mentioned, there are three principal categories of stainless steels: austenitic, martensitic,
and ferritic. The names are derived from the crystalline structure of the steel normally found at room
temperature. When low carbon steel is heated above 1550°F, the atoms of the steel are rearranged
from the structure called ferrite at room temperatures to the crystal structure called austenite. On
cooling, the low carbon steel atoms return to their original structure — ferrite. The high temperature
structure, austenite, is non-magnetic, plastic and has lower strength and greater ductility than the room
temperature form of ferrite.
5.3.0.1 When more than 17% chromium and 7% nickel are added to the steel, the high temperature
crystalline structure of the steel — austenite, is stabilized so that it persists at all temperatures from the
very lowest to almost melting. This alloy combination is the basis for the austenitic category of
stainless steels. Many alloy additions are made to that base as modifications for different service
requirements.
5.3.0.2 When certain alloy steels are cooled rapidly from above the transformation temperature, a very
hard brittle phase occurs. This phase is called martensite. Steels that contain 5- 15% chromium have
this special characteristic. Unless special care is used in welding such steels, they become crack
sensitive. These are the martensitic stainless steel alloys.
5.3.0.3 When more than 16% chromium is added to the steel, the room temperature crystalline
structure, ferrite, is stabilized and the steel remains in the ferritic condition at all temperatures. Hence
the name, ferritic stainless steel is applied to this alloy base.
5.4 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
Austenitic Stainless Steels are designated by a series of 300 numbers according to the American Iron &
Steel Institute (AISI). Nominal compositions of some of the more important types are shown in Figure
7. About 80% of the stainless steel welded is of the austenitic type.
AISI No. Chromium % Nickel % Molybdenum % Columbium %
301 17 7
302 18 9
304 19 10
309 23 13
310 25 20
316 17 12 2.5
317 19 13 3.5
347 18 11 1
MOST COMMON TYPES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

FIGURE 7
5.4.1 Carbide Precipitation - Many of the austenitic stainless steels are subject to the phenomenon of
carbide precipitation. At elevated temperatures in the range of 800-1600°F, the carbon content in
excess of 0.02% migrates to the grain boundaries of the austenitic structure where it reacts with
chromium to form chromium carbide. If the chromium is tied up with the carbon, it is not available for
corrosion resistance. Thus, when the steel with carbide precipitation is exposed to a corrosive
environment, intergranular corrosion results, allowing the grain boundaries to be eaten away. Figure 8
shows how intergranular corrosion may take place in a tank holding a corrosive liquid. Notice that the
corrosion takes place only in the heat affected zone on the inside where the corrosive media is located,
and there is no evidence of failure on the outside.
5.4.1.1 Carbide precipitation has no other effect on the steel, however, other than loss of corrosion
resistance in the heat affected zone. During welding, the heat-affected zones along the sides of the
weld in austenitic stainless steel are exposed to the temperatures that cause carbide precipitation.
5.4.1.2 If the weldment is to be used in corrosive service, the carbide precipitation and resultant
intergranular corrosion must be eliminated. Three dependable methods of controlling this problem are
defined below: a. Carbide precipitation is a function of the carbon content. Keeping the carbon
content as low as possible in the steel (0.04% maximum) and welding it with low carbon electrodes is
one solution. b. If the carbon of the steel and weld metal are tied up by an element that has a stronger
affinity for carbon than does chromium, carbide precipitation cannot occur. Columbium and titanium
are alloys that have a stronger affinity for carbon. Steels with columbium or titanium, and covered
electrodes with columbium present, are made for this purpose. c. Another method, although not as
practical, is to heat the finished weldment to at least 1850°F allowing all of the precipitated carbides to
go back into solution. The weldment is then rapidly cooled and quenched so that it passes through the
critical temperature (1200°F) very quickly, allowing little or no carbides to reform. However, stainless
steel weldments heated to such high temperatures would be subject to warping, sagging and other loss
of dimension as well as being covered with heavy scale.
5.4.2 Ferrite in Austenitic Stainless Steel - Stainless weld metal that is fully austenitic is non-
magnetic and has a relatively large grain structure. This results in the weld being crack- sensitive. By
controlling the balance of the alloying elements in the electrode, small amounts of another phase,
ferrite, can be introduced in the weld metal. The ferrite phase causes the austenitic grains to be much
finer and the weld becomes more crack-resistant.
5.4.2.1 Certain alloying elements used in stainless steels and weld metals behave as austenite
stabilizers and others as ferrite stabilizers. Among the austenite stabilizers are nickel, carbon,
manganese and nitrogen. The ferrite stabilizers are chromium, silicon, molybdenum and columbium. It
is the balance between the two types of alloying elements that controls the quantity of ferrite in the weld
metal.
5.4.2.2 The amount of ferrite in austenitic stainless steel weld metal may be measured by magnetic
devices because the ferrite is magnetic. A small amount of ferrite in austenitic stainless weld metal is
good, because it prevents weld cracking. If the weldment is to be in very low temperature service,
however, large amounts of ferrite should be avoided because ferrite is not tough at low temperatures.
Also, if the weldment is to be used in high temperature (higher than 1000°F) service, the ferrite should
be maintained at low levels because the ferrite becomes brittle at those temperatures.
5.5 CALCULATION OF FERRITE CONTENT IN STAINLESS STEEL
Several simple, yet accurate, methods have been developed for determining the balance between the
austenite and ferrite forming elements in iron. When the chemical composition of the weld metal is
known, the Schaeffler or WRC-1992 diagrams can be used. See Figures 9 and 10.
5.5.0.1 The purpose of these diagrams is to calculate the nickel and chromium equivalent of the weld
metal in question and plot the point on the appropriate diagram. The nickel equivalent is the sum of the
nickel content and all other austenite formers, multiplied by coefficients representing their austenite
forming effect as compared to that of nickel. The chromium equivalent is calculated in the same
manner. In both diagrams, the nickel equivalent is the vertical axis, and the chromium equivalent is the
horizontal axis. The WRC-1992 diagram has an advantage since it also takes the nitrogen content into
consideration. Nitrogen is a powerful austenite forming element. If the nitrogen content is not known,
we assume 0.06% for GTAW and SMAW electrodes and, 0.08% for GMAW and FCAW filler metals.
5.5.0.2 When chemical composition is not available, two common instruments can also be used to
determine ferrite content. Since ferrite at room temperature is magnetic and austenite is not, a
relationship between magnetic response and ferrite content can be established. The more magnetic
response to the instrument, the more ferrite present in the metal. The two commercially available
instruments that use this principal to measure ferrite content are the Magne gage and the Severn gage.
The Magne gage is a laboratory instrument, while the Severn gage is a pocket-size instrument
designed for on-site readings.
5.5.0.3 In the past, ferrite was expressed as a volume percent of the metal. However, because of non-
standard calibration, conflicting and inaccurate results often occurred. To eliminate this problem, the
ferrite volume percent was changed to a standardized expression known as the ferrite number (FN) and
has been adopted by the Welding Research Council (WRC), the American Welding Society (AWS), and
other agencies. Ferrite numbers (FN) are the same as the volume percent numbers in the range of 0-
7%. At higher contents, FN values become increasingly higher than the previous percent ferrite values.
The DeLong diagram shows this comparison.
5.6 SPECIAL FERRITE REQUIREMENT IN STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODE
In order to meet the AWS classification of a stainless steel electrode, a specific chemical range must be
followed by the electrode manufacturers. Since ferrite content is mainly controlled by chemical
composition, the ferrite content will also fall into certain ranges depending on the particular electrode in
question. However, some users of stainless steel require the ferrite content be above or below the
normal ranges as found in typical chemical analyses. An example of this is the SMAW 316 electrode.
Normally, a 316 stick electrode has a FN in the 0- 2 range, but a specially formulated 316 stick
electrode could have a minimum of 5 FN, if needed. Since these electrodes require special chemical
formulations, they must be ordered on a special request basis from most manufacturers.
5.7 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL
Martensitic stainless steels fall into the 400 number series according to the American Iron and Steel
Institute. They are magnetic and contain from 11.5% to 18% chromium. As previously noted, they get
the name martensite because of the crystalline structure of the steel at room temperature. With a lower
alloy content than the austenitic steels, they are lower in cost than the austenitic types. They have
adequate corrosion resistance in many environments because they form the characteristic chromium
oxide surface film. They also have a high hardenability characteristic.
5.7.0.1 Other chromium bearing heat resistant steels that have only 4% to 10% chromium (not a true
stainless steel by the 11.5% minimum chrome requirement) have similar hardenability characteristics.
These steels are designated by the 500 series numbers according to the American Iron and Steel
Institute and from a welding standpoint, may be considered in the same grouping as the martensitic
stainless steels. Nominal compositions of these types are shown in Figure 11.
5.7.0.2 These steels are frequently in a hardened state meaning they have low ductility. If heat is
applied suddenly, as in arc welding, to a localized area and it then is allowed to cool suddenly, cracking
may occur. The heated area contracts on cooling and the lack of ductility in the parent metal prevents it
from following along. This type of cracking can be prevented by preheating the steel, since preheating
lowers the thermal difference between the weld area and the base metal.
AISI No. Carbon %* Chromium %* Molybdenum %*

403 0.15 11.5 – 13
410 0.15 11.5 – 13.5
501 0.10 min 4–6 0.40 – 0.65
502 0.10 4–6 0.40 – 0.65
*
Maximum unless otherwise noted.
NOMINAL COMPOSITION-MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS AND CHROMIUM HEAT

RESISTANT STEELS
FIGURE 11
This allows the weld area to cool more slowly and as a result, the steel in the heat affected zone will not
be hardened as severely.
5.7.0.3 The preheating temperature used is in the range of 350°F to 500°F and should be maintained
during the entire welding operation. Upon completion of welding, the weldment should be cooled
slowly, preferably furnace cooled, allowing gradual temperature change.
5.7.0.4 The mechanical properties of martensitic stainless steels are affected by welding since they
harden intensely, even on relatively slow cooling from high temperatures. The weld deposit and the
steel that surrounds the weld deposit is hard and brittle. Heat treatment of the weldment is necessary
to improve these physical properties.
5.7.0.5 If preheating or post weld heat treatment is not practical, it may be necessary to use a higher
alloy austenitic stainless steel electrode (such as 309) that deposits tough, ductile weld metal without
cracking. This solution would depend on the required properties of the weldment and is not
recommended in all cases. Martensitic stainless steels make up about 15% of the stainless steels that
are welded.
5.8 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS Ferritic stainless steels are straight chrome alloys in the AISI 400
series. They are magnetic and have varying ranges of chromium content as shown in Figure 12.
5.8.0.1 All ferritic stainless steels have the room temperature crystal structure of ferrite stabilized to all
temperatures. The higher chromium content provides good resistance to high temperature scaling. For
this reason, the ferritic stainless steels are used to make heat treating containers, jigs, and fixtures.
5.8.0.2 Welding the ferritic high chromium stainless steels, however, is difficult. The steels have rapid
rates of grain growth at temperatures over 1700°F. The large grains absorb the smaller grains and
grow larger. The resultant coarse grain structures are very crack sensitive. Grain growth is a time and
temperature function. To keep the time of high welding temperature as short as possible, these steels
should be mildly preheated to about 300°F, welded with small diameter electrodes and with the lowest
possible welding current, thereby limiting the heat input. About 5% of the stainless steels welded are of
the ferritic category.
AISI No. Carbon %* Chromium %* Molybdenum %*

