JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 115, D14113, doi:10.

1029/2009JD013389, 2010
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Characteristics and origin of quasi‐biweekly oscillation

over the western North Pacific during boreal summer
Guanghua Chen1 and Chung‐Hsiung Sui2
Received 16 October 2009; revised 22 February 2010; accepted 5 March 2010; published 27 July 2010.
[1] This study investigates the structure, energetic, and origin of quasi‐biweekly
oscillation (QBWO) over the western North Pacific (WNP), using NCEP reanalyses for the
years 2000–2007. In the context of vorticity there appears to be a significant QBWO mode
over the WNP during the summer. QBWO emerges from the equatorial region and
propagates northwestward. Its horizontal structure exhibits a slight southwest‐northeast tilt
but mainly longitudinal elongation. In the vertical the QBWO has a northwest tilt with
height that gives rise to a structure of the first baroclinic mode. The centers of vorticity and
vertical motion near the equator show a phase lag of about one‐quarter wavelength,
consistent with the characteristics of equatorial waves, whereas the cyclonic circulation is
tightly coupled with anomalous convection as the wave moves away from the equator.
Energetic analysis of the QBWO reveals that diabatic heating in the tropics and baroclinic
processes in the subtropics play important roles in the generation of eddy available
potential energy (EAPE). In turn, the conversion from EAPE to eddy kinetic energy (EKE)
and the barotropic conversion are major sources for EKE to compensate the loss by EKE
redistribution and dissipation. Tracing the QBWO to equatorial disturbances, our results
show some features of equatorially trapped n = 1 Rossby mode, such as phase speed and
group velocity. This mode is generally characterized by a zonal planetary wave number of
about 6 and nearly symmetric circulation about the equator. A typical case from 2002
is chosen to illustrate that the origin of the QBWO is closely associated with the theoretical
equatorial Rossby wave.
Citation: Chen, G., and C.‐H. Sui (2010), Characteristics and origin of quasi‐biweekly oscillation over the western North
Pacific during boreal summer, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D14113, doi:10.1029/2009JD013389.

1. Introduction turbances during the boreal summer. Westward‐propagating

synoptic disturbances, mainly consisting of easterly waves
[2] The boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation (ISO)
[Chang, 1970; Reed and Recker, 1971] and mixed Rossby‐
plays a key role in convection and circulation related to the
gravity modes [e.g., Yanai et al., 1968; Liebmann and
summer monsoon over the western North Pacific (WNP).
Hendon, 1990; Takayabu and Nitta, 1993], can be closely
The ISO has increasingly attracted the attention of meteor-
associated with tropical cyclogenesis over the WNP. East-
ologists over the past decades. The boreal summer ISO
ward‐propagating Kelvin waves, as well as low‐frequency
contains a variety of modes characterized by both zonal and
Madden‐Julian oscillation (MJO [e.g., Madden and Julian,
meridional propagation and nonuniform periodicity in some
1994]), have a large influence on convection over the
circumstances. Studies of linkages of ISO characteristics
Pacific [Dunkerton and Baldwin, 1995; Straub and Kiladis,
with the evolution of summer monsoon and ISO‐related 2002, 2003]. Less attention has been paid to 10–20 day ISO
synoptic phenomena have advanced our understanding of
(hereafter referred to as quasi‐biweekly oscillation (QBWO)),
the tropical atmospheric variability and may enhance pre-
which is also an important mode over the tropical Pacific
dictions of intraseasonal variations. during summer [Chen and Chen, 1993; Fukutomi and
[3] A great deal of research has been carried out investi-
Yasunari, 1999, 2002; Kang et al., 1999; Ko and Hsu, 2006,
gating convectively coupled waves over the tropical Pacific
2009]. Li and Zhou [1995] found that in the tropics, the
on the time scales of synoptic and low‐frequency dis-
kinetic energy of QBWO is much stronger than that of MJO
in either boreal winter or summer by comparing the QBWO
and MJO at 200 hPa and appears to be prominent at 850 hPa
1
Center for Monsoon System Research, Institute of Atmospheric during the July–October season. They also pointed out that
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
2
Institute of Hydrological and Oceanic Sciences and Department of
the structure and activity of QBWO could differ from those
Atmospheric Sciences, National Central University, Jhongli City, Taiwan. of MJO from the viewpoint of dynamic process.
[4] The activity of QBWO can exert a significant influence
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union. on the onset (break) of the South Asian and East Asian
0148‐0227/10/2009JD013389

