Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

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CFD studies on different configurations of drying

chamber for thin-layer drying of leaves

A.K. Babu, G. Kumaresan, V. Antony Aroul Raj & R. Velraj

To cite this article: A.K. Babu, G. Kumaresan, V. Antony Aroul Raj & R. Velraj (2019): CFD studies
on different configurations of drying chamber for thin-layer drying of leaves, Energy Sources, Part
A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2019.1607935

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ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2019.1607935

CFD studies on different configurations of drying chamber for

thin-layer drying of leaves
A.K. Babua, G. Kumaresanb, V. Antony Aroul Rajc, and R. Velrajb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Easwari Engineering College, Chennai, India; bInstitute for Energy Studies,
Anna University, Chennai, India; cDepartment of Automobile Engineering, Easwari Engineering College, Chennai,
India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The design of a single air pass drying chamber used in tray dryers for thin- Received 6 December 2018
layer solar drying of fragile, heat-sensitive food materials such as edible Revised 2 March 2019
leaves is a challenging task. It is essential to obtain good air distribution in Accepted 4 April 2019
all drying chamber designs to ensure uniform drying of the product. KEYWORDS
Simultaneous achievement of once-through air-side pressure drop and Heat pump drying; drying
increase the moisture mass transfer rates are also important objectives chamber; tray dryer; leaves;
of any heat and mass exchanger design. For obtaining these objectives in CFD simulation
the dryer design, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used as a tool for
designing and theoretically testing different suitable air flow drying cham-
ber configurations in the tray dryer. In this investigative research work,
four different optimized geometries of the drying chamber for drying
leaves are designed and evaluated theoretically from predicted perfor-
mance by using ANSYS FLUENT software. The limiting air-side pressure
drops and achieved dried output from various configurations are checked,
assessed and presented in this work. The best configuration and construc-
tion detail are also highlighted. This generalized, proven, CFD procedure
can be used for checking the performance of any similar transit type inter
mass exchanger, to predict the best configuration in terms of mass trans-
fer and pressure drop.

Introduction
Drying is the traditional method of preserving foods. The presence of moisture encourages the
growth of bacteria in food and leads to its deterioration. Besides the desired active ingredients,
freshly harvested foods have in their structure a high percentage of both bound and unbound water.
Moisture supports the proliferation of microorganisms which deteriorate the quality of fresh food
and results in its spoilage. The stripping of moist water by a short residence time dehydration
process minimizes these indesirable, deterioration-causing metabolic biochemical reactions. If the
food is quickly dried and the water is removed to a level lower than atmospheric critical relative
humidity, it can be preserved for many days (i) for off-season use, and (ii) for transport and use in
places of demand where particular natural food products are unavailable (Babu et al. 2018).
An efficient drying process depends on (1) limiting the dry air temperature and ensuring its
continuous supply to draw out moisture, without cooking the food; (2) optimized temperature of
supplied air (with low relative humidity conditions) to easily absorb and release material moisture to
exhaust; (3) adequate air supply velocities to carry off the moisture with quick moisture reduction
from leaves; (4) minimum air-side pressure drop (difference in pressure at inlet and outlet of mass

CONTACT A.K. Babu ayya_krish_babu@yahoo.comDepartment of Automobile EngineeringEaswari Engineering College,

Bharathi Salai, Ramapuram, Chennai, India, 600 089, Tamilnadu
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ueso.
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 A. K. BABU ET AL.