405 0.08 11.5 – 14.5 Aluminum 0.10 - 0.30
430 0.12 16 – 18
446 0.20 23 – 27 Nitrogen 0.25
*
Maximum unless otherwise noted.
5.9 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS Duplex means "two". Duplex stainless steels consist of the two
"building stones" (microstructure phases) ferrite and austenite and are often termed ferritic-austenitic
stainless steels. Typically, duplex stainless steels have a microstructure consisting of approximately
50% ferrite and 50% austenite.
5.9.0.1 In simple terms, the ferrite could be said to give high strength and some resistance to stress
corrosion cracking, the austenite provides good toughness, and the two phases in combination give the
duplex steels their attractive corrosion resistance.
5.9.0.2 The most important alloying elements of duplex stainless steels are Cr, Ni, Mo and N. These
elements largely govern the properties of the steels. Some grades also contain additions of copper
(Cu) or tungsten (W).
5.9.0.3 A wide range of different versions of duplex stainless steel is currently available on the
market. At present, the 22% chromium (Cr), 5% nickel (Ni), 3% molybdenum (Mo), 0.15% nitrogen (N)
grade (commonly called 2205) is the most common type of duplex stainless steel and is used in a
wide range of applications. Higher alloyed duplex steels, the so- called super duplex stainless
steels, have also been introduced into the market. The 25% chromium (Cr), 7% nickel (Ni), 4%
molybdenum (Mo), 0.25% nitrogen (N) grade (commonly called 2507) is one example of a modern high
alloy super duplex stainless steel. These steels are designed for use in demanding applications where
even greater corrosion resistance or higher strength is required.
5.10 ELECTRODE SELECTION
There are a great many AISI grades of stainless steel, and in many cases there is a matching electrode
for the AISI type. For instance, if both members of a weldment are AISI type 316, the electrode to be
used would be 316 also. It is not necessary to have a matching electrode for every type of stainless
steel, however, because some electrodes produce satisfactory welds even though the chemical
analysis of the steel may be slightly different. 5.10.0.1 Type 308 stainless steel electrodes may be used
for welding AISI 201 and 202 that have a lower nickel content and a high manganese content. Type
308 electrodes may also be used to weld types 301, 302, 304, 305 and of course, 308 itself. Even
though their chromium- nickel contents vary slightly, all of these steel types may be considered as one
family of alloys. The chart in Figure 13 shows the proper Arcaloy electrode to be used for the various
types of AISI steels.
5.11 WELDING DISSIMILAR STEELS
Stainless steels are expensive and the higher the alloy content of the steel, the higher the cost. The
most efficient design of a structure calls for the use of the higher alloy steels only where they are
needed. Such a design may call for several different steels to be used. As mentioned above, there is
no problem of electrode selection when welding stainless steels or any steel to a steel of the same
type. Simply match the electrode to the steels. When a change from one type of steel to another
(called a transition weld) is made, care must be given to the selection of the electrode used.
5.11.0.1 There are two general conditions and rules for electrode selection to weld dissimilar steels.
a. When the steels are similar metallurgically but dissimilar chemically, match the electrode to the lower
chemical composition or less expensive steel. For example, type 310 steel (25% chromium, 20%
nickel) is sometimes welded to type 304 steel (19% chromium, 10% nickel). Both types are austenitic.
Type 304 steel, which is welded with 308 electrodes, is less expensive, so that weld would be made
with type 308 electrodes rather than type 310 electrodes.
b. When the steels to be jointed are different metallurgically and chemically, the electrode is selected to
provide a tough, crack resistant weld between the two steels. For example, 304 stainless steel is
frequently welded to mild structural steel. Corrosion resistance cannot be part of the problem because
mild steel is on one side of the joint with practically no corrosion resistance compared to the stainless
steel. If this weld is made with mild steel electrodes to match the mild steel side of joint, the weld metal
would be enriched by the wash- in of chromium and nickel from the stainless side. This intermediate
chrome-nickel is usually hard and crack sensitive. If the weld is made with type 308 electrodes to
match the stainless steel side of the joint, the chromium and nickel contents of the weldment are diluted
by the mild steel side of the joint to an intermediate level that would again probably be hard and crack
sensitive. When welding mild steel to stainless steel, a proportion of 18% chromium and 8% nickel is
desirable in the weld deposit to produce sound welds, with 17% chromium and 7% nickel being the
minimum allowable amounts.
5.11.0.2 The following examples in Figure 14 show the results of making a transition weld of mild steel
to 304 stainless steel with three different electrodes.
5.11.0.3 Normally the most severe dilution of the weld metal by the base metal is 40%. Thus, the weld
metal in the joint is comprised of 60% from the electrode and 40% from the base metal as shown in
Figure 14. In the case of butt joints between dissimilar steels, half of the dilution comes from each side
of the joint, or 20% from each base metal.
5.11.0.4 Many times, type 310 and 312 electrodes are used erroneously for welding stainless to mild
or low alloy steel. In many cases, not only can more dependable welds be made with 309 electrodes,
but appreciable savings can be achieved because of their lower cost.
5.11.0.5 Another common use of stainless steel filler metals is the overlaying or cladding of less
expensive steels with a layer of stainless. Mild steel tanks designed to hold corrosive liquids may be
lined with stainless steel in this manner. Usually, continuous bare or flux cored electrodes are used
with an automated welding setup. Current and penetration must be controlled closely to limit dilution
with the base metal. Sometimes it is necessary to deposit more than one layer to assure the correct
analysis of the deposit.
5.11.0.6 The welding of stainless clad plate (produced by some steel mills) should also be mentioned.
Thicker sections may be welded with both mild steel and stainless electrodes, and thinner sections may
be welded only with stainless electrodes. Joint preparation, welding procedure and electrode selection
will vary with the thickness and type of clad plate being welded. Welding of clad plate is a specialized
area of dissimilar metal welding and beyond the scope of this course.
5.12 STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES AND FILLER METALS
There are several different forms of stainless steel electrodes: covered, continuous solid bare,
continuous flux cored and cut length bare welding rods.
5.12.1 Covered Stainless Electrodes - Arcaloy covered stainless steel electrodes are classified
according to the American Welding Society Filler Metal Specification A-5.4-92. As defined by that
specification, the electrodes are classified by weld metal composition and type of welding current. For
example, the AWS designation E308-15 means electrode (E), AISI type 308 steel (20% chrome, 10%
nickel) and direct current electrode positive (-15). If the classification reference were E308-16, it would
indicate an electrode (E), AISI type 308 steel (308) and AC-DC electrode positive operation (-16 & -17).
Arcaloy lime coated electrodes have the DC suffix -15, Arcaloy AC-DC electrodes have the suffix -16,
and Arcaloy Plus electrodes use the -17 suffix.
5.12.1.1 Arcaloy high alloy stainless steel covered electrodes are produced by extruding carefully
formulated and mixed coating material on a stainless steel core wire, thus ensuring constant weld metal
properties and composition.
5.12.1.2 Arcaloy stainless steel electrodes have been among the leaders in the stainless electrode
industry for many years. The strict purchase specifications for the core wire and the covering materials,
and the rigid quality control, under which the Arcaloy electrodes are manufactured, have resulted in this
position of leadership.
5.12.2 Arcaloy lime coated electrodes were among the earliest stainless steel electrodes developed
in the United States. Designed for welding with direct current, reverse polarity only, the coating
contains considerable amounts of limestone and fluorspar producing a fast freezing slag that facilitates
welding in the vertical and overhead positions. The weld bead is slightly convex and moderately
rippled. (See Figure 15).
5.12.2.1 Characterized by a strong globular arc, a moderate amount of spatter and slag removal that is
somewhat difficult, the lime type is not the most popular with the welding operators. However, it is the
easiest to use stainless electrode for out-of-position welding. Also, the convex bead can provide the
necessary margin of safety in highly stressed joints in many cases.
5.12.3 Arcaloy AC-DC Titania coated electrodes were the first such electrodes to receive wide
acceptance in this country. Designed to operate on alternating current as well as direct current, the
coating contains dominant amounts of rutile (titania), medium amounts of limestone, and limited
amounts of fluorspar. By far, the AC/DC type is the most popular of the coated stainless electrodes.
Welders like to use it because of the smoother arc action, low amount of fine spatter and easy slag
removal. Also, the bead is relatively flat, finely rippled and has good side-wall fusion (See Figure 15).
Although used in all positions, vertical and overhead welding requires slightly more operator skill than
with the lime types because the slag does not freeze as quickly.
5.12.4 Arcaloy "Plus" electrodes display characteristics not found in the conventional lime and AC-
DC Titania coatings. Designed to operate on DCEP or AC, this coating is specially formulated to
operate on a broad range of current settings, and most significantly, these electrodes perform their best
at high heat inputs where conventional AC-DC electrodes tend to break down.
5.12.4.1 When operating at high currents, Arcaloy Plus electrodes deposit weld metal at exceptional
speeds with a smooth spray transfer. The bead profile is finely rippled, concave, and evenly feathered
(See Figure 15). Spatter is minimal. The molten slag does not edge into the weld puddle, thereby
assuring easy visibility of the arc transfer.
5.12.4.2 Arcaloy Plus electrodes were developed for applications on dairy and food processing
equipment and chemical containers, to name a few, where the weld radius must be smooth and
concave to prevent particle entrapment. When welding in the flat and horizontal fillet positions, the
concave deposit and absence of surface irregularities make it ideal for applications where cosmetic
appearance, speed, and final finishing are factors.
5.12.4.3 The weld metal properties are similar for each of the three coating types: lime, AC- DC and
AC-DC Plus.
5.13 ARCALOY COVERED ELECTRODE PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
5.13.1 Arcaloy 308L (AWS E308/308L-15 & -16), Arcaloy 308L Plus (AWS E308/308L- 17) –
This extra low carbon composition is intended to weld Type 304L steels to prevent carbide
participation. It can also be used to weld Types 321 and 347 steels. Typical chemical composition of
weld metal is:
Carbon 0.03% Chromium 19.1%

Nickel 9.7% Manganese 1.6%
Silicon 0.4% Ferrite No. 8
5.13.2 Arcaloy 309L (AWS E309L-15 & -16), Arcaloy 309L Plus (AWS E309/309L-17) - The low
carbon content of Arcaloy 309 L weld metal makes it useful to weld low carbon overlay on carbon or
low alloy steel to control carbide precipitation in the overlay. The chemical composition of the weld
metal is the same as that of Arcaloy 309 except that the carbon content is 0.04% and the typical ferrite
no. is 8.
5.13.3 Arcaloy 309 Cb (AWS 309Cb-15 & -16) - The addition of columbium to Type 309 weld metal
improves its high temperature performance. It is also useful in welding Types 321 and 347 clad steels.
The weld metal composition is the same as Type 309, except that 0.80% columbium is added and the
ferrite no. is 8.
5.13.4 Arcaloy 309MoL (AWS E309Mo/309MoL-15 & -16) – The addition of 2¼% molybdenum to
Type 309 weld metal makes the electrode useful for welding Type 316 clad steel. The weld metal
composition is the same as Type 309 except for the addition of 2.2% molybdenum and the ferrite no. is
8.
5.13.5 Arcaloy 310 (AWS 310-15 & -16) - The 25% chromium and 20% nickel content of Arcaloy 310
has made it widely used for welding difficult-to-weld steels, especially where preheat cannot be used.
Type 310 steel is used for high temperature applications and Arcaloy 310 electrodes have similar
properties for that service. Typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

5.13.6 Arcaloy 310 Cb (AWS E310Cb-15 & -16) - The addition of columbium to Arcaloy 310 makes
the electrode suitable for welding types 321 and 347 clad steels. The chemical composition of the weld
metal is similar to Arcaloy 310 weld metal except that 0.8% columbium is added. The ferrite number
remains 0.
5.13.7 Arcaloy 310Mo (AWS E310Mo-15 & -16) - The molybdenum addition to type 310 makes
Arcaloy 310Mo suitable for welding type 316 clad steels. It has also been used for welding liners in
pulp digesters in the paper industry. The weld metal composition is the same as Arcaloy 310 except
that 2.5% molybdenum is added. The ferrite number remains 0.
5.13.8 Arcaloy 312 (AWS E312-15 & -16) - The extreme crack resistance of the 29% chromium, 9%
nickel electrode has made it widely used for welding very difficult-to-weld steels, such as spring steel
and abrasion resisting steel. It has the highest tensile strength of all the chromium-nickel stainless
steel weld metals. The very high ferrite content, however, makes it unsuitable for service at high and
low temperatures. Typical weld metal composition is:

