UNIT-3

properties and typical applications of Low, Medium and high carbon steels

Carbon steels are classified based on the amount of carbon content in the steel. The four main classes of
carbon steels are mild and low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel, and ultra-high
carbon steel.

 Mild and low carbon steels contain 0.16–0.29% carbon. They are the most common form of
steel as they come at a relatively low cost and provide material properties that are acceptable for
many applications. They are neither brittle nor ductile, but are malleable. The surface hardness can
be increased through carburizing.

 Medium carbon steels contain approximately 0.30–0.59% carbon. They balance ductility and
strength and have good wear resistance. They are used in forging and for large industrial and
automotive components.

 High carbon steels contain approximately 0.6–0.99% carbon. They are very strong and are
used for springs and high-strength wires.

 Ultra-high carbon steels contain approximately 1–2% carbon. These steels can be tempered
to great hardness and are used for specialized products such as knives, axles, or punches. Steels
 above a carbon content of 1.2% are generally formed through powder metallurgy. Steels with carbon
content above 2% are considered to be cast iron.

Effect of the following elements as alloying additions to steels:

Mn, Si, Cr, Mo, V, Ti, Al, Si, Cu, W ?
Manganese (Mn)
Manganese is generally used to improve hot ductility. Its effect on the ferrite/austenite balance varies with
temperature: at low temperature manganese is an austenite stabilizer, but at high temperatures it will stabilize
ferrite. Manganese increases the solubility of nitrogen and is used to obtain high nitrogen contents in duplex and
austenitic stainless steels. Manganese, as an austenite former, can also replace some of the nickel in stainless
steel.
Silicon (Si)
Silicon increases resistance to oxidation, both at high temperatures and in strongly oxidizing solutions at lower
temperatures. It promotes a ferritic microstructure and increases strength.
Chromium (Cr)
This is the most important alloying element and it gives stainless steels their basic corrosion resistance. All
stainless steels have a Cr content of at least 10.5% and the corrosion resistance increases the higher chromium
content. Chromium also increases the resistance to oxidation at high temperatures and promotes a ferritic
microstructure.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical quenching speed, and increases high
temperature tensile strength.
Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting grain growth it helps increase the
toughness and strength of the steel.
Titanium
This element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases the effectiveness of the Boron in the
hardenability of steel.
Aluminum (Al)
If added in substantial amounts aluminum improves oxidation resistance and is used in certain heat-resistant
grades for this purpose. In precipitation hardening steels, aluminum is used to form the intermetallic compounds
that increase the strength in the aged condition.
Silicon (Si)
Silicon increases resistance to oxidation, both at high temperatures and in strongly oxidizing solutions at lower
temperatures. It promotes a ferritic microstructure and increases strength.
Copper (Cu)
 Copper enhances corrosion resistance to certain acids and promotes an austenitic microstructure. It can also be
added to decrease work hardening in grades designed for improved machinability. It may also be added to
improve formability.
Tungsten (W)
Tungsten is present as an impurity in most stainless steels, although it is added to some special grades, for
example the superduplex grade 4501, to improve pitting corrosion resistance.
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Types of stainless steels, making reference to approximate compositions,
structures, heat treatments and applications

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the
austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels virtually non-
magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, more carbonis
added. With proper heat treatment, these steels are used for such products as razor blades,
cutlery, and tools.
Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions.
Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower cost.
Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:
 Austenitic, or 200 and 300 series, stainless steels have an austenitic crystalline structure, which
is a face-centered cubic crystal structure. Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless
steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and
sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from
the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy.
 200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. Type 201 is hardenable through cold
working; Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing
manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.[24]
 300 Series—The most widely used austenite steel is the 304, also known as 18/8 for its
composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.[25] 304 may be referred to as A2 stainless (not to
be confused with A2 grade steel, also named Tool steel, a steel). The second most common
austenite steel is the 316 grade, also called marine grade stainless, used primarily for its
increased resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel,
commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in cutlery and high-quality cookware. 18/0 is
also available.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to
chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen
additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more
expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain
applications, for example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a low-alloy carbon steel
with a chromium content of 0.5% to 9%. [26] Low-carbon versions, for example 316L or 304L, are
used to avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade 316LVM is preferred
where biocompatibility is required (such as body implants and piercings). The "L" means that the
carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%, which reduces the sensitization effect (precipitation
of chromium carbides at grain boundaries) caused by the high temperatures involved in welding.
  Ferritic stainless steels generally have better engineering properties than austenitic grades, but
have reduced corrosion resistance, because of the lower chromium and nickel content. They are
also usually less expensive.
They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types
can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium.
Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These
alloys can be degraded by the presence of chromium, an intermetallic phase which can
precipitate upon welding.
.
 Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are
extremely strong and tough, as well as highly machinable, and can be hardened by heat
treatment.
Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12–14%), molybdenum (0.2–1%), nickel (less
than 2%), and carbon (about 0.1–1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit
more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic.