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D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
summer monsoon and precipitation in the Asia‐Pacific
region. For example, Chen and Chen [1995] noted the
impact of a 12–24 day mode on the onset and break of the
South China Sea monsoon in a monsoon experiment during
1979. Lau and Yang [1996] found rainfall oscillations with a
distinct time scale of about 15–20 days in the Indo‐China
and East Asian region. These oscillations become remark-
able after the sudden jump of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone from the equator to 10°–20°N, which corresponds to
the onset of monsoon convection in mid‐May to early June.
Wen and Zhang [2008] explored the QBWO of tropical
convection around Sumatra and its relation to low‐level
circulation over the tropical Indian Ocean in boreal spring.
[5] Though the linkage of QBWO with the Asian summer
monsoon has been recognized, and some common features
of the QBWO mode in these regions have been documented,
a more generalized view of this mode based on data for
many years has not been established yet. Little is known of
how QBWO is developed and maintained through dynamic
processes and energy conversion associated with the back-
ground mean state. Such an understanding can be accom-
plished through a detailed statistical analysis of the structures
and energy budget of QBWO over the WNP. Recently, by
examining a wide variety of QBWO activity in a global
perspective, Kikuchi and Wang [2009] suggested that the
behaviors of the westward‐propagating QBWO mode can be
understood in terms of convectively coupled equatorial‐
Rossby (ER) waves in the presence of monsoon mean flow.
However, this origin of QBWO over the tropical western
Pacific has not been further delineated by a systematic
comparison of observations with theoretical considerations
from the literature. Therefore, this study aims to document
the structure and three‐dimensional energy balance of
QBWO over the WNP during summertime and to verify the
mechanism of initiation associated with ER wave by tracking
its origin to the equator and comparing it with equatorial wave
theory, based on long‐term observational data and one typical
case in 2002.
[6] The paper is organized as follows: section 2 describes
the data and methodology. In section 3, power spectrum and
wavelet analysis are used to identify the spatial and temporal
characteristics of the significant QBWO periodicity. Section 4
presents the evolution of QBWO horizontal and vertical
structure by regression. We also performed a lag correlation
to confirm that the tropical origin of QBWO is consistent
with an n = 1 ER wave. A case study using data from 2002 is
detailed to further support the climatological evidence. Our
results are summarized in the final section.
2. Data and Methodology
[7] The daily mean products from the National Centers for
Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric
Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis project [Kalnay et al.,
1996] served as the main data set for this study. The data
set spans from July to October (JASO) for 2000–2007 and
has a horizontal resolution of 2.5° × 2.5° at 17 pressure
levels. It has been pointed out that while winds and air
temperature should be close to observations, other variables
such as vertical velocity can be strongly model dependent
[Kistler et al., 2001]. Apart from the NCEP/NCAR reanal-
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ysis, daily outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) data from the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
satellites on a 2.5° latitude‐longitude grid for the same
period of interest were used as a proxy for deep tropical
convection [Liebmann and Smith, 1996].
[8] Lanczos temporal filtering was performed to extract
the QBWO signal. For 10–20 day oscillation, a Lanczos
digital filter with 53 daily weights can provide very sharp
cutoffs of response, with negligible Gibbs oscillation. Fifty‐
three is the minimum total number of weights required to
achieve unit response at the band center [Duchon, 1979]. To
highlight the QBWO the annual cycle of the series was
removed by subtracting the first four Fourier harmonics
before the Lanczos filter was employed. Unlike the MJO,
whose signal can be represented by zonal westerlies or
OLR, the vorticity was chosen to identify the wave train
associated with QBWO, considering its smaller spatial scale
compared to the MJO. The empirical orthogonal function
(EOF) of filtered vorticity was performed to identify the
horizontal and vertical structures of QBWO.
[9] Lag correlation and regression analysis were per-
formed to examine the propagation features of wave trains.
In general, a test with N − 2 degrees of freedom is used to
determine whether a correlation is significant. However,
owing to strong autocorrelation in time series, especially for
filtered time series, the effective sample size (ESS) was
rederived for a significance test of the correlation, following
the method proposed by Bretherton et al. [1999]. For a time
series of length N, the estimation of the number of inde-
pendent observations in the sample (i.e., ESS) is
N
N* ¼ NP
1
;
ð1  j
j=N Þx ð
Þy ð
Þ