5.13.9 Arcaloy 316L (AWS E316L-15 & -16), Arcaloy 316L Plus (AWS E316/316L-17) - The extra
low carbon content allows the weld metal to have minimum carbide precipitation. It is widely used in
the welding of chemical equipment. The weld metal composition is the same as Arcaloy 316 except
that the carbon content is .035%.
5.13.10 Arcaloy 316LF5 (AWS E316/316L-15 & -16) - is similar to Arcaloy 316 L, except that the weld
metal composition is balanced to give a ferrite number of at least 5 to control weld cracking. Typical
weld metal composition is:
Silicon 0.45% Molybdenum 2.25%
Ferrite No. 5 minimum
5.13.11 Arcaloy 317L (AWS E317/317L-15 & -16), Arcaloy 317L Plus (AWS E317/317L-17) - This
weld metal with higher molybdenum content than Arcaloy 316 has greater resistance to pitting
corrosion. The molybdenum content also greatly improves weld metal crack resistance allowing it to be
used to weld hardenable steels. Typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

Ferrite No. 5
5.13.12 Arcaloy 318 (AWS E318-15 & -16) - This electrode might also be called 316Cb because it has
about 0.8% columbium added to the weld metal of type 316 composition. It is used to weld 316L and
318 steels where carbide precipitation and the resultant intergranular corrosion would be a problem.
Typical weld metal composition is:

Columbium 0.8% Ferrite No. 5
5.13.13 Arcaloy 320 (AWS E320-15), Arcaloy 320LR (AWS E320LR-16) - The complex composition
of this electrode is designed especially for welding similar steels — Carpenter Stainless #20 CB-3
(Wrought) and Durimet 20 (Cast). These steels are intended to resist corrosion by sulfuric acid. Typical
chemical composition of the weld metal is:

Columbium 0.5% Copper 3.0%
Ferrite No. 0
5.13.14 Arcaloy 347 (AWS E347-15 & -16), Arcaloy 347 Plus (AWS E347-17) - This columbium
bearing electrode is used to weld types 321 and 347 steels to prevent carbide precipitation and the
resultant intergranular corrosion. Arcaloy 347 electrodes are also used to impact high strength to the
weld metal at elevated temperatures. Typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

Silicon 0.6% Columbium 0.8%
Ferrite No. 6
5.13.15 Arcaloy 410 (AWS E410-16) - This straight chromium electrode deposits a martensitic weld
metal that is used extensively for corrosion and oxidation resistance at temperatures up to 1200°F.
When welding type 410 steel with Arcaloy 410 electrodes, preheat must be used to prevent excess
hardening of the heat affected zone and consequent cracking. Typical chemical composition of the
weld metal is:
Manganese 0.4% Silicon 0.6%
5.14 ARCALOY BARE STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES
Arcaloy bare stainless steel electrodes in continuous spools or coils and in cut lengths are
manufactured under a carefully administered quality control system. Rigid purchase specifications and
receiving instructions, as well as in-process inspection and analyses, insure the final product to be of
the highest possible quality. Modern equipment in a modern plant assures that every form of electrode
has the characteristics needed for each applicable welding process. Temper, cast, helix, and surface
finish are closely controlled. The uniformity of these properties is essential to the maximum efficiency
of the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), and Submerged Arc
Welding (SAW) processes.
5.14.0.1 Arcaloy bare stainless electrodes and welding rods meet the requirements of AWS Filler
Metals Specification A5.9-93. That specification classifies the electrodes on the basis of composition,
such as ERXXX where ER represents electrode or rod, and XXX represents the AISI three-digit number
of the composition, such as 308, 410, or 502. The chemical composition requirements are based on
the electrode rather than the weld metal.
5.14.0.2 Arcaloy bare continuous solid stainless electrodes for gas metal arc or automated gas
tungsten arc welding are smooth drawn to a bright finish. They are chemically cleaned, layer-wound on
plastic spools, sealed in plastic bags, and packed in individual boxes.
5.14.0.3 Arcaloy bare solid stainless steel continuous electrodes for Submerged Arc Welding are
furnished in the fully annealed (soft) condition for smoother, easier feeding. The electrodes are random
wound on fiber rims into coils, packaged in plastic bags, and boxed.
5.14.0.4 Arcaloy bare solid stainless welding rods are furnished in 36" (914 mm) cut lengths for manual
gas tungsten arc and oxyacetylene welding. Cut length rods are available with either flags or ink
printed identification.
5.15 APPLICATIONS AND COMPOSITIONS OF ARCALOY BARE SOLID STAINLESS STEEL

ELECTRODES
5.15.1 Arcaloy ER308L (AWS ER308/308L) - is used for welding types 304L, 308L, 321, and 347
steels. The extra low carbon content prevents carbide precipitation in the weld metal. The chemical
composition of the electrode is the same as that of ER 308, except that the carbon content is 0.02%.
5.15.2 Arcaloy ER308LSi (AWS ER308Si/308LSi) - The higher silicon content increases the wetting
action of the weld metal, resulting in smooth uniform welds of good appearance. The chemical
composition is the same as ER 308 L, except that the silicon content is 0.75%.
5.15.3 Arcaloy ER309L (AWS ER309/309L) - The extra low carbon content provides freedom from
carbide precipitation. The electrode is used for low carbon overlay work. The chemical composition of
the electrode is the same as ER 309, except that the carbon content is 0.03%.
5.15.4 Arcaloy ER310 (AWS ER310) - Used for welding type 310 stainless steel. It is also used for
welding stainless steel to mild steel, for welding 304 clad steels and for stainless steel overlay welding
on carbon steel. Typical chemical composition of the electrode is:
Silicon 0.4%
5.15.5 Arcaloy ER312 (AWS ER312) - is used for welding difficult-to-weld steels and for welding
stainless steel to mild steel. Typical chemical composition of the electrode is:

Silicon 0.4%
5.15.6 Arcaloy ER316L (ER316/316L) - used for welding types 316L and 318 steels to avoid carbide
precipitation. Chemical composition of the electrode is the same as the ER 316, except that the carbon
content is 0.02%.
5.15.7 Arcaloy ER316LSi (AWS ER316Si/316LSi) - The higher silicon content improves the wetting
characteristics of the weld metal producing a smoother, better looking weld. Chemical composition of
the electrode is the same as ER 316 L, except that the silicon content is 0.75%.
5.15.8 Arcaloy ER347 (AWS ER347) - is used to weld types 321 and 347 steel in applications that
require good resistance to corrosion. It is also used to weld type 347 steel for high strength at elevated
temperatures. Typical chemical composition of the electrode is:

Silicon 0.4% Columbium 0.80%
5.16 CORE-BRIGHT STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODES Core-Bright electrodes are

flux cored, self-shielding, continuous electrodes designed to operate without an external shielding gas.
The carefully formulated mixture of alloys and shielding agents in the electrode core produces weld
deposits of excellent appearance, mechanical properties, and radiographic quality. The electrode has
low weld penetration that is ideal for overlay and buildup applications. Self shielding, high deposition
rates, and reduced cleaning time are all built into Core-Bright electrodes, resulting in maximum
economy and optimum efficiency in the welding operation.
5.16.0.1 Core-Bright electrodes meet the requirements of AWS filler metal Specification A5.22-95 for
flux cored corrosion resisting chromium and chromium nickel steel electrodes. The specification
classifies electrodes on the basis of composition, type of electrode, and type of gas shield, if any, such
as EXXXTX-X. The E indicates that it is a current carrying electrode, and the XXX represents the AISI
number of the composition, such as 308L, 3092, or 316L (the L signifying a low carbon type). The "T"
indicates tubular or flux cored construction. The number following this "T" indicates positional
characteristics; "1" equals All Position, "0" equals flat and horizontal only. The last digit indicates the
intended shielding gas. The number "1" equares to carbon dioxide (CO2) as a shielding gas, a number
"3" indicates that no external shielding gas is necessary, a number "4" is 75 - 80% Argon (Ar) and
balance carbon dioxide, and a number "5" indicates 100% Argon.
5.17 CORE-BRIGHT STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODE APPLICATIONS AND
PROPERTIES
5.17.1 Core-Bright 307 (AWS E307To-3) - Designed to weld hardenable steels, such as armor plate.
The weld metal has excellent toughness and crack resistance. Typical chemical composition of the
weld metal is:

(Meets Military Spec MIL-E-13080B)
5.17.2 Core-Bright 308 Mo (AWS E308MoTo-3) - Welds hardenable steels such as armor plate, has
excellent toughness and crack resistance, and has been used to weld type 316 steel where carbide
precipitation is not a problem. Chemical composition of the weld metal is:

(Meets Military Spec MIL-E-13080B)
5.17.3 Core-Bright 308LTo (AWS E308LTo-3) - Welds AISI Steel types 301, 302, 304, 304L, 308,
321, and 347. It is used for welding chemical plant equipment. The typical chemical composition of the
weld metal is:

Silicon 0.75%
5.17.4 Core-Bright 309L (AWS E309LTo-3) - This was designed primarily for depositing stainless
steel overlay on carbon steel. Can also be used for welding dissimilar steels. Typical chemical
composition of the weld metal is:

Silicon 0.6%
5.17.5 Core-Bright 316L (AWS E316LTo-3) - is used to weld steel types 316, 316L and 318. The 2¼
% molybdenum increases the resistance to pitting corrosion from sulfur and chloride acids. Used in the
rayon, dye and paper industries. Typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

5.17.6 Core-Bright 347 (AWS E347LTo-3) - This electrode is used to weld types 347, 304L, and 321
stainless steels where the maximum corrosion resistance is required. It is also used for high
temperature high strength welds. The typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:
5.18 FERRITE CONTENT OF CORE-BRIGHT WELD METALS The ferrite content of Core-Bright

weld metal is variable depending upon the nitrogen content of the weld deposit. Nitrogen is a very
strong austenite former, said to be 30 times as strong as nickel. Only a small increase in nitrogen
causes a considerable decrease in ferrite content. When welding with Core-Bright electrodes, the arc
length may be varied by the arc voltage. A longer arc length, caused by higher arc voltage, allows
more nitrogen from the atmosphere to enter into the weld metal and the ferrite content decreases.
Lower arc voltage produces a shorter arc length, allowing less nitrogen to pass into the weld metal,
resulting in an increase of ferrite.

ELECTRODES
Shield-Bright & Shield-Bright X-tra, like the Core-Bright flux cored stainless wires, are continuous feed
electrodes. Their smooth, spray-like metal transfers make them ideally suited for a variety of welding
positions. The uniquely designed chemical permits the use of either 100% CO2 or Argon-CO2 shielding.
The deposited weld metal and superior mechanical properties make them suitable for replacing manual
covered electrodes. The economics in both deposition efficiency and the low post-weld clean-up times
is excellent.
5.19.0.1 Shield-Bright, all-position, and Shield-Bright X-tra, flat and horizontal electrodes meet the
requirements of AWS Filler Metal Specification A5.22-80 for flux cored corrosion resisting chromium
and chromium nickel steel electrodes. The specific classification for this series of electrodes is EXXXT-
1. The ending digit 1 indicates the preference to CO2 or Argon- CO2 shielding gas.
5.19.0.2 The Shield-Bright and Shield-Bright X-tra electrodes come in a variety of diameters including .
035", .045", and 1/16". They are packaged in an assortment of standard packages, such as 10, 33,
and 50 lb spools and coils.
5.20 SHIELD-BRIGHT & SHIELD-BRIGHT X-TRA STAINLESS STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODE

APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES
5.20.1 Shield-Bright 308L (AWS (E308LT1-1/T1-4) - For welding types 301, 302, 304(L), 308(L)
grades of stainless. May also be used to weld types 321 and 347 if service temperatures do not
exceed 500°F (260°C). Low carbon content minimizes carbide precipitation
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.032 0.034
Manganese 1.20 1.17
Chromium 19.50 19.20
Nickel 9.98 9.85
Ferrite No. 5 5
5.20.2 Shield-Bright 309L (AWS E309LT1-1/T1-4) - Designed for welding type 309 wrought or cast
forms, but used extensively for welding type 304 to mild or carbon steel. Also used for welding 304
clad sheets and for applying stainless steel linings to carbon steel.
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.034 0.034
Manganese 1.32 1.25
Nickel 12.60 12.52
Ferrite No. 15 15
5.20.3 Shield-Bright 309LMo (AWS E309LMoT1-1/T1-4) - Designed for welding type 316 clad steels
on the first pass in cladding steels or for welding dissimilar metals, such as molybdenum-containing
austenitic steels to carbon steels used in paper mills and in power plants.
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.038 0.039
Manganese 1.14 .94
Nickel 12.80 13.26
Molybdenum 2.65 2.58
Ferrite No. 17 17
5.20.4 Shield-Bright 316L (AWS E316LT1-1/T1-4) - For welding type 316 stainless. Contains
molybdenum which increases creep resistance at high temperatures and resists pitting corrosion
induced by sulfuric and sulfurous acids, chlorides, and cellulose solutions. Used widely in the rayon,
dye, and paper-making industries.
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.038 0.032
Manganese 1.32 1.25
Nickel 12.29 12.30
Ferrite No. 6 6
5.20.5 Shield-Bright 317L (AWS E317LT1-1/T1-4) - Recommended for welding type 317 stainless
with a maximum of 0.04% carbon in the weld deposit. The higher molybdenum content, as compared
to type 316L, further reduces susceptibility to pitting corrosion. Used in the pulp and paper industry and
in other severe corrosion applications involving sulfuric and sulfurous acids and their salts.
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.035 0.032
Manganese 1.31 1.20
Nickel 12.60 12.50
Ferrite No. 8 8
5.20.6 Shield-Bright 347 (AWS E347T1-1/T1-4) - Developed to weld types 347, 304, 304L and 321
stainless where service temperatures are below 600°F. The addition of columbium helps minimize
chromium carbide precipitation.
75/25 CO2
Carbon 0.032 0.027
Manganese 1.2 1.0
Chromium 19.6 18.5
Nickel 9.6 9.7
Columbium 0.5 0.4
Ferrite No. 9 8.5
5.21 ARCALOY NICKEL ALLOY COVERED WELDING ELECTRODES - FEATURES AND DATA
5.21.1 Arcaloy 9N10 Nickel-Copper (Monel) Electrodes (AWS A5.11), Class ENi-Cu-7) - Arcaloy
9N10 electrodes deposit a high nickel-copper alloy known by the trade- name "Monel". The usability
and arc stability on DC reverse polarity are excellent in all welding positions. There is no spatter and
the complete slag cover is easily removed. Arcaloy 9N10 electrodes are used for the welding of Monel
(Nickel 70 - Copper 30) to itself and Monel to other alloys. The quality of the weld deposit makes the
electrode ideal for Monel overlay applications.
A. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal
As Welded
Yield Point, psi 51,000

Tensile Strength, psi 79,500
% Elongation (2") 33
B. Typical Chemical Composition of Weld Metal
Carbon 0.04% Titanium 0.7%

Silicon 0.7% Aluminum 0.25%
Copper Remainder
5.21.2 Arcaloy 8N12 Nickel-Chromium-Iron (Inconel) Electrodes (AWS A5.11, Class ENiCrFe-3) -
Arcaloy 8N12 electrodes deposit a nickel-chromium-iron alloy that is known as Inconel. The electrode
was developed to provide excellent usability on direct current reverse polarity in all welding positions.
There is little spatter and the complete coverage of slag is easily removed. Water clear X-rays are
characteristic of 8N12 weld metal. Arcaloy 8N12 electrodes are primarily intended for welding
structures subjected to very low temperature. The electrodes are also used for welding Inconel alloys to
themselves and to many dissimilar alloys. It is useful for welding cryogenic structures because of the
toughness of the weld metal at very low temperatures (-320°F).
As Welded
Charpy V-Notch Impact @ -320°F

Titanium 0.60% Manganese 6.10%
Silicon 0.75% Iron 7.0%
Columbium 1.40%
Nickel - Remainder
5.21.3 Arcaloy Ni-9 (AWS A5.11, Class ENiCrMo-6) - Arcaloy Ni-9 is a nickel-chromium- molybdenum
alloy designed for welding 5% and 9% nickel steels for low temperature service. The lime type covering
on the 3/32", 1/8", and 5/32" sizes has excellent all-position welding characteristics on direct current
reverse polarity. The weld metal has good crack resistance. The titania covering on the 3/16" size for
AC/DC welding is outstanding in the horizontal and flat welding positions. The heavy covering,
containing many of the alloying elements, further improves the arc direction and increases the
deposition rate.
5.21.3.1 The weld metal combines excellent notch toughness at temperatures as low as - 320°F with
the thermal coefficient of expansion and tensile strength comparable to the cryogenic alloys usually
welded with it. Arcaloy Ni-9 deposits good radiographic quality welds. The good wetting action, smooth
metal transfer, and low spatter level are all features of this electrode.
5.21.3.2 Arcaloy Ni-9 electrodes are primarily used to weld the 5% and 9% nickel steels in structures
intended for cryogenic service, such as storage vessels and tanks for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and
Liquid Oxygen (LOX). They can also be used for welding Inconel and Inconel cladding to mild steel.
As Welded
Charpy V-Notch Impact @ -320°F 50 ft-lbs

Columbium 1.40% Tungsten 1.4%
Chromium 14.90%
5.21.4 Arcaloy Ni-12 (AWS A5.11, Class ENiCrFe-3) Arcaloy Ni-12 is a nickel-chromium-iron alloy
with a high conductivity nickel core wire that permits the use of higher welding currents for increased
deposition rates and superior fusion. The lime type covering on the 3/32", 1/8", and the 5/32" sizes
gives improved crack resistance and excellent welding in all positions on DC reverse polarity. The
titania type covering on the 3/16" size is designed for horizontal and flat position welding with AC/DC.
The heavy covering, containing many of the alloying elements, further improves the arc direction and
adds to the deposition rate. 5.21.4.1 The weld metal of this cryogenic composition has excellent notch
toughness @ - 320°F. It also has thermal expansion and tensile strength comparable to the alloy
metals usually used in this service. The weld metal is water clear by X-ray. 5.21.4.2 Arcaloy Ni-12 is
used for joining the nickel-chromium-iron alloys and metal combinations where thermal shock is a
problem. Typical applications include coke ovens and nuclear parts.
As Welded

% Reduction of Area 55
Charpy V-Notch Impact @ -320°F 63 ft-lbs

Columbium 1.77%
5.22 ELECTRODES FOR WELDING CAST IRON INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
Cast iron is a high carbon alloy of iron, usually containing 3.5% carbon or more. There are several
categories of cast iron. The most common is called gray iron because much of the carbon has
separated from the iron and is scattered through the material in the form of small flakes of free graphite.
This graphite causes a broken surface to appear gray.
5.22.0.1 If gray iron is cooled rapidly from the molten condition, the carbon remains tied up with the iron
as very hard iron carbide called cementite. The presence of the cementite makes the iron mass very
hard and brittle. A broken surface appears white; hence, the name "white iron". White iron is not
weldable.
5.22.0.2 When the white iron is reheated to a high temperature, the iron carbide is taken in solution. If
the heated iron is cooled very slowly, the carbon stays in solution in the iron and the result is "malleable
iron".
5.22.0.3 When small amounts of certain elements, such as magnesium, are added to the molten iron,
the magnesium acts as nuclei for the carbon to form small spheres or nodules on cooling. This is
called "nodular iron".
5.22.0.4 Gray iron is not ductile; white iron is very hard and brittle; malleable iron is reasonably soft
and ductile; and nodular iron is ductile.
5.22.1 Nickel-Arc 55 (AWS A5.15 Class ENiFe-CI) - Nickel-Arc 55 electrodes have core wire of 55%
nickel and 45% iron. This combination has been developed especially to deposit crack free welds in
cast iron. The electrodes have good usability on both alternating current and direct current. The high
nickel weld metal has the ability to absorb the carbon that is washed in from the cast iron and still
remain tough and ductile. The weld metal is easily machined.
5.22.1.1 Sound, crack free repair and joining welds can be made in gray, malleable and nodular iron
with Nickel-Arc 55 electrodes. If the part to be welded is a used casting, the oil and grease should be
burned out before welding in order to avoid porosity.
A. Typical Properties of Nickel-Arc Weld Metal:
Tensile Strength (psi) 58,500

Hardness across weld in gray iron 90-100 Rb
Machinability Excellent
Color Match Good
5.22.2 Nickel-Arc 550 (AWS A5.15, Class ENiFe-CI-A) - Nickel-Arc 550 electrode is made with 55%
nickel and 45% iron core wire. The coating is specially designed to give smooth, stable arcs on both
direct and alternating current. Nickel-Arc 550 is also designed to provide superior resistance to
overheating, allowing maximum deposition efficiency during the welding operation.

Color Match Good
5.22.3 Nickel-Arc 99 (AWS A5.15, Class ENi-CI) - Nickel-Arc 99 electrodes are made with pure nickel
core wire. The high nickel content of the deposited weld metal absorbs the carbon from the cast iron
and remains tough and ductile. The electrode has good welding characteristics with smooth stable arc
on both direct current and alternating current. Nickel-Arc 90 produces sound crack-free welds in gray,
malleable and nodular iron. It is particularly valuable for welding or overlay of cast iron when high
nickel deposits are required or when ease of machining the weld area is important. Preheat, interpass
temperature, and cooling rate after welding depends on the type and design of the object to be welded.
When welding cavities in cast iron, wide weaving and heavy weld beads should be used. Welding 10-
20° uphill helps deposit thicker weld beads that better resist cracking.

Color Match Good
5.22.4 Nicore 55 (Meets chemistry requirements of AWS ENiFe-CI) - Nicore 55 is a "wire within a
wire" flux cored electrode with approximately 50.5% iron and 48% nickel, providing an excellent match
for the coefficient of expansion exhibited by cast irons. The wire produces a light slag that is easily
removed enhancing visual weld inspection. 5.22.4.1 Because of the continuous nature of this wire,
operating factor, arc time, and deposition efficiency are all improved over the conventional manual stick
electrodes. This electrode is ideally suited for the repair and joining of various types of cast irons. The
machinability characteristics are similar to that of the 55-grade covered electrodes. DC (electrode
positive) is the recommended current.
5.22.4.2 The shielding gas should be 98% argon-2% oxygen. Welding heavier sections or the
application of cast iron to carbon steel requires the use of 400-600°F preheat.
5.22.4.3 Nicore 55 is available in a variety of sizes from .035" - 3/32" diameters and many standard
packages ranging from 10 & 33 lb spools to 60 lb coils.
5.22.5 Cupro Nickel Electrodes (AWS A5.6, Class ECuNi) - This 70% copper, 30% nickel electrode
is designed to provide outstanding weld metal in welding 70-30 and 90-10 copper-nickel alloys with
direct current reverse polarity. The electrode can be used in all welding positions. Slag removal is
easy and complete from the smooth weld beads. Weld deposits are sound by X-ray and have excellent
strength and ductility.
5.22.5.1 The primary uses for copper-nickel alloys are in the fabrication of ship condensers, distiller
tubes, heat exchangers, and other items exposed to sea water corrosion.
A. Typical Mechanical Properties of Weld Metal:
As Welded
Yield Point (psi) 35,500
B. Typical Chemical Composition of the Weld Metal:
Carbon 0.3% Manganese 1.3%

