Catena 108 (2013) 50–57

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Effect of forest floor characteristics on water repellency, infiltration,

runoff and soil loss in Andisols of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain)
J. Neris ⁎, M. Tejedor, M. Rodríguez, J. Fuentes, C. Jiménez
Dpto. Edafología y Geología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez s/n, 38071, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Given its singular properties and location, forest floor (litter + duff) is a key factor in hydrological processes.
Andisols Water infiltration research was carried out for the present study in Andisols at ten sites, six of which had cov-
Forest floor erings of pine forest and four of rainforest. Rainfall simulations were conducted on gentle, moderately-steep
Water repellency and steep slopes (10, 30 and 50%) to determine infiltration, runoff and soil loss as a function of the forest floor
Soil structure characteristics. The duff on the pine forest soils consists of moderately porous, extremely hydrophobic and
Infiltration rate
consistent semi-decomposed organic material, which is rich in fungi hyphae. The duff on the rainforest
Rainfall simulation
soils is formed by highly porous, loose, semi-decomposed organic material. The study results highlight the
influential role played by the forest floor in infiltration and runoff. Infiltration barely reaches 20 mm h− 1
in pine forest, compared to 50 mm h− 1 in rainforest. As a consequence, the pine forest runoff is twice that
recorded in rainforest sites. The wetting front on gentle and moderately-steep slopes evidences the influence
of the duff on infiltration. In pine forest, most of the rainwater remains in the duff and infiltration depends
little therefore on the underlying mineral soil properties. In rainforest, the wetting front extends below the
duff and the well-developed soil structure is a major factor in water infiltration. The differences noted in
the two parameters are not found on the steep slopes. No soil loss differences are observed between the
two vegetation covers and forest floors despite the greater runoff in pine forest. The results demonstrate
the protective effect of the organic covering and how the stability of the Andisols helps combat water erosion
processes.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
As the interface between the mineral soil and the atmosphere in
many land ecosystems, the forest floor – a surface horizon mainly com-
prising decomposing plant material – plays a crucial role in hydrological
processes (Keith et al., 2010a). Forest floor is divided into two differen-
tiated layers (litter and duff) following a gradient of decomposition
(Keith et al., 2010b). As the above authors note, litter (L or A00 horizon)
is formed by fresh leaves from the surrounding vegetation and is lo-
cated on the surface. Duff (A0) comprises two distinct layers: a top fer-
mentation layer (F horizon) and bottom humus layer (H horizon). The
layers are formed, respectively, by partly or wholly decomposed plant
remains.
Several authors have drawn attention to the physical particulari-
ties of the forest floor and note how they differ to those of the under-
lying mineral soils (Keith et al., 2010b; Lauren and Mannerkoski,
2001; Lauren et al., 2000). Due to its location and properties, the pres-
ence of forest floor can modify the amount of rainwater available for
infiltration and runoff (Guevara-Escobar et al., 2007). Consequently, it
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 34 922318366; fax: +34 922318311.
E-mail address: jneris@ull.es (J. Neris).
can alter the hydrological response of the soils compared to their
response when no forest floor is present (Keith et al., 2010a). Accord-
ing to Descroix et al. (2001), surface features play a pivotal role in soil
hydrology. However, most hydrological studies in forest zones focus
on the mineral soil and few take the forest floor into consideration
(Buttle et al., 2000, 2005). Furthermore, it is well known that the
presence of water-repellent soil surface horizons inhibits infiltration
and promotes runoff (DeBano, 1971; Doerr et al., 2000; Robichaud
and Waldrop, 1994). However, most studies concern themselves
with the underlying mineral horizons and few with the forest floor
(see e.g. Martínez-Zavala and Jordán-López, 2009; Poulenard et al.,
2001; Zehetner and Miller, 2006).
Andisols (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) are the most characteristic soils
found on Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) due to the island's volcanic
nature, the relatively young age of some of its materials and its appro-
priate climate conditions. These are soils with high structural devel-
opment and high porosity, properties which explain their high water
infiltration rate under natural conditions (Harden, 1991; Nanzyo
et al., 1993; Perrin et al., 2001). Most authors consider that the singu-
lar mineralogical properties and high organic carbon content of these
soils are decisive factors in their structural properties (Fernández
Caldas and Tejedor Salguero, 1975; Hoyos and Comerford, 2005;
Quantin, 1994; Warkentin and Maeda, 1980). Nonetheless, previous