¼ð N 1Þ
where N* is the ESS, and rx(t) and ry(t) are the autocor-
relation functions of two time series, respectively.
3. Spectrum and Wavelet Analysis
[10] The 10–20 day oscillation exhibits a longitude‐
dependent distribution over the WNP during the boreal
summer. To examine the spatial features of this variability in
the tropical western Pacific, the distribution of the power
spectrum of unfiltered vorticity at 850 hPa, as a function of
period and longitude, is displayed in Figure 1. The power
spectrum was first calculated for each 123 day segment
(JASO season) at every grid. Then the spectra were averaged
over latitudes of 7.5°–12.5°N and 8 years to form a clima-
tological average. Following Zangvil [1977], the uP(u)
distribution is plotted in Figure 1, where u is the frequency
and P(u) is the power. This transformation takes into
account the substantial degree of “redness” in most atmo-
spheric spectra, such that a red noise spectrum with P(u) =
1/u would appear as a uniform distribution. Furthermore,
this approach also highlights the spectral characteristics of
tropical disturbances, so it is easier to detect the spectrum
extrema in Figure 1.
[11] Figure 1 shows that the power spectrum of low‐tro-
pospheric vorticity has two spectral peaks between 130°E
and 150°E, highlighted by shading for spectral values
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 1. Multiyear mean power spectrum of 850 hPa
vorticity multiplied by frequency, uP(u), averaged over
7.5°–12.5°N as a function of period and longitude for the
July–October season over 8 years (2000–2007). Contour
intervals are 10−11 s−2 day−1. Shading denotes values greater
than 10−10 s−2 day−1, significant at the 90% confidence level.
greater than 10−10 s−2 day−1, which is significant at the 90%
confidence level. The peak near 135°E coincides with a 6–
10 day time scale and is in good agreement with the synoptic
disturbances observed by many previous studies [e.g., Lau
and Lau, 1990; Liebmann and Hendon, 1990; Chang et
al., 1996; Chen and Huang, 2009]. They unexceptionally
identified the disturbance as a train of southeast‐northwest‐
oriented synoptic‐scale waves, generally referred to as tropical‐
depression (TD)‐type disturbances. The other spectral peak
is located near 150°E, with a period of 10–20 days (see the
boxed area in Figure 1), suggesting that QBWO is also an
important mode of wave disturbances in the tropical western
Pacific from a climatological perspective. However, it is
noteworthy that the magnitude of the spectral extremum is
evidently smaller compared to that of TD‐type disturbance,
which is also anticipated, since some researchers [e.g.,
Kikuchi and Wang, 2009] similarly found that synoptic‐scale
disturbances with a time scale of less than 10 days have more
Figure 2. Ensemble mean wavelet power spectrum (using the Morlet wavelet) of 850 hPa vorticity
averaged over 7.5°–12.5°N and 145°–150°E, normalized by its variance. The shaded regions mark spectra
significant at >95% confidence.
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D14113
spectrum power than 10–30 day band waves in terms of
different variables over the WNP. The fact that a significant
spectral extremum related to QBWO exists near 10°N, 150°E
is consistent with previous studies. For example, Kiladis
and Wheeler [1995] documented that the 6–30 day filtered
voticity centers related to equatorial waves are located near
10°N (see their Figures 2 and 7a). The composite of 7–30 day
filtered 850 hPa stream function by Ko and Hsu [2006] also
showed that the submonthly circulation can be tracked back
to 150°E near the equator (see their Figure 5).
[12] To validate the spectral feature and seasonal distri-
bution for the boxed region in Figure 1, a wavelet analysis
was carried out by applying an approximate cosine taper to
the time series to reduce end effects and sidelobe leakage.
Using the same averaging procedure as applied to data
shown in Figures 1 and 2 reveals two significant bands of
wavelet spectrum, one being almost uniformly distributed
near a 6 day period and the other appearing along the 10–
20 day period band. These features are consistent with the
spectrum distribution near 150°E in Figure 1. Here use of
the significance test verified that the QBWO variation is
statistically significant from July to October.
[13] In addition, the standard deviation of the 10–20 day
band‐pass‐filtered vorticity during the JASO season offers an
overview of the geographical features of QBWO. Figure 3
shows the spatial pattern of the standard deviation of fil-
tered vorticity, which is characterized by a northwest exten-
sion of large variations from the equatorial region to
subtropical East Asia. The location of extremum in the tropics
near 150°E coincides with the spectral peaks identified in
Figure 1. The subtropical maximum is located 130°E north-
east of Taiwan. If the same spectrum and wavelet analysis are
performed at a variety of locations selected along the large
standard deviation area of 10–20 day filtered vorticity, they
also yield results qualitatively similar to those presented in
Figures 1 and 2.
4. Structure and Energetics of Quasi‐biweekly
Oscillation (QBWO)
[14] To indentify further the characteristics of the 10–
20 day disturbances, we analyze the structure of the dis-
turbances. We also perform an analysis of the energetics to
identify the relevant processes responsible for the generation
and maintenance of the disturbances.
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 3. Geographical distribution of the standard deviation of the 10–20 day band‐pass‐filtered vor-
ticity at 850 hPa for July–October 2000–2007. Contour intervals are 0.5 × 10−6 s−1. Values greater than
0.5 × 10−5 s−1 are shaded.
4.1. Horizontal and Vertical Structure of QBWO
[15] To examine the structure of QBWO over the WNP,
the EOF analysis is applied to the 850 hPa 10–20 day fil-
tered vorticity field. The leading EOF spatial modes can
explain the large fraction of the variance. In previous studies
the rotated EOF (REOF) or extended EOF (EEOF) was also
used to diagnose the dominant mode of synoptic TD‐type
variability over the WNP [e.g., Lau and Lau, 1990; Maloney
and Dickinson, 2003]. They produced the perturbation struc-
ture and propagation behavior consistent with the counterpart
from the EOF approach. In this study because the domain of
analysis is smaller than that used in previous studies, an EOF
analysis yields results similar to those obtained by REOF or
EEOF (not shown). Thus, a covariance matrix of the data in
the domain of 0°–30°N, 120°–170°E was constructed for
EOF analysis in the present study.
[16] Figure 4 shows the first two EOF spatial modes of the
filtered 850 hPa vorticity field, explaining 13.3% and 12.0%
of the variance, respectively. The remaining modes of EOF
do not seem to resemble any physical phenomena (not
shown). The leading two EOFs are comprised of alternating
positive and negative vorticity centers nearly aligned along
the axis of standard deviation of vorticity in Figure 3. These
two spatial modes are in quadrature, and their corresponding
principal components (PCs) are correlated at 0.79 when PC2
leads PC1 by 4 days, approximately a quarter of the oscil-
lating period. These indicate that the leading EOFs describe
a northwestward‐propagating signal. Therefore, an index
was constructed in the following manner: Index(t) = PC1(t) +
PC2(t − 4), where t is the time in days. The index is a linear
combination of PC1 and PC2 with contributions from PC2,
reflecting that PC2 peaks an average of 4 days before PC1.
The horizontal and vertical structure of QBWO is explored
by linearly regressing variable fields onto this index, all
scaled by 1 standard deviation of the index.
[17] The regressed fields of OLR, vorticity, and wind
vectors at 850 hPa at lags of −4, 0, and +4 days are dis-
played in Figure 5. At lag −4 days (Figure 5a) the horizontal
4 of 14
D14113
flow field is characterized by a zonally elongated structure
of alternating cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation, with
dominant southwesterlies extending northeastward from the
South China Sea to the subtropical region near 170°E. The
associated band of cyclonic vorticity is well collocated with
anomalous convection that covers about 60° longitude. The
wave train off the equator has a wavelength of approxi-
mately 3500 km and originates from the tropical region
where cyclonic voticity and winds are weak. In addition, a
pair of equatorial convection and cyclonic circulation (the
negative and positive vorticity contours in the Southern
Hemisphere stand for cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation in
Figure 5) is discernible near 170°E, centered near 5°N and
5°S, although the components in the Southern Hemisphere
are weaker and spatially smaller. At lag 0 (Figure 5b) the
wave train is displaced northwestward off the equator, while
the equatorial cyclonic voticity north of the equator propa-
gates westward and strengthens near 150°E. Enhanced con-
vection emerges ahead of the cyclonic center by one eighth to
one quarter of a wavelength. The other weak cyclonic
counterpart to the south of the equator still exists, about 10°
longitude east of the northern one. In contrast to Figure 5a, the
zonally elongated positive vorticity in the subtropical region
contracts in horizontal scale and propagates northwestward to
the south of Japan. This part of the wave train is tightly
coupled with active convection. The structure at lag +4 days
(Figure 5c) resembles that in Figure 5a, but with opposite
signs, corresponding to a one‐half‐period difference in phase.
[18] As implied in Figure 5, wave development is evidently
asymmetric in both hemispheres, which can be attributed to
the asymmetric distribution of large‐scale monsoon flows
with respect to the equator. The climatological background
state is depicted in Figure 6. The monsoon trough within the
region of 0–20°N and 130–150°E has a strong cyclonic
shear (−∂u/∂y > 0). Along the monsoon trough and in its
vicinity, the southwesterly monsoon flows meet southeast-
erly trade winds, giving rise to a prominent convergence of
zonal wind (−∂u/∂x > 0). Consequently, a wave accumula-
tion process tends to occur, leading to the increase in wave
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC D14113