TYPES OF ALLOY STEELS

(a)Tool steels (b) HSLA steels (c)Maraging steels (d)High speed steels?
a) Tool steels
Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made
into tools.
Properties
Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion and deformation and their
ability to hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures. As a result tool steels are suited for their use in
the shaping of other materials.
With a carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled
conditions to produce the required quality. The presence of carbides in their matrix plays the dominant
role in the qualities of tool steel. The four major alloying elements in tool steel that form carbides are:
tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. The rate of dissolution of the different carbides into
the austenite form of the iron determines the high temperature performance of steel. Proper heat
treatment of these steels is important for adequate performance. [1] The manganese content is often kept
low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching.
Types;There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-work, shock-resisting, high-speed, hot-
work, and special purpose. The choice of group to select depends on, cost, working temperature,
required surface hardness, strength, shock resistance, and toughness requirements. [2] The more severe the
service condition (higher temperature, abrasiveness,
corrosiveness, loading), the higher the alloy content and
consequent amount of carbides required for the tool steel .
Uses:
Tool steels are used for cutting, pressing, extruding, coining, of metals and other materials. Their use for
applications like injection molding due to their the resistance to abrasion is an important criterion for a
mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands of parts is essential.
b)HSLA Steels:
High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties
or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are
not made to meet a specific chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties.
Composition:They have a carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability.
Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities
of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium,chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare earth
elements, or zirconium. Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening
purposes. These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon steels, which is usually
aferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of alloy carbides in an almost pure ferrite
matrix. This eliminates the toughness-reducing effect of a pearlitic volume fraction yet maintains and
increases the material's strength by refining the grain size, which in the case of ferrite increases yield
strength by 50% for every halving of the mean grain diameter. Precipitation strengtheningplays a minor
role, too.
Their yield strengths can be anywhere between 250–590 megapascals (36,000–86,000 psi). Because of
their higher strength and toughness HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power to form, as
compared to carbon steels.
Copper, silicon, nickel, chromium, and phosphorus are added to increase corrosion resistance.
Zirconium, calcium, and rare earth elements are added for sulfide-inclusion shape control which
increases formability. These are needed because most HSLA steels have directionally sensitive
properties. Formability and impact strength can vary significantly when tested longitudinally and
transversely to the grain. Bends that are parallel to the longitudinal grain are more likely to crack around
the outer edge because it experiences tensile loads. This directional characteristic is substantially
reduced in HSLA steels that have been treated for sulfide shape control.[2]
Uses:They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, roller coasters and other structures that are designed
to handle large amounts of stress or need a good strength-to-weight ratio. HSLA steel cross-sections and
structures are usually 20 to 30% lighter than a carbon steel with the same strength.
HSLA steels are also more resistant to rust than most carbon steels because of their lack of pearlite – the
fine layers of ferrite (almost pure iron) and cementite in pearlite. HSLA steels usually have densities of
around 7800 kg/m³.
c) Maraging steels

Composition: It contain 17–19 wt.% nickel, 8–12 wt.% cobalt, 3–5 wt.% molybdenum, and 0.2–1.6 wt.
% titanium
 The term maraging is derived from the strengthening mechanism, which is transforming the alloy to
martensite with subsequent age hardening. Air cooling the alloy to room temperature from 820°C creates
a soft iron nickel martensite, which contains molybdenum and cobalt in supersaturated solid solution.
Tempering at 480 to 500°C results in strong hardening due to the precipitation of a number of
intermetallic phases, including, nickel-molybdenum, iron-molybdenum and iron-nickel varietie

With yield strength between 1400 and 2400 MPa maraging steels belong to the category of ultra-high-
strength materials. The high strength is combined with excellent toughness properties and weldability.