Copper 68.0% Nickel 30.0%
APPENDIX A
LESSON V - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Austenite - High temperature crystal structure of carbon steel or the room temperature structure of
chrome-nickel steel.
Martensite - The hard phase that develops on rapid cooling of carbon and low alloy steels. Ferrite
-The normal crystal structure of low carbon steel at room temperature.
Transition Temperature - The temperature at which the crystal structure of steel changes, usually in
the range of 1500-1600°F.
Carbide Precipitation - The formation of chromium carbide in austenitic stainless steel that allows
intergranular corrosion in corrosive service.
Ferrite in Austenitic Stainless Steel - The magnetic finely dispersed crystal structure in austenitic
steels that causes the austenite grains to become smaller and crack resistant.
Ferrite Number - Ferrite Numbers (FN) are the current industry accepted figures for specifying ferrite
content in austenitic stainless steel weld metal, as approved by the Welding Research Council (WRC),
American Welding Society (AWS) and other organizations. Adopted during the 1970's, "ferrite number"
is not to be confused with "Per- cent Ferrite" that is still used in some cases.
Metallurgically Similar Steels - Multiple steel compositions that have essentially the same crystal
structure, such as austenite or ferrite.
Preheat - The heating of the parts of a structure to be welded before welding is started.
Interpass Temperature - The lowest temperature at which the part being welded is held during
welding.
Temper of continuous welding electrodes - The stiffness or strength of the electrode.
Cast of continuous welding electrodes - The diameter of the circle a length of the electrode
assumes when lying free on a smooth surface.
Helix of continuous welding electrodes - The tendency of a length of the electrode to form a spiral
when lying free on a smooth surface.
Cryogenic Temperatures- Extremely low temperatures usually associated with liquefied gases in the
range of -100°F to -400°F.
LESSON VI
CARBON AND
LOW ALLOY STEEL
FILLER METALS
FOR THE GMAW, GTAW AND
SAW WELDING PROCESSES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON VI CARBON & LOW ALLOY STEEL FILLER
METALS FOR THE GMAW, GTAW, AND SAW
WELDING PROCESSES
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1

6.2 Manufacturing ......................................................................................... 2
6.3 Wire Selection for Gas Shielded Arc Welding ........................................ 3
6.4 AWS Specification A5.18-93 Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding ....................... 6
6.5 Individual Filler Metal Characteristics ..................................................... 8
6.5.1 ER70S-2 ................................................................................................. 8
6.5.2 ER70S-3 ................................................................................................. 8
6.5.3 ER70S-4 ................................................................................................. 8
6.5.4 ER70S-5 ................................................................................................. 8
6.5.6 ER70S-6 ................................................................................................. 8
6.5.6 ER70S-7 ................................................................................................. 9
6.5.7 ER70S-G ................................................................................................ 9
6.6 ESAB Bare Solid Carbon Steel Wires .................................................... 9
6.6.1 SPOOLARC 65 ....................................................................................... 9
6.6.2 SPOOLARC 29S .................................................................................... 10
6.6.3 SPOOLARC 85 ....................................................................................... 10
6.6.4 SPOOLARC 86 ...................................................................................... 11
6.6.5 SPOOLARC 87HP .................................................................................. 11
6.7 AWS Specification AWS A5.28-96 Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding ................... 12
6.7.1 The Chromium-Molybdenum Types........................................................ 12
6.7.2 The Nickel Alloy Types ............................................................................ 13
6.7.3 The Manganese-Molybdenum Types ........................................................ 14
6.7.4 SPOOLARC 83 ....................................................................................... 15
6.7.5 SPOOLARC Hi-84 .................................................................................. 15
6.7.6 All Other Low Alloy Types ......................................................................... 16
6.7.7 SPOOLARC 95 and 120 ......................................................................... 17
6.8 Wires and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding of Carbon Steels ........... 18
6.8.1 Equipment............................................................................................... 18
6.8.2 Welding Filler Metals .............................................................................. 19
6.8.3 Fluxes for Carbon Steel Electrodes ........................................................ 19
6.9 AWS Specification A5.17-89 Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding ......... 21
6.10 ESAB Wires and Fluxes for Carbon Steel Submerged Arc Welding ...... 23
6.10.1 SPOOLARC 81 ....................................................................................... 23
6.10.2 SPOOLARC 29S .................................................................................... 23
6.10.3 SPOOLARC 80 ....................................................................................... 24
6.10.4 UNIONMELT 231 .................................................................................... 24
6.10.5 UNIONMELT 429 .................................................................................... 25
6.10.6 UNIONMELT 282 .................................................................................... 25
6.10.7 UNIONMELT 50 ...................................................................................... 26
6.10.8 UNIONMELT 80 ...................................................................................... 26
6.11 Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding of the Low Alloy Steels 27
6.11.1 Electrodes and Fluxes for Welding the Alloys......................................... 27
6.12 AWS Specification A5.23-90 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding ...... 28
6.12.1 Composition Requirements for Solid Low Alloy Electrodes .................... 29
6.13 Spoolarc Low Alloy Wires for Submerged Arc Welding .......................... 31
6.13.1 Manganese-Molybdenum Wires .............................................................. 31
6.13.2 Chromium-Molybdenum Wires ................................................................. 31
6.13.3 Nickel Wire .............................................................................................. 31
6.13.4 High Strength Wires................................................................................. 31
6.13.5 Special Purpose Wires ............................................................................ 31
6.14 Unionmelt Fluxes for Welding Low Alloy Steels ...................................... 32
6.14.1 Unionmelt 429......................................................................................... 32
6.14.2 Unionmelt 439......................................................................................... 32
6.14.3 Unionmelt 656......................................................................................... 32
6.15 Alloy Shield Composite Electrodes for Submerged Arc Welding of the Low Alloy Steels............ 32
6.15.1 Alloy Shield B1S ..................................................................................... 32
6.15.2 Alloy Shield B2S ..................................................................................... 33
6.15.3 Alloy Shield B3S ..................................................................................... 34
6.15.4 Alloy Shield Ni1S .................................................................................... 34
6.15.5 Alloy Shield Ni2S .................................................................................... 35
6.15.6 Alloy Shield M2S..................................................................................... 35
6.15.7 Alloy Shield M3S..................................................................................... 36
6.15.8 Alloy Shield WS ...................................................................................... 36
6.15.9 Alloy Shield F2S ..................................................................................... 37
6.15.10 Alloy Shield 420SB ................................................................................. 37
Appendix A Glossary of Terms ................................................................................... 39
CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEEL FILLER METALS FOR THE GMAW, GTAW AND SAW
WELDING PROCESSES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.0.1 During the early part of the 20th century, some welding was done using bare steel wires or rods.
The weld quality was poor because of the oxides and nitrides found in the weld metal. Even after the
advent of the extruded coated electrode in 1927, automated welding using bare wires (or lightly coated
wires) continued to be used, despite the poor qualities of the welds, because this method allowed more
rapid deposition of the weld metal. Critical welds, however, were made with coated electrodes.
6.1.0.2 The advantages of using an inert gas to shield the arc were known during the 20’s and 30’s, but
the inert gases, such as helium and argon, were too expensive to produce.
6.1.0.3 In 1935, submerged arc welding (then known as submerged melt welding) was introduced and
provided a method of producing quality welds at greater welding speeds than were obtainable with
coated electrodes.
6.1.0.4 During World War II, the aircraft industry needed a reliable process for welding magnesium
engine parts and as a result, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), using a bare filler wire and a helium
gas shield, was developed.
6.1.0.5 Economical methods of producing the inert gases were ultimately developed, leading to the use
of solid wire with a helium or argon gas shield in the 1940’s. This process became known as metal
inert gas (MIG) welding.
6.1.0.6 In the early 1950’s, it was realized that a more economical shielding gas, such as carbon
dioxide, could be used if the wire chemistry was adjusted to neutralize the oxidizing effect of this gas.
Since carbon dioxide (CO2) is not an inert gas, the name MIG welding actually did not apply to this
process since CO2 is a reactive gas. As a result, the American Welding Society has standardized on
the term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) to include the inert gases, active gases, and gas mixtures as
covered in Lesson II. In Europe, the term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding still applies to the process if
an inert gas or mixtures of inert and active gases are used, and the term MAG (Metal Active Gas) is
used if straight CO2 is employed as the shielding gas.
6.1.0.7 Although carbon steel, low alloy steels, stainless steels, magnesium, copper, copper alloys,
titanium and other metals may be welded by one or all of the processes described above, this Lesson
will be confined to the filler metals for welding mild or carbon steels, and low alloy high strength steels
with the GMAW and GTAW processes.
6.2 MANUFACTURING
6.2.0.1 The manufacture of solid welding wires for GMAW or GTAW differs from the manufacture of
coated or flux cored electrodes in that the deoxidizers and alloying elements that contribute to the purity
and mechanical properties of the weld metal, must be included in the wire chemistry rather than in the
flux. Therefore, the raw material must be ordered from the supplier to exact specifications. When
received, a sample from both ends of each coil of the hot rolled rod is analyzed by the manufacturer to
ensure that the “hot rod”, as it is called, meets these specifications.
6.2.0.2 The hot rod is cleaned to remove mill scale or rust and drawn to an intermediate diameter. At
this stage, the wire has “work hardened” which necessitates that it be annealed before it is copper
plated, drawn down to final size, spooled and packaged.
6.2.0.3 Close quality checks must be made throughout the manufacturing process to insure that the
end product is a smooth finished, uniform diameter wire, that will feed easily through the end user’s
wire feeding equipment and welding gun. The wire is copper plated and/or otherwise coated to retard
oxidation or rusting of the wire, to decrease contact tip wear, and to assure good electrical conductivity.
The plating or coating must not flake off or leave a residue that will clog the wire feed cable or the
welding gun. If copper coated, the layer of copper must be kept to a low level to minimize copper
welding fumes and flaking.
6.3 WIRE SELECTION FOR GAS SHIELDED ARC WELDING
6.3.0.1 When selecting the wire or filler metal for either the GMAW or GTAW process, several things
must be considered.
1. Mechanical Properties - The wire chosen must produce weld metal having approximately the
same mechanical properties as the base metal whether it is carbon steel or low alloy high tensile steel.
2. Shielding Gas - In Lesson II, we learned that the shielding gases used in GTAW of carbon steel
are pure argon or argon helium mixtures. In GMAW, shielding gases may be pure CO2, or mixtures of
argon, helium, CO2 and oxygen. The gas mixtures containing oxygen or CO2 will exhibit oxidizing
characteristics which, if they combine with carbon, will form carbon monoxide gas porosity in the weld
metal.
a. The most common shielding gases used for welding mild and low alloy steels may be classified in
terms of their oxidizing effect as shown in Figure 1.
Pure Argon or 98% Argon 75% Argon

Pure CO2
Argon – Helium Mixtures 2% O2 25% CO2
Process GTAW GTAW GTAW GTAW
Degree of Oxidation Non - Oxidizing Slightly Oxidizing More Oxidizing Most Oxidizing
OXIDATION POTENTIAL OF COMMONLY USED SHIELDING GASES FIGURE 1
b. Each of the following variables should be considered when selecting the proper gas for a specific
job:
• MATERIAL TYPES • WELD METAL MECHANICAL