0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.catena.2012.04.011
 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
field observations show that, in pine forest, some of the soils do
not become moist until the end of the rainy season. This wetting
delay would appear to be in contradiction with the theoretically
high infiltration of Andisols. Studies of Andisols have highlighted the
structural degradation and reduction in infiltration capacity produced
by a change in land use (see e.g. Jiménez et al., 2006; Poulenard et al.,
2001; Rodríguez Rodríguez et al., 2002; Warkentin and Maeda, 1980;
Zehetner and Miller, 2006). Meanwhile, various authors have drawn
attention to the influence exerted on soil hydrological behaviour by
surface features, including plant cover (Cerdà, 1998, 1999; Molina
et al., 2007), rock fragments (Descroix et al., 2001; Martínez-Zavala
and Jordán, 2008) and even ash (Cerdà and Doerr, 2008; Woods and
Balfour, 2008, 2010; Zavala et al., 2009) and pine needles following a
fire (Cerdà and Doerr, 2008). However, few studies have examined
the influence of the forest floor on the water repellency and hydro-
logical behaviour of Andisols.
The present work aims to contribute to resolving the discrepancies
that exist with respect to the wetting process in certain Andisols under
forest vegetation. In order to do so we will: (a) characterise the forest
floor and soil for two different vegetation covers; (b) study the infil-
tration, water repellency, runoff and erosion in the Andisols under
both covers using simulated rainfall events; and (c) analyse the influ-
ence of the forest floor and soil properties on the hydrological process-
es in the study soils.
2. Methodology
2.1. Site description
Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean.
It is situated between 27º 55′ and 28° 35′ north latitude and between
16° 05′ and 16° 55′ west longitude (Fig. 1). Its geographical position
(near the Tropic of Cancer and under the influence of the trade
winds), elevation (highest point: 3718 m.a.s.l.) and the orientation
of its mountain systems give rise to a wide variety of meso- and
micro-climates and vegetation (del Arco et al., 2006). It also boasts
a diversity of volcanic materials of different ages. The combination
of all these factors accounts for the presence of different soil orders
on the island (Tejedor et al., 2007).
The study area is situated between 850 and 1400 m.a.s.l. on the
north face of the island (Fig. 1). It is dominated by moderately-steep
hillsides (20–50%) according to the slope classification given in the
Fig. 1. Location of the island of Tenerife; Andisols (Udands and Ustands) and study sites.
51
Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993). Bedrock con-
sists of basaltic pyroclasts and lava flows (0.7–0.01 M yrs) with subse-
quent rejuvenations by analogous ashes (b0.01 M years). Average
annual precipitation is between 600 and 1000 mm. The amount of
water from condensation is very significant in this altitudinal strip.
According to Marzol Jaén (2005), water from condensation can amount
to five times rainfall, depending on the vegetation and location. The
natural vegetation consists mainly of pine forest (Pinus canariensis)
and rainforest (Laurus novocanariensis, Apollonias barbujana, Persea
indica, Ilex canariensis, Myrica faya, Erica arborea, and Erica scoparia,
among other species).
The study area lies on the ustic–udic boundary (Soil Survey Staff,
1999). The soils are mostly Andisols (Ustands and Udands). Some
Inceptisols and Entisols (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) are also found al-
though they occupy much smaller areas. The type of vegetation deter-
mines the characteristics of the forest floor, particularly the duff
properties. The litter in both the pine forest and rainforest consists
of a covering of loose leaves in the early stages of decomposition.
The pine forest duff comprises semi-decomposed organic material,
which is rich in macroscopic fungi hyphae (Fig. 2). In contrast, the
rainforest duff is a loose, semi-decomposed organic material which
appears to be free of fungi hyphae (Fig. 2).
2.2. Site selection
Six pine forest sites and four rainforest sites were selected for the
study. All the soils are Udands or Ustands (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
The sites are located at heights between 900 and 1200 m.a.s.l. Bearing
in mind the influence of vegetation cover on forest floor characteris-
tics, care was taken to select sites with homogeneous vegetation
composition, both in the pine forest and rainforest. Pinus canariensis
is the main species present in the pine forest sites, while the vegeta-
tion in the rainforest sites comprises laurifolia tree species (Myrica
faya and Persea indica). The limited extent of rainforest on the island,
its location in areas that are difficult to access and its wide botanical
composition prevented further rainforest sites from being selected.
3 plots with similar forest floor characteristics were selected in each
site for each of the study slopes: 10% (30 plots), 30% (30 plots) and
50% (15 plots). Only 5 sites with slopes of 50% were identified (2 in
pine forest and 3 in rainforest). In line with the Soil Survey Division
Staff (1993) slope classes, the terms gentle, moderately-steep and