Figure 4. The (a) first and (b) second eigenvectors obtained from an empirical orthogonal function
(EOF) analysis of 850 hPa vorticity. Contour interval is 0.02. Negative contours are dashed.

amplitude documented in previous studies [e.g., Webster
and Chang, 1988; Kuo et al., 2001]. Their studies showed
a wave accumulation process produced by ∂u/∂x < 0, in
which waves increase in amplitude and decrease in scale,
and that equatorial waves can eventually turn poleward out
of the equatorial waveguide as they amplify owing to
changes in basic flow associated with the monsoon trough.
Sobel and Bretherton [1999] reported that, in the western
Pacific Ocean, convergence of the wind was the primary
component of group velocity convergence and the wave
accumulation process could be viewed simply as the growth
of a wave or a vortex in convergent background flow. This
was represented in a linearized vorticity equation as the
product of background divergence and disturbance vorticity
[e.g., Aiyyer and Molinari, 2003]. Once a wave begins to
grow, convection is likely to become active and contribute to
intensification. By this reasoning, wave accumulation pro-
duces the initial intensification of the waves and is a critical
factor that allows subsequent growth by other mechanisms.
[19] In addition, as depicted in Figure 6 the monsoon
trough is characterized by easterly vertical shear, which
could help trap wave energy in the lower troposphere as
proposed by Wang and Xie [1996] and Xie and Wang
[1996]. Using a two‐layer model that included para-
meterizations for wave‐scale friction and diabatic heating,
they simulated the growth of ER waves in the presence of
spatially uniform easterly vertical shear. They found that
maximum growth occurred at wavelengths near 3500 km,
remarkably similar to those in this study, and wave energy
was trapped in the lower troposphere. When asymmetric
vertical shear was imposed, with easterly shear extending
well north of the equator, ER wave growth occurred only in
the Northern Hemisphere. On the contrary, the westerly
vertical shear north of 30°N tends to confine the wave
energy in the upper troposphere and, thus, does not favor
lower‐level wave development to a certain extent.
[20] Overall, the background flows, including the mon-
soon convergence zone and easterly vertical shear, as well as