- Carbon, Stainless, Aluminum, etc. PROPERTIES
• MATERIAL CONDITION • JOB REQUIREMENT
- Rusty, Oily, Primed, etc. - Fit-Up
• TYPES OF METAL TRANSFER - Penetration
- Short Circuit, Spray, Pulse, etc. - Spatter Levels
3. Wire Chemistry - In order to provide specific characteristics, it may be necessary to have a filler
metal that matches the base plate chemistry. The most common examples are requirements to weld 1-
1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo steel with ER80S-B2(L) or 2-1/4 Cr - 1 Mo steel with ER90S-B3(L) providing matching
high temperature strength and scaling resistance.
a. To minimize the oxidizing effect of the various shielding gases, elements that are called
deoxidizers are included in the wire in varying amounts. These deoxidizers, usually silicon and
manganese, and to a lesser extent titanium, aluminum, and zirconium, will combine with the oxygen in
preference to reacting with the carbon and will form very small amounts of harmless glass-like slag
islands on the weld surface.
b. In the case of GTAW of steels where inert gases such as argon or argon-helium mixtures are used,
there will be little or no loss of the deoxidizers.
c. In GMAW, where shielding gases of different mixtures are used and welds of the highest quality
are required, the filler wire must be selected to allow for the degree of oxidation of the shielding gas.
When welding carbon or low alloy steels with a 98% argon - 2% oxygen mixture, wires containing low
amounts of manganese and silicon may be used. If welding carbon or low alloy steels with a 75%
argon - 25% CO2 shielding gas, wires with a higher amount of deoxidizers may be necessary to
maintain the proper manganese and silicon content in the weld metal. When welding with straight CO2
as a shielding gas, wires with an even greater amount of deoxidizers may be necessary.
4. Base Metal - The type of steel in the base metal will influence the type of wire selected. Rimmed
steel (see Lesson I), which involve the least oxidation during manufacture, will require that the filler wire
contain a higher level of deoxidizers than semi-killed steel that is partially deoxidized. Killed steels that
are fully deoxidized when manufactured may be welded with wires with a lower deoxidizer content.
5. Rust and Mill Scale - which are actually iron oxide (FeO) are a further source of oxygen that is
detrimental to the weld metal unless a wire containing sufficient deoxidizers is selected. Cold rolled
steel, that is devoid of mill scale and is reasonably rust free, may be welded with a wire having lower
amounts of silicon and manganese. Hot rolled steel that is characterized by having some amount of
mill scale on the surface requires a wire containing greater amounts of deoxidizers to produce sound
welds.
6. Bead Geometry - Bead geometry (or bead shape) is influenced by both the amount of deoxidizers
in the wire and by the specific selection of shielding gas. Increasing the silicon and manganese content
of the wire will produce flatter beads and better side wall fusion (wetability) because the puddle is more
fluid. See Figure 2.
a. The choice of shielding gas likewise influences bead shape. CO2 produces more spatter and a
higher crown or more convex bead. Argon-CO2 and argon-O2 gas mixtures provide smoother metal
transfer, less spatter, and better bead appearance.
7. Welding Current - When welding at high current for greater weld metal deposition, the weld puddle
becomes larger, meaning that more of the base metal has been melted and will stay molten for a longer
period, allowing more time for oxidation and resultant porosity to take place. Also, high currents
produce a greater amount of heat in the arc area and will cause greater amounts of an oxidizing
shielding gas to be dissociated, thereby releasing more oxygen in the area of the molten pool. For
these reasons, a wire with higher levels of deoxidizing elements should be selected for high current
operation.
6.3.0.2 To summarize, the above 7 factors must be properly considered in order to produce top quality
welds. The economics of your decision should never compromise the need to deposit the highest weld
metal integrity possible. The result of your decision will only lead to most cost effective choice of
welding materials. The following are economic considerations:
1. The cost of the wire increases with the percentage of deoxidizers and alloying elements such as
silicon, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, etc. in the welding wire.
2. The cost of pure carbon dioxide is approximately one-fourth that of argon and argon-CO2 or argon-
O2 mixtures.
3. The deposition efficiency of solid wires is very high, but it varies with the shielding gas and welding
current being used. Figure 3 shows the average efficiency when using the more common shielding
gases. The differences in efficiency are due to spatter loss, and are proportional to the amount of
argon in the gas mixture. CO2 produces more weld spatter and therefore a lower deposition efficiency.
Shielding Gas Efficiency Range Average Efficiency
Pure CO2 88% - 95% 93%
75% Ar – 25% CO2 94% - 98% 96%
98% Ar – 2% O2 97% - 98.5% 98%
DEPOSITION EFFICIENCIES - GAS METAL ARC WELDING CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEEL WIRES
FIGURE 3
6.4.0.1 This AWS specification is entitled Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded
Arc Welding. It covers bare carbon steel solid wires for use with the GMAW and GTAW processes. It
differs from the AWS specifications in the previous lessons in that it classifies the chemical composition
of the wire rather than that of the weld metal. It does, however, classify the mechanical properties of
the weld metal in the as-welded condition using the gas metal arc welding process.
6.4.0.2 The chemical composition requirements are based on the chemical analysis of the as-
manufactured wire or filler metal and include the elements in the coating or copper plating applied by
the manufacturer.
6.4.0.3 The letter-number designations in this specification are shown in Figure 4. For example,
ER70S-3 indicates an electrode or welding rod (ER) that will produce weld metal of a minimum 70,000
psi tensile strength (70); is a solid bare wire or welding rod (S); of a specific chemical composition (3)
as shown in Figure 5. For a complete chemical composition of these wires, see AWS A5.18-93.
ELECTRODE OR WELDING ROD MIN.
TENSILE STRENGTH X 1000 psi
ERXXS-X
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
BARE SOLID ELECTRODE OR ROD
LETTER - NUMBER DESIGNATIONS CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEEL WIRES

FIGURE 4
6.5 INDIVIDUAL FILLER METAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.5.1 ER70S-2 – This classification covers filler metals that contain small amounts of titanium,
zirconium, and aluminum, in addition to the normal deoxidizing elements of manganese and silicon.
These wires are commonly referred to as “triple deoxidized wires”. They will produce sound welds in all
types of carbon or mild steels. They are especially suited for welding carbon steels that are rusty or
have mill scale on the surface. Weld integrity will vary with the amount of oxides on the surface of the
steel. They may be used with CO2, argon-CO2, or argon-O2 shielding gas mixtures. They work well in
the short-circuiting mode for out-of-position welding.
6.5.2 ER-70S-3 - Filler metals of this classification contain a relatively low percentage of deoxidizing
elements; however, they are one of the most widely used GMAW wires. They produce welds of fair
quality when used to weld rimmed steels (steels with high oxygen content) using argon-O2 or argon-
CO2 as a shielding gas. The use of straight CO2 is not recommended when welding rimmed steels.
Sound welds may be made when welding semi-killed (low oxygen) and killed (fully deoxidized) steels
using argon-O2, argon-CO2, or straight CO2. 6.5.2.1 Wires of this classification may be used for out-of-
position welding in the short-circuiting transfer mode using argon-CO2 or CO2 shielding gas. 6.5.2.2
When CO2 shielding gas is used, high welding currents should be avoided because welds produced
may not meet the minimum tensile and yield strengths of this specification.
6.5.3 ER70S-4 - Containing slightly higher silicon and manganese contents than the ER70S-3 type,
these filler metals will produce weld metal of higher tensile strength. Primarily used for CO2 shielding
gas applications where a higher degree of deoxidization is necessary.
6.5.4 ER70S-5 - The filler metals in this classification contain aluminum as well as silicon and
manganese as deoxidizers. The addition of aluminum allows these wires to be used at higher welding
currents with CO2 as the shielding gas. Not used for out-of-position short-circuiting type transfer
because of high puddle fluidity. Can be used for welding rusty or dirty steels with a slight loss of weld
quality.
6.5.5 ER70S-6 - Wires in this classification contain the highest combination of deoxidizers in the form
of silicon and manganese. This allows them to be used for welding all types of carbon steel, even
rimmed steels, using CO2 as a shielding gas. They produce smooth, well shaped beads, and are
particularly well suited for welding sheet metal. This filler metal is also useable for out-of-position
welding with short-circuiting transfer. Moderately rusted or scaled steels may be welded successfully
with this wire. The weld quality depends on the degree of surface impurities. This wire may be used
for high current, high deposition welding using argon mixed with 5-10% oxygen or carbon dioxide.
6.5.6 ER70S-7 - This wire is similar to the ER70S-3 classification, but it has a higher manganese
content which provides better wetting action and bead appearance. The tensile and yield strengths are
slightly higher, and welding speed may be increased compared to the ER70S-3 type. This filler metal is
usually recommended for use with argon-O2 shielding gas mixtures, although argon-CO2 and straight
CO2 may be used. The weld metal will be slightly harder than that of the ER70S-3 types, but not as
hard as an ER70S-6 deposit.
6.5.7 ER70S-G - This classification may be applied to solid filler metals that do not fall into any of the
preceding classes. It has no specific chemical composition or shielding gas requirements, but must
meet all other requirements of the AWS A5.18-93 specification.
6.6 ESAB BARE SOLID CARBON STEEL WIRES
6.6.1 Spoolarc 65 (AWS Class ER70S-2) - Spoolarc 65 is a cut length electrode available for a
variety of tig and oxy-fuel gas welding applications. In addition to the standard deoxidizers, ER70S-2
also contains additional cleaners such as aluminum, titanium, and zirconium. This electrode is often
used on out-of-position welding of pipe joints. The ends of the 36" electrode can be flag tagged for
identification purposes.
A. Typical Chemical Analysis of the Wire

Silicon 0.40%
B. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal
As Welded Stress Relieved*

Yield Point, psi 67,500 62,500
% Reduction of Area 73 78
Charpy V-Notch Impacts
ft.-lbs. @-20°F 170 160
* 8 hrs. at 1150°F
6.6.2 Spoolarc 29S (AWS Class ER70S-3) - Spoolarc 29S is a copper coated wire for general
purpose welding with the gas-metal arc process. It contains sufficient deoxidizers to produce sound
welds on killed and semi killed steels and adequate welds on rimmed steels. Carbon dioxide or argon-
CO2 shielding gas mixtures may be used. The smaller diameters (up to .045") are especially useful for
welding light gauge mild steel in all positions. Among the many applications for which Spoolarc 29S
may be used are farm equipment, metal furniture, iron work, trailers, truck bodies, metal fixtures, light
vessels, and hoppers.

Silicon 0.27%
B. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal Using CO2 Shielding Gas

Charpy V-Notch Impacts 95 ft.-lbs. @0°F
6.6.3 Spoolarc 85 (AWS Class ER70S-4) - Spoolarc 85 is a copper plated gas-metal arc welding
wire. This wire contains more manganese and silicon for greater deoxidation than ER70S-3 wire. The
additional levels of deoxidizers provides more improved rust and mill scale tolerance, while improving
bead cosmetics.

Silicon 0.39% Copper 0.16%

6.6.4 Spoolarc 86 (AWS Class ER70S-6) - Spoolarc 86 is a copper plated gas-metal arc welding wire.
Containing a high level of deoxidizers, it produces sound welds in all carbon steels using CO2 shielding
gas, argon/CO2 and argon/O2 mixtures. The arc is quiet and very stable. High speed, high deposition
welds can be made with argon-oxygen gas mixtures. Ideal for welding sheet metal where smooth weld
beads with good wetting action are desirable. It may be used to weld carbon steels that have a
moderate amount of rust or mill scale. Spoolarc 86 can also be used for out-of-position welding with the
short-circuit transfer method, making it ideal for pipe welding. Other applications are for bridges,
building construction, boiler and pressure vessels, storage tanks, auto parts, and construction
equipment.

Silicon 0.57%

Charpy V-Notch Impacts 31 ft.-lbs. @-20°F
6.6.5 Spoolarc 87HP (AWS Class ER70S-7) - Spoolarc 87HP is a high manganese carbon steel wire.
It features an optimized manganese to silicon ratio to produce excellent appearing welds over a wide
range of welding parameters. It also produces excellent weld metal mechanical properties and welds
over moderate amounts of rust and scale.