steep were used for slopes of 10, 30 and 50%, respectively. The
52 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
Fig. 2. Above, left to right — forest floor, duff specimen and water repellency in pine forest. Below, left to right — forest floor, litter and duff samples in rainforest.
research (site description, forest floor characterisation, sample collec-
tion and simulated rainfall events) was conducted from July to
September 2007, following a dry period (total rainfall during the pre-
vious month was below 10 mm).
2.3. Forest floor characterisation
A full description of the forest floor at each site was undertaken
during the summer of 2007 prior to the simulated rainfall events.
Litter and duff were moderately dry in all sites. The thickness and
covering of both the litter and duff were studied. Duff was also char-
acterised in terms of consistency, presence of macroscopic fungi and
water repellency. The thickness and covering of the litter and duff
were estimated visually in each study plot. A stereoscopic microscope
was used to check the presence of fungi hyphae. Duff consistency
was determined by hand in moderately-dry samples using rupture
resistance classes (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993). The Water Drop
Penetration Time test (WDPT) (Letey, 1969) was used to determine
water repellency. The test consists of placing 10 water drops on the
sample surface and measuring the time taken to infiltrate completely.
Five air-dried sub-samples from each site were analysed using this
method. When WDPT exceeded 1 h samples were covered carefully
to prevent evaporation.
2.4. Infiltration, runoff and soil loss
A rainfall simulator similar to that developed by Nacci and Pla
(1991) was used to study infiltration, runoff and soil loss. The gravity
drip simulator was placed at a height of ≈2 m over a 0.1 m 2 rectan-
gular bounded parcel. Parcel boundaries were established using a
0.27 × 0.37 × 0.25 m frame nailed 0.05 m into the ground. Plastic
sheeting was wrapped around the simulator to minimise rainfall var-
iability due to wind. Bearing in mind the high infiltration capacity of
the Andisols, high rainfall intensity (60 mm h − 1) was used to guaran-
tee runoff phenomena. High intensity rainfall events were simulated
to quantify the effects of intense thunderstorms, which are the ones
that trigger erosive processes. Rainfall intensity was calculated before
and after each event by measuring the volume of water collected dur-
ing a 5-min interval in a plastic calibration pan placed over the plot
frame. Instant rainfall intensity was determined by linear regression
between the intensity before and after the experiment. Rainfall
events were of 35 min duration. Demineralised water was used
given that electrolyte concentration may affect rainfall simulation
results (Agassi and Bradford, 1999; Borselli et al., 2001). A total of
75 rainfall simulations were performed.
The rainfall simulations were carried out during the summer of
2007 after a dry period. The forest floor was moderately dry and the
topsoil moisture of the study plots was lower than water retention
at permanent wilting point (20 ± 8% and 30 ± 11% in the pine and
rainforest sites respectively). The Volume to Runoff (VR: mm) – the
amount of rainwater needed to generate runoff – was calculated. All
the runoff water was measured at 5 minute intervals and collected
at alternate intervals in 500 ml jars for sediment analysis. The Infiltra-
tion Rate (IR: mm h − 1) until the steady-state was reached (Steady-
state Infiltration Rate-SIR: mm h − 1) was determined. The Runoff/
Rainfall Ratio (RR: %) was calculated as the relationship between
the total runoff volume and the volume of rainfall during the rainfall
event. Runoff samples were dried (105 °C) until all the water had
evaporated completely and were then weighed to determine the
mass of eroded soil. Soil loss was represented as the soil loss rate
(SR: g m − 2 h − 1) and concentration (SC: g L − 1). Following the rain-
fall event, the wetting front (WF) was determined visually by digging
and was measured from the forest floor surface.
2.5. Soil analysis
Three bulk mineral soil samples were collected from the upper
5 cm below duff at each site (A horizon). Particle size distribution
(particles b2 mm) was determined after prior H2O2 treatment and
samples were dispersed in sodium hexametaphosphate solution
using the Bouyoucos densimeter method (Gee and Bauder, 1986).
Soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined by dichromate oxidation
(Walkley and Black, 1934). Bulk density was measured on an oven-
dried weight basis of a 96.6 cm 3 core sample taken at field-moisture
conditions (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Gravimetric soil moisture at
−33 kPa and −1500 kPa tensions was determined by Richards pres-
sure plates (Klute, 1986). Three indices associated with soil structure
were studied following the method of Bartoli et al. (1991): soil aggre-
gation (SA), wet soil stability (WSS) and wet aggregate stability
(WAS). The water repellency of the top 5 cm of soil below duff was
determined using the Water Drop Penetration Time (WDPT) test
(Letey, 1969). For a description of the method, see Section 2.3 above.
 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57 53