exchanger) in the drying chamber. Once-through drying may be a simple method, but obtaining all
of the above-mentioned controlled conditions while maintaining high drying rates and with short
retention time of material to be dried is a very difficult art. By this controlled, low contact time
drying process, nutrients as well as inherent color and fragrance are retained to the maximum extent
possible in the final dried leaves within its limiting moisture levels.
Among the forced convection or once-through drying methods, batch tray dryers are most
commonly used for thin-layer drying of many leaves. Thin-layer drying refers to the drying
process in which all feed materials to be dried are fully exposed to the drying air under constant
drying conditions (Chen and Mujumdar 2006).
Tray dryers are easy to fabricate and cost-effective for low output requirements. The advan-
tage of tray dryers is that more products can be loaded as the trays are arranged at different
levels. Non-uniformity in the moisture content of the end product in different tray beds is an
inherent drawback in using the batch tray dryer (Lin et al. 2010). The drawback of this dryer is
non-uniformity in the desired moisture content of end product (Misha, Mat, and Rusian 2013;
Natalia et al. 2018). In conventional tray dryers, hot air is usually introduced above the first tray
(top tray) and it normally passes through the other trays. Therefore, leaves located on the top
trays receive the maximum possible energy and could be over-dried, while the bottom trays may
not receive enough driving force to be dried due to increase in drying air relative humidity and
decrease in air velocity and temperature. Moisture removal rate shows a very strong relationship
with drying air temperature, velocity and depth of the tray (Chen and Mujumdar 2006).
Controlling all of these parameters experimentally is very tedious and difficult which results in
non-uniformity in the desired moisture content of final product due to poor air flow distribution
in the drying (Misha, Mat, and Rusian 2013).
Most of the recent CFD studies focus on temperature and airflow distribution inside the tray
dryers. Investigation of velocity, pressure and temperature field in CFD has been carried out in
most of the research works (Achint Sanghi, Ambrose, and Maier 2018; Darabi et al. 2015; Natalia
et al. 2018; Noh, Mat, and Ruslan 2018). Transient temperature field for drier has been captured
by Gomez et al. (2018). Only few researches on transient CFD study with combined heat and
mass transfer have been carried out. A two-dimensional CFD model with transient boundary
conditions has been considered by Mirade et al. (Mirade 2013) to study the uniformness of the
distribution of the air velocity in an industrial meat dryer for several low and high levels of the
ventilation cycle, and two forms of linear and sinusoidal cycle. The variations in the airflow
structure due to non-symmetry occurring in the ventilation cycle are also evaluated. Page et al.
(2009) developed an approximate semi empirical-CFD modeling procedure for studying the heat
and mass transfer using user-defined functions (UDF) incorporated in the commercial CFD code
FLUENT. Internal diffusion of moisture was taken into account by considering the product as
a motionless fluid consisting of dry matter and water. The procedure developed allows calcula-
tion of temperature and moisture fields and the drying kinetics of the products to be determined
together with the temperature and moisture fields of the air flowing around them.
A transient heat and mass transfer CFD model has been developed by Cârlescu et al. (2017) to
simulate the moisture and temperature gradients in convective drying of apricots. The drying
simulation was performed for the unsteady flow regime, for unblanched and blanched apricots,
by following the moisture content and the temperature from the boundary layer and pulp. The
apricots were represented with a fixed geometry and considering their pulp as a homogenous
and isotropic vegetable material. In this model also the heat and mass transfer model was linked
to the CFD simulation by UDF (User Defined Functions), using functions for the physical
properties of apricots and warm air, which vary with time.
In this work commercial CFD software ANSYS FLUENT has been used for testing various
configurations of tray dryers and to select the best possible geometry. A Computational fluid
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 3

dynamics (CFD) tool is used in this work to study different configurations of a tray dryer using thin-
layer drying principle.
The main objectives of this research are:

(1) To investigate the effect of four different geometries of the batch drying chamber on overall
dryer performance for drying leaves.
(2) To compare the proposed designs by CFD and to select the best design for achieving higher
mass transfer rate.
(3) To achieve minimum pressure drop between inlet and outlet of the drying chamber.
(4) To investigate uniform distribution of drying air flow inside the drying chamber for drying
uniformity and to get near uniform once-through air flow.
(5) To achieve uniform temperature distribution throughout the dryer.