Typical applications areas include:

 Aerospace, e.g. undercarriage parts and wing fittings,
 Tooling & machinery , e.g. extrusion press rams and mandrels in tube production, gears
 Ordnance components and fasteners.
d)High speed steels:

High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is a subset of tool steels, commonly used in tool bits and cutting tools.

It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the older high-carbon steel tools used
extensively through the years in that it can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper
(hardness). This property allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name high-speed
steel. At room temperature, in their generally recommended heat treatment, HSS grades generally
display high hardness (above HRC60) and abrasion resistance (generally linked
to tungsten and vanadium content often used in HSS) compared
with common carbon and tool steels.

In general the basic composition of T1 HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1%

V, 0.7% C and the remainder Fe. Such a HSS tool could machine
(turn) mild steel at speeds of up to 20~30 m/min

The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total

maximises efficiently the hardness and toughness of high speed
steels and maintains those properties at the high temperatures
generated when cutting metals.

Types of Cast iron and explain the factors which affect the structure
of Cast iron

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured into a
mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron. The alloy constituents affect its colour when
fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast
iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material
breaks.
Malleable Cast Iron and its properties:
Malleable Cast Iron is obtained from hard &brittle white iron., through a controlled heat treatment
conversion process.
Malleable Cast Iron is having Carbon % : 2 to 3 %
Malleable Cast Iron having material properties like High yield strength, ease of machinability, corrosion
resistance and high young modulus
It is having Low coefficient of thermal expansion and high wear resistance & damping vibration.
Shrinkage Allowance for this Iron is 1.5 mm / 100mm
Malleable Cast Iron is used to make Crank-shaft, rail road, universal joint etc.
Nodular cast iron (Ductile cast iron) and its properties:
Nodular cast Iron contains Carbon % : 3.2 % & 4.2 %
Nodular cast Iron is having damping capacity intermediate between cast iron & steel.
This iron is also having high wear resistance
Application: Pump compressor, valve, i.c engines, pipe, paper industry, earth moving machinery.
Grey cast iron and its properties:
Grey Cast Iron is an alloy of Carbon & silicon with iron.
Carbon percentage of Grey Cast Iron: 2.5 to 3.8 %
Grey cast iron is having Self damping, good antifriction properties and also having lowest melting point.
Applications of Grey Cast Iron : Machine tool structure, manhole covers , piston rings, rolling mill.
Water pipes.
White cast iron and its properties:
Carbon Percentage of White Cast Iron : 1.8 % to 3.6 %
White cast Iron is not machinable
Shrinkage allowance for this type of Cast Iron is 1 mm/ 100 mm.

Composition, properties and typical applications of Copper alloys

Copper alloys:-
 1. Brasses, 2.Bronze 3. Gun-metals 4.Cupronickels

1.Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a
range of brasses with varying properties

Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900 to
940 °C, 1652 to 1724 °F, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively
easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be
changed, allowing hard and soft brasses.

2.Bronze

There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.

Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are
used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades.. The In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were
commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin,
was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while
helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze. BRONZE
There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.
Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are
used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades.. The In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were
commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin,
was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while
helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze.
Commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40%
zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying
ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.
Bismuth bronze is a bronze alloy with a composition of 52% copper, 30% nickel, 12% zinc, 5% lead,
and 1% bismuth. It is able to hold a good polish and so is sometimes used in light reflectors and mirrors.
[15]

Plastic bronze is bronze containing a significant quantity of lead which makes for improved
plasticity[16] possibly used by the ancient Greeks in their ship construction.[
Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell
metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal and cymbal alloys.

3.Gun Metals
 Gunmetal, also known as red brass is a type of bronze – an alloy of copper (88%), tin (10%),
and zinc (2%).
Applications;-
It is used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, and gears, and also statues and various small
objects, e.g. buttons.
It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific gravity of 8.7, a density 8,719 kg/m3, and aBrinell
hardness of 65 to 74.
Admiralty gunmetal contains lead in addition to the zinc; it is typically composed of 86% copper,
9.5% tin, 2.5% lead, and 2% zinc. It is used for gears and bearings.
It used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, and gears, and also statues and various small
objects, e.g. buttons.
Leaded Gun meta(Red brass) can be considered both a brass and a bronze. It typically contains 85%
copper, 5% tin, 5% lead, and 5% zinc.
It is used to produce pipes, valves, and plumbing fixtures, and is considered to offer a good mixture of
corrosion resistance, strength, and ease of casting.
4. Cupronickels;
Cupronickel or copper-nickel is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements,
such as iron and manganese.
Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater, because its electrode potential is adjusted to be
neutral with regard to seawater.