2.6. Statistical analysis

SPSS version 17.0.0 was used for the statistical analysis of the
results. Given that the data did not satisfy the requirements for nor-
mality and homogeneity of variances, non-parametric methods
were used for the analyses. The Mann–Whitney U test, which estab-
lishes differences between groups defined for independent samples,
was used for hypothesis testing. A significance level of 0.05 was set.

3. Results

3.1. Forest floor characterisation

Table 1 shows the main characteristics of the forest floor of the

study soils. As can be seen, the covering and thickness of the duff
and litter are independent of the type of vegetation cover present.
In the pine forest duff consistency is moderately hard in a moderately
dry sample. The duff forms a continuous structure on the soil surface
at these sites (Fig. 2). In the rainforest the duff covers a large percent-
age of the soil surface but is classified as loose in a moderately dry
sample (Fig. 2). This organic material tends to be rich in macroscopic
fungi hyphae (90% of plots) where pine forest is the dominant vege-
tation. Conversely, the presence of macroscopic fungi hyphae is
marginal in rainforest and it is found in only 9% of the study plots
(Fig. 2). Although all the duffs exhibit high water repellency, statisti- Fig. 3. Influence of vegetation on particle size distribution, organic carbon (OC), soil ag-
cally significant differences are seen according to the vegetation. The gregation (SA), wet soil stability (WSS) and wet aggregate stability (WAS), soil water
WDPT test results show that the pine forest duff is more repellent retention at − 33 kPa and − 1500 kPa (SWR), bulk density (BD) and logWDPT (Box
plot: thick bar = median; upper and lower limits of the 75 and 25 percentiles, respec-
and is classified as extremely repellent, whereas the duff in the rain- tively; same letter indicates no statistically significant differences between vegetation
forest falls within the severely repellent category. type with Mann Whitney U test (p b 0.05).