The dryer tested in this work finds application in transit drying. The leaves can be dried even during
transportation using waste heat released from the transit vehicle.

Drying chamber configurations

To evaluate the suitability of the design of the new cabinet dryer, CFD analysis of four configurations
is carried out, as shown in Figure 1. The most feasible design can be assessed by comparing the
uniformity of air flow distribution in the drying chamber as done earlier by many other researchers
(Amanlou and Zomorodian 2010; Mathioulakis, Karathanos, and Belessiotic 1998).
It is obvious that the geometry of the drying chamber (air inlet size, the distance between the trays,
depth of tray and area of the tray) will affect the air flow pattern, air pressure and moisture removal rate
in the drying chamber. Other important dimensions of the dryer are air exit size and its location,
distance of trays from dryer ceiling. Information about different designs is summarized in Figure 1 and
Table 1. The depth of the drying chambers is equal to 1 m, and it is constant for all cases.
The most appropriate geometrical shape of the drying chamber of the tray dryer is to be
determined for achieving (i) uniform distribution of drying air flow inside the drying chamber
and (ii) minimum pressure drop between inlet and outlet of drying chamber, different designs are
analyzed using CFD software.

Governing equations
Flow equations
The continuity equation for drying air is an expression of conservation of mass. In (vector)
differential form, it is written as (Ranjbaran, Emadi, and Zare 2014):
@ ρa ~ ¼ 0
þ Ñ :ðρa VÞ (1)
@t
where ρa is air density and V is air velocity vector.
Equation (1) is the unsteady, three-dimensional mass conservation or continuity equation at
a point in a compressible fluid. The first term on the left-hand side is the rate of change in density
with time (mass per unit volume). The second term describes the net flow of mass out of the element
across its boundaries and is called the convective term.
The momentum conservation equation for the drying air is written as follows (Achint Sanghi,
Ambrose, and Maier 2018):
~
@ ðρa VÞ ~ VÞ
þ Ñ : ðρa V ~ ¼ Ñ P þ Ñ :τ þ ρ :~
a g þ Sm (2)
@t
4 A. K. BABU ET AL.

Figure 1. Investigation of various configurations of the drying chamber.

Table 1. Geometrical parameters and dimensions of the dryers investigated.

Geometrical parameters Configuration (a) Configuration (b) Configuration (c) Configuration (d)
Air inlet size (m) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Air outlet size (m) 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4
Location of outlet Bottom Middle Middle Middle
Distance of tray from dryer ceiling (m) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

where τ is the Reynolds stress tensor.

Among turbulent models, the standard k-ε model continues to remain an industry standard and
its successful applications have been reported in recent literature. The standard k-ε model which is
a semi-empirical model based on model transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy (k) and
its dissipation rate (ε) is chosen for the current study.

Moisture transfer equations

The moisture transport equation is given by (Thorpe 2008)
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 5

@ ðρa wÞ
þ Ñ : ðρa vwÞ ¼ Ñ : ðρa Deff ÑwÞ þ Sw (3)
@t
where w is the humidity of air, ρa is the density of air, v is the superficial or Darcian velocity of the
air as opposed to the average velocity of the air, Deff is the effective diffusion coefficient through
a bed of leaves, t is time, ∇ is the del operator and Sw is a source term.
The moisture source term, Sw for moisture transport equation shown above, can be expressed as:
@w
Sw ¼ ð1  εÞ ρg (4)
@t
In which ρg is the density of the leaves on a dry basis which is in kg/m3. The rate at which the leaves
lose moisture is given by the expression
@w
¼ kðW  WeÞ (5)
@t
where k is the drying constant, which is given by (Doymaz, Tugrul, and Pala 2006):