Silicon 0.65%
B. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal Using 75% Ar/25% CO2

6.7.0.1 This specification is entitled Specification for Low Alloy Steel Filler Metal for Gas Shielded Arc
Welding. It covers the solid bare wires for welding those steels commonly referred to as the chromium-
molybdenum (chrome-molys), manganese-molybdenum (manganese-molys), nickel alloy and other low
alloy steels. The wires referred to in this lesson are for use with the gas-metal arc welding process and
also may be used as filler metals for the GTAW process.
6.7.0.2 The letter-number designations have the same significance as those used in the carbon steel
specification shown in Figure 4. Using ER80S-B2 as an example, the letters ER indicate that it is an
electrode or a welding rod; will produce weld metal of 80,000 psi tensile strength (80); is a solid bare
wire (S) of a specific chemical composition (B2) as described in Figure 8.
Major Alloying Elements - % By Weight
AWS Class Carbon Chromium Molybdenum
ER80S-B2L *0.05 1.20 - 1.50 0.40 - 0.65
ER80S-B2 0.07 - 0.12 1.20 - 1.50 0.40 - 0.65
ER80S-B3L 0.05 2.30 - 2.70 0.90 - 1.20
ER80S-B3 0.07 - 0.12 2.30 - 2.70 0.90 - 1.20
* Single figure denotes maximum
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM SOLID BARE WIRES
FIGURE 8
6.7.1 The Chromium-Molybdenum Types (Cr-Mo) - The letter “B” designates a Cr-Mo wire to be
used for welding the Cr-Mo pressure vessel steels, and the number that follows designates the
chemical composition of the filler metal. If the last number is followed by an “L”, it indicates that the
wire has a low carbon content.
6.7.1.1 Figure 8 shows only the major chemical composition requirements for these filler metals. For
complete requirements, see AWS A5.28-96 Filler Metal Specification.
6.7.1.2 Figure 9 shows the mechanical property requirements for the Cr-Mo weld metal.
6.7.1.3 Filler metals of the preceding classifications are used to weld the 1/2 Cr-1/2 Mo, 1 Cr-1/2 Mo, 1-
1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo, and 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo steels that are used in welding high temperature piping and pressure
vessels. They provide a degree of corrosion resistance and are used for welding dissimilar grades of
Cr-Mo steels and carbon steels.
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Impact Properties

AWS Class Psi psi in 2", %
ER80S-B2 80,000 68,000 19 Not Required

ER80S-B2L 80,000 68,000 19 Not Required
ER90S-B3 90,000 78,000 17 Not Required
ER90S-B3L 90,000 78,000 17 Not Required
All values are minimum

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF Cr - Mo WELD METAL
FIGURE 9
6.7.1.4 These filler metals may be used with all GMAW metal transfer modes. The AWS mechanical
properties and impact properties are established using argon plus 1-5% oxygen as a shielding gas.
Straight CO2 and argon-CO2 mixtures may be used. These mixtures will produce welds with deeper
penetration, although impact properties will be somewhat lower.
6.7.1.5 Welding low alloy high strength steels with the GMAW process requires that preheat,
interpass, and post-weld temperatures be closely controlled to prevent cracking. The low carbon filler
metals designated by the letter “L” will provide greater resistance to cracking, and are more suitable
when post-weld heat treatment is not practical or possible.
6.7.2 The Nickel Alloy Types (Ni) - The letters “Ni” designate that the filler metal is a nickel alloy wire
for welding the nickel alloy steels. The number following the letters designates the chemical
composition of the wire. Figure 10 shows only the amount of nickel required in the wire under this
specification. For complete chemical requirements, see AWS A5.28-96 Filler Metal Specification.
Nickel
AWS Class % by Weight
ER80S-Ni1 0.80 - 1.10

ER80S-Ni2 2.00 - 2.75
ER80S-Ni3 3.00 - 3.75
NICKEL REQUIREMENTS NICKEL ALLOY SOLID BARE WIRES

FIGURE 10
6.7.2.2 Figure 11 shows the mechanical property requirements for nickel alloy weld metals.
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Impact

AWS Class psi psi in 2", % Properties
ER80S-Ni1 20 ft-lb @ -50°F

ER80S-Ni2 80,000 68,000 24 20 ft-lb @ -50°F
ER90S-Ni3 20 ft-lb @ -50°F
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NICKEL ALLOY WELD METALS

FIGURE 11
6.7.2.3 Nickel alloy wires are used for welding the nickel alloy steels that are employed in applications
requiring 80,000 psi tensile strength and good toughness at low temperatures. The ER80S-Ni1 wire
deposits weld metal containing a nominal 1% nickel, similar to an E8018C3 coated electrode. The
ER80S-Ni2 deposits weld metal containing a nominal 2-1/ 2% nickel, similar to an E8018C1 coated
electrode and the ER80S-Ni3 deposits weld metal containing a nominal 3-1/2% nickel, similar to an
E8018C2 coated electrode.
6.7.2.4 The weld metal deposit will have a chemical composition similar to the chemical composition of
the wire when argon-O2 shielding gas is used. If CO2 is used as a shielding gas, the deoxidizing
elements, such as manganese and silicon, will be considerably reduced in the weld metal. The
recommended shielding gas is argon plus 1.0 to 5.0% oxygen. Welding the nickel alloy steels usually
requires that the weldment be preheated before welding, and the interpass temperature controlled. It
may also be necessary to subject the weldment to post weld heat treatment, depending on the alloy
and thickness of the material.
6.7.3 The Manganese-Molybdenum Types ”Mn-Mo” - The suffix letter “D” designates a manganese-
molybdenum wire to be used for welding the manganese-molybdenum steels. The number that follows
designates the chemical composition of the wire.
6.7.3.1 There is only one manganese-moly wire in this classification. It is designated as ER80S-D2 and
was formerly classified as E70S-1B in AWS Specification A5.18-89 (since updated to A5.18-93).
A. Chemical Composition Requirements for ER80S-D2 Bare Solid Wire
Carbon 0.07-0.12% Nickel 0.15% max.

Manganese 1.60-2.10% Copper 0.50% max.
Silicon 0.50-0.80% Phosphorus 0.025% max.
Molybdenum 0.40-0.60% Sulfur 0.025% max.
B. Mechanical Property Requirements ER80S-D2 Weld Metal
Yield Strength, psi 60,000

6.7.3.2 This wire is suitable for welding a large variety of low alloy and carbon steels. It is excellent for
out-of-position work and contains molybdenum for increased strength. Argon-O2 and argon-CO2 gas
mixtures are recommended for maximum mechanical properties, but welds made with CO2 shielding
gas will still deliver mechanical properties within the specification limits due to the high level of
manganese and silicon in the wire. The high level of deoxidizers allows this wire to be used over
moderate amounts of rust and mill scale.
6.7.4 Spoolarc 83 (AWS Class ER80S-D2) - Spoolarc 83 is a small diameter copper coated solid wire
for gas metal arc welding. Because of the additional alloys, manganese, and molybdenum, the deposit
is adequate for high strength low alloy steels. In addition, the higher levels of deoxidizers provide
improved rust and mill scale tolerance, as well as out-of-position capabilities. This wire is most
commonly used on pressure vessel and gas transmission line applications.


% Reduction of Area 66.8
6.7.5 Spoolarc Hi-84 (AWS Class ER80S-D2) - Spoolarc Hi-84 is a 1/2% Mo wire that has been
microalloyed to produce exceptional impact toughness at temperatures as low as -50°F. The weld
metal deposit produces a high strength weld with good tolerance of rust and mill scale.
Carbon 0.11% Nickel 0.15%

Manganese 1.90% Chromium 0.08%
Silicon 0.60% Ti and Zr 0.017%
Molybdenum 0.50%
B. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal Using 98% Ar/2% O2 Shielding Gas

51 ft.-lbs. @-50°F
6.7.6 All Other Low Alloy Types
6.7.6.1 Solid wires for welding the low alloy high tensile steels that do not fit into the common Cr-Mo, Ni
alloys and Mn-Mo types, fall into the “all other” category. They produce welds with very high strength
and very good notch toughness. These alloys are designated by the numbers “1”, “2”, or "G" as shown
in Figure 12.
6.7.6.2 Only the major alloying elements for these wires are shown above. For complete chemical
composition requirements, see AWS Filler Metal Specification A5.28-96.
Major Alloying Elements - % By Weight
AWS Class Carbon Manganese Nickel Chromium Molybdenum
ER100S-1 0.08* 1.25 - 1.80 1.40 - 2.10 0.30 0.25 - 0.55
ER100S-2 0.12 1.25 - 1.80 0.80 - 1.25 0.30 0.20 - 0.55
ER110S-1 0.09 1.40 - 1.80 1.90 - 2.60 0.50 0.25 - 0.55
ER120S-1 0.10 1.40 - 1.80 2.00 - 2.80 0.60 0.30 - 0.65
ERXXS-G As agreed between supplier and purchaser
*Single values are maximums. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION - OTHER LOW ALLOYS - SOLID BARE
WIRE FIGURE 12
6.7.6.3 The mechanical requirements for the weld metal deposited in this classification are shown in
Figure 13.
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Impact Properties

AWS Class Psi psi in 2", Min.
ER100S-1 100,000 88,000 - 102,000 16

ER100S-2 100,000 88,000 - 102,000 16 50 ft-lb @ -60°F
ER110S-1 110,000 95,000 - 107,000 15
ER120S-1 120,000 105,000 - 122,000 14
ERXXS-G * As agreed between supplier and purchaser
* Ultimate tensile strength must meet value placed after "ER"

WELD METAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES REQUIREMENTS - OTHER LOW ALLOYS
FIGURE 13
6.7.6.4 The wires in this category were originally developed for the high strength steels in military
applications. Today, they are used in structural and other applications requiring tensile strengths in
excess of 100,000 psi and toughness at low temperatures. Common types of steels welded with these
wires are the T-1, HY-80, HY-100, NAXtra100 and others.
6.7.7 Spoolarc 95 and 120 (AWS Class ER100S-1 and ER120S-1) - Spoolarc 95 and 120 are Military
grade high strength wires designed for welding HY-80 and HY-100 steels. Both wires produce excellent
mechanical properties and low temperature toughness. They can be used for nonmilitary applications
requiring high strength and low temperature toughness.
Spoolarc 95 Spoolarc 120

Carbon 0.07% 0.07%
Manganese 1.40% 1.30%
Silicon 0.35% 0.35%
Molybdenum 0.35% 0.45%
Chromium 0.20% 0.40%
Nickel 1.80% 2.60%
B. Typical Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal Using 98% Ar/ 2% O2 Shielding Gas
Spoolarc 95 Spoolarc 120

Yield Strength, psi 95,000 112,000
Charpy V-Notch Impacts
ft.-lbs. @-0°F 93 100
ft.-lbs. @-60°F 65 75
The suffix letter “G” applies to solid wire electrodes and welding rods that do not fall into any of the
other classes in this specification. They must have at least one of the following: 0.50% nickel, 0.30%
chromium, or 0.20% molybdenum. They must pass the radiographic soundness test for porosity or
inclusions, and also the weld metal tensile tests that are spelled out in detail in this specification.
6.8 WIRES AND FLUXES FOR SUBMERGED ARC WELDING OF CARBON STEELS
6.8.0.1 In submerged arc welding (SAW), the weld metal quality, mechanical properties and bead
shape are the result of the electrode* (or wire) and flux combination used in a particular application.
Unlike coated electrodes, where the core wire and flux coating are inseparable, various fluxes may be
used with a given wire to produce the desired results. The weld area is shielded by this blanket of flux.
When molten, the flux forms a protective layer above the molten weld metal that not only provides for
specific mechanical properties, but also gives the bead some shape. Note - * The American Welding
Society has standardized on the term “electrode” when referring to the wires used in SAW since these
wires always carry the welding current. In this Lesson, the terms wire and electrode will be used
interchangeably and will have the same meaning.
6.8.0.2 The advantages for using SAW are numerous. They include:
a. High rates of travel.
b. High deposition rates.
c. Superior weld metal integrity.
d. Reduce edge preparations.
e. Improved operator comfort and safety.
6.8.1 Equipment - The SAW process can utilize either an AC or DC power supply. DC is most often
chosen because it provides the following advantages:
a. Good control over bead shape and penetration.
b. Best arc starting characteristics on either electrode positive (+) or electrode negative (-).
c. DCEN offers 10-15% higher deposition rates than AC.
d. DCEP offers better bead shape control and deeper penetration.
e. Lowest cost to purchase.
6.8.1.1 AC, on the other hand, provides features as well. They include:
a. Reduced arc blow (especially when amperage exceeds 800 amps or when welding on heavy
sections).
b. Increased flexibility when used in combination with multiple wires (DC-AC, AC-AC, or AC-AC-AC).
6.8.2 Welding Filler Metals - A continuous bare electrode is fed into a blanket of granular flux that
covers the weld joint. Once current is applied to the electrode, usually ranging in size from 1/16" to 1/4"
diameter, an arc is established and the base metal, the electrode, and the flux melt to form a molten
puddle. The solid electrode is usually copper coated, except for certain nuclear applications, to
minimize contact tip wear and assure good current transfer to the wire. The molten flux flows to the
surface to form a slag while the metallic components create a weld.
6.8.2.1 Since high currents are usually applied to the electrode, extremely high deposition rates are
possible with SAW. The current and voltage ranges reflected in Figure 14 will provide information on
the deposition capability of SAW.
Deposition Rate*
Wire Diameter Current Ranges Volts lbs./hr.
1/16" (1.6 mm) 150 - 500 19 - 27 5-17 (2.27- 7.71 Kg)