Composition, properties and typical applications of Aluminium alloys

Types of Aluminium alloys:

1. Heat treatable aluminium alloys
1.Al-Cu alloys 2.Al-Cu-Ni alloys 3. Al-Mg-Si alloys 4. Al-Zn-Cu alloys 5.Al-Li
alloys
2. Non-heat treatable aluminium alloys
1.Al-Mn alloys 2.Al-Mg alloys 3.Al-Si alloys

Al-Cu alloys :
1. Duralumin
-94%Al, 4%Cu, 0.5%Mg, 0.5Si, 0.5Fe
 -It is an wrought alloy, possesses max. strength after age hardening, High strength to wt.
ratio
- Air craft and automobile industries, For making electric cables, in surgical and
orthopaedic implements etc.,
2.Y-alloy
-92.5%Al, 4% Cu, 2Ni, 1.5Mg
- it is an cast alloy, Better strength than duralumin at high temp.
- For making pistons of engines, cylinder heads, gear boxes, propeller blades, pistons
etc.,
Process of Precipitation strengthening treatment for the Al-4%Cu system?
a)Age hardening is a type of heat treatment used in metallurgy to strengthen metal alloys. It is
also called precipitation hardening, as it strengthens metal by creating solid impurities, or precipitates, in
the alloy that prevents dislocations in the alloy's crystalline structure. Its name comes from the point in
the hardening process in which the metal is aged, either by heating it for an extended of time or keeping
it stored at a lower temperature for an extended period before use so that these precipitates can form.
This treatment is used on malleable alloys, such as those made from nickel, magnesium, and titanium, as
well as some types of steel.
The precipitation-hardening process involves three basic steps:
1) Solution Treatment, or Solutionizing, is the first step in the precipitation-hardening process where
the alloy is heated above the solvus temperature and soaked there until a homogeneous solid solution (α)
is produced. The θ precipitates are dissolved in this step and any segregation present in the original alloy
is reduced.
2) Quenching is the second step where the solid α is rapidly cooled forming a supersaturated solid
solution of αSS which contains excess copper and is not an equilibrium structure. The atoms do not have
time to diffuse to potential nucleation sites and thus θ precipitates do not form.
3) Aging is the third step where the supersaturated α, αSS, is heated below the solvus temperature to
produce a finely dispersed precipitate. Atoms diffuse only short distances at this aging temperature.
Because the supersaturated α is not stable, the extra copper atoms diffuse to numerous nucleation sites
and precipitates grow. The formation of a finely dispersed precipitate in the alloy is the objective of the
precipitation-hardening process. The fine precipitates in the alloy impede dislocation movement by
forcing the dislocations to either cut through the precipitated particles or go around them. By restricting
dislocation movement during deformation, the alloy is strengthened.
 Necessary metallurgical characteristics required in a good bearing metal
(a) Bearings and bushings must have the following characteristics:

 it must be strong enough to carry the load - high compressive strength.

 it must have high fatigue strength - durable.
 it must have low friction.
 it must resist welding and seizing.
 it should have high thermal conductivity to remove friction heat from the surface.
 the ability to absorb and discard small contaminant particles to keep them from scoring the shaft.
 capable of slight adjustments to compensate for shaft roughness and misalignment - this is the
ability of the bearing to "wear-in".
 it must be corrosion resistant.
 it must be relatively easy to machine or form to shape-reasonable cost.

Compare and contrast lead- base, tin-base, copper-base and aluminium-base
bearing alloys.
(b)Bearing materials
1. White metals 2.Copper-base alloys 3.Aluminium –base alloys 4.Plastic materials
5.Ceramics

1.White bearing metals

 (i) Tin-base bearing alloys –Babbit metals – Sb-10,Sn82, Cu4, Pb4
(ii)Lead base bearing alloys – Sb13, Sn12, Cu0.75, As0.25, Pb 74

2. Copper base bearing alloys -1.Plain tin bronze 2. Phosphor bronze 3. Leaded bronze 4.Sintered
bronze
3.Aluminium base bearing alloys – Sn5.5, Cu1.3, Ni 1.3 Balance Al
4. Plastic bearing materials -1. Nylons(polyamide) 2. PTFE –Teflon
5.Ceramic bearing materials