3.2. Soil characteristics

Fig. 3 shows the results for the main infiltration-related soil prop-
erties according to the vegetation cover. Differences are found in
properties such as grain size, aggregation and aggregate stability,
and water repellency. All the soils are silty loam or loam in texture.
However, the rainforest sites have significantly higher clay content
and the pine forest sites significantly more sand. All the soils have
high aggregation and high structural stability values, although some
differences are seen according to the vegetation cover (Fig. 3). The
average soil aggregation (SA) values of the rainforest soils are
above 75%, compared to around 50% in the pine forest soils. These dif-
ferences are statistically significant. The same is true for wet soil sta-
bility (WSS). However, wet aggregate stability (WAS) does not differ
substantially between the two types of vegetation. WAS exceeds 80%
in both the pine forest and rainforest. This result indicates that the
higher WSS in the rainforest sites is due chiefly to the greater SA as op-
posed to greater WAS. Water repellency is classified as extremely re-
pellent for the study zones under both vegetation covers. Only 7%
and 17% of the observations classify as non-repellent in the pine forest
and rainforest, respectively. However, this parameter presents high
variability (Figs. 3 and 4) and some degree of dependence on vege-
tation is also detected (Fig. 3). The pine forest soils have slightly
higher WDPT values than their rainforest counterparts. However,
the values lack statistical significance due to the high variability of
the results. No major differences according to vegetation are seen
in the case of other properties that influence infiltration, such as
organic carbon, short-range order product content, bulk density
and water retention capacity (− 33 kPa and −1500 kPa). Typically
of soils of this type, high organic carbon values are found (12% on
average). The sum of Alo and ½ Feo on topsoil ranges from 1.1 to 4.6
and Alp/Alo from 0.1 to 0.5. These results indicate a predominance of
silandic material on the soils (IUSS Working Group, 2006). Bulk densi-
ty values are low, barely reaching 0.7 Mg m − 3, and are associated
with the organic matter content and predominance of short-range
order products in these soils. Lastly, bearing in mind the clay content,
a higher than expected water retention capacity is found, especially
at low tensions (−33 kPa). These results can be attributed to the
incomplete dispersion of the allophanic soils (Armas-Espinel et al.,
2003).

Table 1
Forest floor characteristics associated with water infiltration.

Litter Duff

Thickness Coverage Thickness Coverage WDPT Fungi hyphae frequency Consistency

cm % cm % s %

Pine forest
x 1.6 95.8 1.3 93.3 3677.5 90 Moderately hard
σ 0.6 6.6 0.3 12.1 1115.9
Rainforest
x 1.4 93.8 1.5 88.8 1500.0 9 Loose
σ 0.5 7.5 0.4 13.1 356.7

x: mean; σ: standard deviation; WDPT: Water Drop Penetration Time.