5/64" (2.0 mm) 200 - 600 20 - 28 6-22 (2.72- 9.98 Kg)
3/32" (2.4 mm) 250 - 700 22 - 30 8-24 (3.63-10.89 Kg)
1/8" (3.2 mm) 300 - 900 23 - 32 8-28 (3.63-12.70 Kg)
5/32" (4.0 mm) 400 - 1000 25 - 34 9-30 (4.08-13.61 Kg)
3/16" (4.8 mm) 500 - 1100 27 - 36 12-34 (5.44-15.42 Kg)
7/32" (5.6 mm) 600 - 1200 30 - 37 20-44 (9.07-19.96 Kg)
1/4" (6.4 mm) 700 - 1600 30 - 38 18-56 (8.16-25.40 Kg)
OPERATING RANGES AND DEPOSITION RATES

(DCEP - ESO AVERAGE 8 X WIRE DIAMETER)
FIGURE 14
6.8.2.2 Composite submerged electrodes, as described in Lesson II, are not normally used for welding
carbon steel. They are, however, used in welding low alloy high strength materials. Current and
voltage ranges will differ, along with their respective deposition rates. These electrodes will be
discussed late in this lesson.
6.8.3 Fluxes for Carbon Steel Electrodes - The granular powder, referred to as “flux”, under which the
welding takes place, shields the molten puddle from the atmosphere, cleans the weld metal, and
influences the mechanical properties and shape of the weld bead. The flux also acts as a barrier
preventing the heat from escaping, permitting the desired depth of penetration (this can vary with
current and polarity). Fluxes differ as a result of the method used to manufacture them.
6.8.3.1 Fluxes are classified as either “bonded” or “fused” based on the manufacturing methods. When
manufacturing a bonded flux, fine particles of various ingredients are dry mixed and bonded together
with a sodium silicate or other similar compound. The wet bonded mix is pelletized and baked at
relatively low temperatures. The pellets are then broken into smaller pieces and screened into proper
sizes and packaged for shipment.
6.8.3.2 The advantages of “bonded” fluxes are that additional deoxidizers and alloying elements can be
added. Secondly, this type of flux generally has a lower consumption rate. The major disadvantage of
a bonded flux is their inherent moisture pick-up, especially when opened, bags are allowed to remain
exposed to the atmosphere.
6.8.3.3 “Fused” fluxes are manufactured under different conditions. The raw materials are mixed
together and then melted at very high temperatures in a furnace. The molten mixture is cooled either
by pouring it onto a chill table and allowed to cool, or shooting the molten mixture with a stream of
water. The glass-like material is crushed, then screened to a particular particle size and packaged for
shipment.
6.8.3.4 “Fused” fluxes offer several advantages to the user, including much less moisture pick-up than
bonded fluxes. Secondly, the user has better control of weld metal properties after recycling used flux.
The major disadvantage with fused fluxes is the inability to add additional deoxidizers and alloys during
manufacturing.
6.8.3.5 Fluxes are also described as “active” or “neutral”, depending on the amount of alloying elements
or deoxidizers (especially manganese or silicon) that are transferred to the weld metal.
a. Active Fluxes - contain manganese and silicon. Active fluxes are readily transferred to the weld
metal. The amount transferred depends on the amount of flux consumed per unit of wire. Excessively
high manganese and silicon transferred to the weld can cause weld metal cracking. Active fluxes are
recommended for single pass or limited multipass welding applications. Changes in arc voltage can
greatly effect the flux consumption per unit of wire and the weld metal properties. It is, therefore, crucial
to adhere to the manufacturer’s suggested welding parameters.
b. Neutral Fluxes - produce little significant change in weld metal properties as a result of arc voltage.
The primary purpose for neutral fluxes is that they can be used on multipass weldments, especially
those that exceed one inch thickness. The disadvantage for neutral fluxes is their low tolerance to rust
and mill scale. Generally speaking, active fluxes are used with carbon steel electrodes, while neutral
fluxes are recommended for both carbon and low alloy steels.
6.9.0.2 For example, when a manufacturer assigns the AWS classification EM12K to a given wire or
electrode, he certifies that his product is an electrode (E); containing a medium manganese content of
0.80 to 1.40% (M); containing a carbon content of 0.05 to 0.15% (12); and is made from a heat of
silicon-killed steel (K).
6.9.0.3 When classifying a flux as to mechanical properties, it is necessary to also specify the electrode
or wire with which these properties are obtained. As an example, the classification F7P6-EM12K
certifies that the product is a submerged arc flux (F); will provide weld metal of 70,000 to 95,000 psi
tensile strength, a minimum of 58,000 psi yield strength and a minimum of 22% elongation in two
inches after the weldment has been subjected to a post weld heat treatment of 1150°F for one hour (P);
and will have a minimum charpy V-notch impact of 20 ft.-lbs. at -60°F when used with an EM12K wire.
6.9.0.4 The eleven types of carbon steel electrodes listed in AWS A5.17-89 are as follows:
A. Low Manganese Steel Electrodes
1) EL8
2) EL8K
3) EL12
B. Medium Manganese Steel Electrodes
1) EM12
2) EM12K
3) EM13K
4) EM14K
5) EM15K
C. High Manganese Steel Electrodes
1) EH11K
2) EH12K
3) EH14
6.9.0.5 The carbon and manganese content of these wires are shown in Figure 15. For complete
chemical composition of these wires, see AWS Filler Metal Specification A5.17-89.
6.10 ESAB WIRES AND FLUXES FOR CARBON STEEL SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
6.10.1 Spoolarc 81 (AWS Class EM12K) - Spoolarc 81 is a general purpose submerged arc wire for
moderately clean material. Applications include low and medium structural carbon steel, longitudinal
and circumferential welds on low to medium strength pressure vessel steels and some offshore and
ship fabrication.

B. Typical Mechanical Properties (* See note following Unionmelt 80)
Weld UTS YS % CVN (ft-lbs) AWS/ASME

Flux Cond. (ksi) (ksi) Elong. @-20°F SFA 5.17 Class
231 AW 82-90 75-80 25-29 24-29 F7A2-EM12K

429 AW 75-82 65-72 25-30 35-45 F7A2-EM12K
SR(a) 70-75 58-64 25-30 35-45 @-40°F F7P4-EM12K
80 AW 70-75 60-65 27-31 35-45 F6A2, F7A2-EM12K
(a) Stress-Relieved @1150°F - 1 hr.
6.10.2 Spoolarc 29S (AWS Class EM13K) - Spoolarc 29S has increased amounts of silicon for both
improved puddle fluidity and rust and mill scale tolerance. This wire is not recommended for material
greater than 1" thickness. Applications include single pass high speed fillets on both low and medium
carbon steels.


Flux Cond. (ksi) (ksi) Elong. @-20°F SFA 5.17Class
231(a) AW 85-94 77-83 25-29 25-30 @ 0°F. F7A0-EM13K
429 AW 80-85 66-73 25-30 28-35 @-20°F. F7A2-EM13K
(a) This combination of flux and wire is only recommended for single pass welding.
6.10.3 Spoolarc 80 (AWS Class EL12) - Spoolarc 80 has the least amount of manganese and silicon
and is therefore intended for clean material. The major advantage of this wire is the improved ductility,
ease of machining and improved crack resistance. Applications include high speed fillets on axle
housings and wheel rims and thick heavy sections on highly restrained multipass weldments.

B. Typical Mechanical Properties

Flux Cond. (ksi) (ksi) Elong. @-20°F SFA 5.17 Class
231(a) AW 71-77 60-69 26-31 15-25 @ 0°F. F7AZ-EL12
429 AW 64-69 55-60 26-32 45-55 @-20°F. F6A2-EL12
(a) This combination of flux and wire is only recommended for single pass welding.
6.10.4 Unionmelt 231 - Unionmelt Flux 231 is an active flux that is limited to a maximum plate
thickness of one inch or less and operated at less than 36 volts. Applications include single and
multipass flat and horizontal fillets over rust and mill scale. This flux can be used with Spoolarc 81, 29S
and 80.
A. Typical Deposit Chemistry
AWS/ASME
Wire Material C Mn Si Cu SFA 5.17
81 A516 0.08 1.20 0.55 0.11 F7A2-EM12K
29S(a) A285 0.08 1.30 0.70 0.10 F7A0-EM13K
80 A36 0.07 0.90 0.40 0.11 F7AZ-EL12

Spoolarc Weld UTS YS % CVN
Material Wire Condition (ksi) (ksi) Elong. (ft.-lbs.)

A516 81 AW 82-90 75-80 25-29 24-29 @-20°F
A285 29S(a) AW 85-94 77-83 25-29 25-30 @ 0°F
A36 80 AW 71-77 60-69 26-31 15-25 @ 0°F
(a) Unionmelt Flux 231 and Spoolarc 29S are recommended for single pass welding only.

Basic Welding Filler Metal Technology Correspondence Course Lesson I

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Basic Welding Filler Metal Technology Correspondence Course Lesson I

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BASIC

WELDING FILLER METAL

PART B. ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING

1.1 SOURCE AND MANUFACTURING

1.4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

SOLID-LIQUID TRANSFORMATION, PURE IRON

1.8 ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING

1.8.2.1 The equation is easy to use as seen in the following problems:

2) What voltage is required to pass 15 amps through a resistor of 5 ohms?

W =E × I E = W ÷ I I = W ÷ E (W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)

1.8.4.10 Some welders use a three-phase AC supply. Three-phase is simply three sources of AC

1.9 CONSTANT CURRENT OR CONSTANT VOLTAGE

1.9.3.2.1 Motor-generator types consist of an electric motor coupled to a generator or alternator that

1.9.3.2.2 Engine driven types consist of a gasoline or diesel engine coupled to a generator or

ASME — American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM — American Society for Testing and Materials

Kilowatt — 1,000 watts

Non-Ferrous — Containing no iron. Example: Aluminum, copper, copper alloys.

Ohm — Unit of electrical resistance to current flow.

Rectifier — An electrical device used to change alternating current to direct current.

SAE — Society of Automotive Engineers

Watt — A unit of electrical power. Watts = Volts x Amperes

2.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING ....................................................... 27

Appendix A - GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................. 32

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

2.2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

4. Welding Position (See Appendix A - Glossary of Terms) - Because DC may be operated at

2.3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Figure 6 shows a basic gas tungsten arc welding schematic.

2.4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING

2.4.2 Metal Transfer Modes

4) Shielding gas supply

5) Solid electrode wire

TIME - MILLISECONDS EFFECT OF INDUCTANCE ON CURRENT RISE

SEMI-AUTOMATIC GMAW GUN TYPES

CO2 ARGON + CO2 ARGON + O2 ARGON HELIUM

Carbon Steel Argon/CO2/O2/He (He less than 50%)

2.5 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING

CURRENT PATH 1/16” FLUX-CORED 1/16” SOLID

LOOSE GRANULAR FLUX

BASE MOLTEN PUDDLE

2.7 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING

LESSON II - GLOSSARY OF TERMS

An Introduction to Mild Steel

Section Nr. Section Title Page

3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF COVERED ELECTRODES.... 1

Appendix A GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................... 27

3.2 Manufacturing Covered Electrodes

CONCENTRIC COATING NON-CONCENTRIC COATING

GOOD ARC DIRECTION POOR ARC DIRECTION

CONCENTRATED ARC EFFECT OF COATING CONCENTRICITY

3.2.1.3 The functions of the coating on covered electrodes are as follows:

Chemical requirements are as follows:

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties (AWS A5.1-91) –

3.4 SELECTING THE PROPER MILD STEEL COVERED ELECTRODE

3.4.1 Typical Electrode Use by Welding Classification

3.4.2 Electrode Deposition –

3.5 ACID AND BASIC SLAG SYSTEMS

3.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MILD STEEL COVERED ELECTRODES

3.7 ESAB SUREWELD MILD STEEL COATED ELECTRODES FEATURES AND DATA

Typical mechanical properties are:

The typical chemical composition of the weld metal is:

DEPOSITION RATE DATA: SUREWELD 10P*