5 of 14
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 5. Regressed fields of 10–20 day filtered vorticity
(contour), wind vectors, outgoing longwave radiation (OLR;
shaded) onto the quasi‐biweekly oscillation (QBWO) index.
Regressions are shown for lags of (a) −4 days, (b) 0 days, and
(c) +4 days. Contour interval is 10−6 s−1. Negative contours
are dashed. Shadings from light to dark gray denote −2, −4,
and −6 W m−2. Only wind arrows significant at a level of
>90% are plotted.
large‐scale heating in the monsoon trough, are primarily
confined to the Northern Hemisphere. As a result, the
northern wave component departs from the equator and
grows rapidly, while the southern one tends to weaken and
even disappears. Furthermore, the warm sea surface tem-
perature in the WNP would also favor the development of
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D14113
convection and, in turn, supply the abundant moisture and
heat flux for wave growth.
[21] The vertical structure of 10–20 day filtered variable
fields is also examined in the same way. These filtered
variables along the vertical cross section of the line segment
in Figure 5b are regressed onto the QBWO index at lags of
−4 and +4 days. Figures 7a and 7b show the regressed fields
of vorticity and vertical velocity, which are scaled by 1
standard deviation of the index series. The regressed fields
at lags −4 and +4 days are similar but of opposite signs,
representing approximately a half‐period phase difference.
Vorticity perturbations peak in the lower and upper tropo-
sphere and tilt northwestward with height, so that the
structure looks like the first baroclinic mode. The vertical tilt
of vorticity is also consistent with the structure of synoptic‐
scale disturbances diagnosed by Reed and Recker [1971].
The temporal evolution indicates northwestward propaga-
tion of the perturbation vorticity anomalies. The configura-
tions of vertical velocity and vorticity are distinct in the
tropical and subtropical regions. Upward (downward) motion
is located to the southeast of the positive (negative) vorticity
anomalies at about one eighth to one quarter of a wave-
length in the tropical region south of 17°N. This implies that
the waves close to the equator may be related to the classical
equatorial waves deduced by Matsuno [1966] since a family
of equatorial waves is characterized by the phase lag of cir-
culation center (vorticity) and convergence (vertical motion).
As the waves are displaced away from the tropics, the vertical
motion maxima are almost superposed above the vorticity
centers at 23°N. This suggests that the enhanced convections
are tightly coupled with the cyclonic centers, consequently
leading to a more obvious baroclinic vertical structure, with
positive vorticity in the lower troposphere and negative vor-
ticity in the upper troposphere. The vertical structure of tem-
perature anomalies (not shown), whose centers are located
at the midtropospheric level, coincides with that of vertical
velocity, that is, the warm (cold) anomalies correspond to
the anomalous ascent (descent).
4.2. Energy Budget of QBWO
[22] In the previous discussion we documented the hori-
zontal and vertical structures of the QBWO based on the
regressed circulation and OLR fields. The characteristics of
structure and the phase lags among various variable fields
are indicative of conversions of kinetic energy and available
potential energy between the background fields and eddy
perturbations. Therefore, an analysis of the energy budget of
the QBWO can improve our understanding on the devel-
opment and maintenance of the QBWO over the WNP. In
this section we estimate the conversion terms in the energy
budget to better understand the forcing of the QBWO.
[23] The energy budget formulations used here follow
those derived by Lau and Lau [1990]. The kinetic energy
equation is an expansion of the two‐dimensional energy
budget analysis used by Maloney and Hartmann [2001],
which only accounted for barotropic energy conversion at
850 hPa. Any variable a in our system is divided into two
parts: the spatial‐dependent JASO climatological mean state
and 10–20 day filtered QBWO perturbation at a specific
location obtained from the regression, denoted aclim and a′,
respectively. In this analysis a denotes an average over one
wave period from −7 to +7 days of regression lag, so a0 .
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 6. Climatological mean of wind (streamline), stretching deformation of zonal wind (shaded; units
of 10−6 s−1) at 850 mb, and vertical wind shear of −10 m s−1 (dashed line), 0 m s−1 (solid line), and 10 m s−1
(dotted line) for July to October 2000–2007.
This approach somewhat differs from previous studies of
wave energetics for which the calculations are based on one
or more cases rather than a wave climatology [e.g., Reed et
al., 1988; Maloney and Dickinson, 2003]. In addition, the
wave perturbations are defined here with respect to temporal
rather than longitudinal average. This gives a more accurate
estimate over one wave cycle than an average over longi-
tude, where arbitrary domain boundaries would have to be
drawn. In the following discussion we investigate the crucial
contributors in the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) and eddy
available potential energy (EAPE) budgets. The spatial
distributions of their vertically integrated estimates and the
vertical distributions along the vertical cross section (shown
in Figure 5b) are shown in Figures 8 and 9, respectively.
[24] The EKE balance equation is written as
@K 0 R 0
¼ Vh  ðV 0  rÞVhclim  !0 T 0  r  ðV 0 F Þ  Vclim
@t P the barotropic conversion term as displayed in Figure 9a
 rK  V 0  rK þ D;
where K = (u′2 + v′2)/2 is the horizontal EKE, and other
symbols follow conventional definition. The first term on
the right‐hand side of equation (1) represents barotropic
conversion from time‐mean kinetic energy (MKE) to EKE.
The second term is conversion from EAPE to EKE through
the negative correlation of perturbation temperature and
pressure velocity. These two terms are considered true
sources or sinks of EKE. The other terms describe the
redistribution of perturbation energy, which include the
generation/destruction of EKE by local convergence of eddy
geopotential flux (the third term), the advection of EKE by
the climatological mean flow and the transient fluctuations
(the fourth and fifth terms), and the net generation or dissi-
pation of EKE by frictional and other subgrid scale effects
(the last term). We carried out an analysis of the EKE
D14113
equation for the complete wave cycle. The first three terms
on the right‐hand side in equation (1) are most dominant,
while the other terms are negligibly small.
[25] Figure 8a shows the generation of EKE by barotropic
conversion, which is mainly determined by u0 v0 @u=@y and
u0 u0 @u=@x. Because of the southwest‐northeast phase tilt
of QBWO (u0 v0 > 0), the total conversion of MKE to EKE
primarily depends on the pattern of mean flow related to the
monsoon trough and the subtropical high. In Figure 6 the
monsoon trough within the region of 0°–20°N and 130°–
150°E has a strong cyclonic shear (−∂u/∂y > 0) and a con-
vergence of zonal wind (∂u/∂x < 0), while the opposite
situation occurs north of 25°N, where the basic flow asso-
ciated with subtropical high is anticyclonic (−∂u/∂y < 0) and
divergent (∂u/∂x > 0). As a result, the barotropic conversion
from MKE to EKE is positive in the tropics and negative in
the subtropics. The corresponding vertical cross section of
ð1Þ reveals that the barotropic conversion in the tropics is con-
fined to the lower troposphere, suggesting that the genera-
tion of EKE by barotropic process plays an important role in
the genesis of QBWO perturbation at 850 hPa. In contrast,
large values of EKE destruction through barotropic pro-
cesses occur at a higher level in the tropics, especially at
150 hPa, and throughout the troposphere in the subtropics
north of 20°N, resulting in a decrease in vertically averaged
barotropic conversion or even a negative contribution to
EKE generation. Compared to TD‐type disturbances, the
magnitude of barotropic conversion in QBWO is smaller
and accounts for a lower proportion of kinetic energy
sources. The differences can be explained by the fact that
TD‐type disturbances have a pronounced southwest‐north-
east tilt in horizontal structure and a relatively small scale
(e.g., see Figure 7 of Chang [1996]) so that they can produce a
considerable barotropic conversion from MKE to EKE. In
7 of 14
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 7. Vertical cross section of regressed vorticity (con-
tour; units of 10−5 s−1) and vertical velocity (shaded; units of
pa s−1) onto the QBWO index for lags of (a) −4 days and
(b) +4 days, along the line shown in Figure 5b. Contour
interval is 10−6 s−1.
addition, TD‐type disturbances have a more westward‐
propagating component, which ensures that synoptic waves
are almost uniformly embedded in the favorable monsoon
circulation south of the subtropical high, providing persistent
barotropic kinetic energy transfer from mean flow.
[26] Figure 8b shows the conversion of EAPE to EKE
through the rising (sinking) motion of warm (cold) air,
which accounts for a major generation of EKE over the
broad WNP region. This conversion process provides more
appreciable energy sources for QBWO perturbation than the
barotropic conversion process (Figure 8a). The areas of major
generation of EKE from EAPE conversion in Figure 8b are
consistent with the orientation of QBWO development.
8 of 14
D14113
Along the track of QBWO development the upward
(downward) motion is collocated with the warm (cold)
temperature anomaly throughout the whole troposphere
(Figure 9b). As a result, the conversion from EAPE to EKE
occurs throughout the troposphere, yielding the major con-
version zone in the vertically integrated field (Figure 8b).
[27] The conversion related to the third term exhibits a
distribution similar to that
 ofthe second term, but with an
0 0 0
opposite sign. Since −r · V 0 F ¼ V 0  rF  F ðr  V 0 Þ =
0
Vh  rh F þ PR !0 T 0 , in which the term PR !0 T 0 is dominant, the
0
conversion from EAPE to EKE in the middle and upper
troposphere in the second term is almost offset by local
convergence of the eddy geopotential flux in the third term
in which the EKE in the troposphere is redistributed. In
addition, advections of EKE by the mean flow and pertur-
bation flow are generally small in most of the WNP, indi-
cating that most redistribution is accomplished by
geopotential flux.
[28] From the thermodynamic equation
@T @T @T Q
þu þv  Sp ! ¼ ; ð2Þ
@t @x @y Cp
one can derive a budget equation for EAPE (defined by A =
RT′2/2SpP) by multiplying the thermodynamic equation by
RT′/SpP, to obtain
@A R 0 0 RT 0 !0 R 0
 Vh T  rh Tclim þ þ Q T0; ð3Þ
@t Sp P P Cp Sp P 1
where Sp = −Tclim@ ln@pclim ¼ RT @Tclim
Cp P  @p is the static stability,
clim
R is the gas constant, Cp is the specific heat at constant
pressure, and Q′1 is the perturbation apparent heat source,
which can be calculated as a residual from the perturbation
temperature tendency, equation (3). The three terms on the
right‐hand side of equation (3) represent EAPE generation
or destruction through the baroclinic conversion, conversion
between EAPE and EKE, and the diabatic heating effect.
[29] The term  SRp P Vh T 0 · rhTclim represents baroclinic
0
conversion from mean available potential energy (MAPE) to
EAPE conversion. It is generally known that this baroclinic
conversion is dominant in the extratropics north of 20°N
(Figure 8c), owing to the large climatological north‐south
temperature gradient and the positive eddy heat flux (V′hT′ > 0)
in the lower and middle troposphere. Along the vertical cross
section of the QBWO centers (Figure 9c), the destruction of
EAPE above 200 hPa arises from the vertical baroclinic
structure (V′hT′ < 0) and the eddy heat flux directed against
the mean temperature gradient.
[30] The second term in equation (3) is the destruction of
EAPE through conversion to EKE, opposite to the second
term in EKE balance, equation (1). To supply the loss of
EAPE owing to conversion from EAPE to EKE, the diabatic
process plays a decisive role in the generation of EAPE.
Although calculation of the diabatic heating term using
reanalysis is problematic, the warm temperature anomaly
coincides with upward motion where OLR is minimum,
suggesting that latent heating from convection is coupled to
the wave disturbance to generate EAPE. Figure 8d shows
that EAPE generation by perturbation diabatic heating
approximately balances the EAPE conversion to EKE,
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC D14113