54 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
Fig. 4. Distribution of water repellency classes for the different vegetation covers.
3.3. Effect of vegetation cover and forest floor on infiltration, runoff and
soil loss
Fig. 5 shows the average values, standard deviation and statistical
significance for infiltration, runoff and soil loss according to vegeta-
tion and slope. Differences according to vegetation are seen in the
hydrological parameters studied (VR, SIR, RR, WF, SR and SC) in the
case of the gentle and moderately-steep slopes. In contrast, for steep
slopes the results indicate no differences in any of the parameters.
The pine forest soils show a greater tendency for runoff generation
than the rainforest soils on gentle and moderately-steep slopes
(Fig. 5). In both slope categories the runoff values in the rainforest
soils are low (below 20%), approximately half those recorded in the
pine forest soils. The differences are statistically significant. Differ-
ences are also seen in SIR and VR, although they are less pronounced.
The rainforest soils exhibit a high infiltration capacity. SIR in rain-
forest is 50 and 40 mm h − 1 for the gentle and moderately-steep
Fig. 5. Influence of vegetation and slope on volume to runoff (VR), infiltration (SIR),
runoff (RR), wetting front (WF), sediment rate (SR) and sediment concentration (SC)
(Box plot: thick bar = median; upper and lower limits of the 75 and 25 percentiles, re-
spectively; same letter indicates no statistically significant differences between vegeta-
tion types (same slope) with Mann Whitney U test (p b 0.05); same number indicates
no statistically significant differences between slope angles (same vegetation type)
with Mann Whitney U test (p b 0.05).
Fig. 6. Wetting front distribution in rainfall events for the different vegetation covers
(measured from soil surface).
slopes, respectively. By comparison, the values in pine forest are
around 30 mm h − 1 lower for both slopes and rarely exceed 20 mm
h − 1. The differences are statistically significant. VR differs according
to vegetation only on the gentle slopes, where the values are approx-
imately 1 mm higher in the rainforest than in the pine forest. Again,
the differences are statistically significant.
The WF of the soils is consistent with the above results. Measured
from the litter surface after 35 min of simulated rainfall, the WF is
approximately 7, 6 and 3 cm in rainforest for the gentle, moderately-
steep and steep slopes, respectively (Fig. 5). In the pine forest sites
the WF ranges from 2 to 3 cm on all three slopes. The WF fails to
reach the soil surface (A horizon) on the pine forest slopes and wets
only the forest floor (Fig. 6). In contrast, in the rainforest the WF pen-
etrates the soil in all cases on the gentle and moderately-steep slopes,
attaining a maximum wetting of 5 cm. The WF differences between
pine and rainforest are statistically significant for both the gentle
and moderately-steep slopes (Fig. 5).
Although overall the study soils present low SR values, slight
differences are observed depending on the vegetation cover. SR is ap-
proximately 5 and 10 g m − 2 h − 1 for the gentle and moderately-steep
slopes in the pine forest soils. The values are 2–3 g m − 2 h − 1 higher
than those obtained in the rainforest soils for the same slopes. No sta-
tistical significance is observed in these differences for any of the
study slopes. The SR differences according to vegetation are much
smaller than those seen for the runoff processes. In addition, the SC
values are low for all the study soils. No statistically significant differ-
ences according to vegetation are found for this parameter and the
higher SR in the pine forest sites is due therefore to the increase in
the volume of runoff water.
3.4. Slope influence on hydrological properties
In general, a decrease is noted in VR, SIR and WF with increased slope
for both types of vegetation (Fig. 5). By way of contrast, RR, SR and SC all
increase (Fig. 5). The magnitude of the changes in hydrological proper-
ties with increased slope depends on the vegetation present in the zone.
In pine forest sites the change from gentle to moderately-steep slope
produces non-significant variations in VR, SIR, WF and RR. Much larger
increases are seen in SR with increasing slope, however. The differences
in SR are approximately 4 and 6 g m − 2 h− 1, respectively, when the
slope changes from gentle to moderately-steep and from moderately-
steep to steep. The differences noted in SC with increased slope are
unimportant. Statistical analysis indicates statistically significant differ-
ences only in the case of SR with the change from gentle to steep slope.
The extent of the changes triggered by increased slope in the
hydrological parameters is greater in the rainforest sites. The increase
 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
from gentle to moderately-steep slope leads to slight falls in VR, SIR
and WF (0.5 mm, 7 mm h − 1 and 1.2 cm, respectively) and slightly
higher RR (2%). The differences are greater in the case of SR, which
increases from 3 to 6 g m − 2 h − 1. None of the aforementioned differ-
ences prove to be statistically significant. However, statistical signifi-
cance is found in the case of steep slopes. Falls of 1 mm in VR, 34 mm
h − 1 in SIR and 3.4 cm in WF are observed with the change from
moderately-steep to steep slopes. A more substantial fall in all three
properties is noted when the results for gentle and steep slopes are
compared (1.5 mm for VR, 41 mm h − 1 for SIR and 4.7 cm for WF).
Statistical significance is seen between the results for the different