 4261:4
k ¼ 3:571  10 4 exp (6)
T
We is the moisture content of the outer surface of the leaves and T is the leaf temperature.
Commercial computational fluid dynamics software packages discretize the region of leaves into
a number of three-dimensional porous cells. Values of the variables such as leaf moisture content that
relates to each cell are stored in memory and they are updated at each time step of an unsteady or transient
solution. In this simulation of moisture transfer in bulk quantities of leaves, the moisture content is
calculated by Wp+1, after the p + 1th time step in terms of its value at the pth time step using the expression:
@w
Wpþ1 ¼ Wp þ Δt (7)
@t

Heat transfer equations

The generalized energy equation of air-water vapor mixture is represented as (Thorpe 2008)


@Hw @T
ρa εca þ ρb ð1  εÞðcg þ cw W þ Þ þ ca Ñðρa uTÞ ¼ keff Ñ2 T þ Sh (8)
@T @t
where ca, cg and cw are the specific heats of air, leaf and liquid water, respectively; HW is the integral
heat of wetting of the leaves; keff is the effective thermal conductivity of the leaves and Sh is the
thermal source term that results from heat being liberated or extracted from the leaves when they
adsorb or desorb moisture.
The source term, Sh, takes the form:
@W
Sh ¼ hs ð1  εÞ ρs (9)
@t
where hs is the heat of sorption of water on the leaves.

Simulation
The numerical finite volume method, as used in ANSYS FLUENT (ANSYS 2005), is used for solving
the equations on a PC P i5 3.20 GHz with 8.0 GB RAM.
All the geometrical configurations are displayed in Figure 1. They are used to build up
a numerical model based on structured two-dimensional mesh by the hexahedral cell. Double
precision and segregated solver is used for CFD simulation.
6 A. K. BABU ET AL.

To solve the governing equations, initial (Table 2) and boundary conditions must be defined
around the boundary of the system domain. Since the equations are highly non-linear, they are not
solvable by explicit, closed-form analytical methods (Anderson 1995).
Setting up of flow-simulating computation involves specific boundary conditions, particularly at
surfaces bounding the domain. In this study, various boundary conditions are defined as follows.

● Inlet: Inlet velocity of 0.2 m/s and an air temperature of 40°C are selected. The species fraction
of water at the inlet is 0.0108 (RH = 24.33%). The direction of air flow is normal to the air inlet.
● Outlet: Outflow condition is given. Gauge pressure = 0 at the outlet, The software extrapolates
the required information from the interior of the drying chamber to outlet.
● Porous media: Empirical parameters of pressure drop equation and leaves tray porosity are
defined.

Wall: No slip condition is given. Heat transfer coefficients of the bare chamber walls and
environmental conditions are defined. The input thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density
of the chamber wall are given as 0.16 W/mk, 1255 J/kgK and 720 kg/m3, respectively. The error band
of simulation is reduced by using double precision solver, conducting grid independence test,
convergence criteria test and using higher order scheme. Grid independence study is carried out
by refining the mesh and the results are validated. The grid convergence error is estimated using
generalized Richardson extrapolation technique.

Results and discussions

Configuration (a)
The tray dryer design, the configuration of which is shown in Figure 1(a), is taken for CFD analysis
where the trays are arranged in series and the air flows take a 180° turn after every tray. The
configuration (a) is modeled using pre-processor software as two distinct zones – fluid and leaves
tray. The moisture generated from the leaves is modeled using a user-defined function in the source
term of the leaf tray domain (Equation 9). The air passing over the tray absorbs the moisture
generated from the leaves and the exit moisture content increases. Since the moisture generation is
a transient process, the simulation is carried out by implicit time-marching. The exit moisture
content is tracked at varying time intervals and presented.
For having a common flow and geometric condition, the inlet condition and volume of leaves in
trays are both the same for all configurations.
Pressure drop is calculated for all configurations. The velocity and pressure plots for configura-
tion (a) are shown in Figure 2(b,c). Due to 180° turns in the flow, it is observed that the pressure
drop in configuration (a) is higher. The mass transfer is tracked for a total time of 100 sec with time
interval [Figure 2(d–h)]. It can be clearly seen that the mass transfer in the first tray is more
compared to the subsequent trays. The mass transfer in the last tray is the least due to the smaller
concentration gradient between the tray and the air. It is concluded from the CFD analysis that if the
trays are arranged in series the mass transfer rate decreases along the flow path. The drying process
will be completed in trays 1 and 2 much before the last trays but the operator has to wait until the
last tray gets dried which will be subjected to more drying time. This configuration results in more
drying time and non-uniform drying. Hence, it is desirable to have a lesser number of trays along the