Figure 8. Vertically averaged distributions of (a) the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) barotropic conversion,
(b) the conversion from eddy available potential energy (EAPE) to EKE, (c) the EAPE baroclinic conver-
sion, and (d) EAPE generation by diabatic heating. Contour interval is 10−6 m2 s−3.

especially in the tropical region. Similarly, the diabatic
process associated with latent heating owing to rising
motion reaches its maximum in the middle troposphere
(Figure 9d). The axis of maximum diabatic heating is
coincident with the axis of the QBWO growth in the tropics
as shown in Figure 5b. It is evident that the main balance of
the EAPE budget for QBWO disturbances is between the
EAPE‐EKE conversion and the diabatic effect. Thus the
strong loss of EAPE through conversion to EKE is mostly
maintained by diabatic heating over the WNP in the tropics
and by baroclinic conversion from MAPE to EAPE in the
regions north of the subtropics. Comparing Figure 8a with
Figure 8d, the magnitude of generation related to diabatic
heating is much greater than that related to barotropic con-
version, indicating that latent heating is a crucial energy
source for the maintenance of the QBWO over the WNP.
5. Tropical Origin of QBWO
5.1. Properties of the Wave Packet
[31] Although the symmetry of a pair of westward‐moving
cyclonic (or anticyclonic) centers coexisting in both hemi-
spheres is, to a certain degree, lost owing to the asymmetry
of the background mean state (Figure 5), the preceding
analysis indicates that the QBWO is connected with equa-
torial waves close to the equator. In addition, comparing the
time scale of the QBWO with those of various equatorial
waves, it is hypothesized that the origin of the westward‐
propagating QBWO may be related to n = 1 ER waves. The
symbol n is referred to as the meridional mode number,
denoting the number of nodes in the meridional profile of
meridional velocity. The larger n is, the more nodes the
meridional velocity has in the meridional direction. To
support this assumption, the observed phase and group
velocity are compared with those derived from the linear
shallow‐water solution for the observed wavelength and
constant background zonal flow, as by Molinari et al.
[2007]. These calculations follow the approach of Zhang
and Webster [1989].
[32] We used lag correlation analysis to indicate the wave
characteristics based on a reference time series of 10–20 day
filtered vorticity at the base point (10°N, 150°E). ER waves
can also be represented by the equatorial zonal wind as well
as off‐equatorial meridional wind (e.g., see Figure 10 of
Wheeler et al., 2000], which would produce the same
qualitative results. The time series are composed of 123 ×
8 = 984 samples for 8 years of JASO (i.e., 8 × 123 daily
fields for the JASO period each year). Figure 10 shows the
lag correlation of the 850 hPa vorticity at each longitude
point along the 10°N latitude band with the reference vor-
ticity at (10°N, 150°E), which is chosen as a representation
of equatorially trapped ER wave properties in the tropical
western Pacific. The abscissa represents longitude, and time
progresses downward on the ordinate. The two straight lines
(labeled “P”) are drawn through two neighboring zero‐cor-
relation contours to define half a wavelength by the abscissa
distance and half a period by the ordinate distance in
between. Therefore, it is clearly shown that the wave is
characterized by one wavelength of 6000 km and one period
of 14 days, which is consistent with a typical zonal scale of
observed QBWO in the Asian summer monsoon region [e.g.,
Chen and Chen, 1993]. Because of the Doppler effect the
equation Ud = U + Ui, where Ud is the Doppler‐shifted
velocity and U is the basic flow, is used to compute the
intrinsic phase velocityUi. The zonal flow U in this equation
will be defined as the 850 hPa climatological mean zonal
wind at 150°E, 10°N for 8 years of the JASO period, which
gives U = 1.02 m s−1. Based on half a wavelength and lag

9 of 14
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC D14113

Figure 9. Vertical cross section of (a) the EKE barotropic conversion, (b) the conversion from EAPE to
EKE, (c) the EAPE baroclinic conversion, and (d) EAPE generation by diabatic heating along the line
shown in Figure 5b. Contour interval is 2 × 10−6 m2 s−3.