categories of slope. Major differences in RR and SR are observed with
the transition to steep slopes: RR increases by 41% and SR by 7 g m − 2
h− 1 in these slopes compared to the moderately-steep slopes. These
differences increase to 43% and 10 g m− 2 h− 1, respectively, when gen-
tle and steep slopes are compared. Statistical analysis indicates that the
differences are statistically significant when steep slopes are compared
to both gentle and moderately-steep slopes. As in the pine forest sites,
SC in rainforest does not differ appreciably with increased slope.
4. Discussion
The infiltration and runoff differences between the pine forest and
rainforest Andisols reflect the influence of the forest floor on water
infiltration processes. The results for the rainforest sites are similar to
those published by other authors for Andisols under forest cover
(Perret et al., 1996; Perrin et al., 2001; Poulenard et al., 2001). In con-
trast, the pine forest results conflict with the high infiltration tradition-
ally attributed to Andisols under forest vegetation (see e.g. Nanzyo et al.,
1993; Poulenard et al., 2001; Zehetner and Miller, 2006).
The comparison of mineral soil surface properties evidences the
lower structural development and greater water repellency of the
pine forest soils (Fig. 3). These differences may account for the differ-
ent infiltration behaviour exhibited by the two types of forest. The
direct relationship between infiltration and structural development
is well known for all soils, particularly Andisols (Nanzyo et al., 1993;
Poulenard et al., 2001; Rodríguez Rodríguez et al., 2002; Warkentin
and Maeda, 1980). However, the structural development values of
the pine forest soils are not low enough to explain the infiltration
results obtained here. The SIR values recorded in the pine forest sites
are approximately 10–25 mm h − 1 lower than those obtained by
Poulenard et al. (2001) for Andisols. However, the soil aggregation
and water stability values are comparable to those published by said
authors. Regarding water repellency, many authors have found that
the presence of water-repellent soil horizons can inhibit infiltration
and promote runoff (DeBano, 1971; Doerr et al., 2000; Robichaud
and Waldrop, 1994). On average, the pine forest sites studied here
exhibit greater water repellency than the rainforest sites, although
the values recorded are very high in both cases. Less than 20% of rain-
forest sites are classified as non-repellent and hence the differences
between the two do not explain their behaviour.
The analysis of the wetting front in the pine forest sites (Fig. 6)
shows that the rainwater remains mostly in the duff and barely reaches
the top 1 cm of the underlying mineral soil (A horizon). Under these
conditions the soil properties of the surface mineral horizon will have
very limited impact on the hydrological behaviour of the soils. In con-
trast, in the rainforest sites there is considerable water penetration of
the soil. In these cases the mineral soil properties determine the soil's
hydrological behaviour, which is similar to that found by other studies.
The results obtained here indicate the major role played by the duff in
water infiltration processes. As numerous authors have noted, the loca-
tion and properties of this horizon can alter the soil's hydrological
behaviour (Guevara-Escobar et al., 2007; Keith et al., 2010a,b).
The low level of decomposition results in poor cohesion of the
shed litter leaves. Consequently, the litter is unlikely to have any
major influence on infiltration given that the water can run freely
55
between the leaves and reach the underlying horizons. However,
duff characteristics can differ considerably to those of the litter,
given the greater degree of decomposition involved (Fig. 2). The
main duff properties influencing infiltration appear to be cohesion
and hydrophobicity. Water repellency is high in both types of vegeta-
tion studied. Under natural conditions, water repellency is associated
mainly with the organic compounds derived from the activity or
decomposition of plants and organisms (Doerr et al., 2000). The
amount and type of organic matter affect hydrophobicity (Martínez-
Zavala et al., 2009). Some genera such as the Pinus or Erica present
in the pine forest and rainforest are listed among the higher plant
species associated with water repellency (Cerdà and Doerr, 2005,
2007; Doerr et al., 2000). Moreover, the presence of fungi hyphae
(found mainly in the pine forest sites) is also a source of hydrophobic-
ity (Doerr et al., 2000; Lin et al., 2006). In water repellent soils the
rainwater tends to remain on the surface of the hydrophobic horizon
(duff) (Doerr et al., 2000) and circulates along it aided by the slope
(Martínez-Zavala et al., 2009; Wallach and Jortzick, 2008). However,
the presence of discontinuities, cracks or paths in the water-
repellent surface provides preferential flow zones for the water
(Doerr et al., 2000). In this regard, duff cohesion plays a fundamental
role. In the rainforest, the poor cohesion of the duff plant remnants
has a positive effect on water infiltration. Despite the duff's high re-
pellency, the water is able to circulate through it and reach the under-
lying horizons, as the wetting front analysis shows. Consequently, soil
properties such as high aggregation and structural stability are key
factors in the high infiltration and low runoff values (Mataix-Solera
et al., 2011) noted for these soils on gentle and moderately-steep
slopes (Fig. 5). Runoff on steep slopes is greater due primarily to the
shorter time the water remains on the soil because of the gravity