Table 2. Initial conditions.

Air temperature (T), °C Humidity of air (w), kg of water/kg of dry air Inlet velocity (V), m/s
30 0.001 0.2
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 7

Figure 2. Simulation results of configuration (a).

flow path. For this objective, configuration (b) is suggested where there are two inlets, a single outlet
and trays only along the flow path conserving the mass. The exit opening is doubled.
8 A. K. BABU ET AL.

Figure 3. Simulation results of configuration (b).

Configuration (b)
For configuration (b), the velocity and pressure plots are shown in Figure 3(a,b). The pressure drop
is reduced compared to the previous configuration as the flow path is divided into two. The mass
transfer rate is tracked for a period of 100 sec with 20 sec time intervals [Figure 3(c–g)]. It is
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 9

observed that the mass transfer is better in the second configuration due to the similar moisture
release by trays 1 and 2. Comparatively, the mass transfer is lesser in tray 3.
Hence, it was decided to remove tray 3 to reduce overall drying time and for obtaining uniform
drying, and that becomes configuration (c).

Configuration (c)
The velocity and pressure drop for configuration (c) are shown in Figure 4(a,b). The pressure
drop is reduced compared to the configurations (a) and (b). The results of transient mass
transfer plots indicate that mass transfer is uniform for this configuration [Figure 4(c–g)].

Configuration (d)
The pressure drop, as well as the flow rate, are further reduced by configuration (d) for reducing
the capacity of the fan used in the mass exchanger. For this purpose, instead of turning the flow by
180°, it is decided to place the trays in series giving configuration (d), where the flow volume is
maintained the same as configuration (a). The pressure drop is reduced further by having
a straight flow condition. The velocity and pressure plots for the improvised configuration (d)
are shown in Figure 5(b,c). The achieved mass transfer rates are more for configuration (d) (but
less than b and c) [Figure 5(d–h)]. This configuration is more effective in pressure drop reduction
which helps to reduce the energy consumption (Table 3).
Moisture removed for various time steps is shown in Figure 2(a). The total moisture removed for
the evaluation time can be integrated by time integration of the moisture removed in each time step.
ð
Wt ¼ wdt (10)

The integrated value for configuration (a) is 2.4991 × 10–3 ± 1.289 × 10–5 Kgms (Table 3). From
Figure 1, of configuration (a), the hot dry air is completely introduced at the top of the drying
chamber. Moisture transfer in the upper trays affects the transfer in the subsequent dryers. The
drying potential of the hot dry air is gradually diminished as it passes through the trays. Hence, this
configuration is ineffective due to the series arrangement. Pressure drop is also higher due to 180°
turning in the duct. In order to reduce the issue of non-uniformity in the airflow distribution in
configuration (a), configuration (b) was introduced. In this design, fresh drying air is introduced to
both upper and bottom trays to keep the air drying potential high and uniformly distributed within
the trays. It is believed that this design change will result in more even air flow distribution and more
uniform moisture removal simultaneously from all the trays in the tray dryer. This design is better
than configuration (a) but still, the issue of non-uniform drying exists, particularly in the middle
tray. Drying time increases because of the middle tray alone. Hence, the middle tray is removed to
obtain uniform drying and that becomes configuration (c). Reduction in the drying is due to the
removal of a tray but relative to the number of trays, configuration (c) is better than configuration
(b). Uniform drying condition is achieved and the pressure drop is reduced compared to the
configurations (a) and (b). Further, the pressure drop, as well as the flow rate, is reduced which
further reduces the capacity of the fan used in the mass exchanger. To achieve this, instead of
turning the flow by 180°, the trays are placed in series giving configuration (d) where the flow
volume is maintained at the same level as in configuration (a). The pressure drop is made the least by
having a straight flow condition. It is found that the mass transfer is more for configuration (d)
[lesser than (b) and (c)] and it is more effective in reducing the pressure drop, and in turn, the high-
grade energy consumption. Hence, this configuration of the mass exchanger is chosen for transit
drying. This methodology can be used as a generalized procedure for testing the performance of the
tray dryer using CFD. Earlier research works in this field has been done to simulate and validate the
experimental performance of drying. Most of the works in the literature focus on finding the velocity
10 A. K. BABU ET AL.