time span between two successive nodes shown in Figure 10,
Ud can be estimated as −4.96 m s−1. In contrast, the theoretical
ER wave phase velocity can be computed following the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Ui = w/k, in which w = −bk/[k + b(2n + 1)/c0], c0 =
2
formula
gH , and k = 2p/L. H is an important physical parameter that
determines the propagation features of the ER wave, called
the equivalent depth. Using the wave number‐frequency
spectra method, Wheeler et al. [2000] found that the con-
vective variations contributing to spectral peaks lie along the
equatorial wave dispersion curves for equivalent depths in
the range of 12–50 m, which corresponds to tropospheric
vertical wavelengths of 7–13 km. Owing to a vertically
extending structure (i.e., a relatively large vertical wave-
length) of the QBWO as shown in Figure 7, the equivalent
depth H is set to 50 m for theoretical estimate. For a
wavelength of 6000 km the theoretical value of wave phase
velocity is roughly −5.45 m s−1, comparable to the observed
intrinsic velocity Ui of approximately −5.98 m s−1 obtained
from the lag correlation.
[33] Similarly, by inspection of the line labeled “G” in
Figure 10, the group velocity almost stays close to 0. That
is, while the individual crests of the wave train form to the
east of the grid point, pass through it, and decay to the west,
the largest amplitude of the wave is approximately fixed at
the base grid point. At that point the wave appears as nearly
a standing oscillation. Considering the presence of basic
zonal wind as well as the previously specified equivalent
depth and wavelength, the intrinsic group speed reasonably
matches the theoretical magnitude of −2.56 m s−1. In con-
trast, deducing from the dispersion relation w = U k − b/k for
a small meridional wave number, the phase and group
velocity for nondivergent barotropic Rossby waves with a
wavelength of 6000 km and the same zonal basic flow, just
like the common phenomenon at midlatitudes, are −19.6 and
21.6 m s−1, respectively, far from those observed. Another

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D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
Figure 10. Correlation between a reference time series of
10–20 day filtered 850 hPa vorticity at 10°N, 150°E and
the same vorticity field at each grid point along 10°N lati-
tude for various lags behind the reference time series by
the number of days noted on the y axis.
convectively coupled equatorial wave mode with a similar
period is the Kelvin wave; however, it features an eastward
propagation and a representation of zonal wind. Conse-
quently, there is little doubt that the observed wave packet
represents ER waves rather than any possible alternative.
5.2. A Case Study
[34] This section explores a typical case in August 2002,
which clearly exhibited the propagation and structural evo-
lution of a tropical wave in the 10–20 day filtered band.
Extracted from a complete event lasting approximately
1.5 months, one episode is chosen for detailed examination to
support the argument that the properties of QBWO origin in
the tropics can be associated with a convectively coupled n =
1 ER wave in many aspects.
[35] Figures 11a–11h show the evolution of the wave
packet in which the respective low and high twin vortices
straddling the equator achieved their highest amplitude.
These weather maps are shown in 3 day increments from
1 August to 22 August 2002. Figure 11a does not give a
clear indication of the shallow‐water ER structure. Rather, a
high‐pressure area (indicated by “H1”), characterized by an
anticyclonic circulation center at 5°N, 170°E, extended
longitudinally from 150°E to 180°. Along the same longi-
tudinal band the counterpart in the Southern Hemisphere
showed a stronger anticyclonic circulation without a closed
center. Three days later (Figure 11b) the northern high (H1)
moved westward and intensified, while the southern high
developed into an anticyclonic center (also labeled H1) at 7°S,
160°E, reflecting a pair of highs like an ER wave structure.
At the same time, to the east of the pair of highs, a pair of
symmetric convections about the equator emerged near the
dateline, indicative of the commencement of another pair of
lows.
[36] By 7 August (Figure 11c), H1 moved northwestward
to 15°N, 145°E, while the counterpart in the Southern
Hemisphere disappeared. A pair of lows originating from the
dateline (labeled L1) formed near 165°E. The linear shallow‐
11 of 14
D14113
water solution for the ER wave contains convergence one‐
quarter wavelength east of the low. This convergence pattern
was reflected by the negative OLR anomalies east of the low
in Figure 11c. Three days later (Figure 11d) the northern L1
amplified and formed a strong cyclonic circulation that was
longitudinally elongated. Comparatively, the southern L1
was closer to the equator than in the previous time and,
moreover, smaller in horizontal scale than the northern L1.
[37] On 13 August (Figure 11e) the northern L1 moved
northwestward to near 15°N, 147°E while continuing to
intensify. The southern L1 had become obscure. A pair of
highs (H2) appeared near 170°E, replacing the pair of lows
(L1) that first appeared at the same location around 7 August.
The 6 day period between the emergence of L1 and that of
H2 is approximately one half of a period. Subsequently, a
southeast‐northwest‐oriented train of alternating cyclonic and
anticyclonic disturbances became evident. The wave train
was characterized by a southwest‐northeast tilt in horizontal
structure and a northwestward propagation. The southern
H2 as shown in Figure 11f, located 163°E to the east of the
northern H2, weakened and approached the equator. By
19 August (Figure 11g) an enhanced convection anomaly
appeared at the equator near 175°E, resulting in another twin
cyclonic flow (L2) straddling the equator to the west of
convection. The twin cyclones were not aligned along the
same longitude. During the following 3 days (Figure 11h)
the northern L2 again moved northwestward away from the
equator, while the southern one gradually moved westward
and weakened as another high (H3) emerged to the east,
yielding a new alternating wave train. This pattern per-
sisted for 20 days more before eventually losing its ER
wave signatures.
[38] It is worthwhile to stress that, before the northern
wave component moved away from the equator, the
observed equatorial wave structures previously depicted
were not in strict agreement with the shallow‐water solution
derived from the assumption of a barotropic system without
mean flow. For example, the twin vortices did not occur at
the same longitude and were not symmetric about the
equator. In addition, the southern component of the wave
was weaker or smaller. To some degree, the above asym-
metric features can be explained by theoretical or numerical
wave solutions in realistic three‐dimensioned basic flows.
Furthermore, the structures shown in Figure 11 closely
resemble the composite western Pacific ER wave described
by Wheeler et al. [2000, their Figure 9]. Their composite ER
wave also contained a Southern Hemisphere low that was
smaller and farther east than that to the north and a nearly
identical OLR anomaly structure. Frank and Roundy [2006]
showed an ER wave composite during cyclogenesis events
over the WNP that is also similar to Figures 11b and 11c.
On the basis of the preceding analysis, although the
observed structures differed somewhat from the shallow‐
water solution, the packet is almost certainly made up of ER
waves.
6. Summary
[39] This study presents a statistical analysis of the
structure, energetics, and origin of the QBWO over the
tropical western Pacific based on the 8 year satellite obser-
vation and reanalysis data. The QBWO signal can be iso-
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC D14113

Figure 11. The 10–20‐day filtered 850 hPa wind field (vector) and OLR anomaly (shaded) on (a) 1 August,
(b) 4 August, (c) 7 August, (d) 10 August, (e) 13 August, (f) 16 August, (g) 19 August, and (h) 22 August
2002. Shaded areas indicate OLR anomalies of −10, −20, and −30 W m−2.

12 of 14
D14113 CHEN AND SUI: QBWO OVER THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC
lated from observed vorticity using a 10–20 day cutoff by
Lanczos filter. Since the power spectrum and wavelet of
vorticity identify the 10–20 day period as a significant
spectral band in the tropical western Pacific during summer
other than TD‐type disturbance, a combination of the two
leading PCs of vorticity EOF decomposition was defined as
a reference time series for regression. The similarity
between the spatial distribution of EOF of filtered vorticity
and its standard deviation further reveals the signature of the
QBWO. The wave structure is then determined by regres-
sing key variables like OLR, wind, and vertical velocity
onto the defined time series.
[40] The QBWO can be traced to westward‐moving
equatorial wave disturbances that reach 150°E and then
propagate northwestward toward south of Japan. The re-
gressed structure illustrates an alternating cyclonic and
anticyclonic wave train with a southeast‐northwest orienta-
tion and a wavelength of about 3500 km. Its horizontal
structure tilts slightly southwest‐northeastward and has a
zonally elongated signature, covering about 50° in longitu-
dinal extent. As for wave perturbations near the equator,
roughly symmetric circulation centers exist in both hemi-
spheres, although the southern components are weaker and
shifted eastward relative to those in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. The vertical structure along the cross section of the
QBWO perturbation centers tilts northwestward with height,
giving rise to the vertical baroclinic structure. The rising
(sinking) motions accompanied by warm (cold) temperature
anomalies are located at the middle level, which are tightly
coupled with the positive (negative) vorticity north of 20°N
and lead the vorticity by one eighth to one quarter of a
wavelength in the tropics. These signatures imply that the
QBWO origin may be related to one of the equatorial wave
types with a similar period.
[41] Unlike other studies, the energetic analysis reveals
the underlying mechanism by which the QBWO develops
and maintains. The energy balance averaged over a com-
plete cycle of QBWO suggests that the waves are main-
tained through baroclinic conversion north of 25°N and
diabatic latent heating in the tropics. The barotropic con-
version process for the generation of the EKE accounts for a
smaller portion of the total energy source. In summary, the
energy transfer can be simply described by the following
process: diabatic heating in the tropics and baroclinic con-
version in the subtropics jointly convert energy to EAPE,
which is further converted to EKE, through the negative
correlation of perturbation temperature and pressure vertical
velocity. The EKE produced by conversion from EAPE and
barotropic processes can be redistributed by the conver-
gence of eddy geopotential flux and advection by mean and
perturbation wind.
[42] A detailed comparison between the observed wave
propagation and the theoretical estimate is made to verify
that the origin of the QBWO is related to one kind of
equatorial wave. On the basis of the lag correlation, this
study reports that the tropical QBWO origin is identified
with a zonal wave number of 6, and the westward phase
speed and group velocity are consistent with an n = 1 ER
wave. A case study of the event during August 2002
described the evolution of an n = 1 ER wave with a sym-
metric vortex about the equator into an off‐equatorial 10–
20 day oscillation, further supporting the interpretation.
13 of 14
D14113
[43] In addition to the presence of 1 maximum standard
deviation at 150°E in the tropics, another extremum, with a
higher amplitude and a larger extent than that in the tropics,
was found north of 20°N in East Asia (shown in Figure 3),
which may be partly attributable to disturbances originating
from the midlatitude zone. Using the OLR in the South
China Sea as an index, Fukutomi and Yasunari [1999, 2002]
found a two‐way tropical‐extratropical interaction on a 10–
25 day time scale over the western Pacific during the early
summer. They examined the relationships between tropical
convection over the South China Sea and large‐scale cir-
culation and showed a lower and upper tropospheric wave
train with a zonal wave number of 5–6 arcing into the
North Pacific. In the lower troposphere the alternating
subtropical circulation anomalies propagate southwestward
into the South China Sea region, following the westerly duct
extending from the tropical monsoon region to the North
Pacific along the northern periphery of the subtropical high.
Considering their results, it is possibile that the southward‐
penetrating midlatitude Rossby wave and the QBWO orig-
inating from the tropics jointly intensify the 10–20 day
oscillation amplitude over the East Asian extratropical
region. The concurrent contribution to 10–20 day oscillation
from the tropics and midlatitude still requires more inves-
tigation to identify the interactions and their effect on the
QBWO.
[44] Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Miss S.‐Y. Lee and
Yu‐Chia Peng for assisting the initial stage of the analysis. Guanghua Chen
was supported by the National Key Technology R&D Program (grant
2008BAK50B02), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
40905024), and a visiting grant from the National Science Council (NSC).
C.‐H. Sui was supported by NSC grant 95‐2111‐M‐008‐003.
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G. Chen, Center for Monsoon System Research, Institute of Atmospheric
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PO Box 2718, Beijing 100190,
China. (cgh@mail.iap.ac.cn)
C.‐H. Sui, Institute of Hydrological and Oceanic Sciences and
Department of Atmospheric Sciences, National Central University, 300
Jhongda Rd., Jhongli City, Taoyuan County 320, Taiwan.