Figure 4. Simulation results of configuration (c).

 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 11

Figure 5. Simulation results of configuration (d).

and transient temperature fields. Only a Few works were done to simulate the transient moisture
field (Darabi et al. 2015; Misha, Mat, and Rusian 2013; Natalia et al. 2018). In this work, the moisture
generated by the tray drier various configuration of the dryer has been calculated and integrated for
finding the best configuration.
12 A. K. BABU ET AL.

Table 3. Pressure drop and mass transfer.

Configuration (a) Configuration (b) Configuration (c) Configuration (d)
Pressure Drop (Δp), 0.21835 ± 0.00213 0.06712 ± 0.00074 0.06202 ± 0.00049 0.02056 ± 0.000123
Pascal
Moisture 2.499 × 10–3 ± 1.289 × 4.3836 × 10–3 ± 2.705 × 4.3473 × 10–3 ± 1.738 × 3.4566 × 10–3 ± 1.151 ×
Removed, kg 10–5 10–5 10–5 10–5

Conclusions
(1) In the work presented, the simulation results of the four different designs of the drying
chamber of the tray dryer are compared with each other and the best design with minimum
pressure drop, maximum mass transfer rate with reduced drying time, the most uniform air
temperature, and uniform airflow distribution for the drying chamber is chosen.
(2) The trays in the series improved the dryer‘s performance. Minimum pressure drop and
maximum moisture removal are observed with configuration (d). Hence, configuration (d)
is deemed to be the best configuration for drying leaves. Also, uniform air temperature and
velocity distributions are obtained in this configuration.
(3) CFD tool is a very powerful tool for parametric study and optimization of the tray drying
chamber design for use in batch type tray dryer in leaf drying. The work presented in this
article confirms that this methodology can be used as a generalized procedure for testing the
performance of drying chambers geometry.

Scope for future research

More complicated sub model for moist solid to include the internal structure of product can be
implemented in CFD software to increase the accuracy of the CFD model.

List of abbreviations

Deff Effective diffusion coefficient (m2/s)

V Velocity of air
v Superficial or Darcian velocity of air through leaves (m/s)
w Humidity of air (kg water/kg dry air)
k Drying constant
keff Effective thermal conductivity of the leaves (W/m°C)
C Specific heat
K Thermal conductivity
H Heat of the leaves
W Moisture content of leaves (kg water/kg dry air)
We Equilibrium moisture content of leaves (kg water/kg dry air)
Wp Moisture content of leaves after pth time step (kg water/kg dry air)
Sw Source term in general transport equation
Sh Source term in energy equation (W/m3)
T Product temperature °C
hs Heat of sorption of water in the leaves
CFD Computational Fluid dynamics

Greek symbols
ρ Density
τ Stress
ε Dissipation rate
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 13

Subscripts
a air
e equilibrium
g leaf
w liquid water

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Easwari Engineering College for permitting to carry out research in DST IPHEE CFD lab
for modeling and simulation.

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