effect and reduced effectiveness of the surface roughness and water
storage capacity (Sharma et al., 1983). In pine forest, the greater co-
hesion of the duff plant material results in fewer paths and therefore
hinders the water's efforts to reach deeper horizons. Under these con-
ditions infiltration is determined fundamentally by the forest floor
properties and less so by the mineral soil, which would explain the
low infiltration and high runoff values observed in these zones. More-
over, the limited water infiltration in the pine forest duff would also
account for the negligible infiltration and runoff differences found
with increased slope. Infiltration is very low and runoff is very high
on gentle slopes. Consequently, an increase in slope produces no
changes of note (Fig. 5).
The limited water infiltration in the pine forest soils helps explain
previous field observations indicating a delay in the soil wetting
process in some zones during the rainy season. It is worth noting
also that the influence of forest floor water repellency on hydrology
can be assumed to be highly seasonal, given the inverse relationship
between soil water repellency and soil moisture (DeBano, 1971;
Doerr and Thomas, 1998; Huffman et al., 2001; Regalado and Ritter,
2009). The gradual wetting of the forest floor and mineral soil surface
horizons as a result of successive rainfalls reduces water repellency
and therefore promotes water infiltration and wetting processes.
The effects of the forest floor on water infiltration and wetting ought
to have a major influence on the moisture regimes of the soils and,
consequently, on soil classification. Moreover, the results obtained
here demonstrate the important role of the forest floor properties in
hydrological behaviour. According to Doerr et al. (2000), some of the
impacts of water repellency are enhanced streamflow responses to
rainstorms and total streamflow. Consequently, the aforementioned
properties should be included as parameters in hydrological models
used for watershed management. This is particularly appropriate in
the case of Andisols, given their key role in infiltration and runoff.
These aspects are the subject of ongoing work.
In contrast to infiltration and runoff, soil loss processes are less
dependent on the type and characteristics of the forest floor. Soil
loss is relatively low and the results found here are similar to those
56 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
reported by other authors for Andisols under natural conditions (Perret
et al., 1996; Poulenard et al., 2001; Zehetner and Miller, 2006). Most
authors note that Andisols are highly resistant to erosion (Nanzyo
et al., 1993; Rodríguez Rodríguez et al., 2002; Zehetner and Miller,
2006), a circumstance generally attributed to two factors: (i) the soils'
high structural stability and low erodibility (Maeda and Soma, 1985;
Nanzyo et al., 1993) and (ii) their high porosity and water infiltration
capacity. The results for structural development (SA, WSS and WAS)
and sediment concentration (SC) obtained in the present work are in
agreement with the first of the two premises. The rainforest site findings
coincide with the observations of the above authors as regards high infil-
tration in Andisols. However, the results from the pine forest sites do not.
As noted earlier, the characteristics of the forest floor in pine forest act as
a constraint on water infiltration. Nonetheless, the sediment rate (SR)
differences observed between the two types of vegetation are much
smaller than those seen for infiltration and runoff. No differences are
found in the case of sediment concentration (SC). The smaller differences
in soil loss processes are attributed to the low erodibility of the soils,
which is associated with their structural stability and the protection
afforded by the forest floor against the erosive effects of rain.
Finally, the elimination of the forest floor as a result of a change
in land use or management can propitiate extensive erosive phenome-
na. It is generally acknowledged that prolonged drying causes irrevers-
ible aggregation of the finest grain-size fractions in Andisols (Nanzyo
et al., 1993). Consequently, drying triggers changes in their hydric
properties (Poulenard et al., 2004) and increases their hydrophobicity
(Podwojewski et al., 2002). These changes impact negatively on the
resistance of Andisols to erosion.
5. Conclusions
Forest floor properties such as water repellency are key factors in
soil hydrological processes. This organic layer acts as the interface
between the soil and atmospheric phenomena, including rainfall. In
general, Andisols have a high infiltration capacity and generate little
runoff. However, duff characteristics can lead to major changes in
the values of both parameters. As the results obtained here show,
the properties of this organic horizon with the greatest hydrological
impact are its water repellency, continuity and cohesion. Water repel-
lency limits water infiltration while cohesion reduces the presence of
the preferential flow paths that enable rainwater to reach the under-
lying horizons. The wetting front analysis indicates that structural de-
velopment retains its influence on infiltration and runoff in rainforest.
In pine forest, however, the influence of the soil properties on infil-
tration is constrained by the presence of the forest floor. The results
highlight the need to include forest floor properties, particularly water
repellency, as parameters in hydrological models. On the other hand,
no significant increases in soil loss as a consequence of the lower infil-
tration are observed. Erosion values remain low, as many authors
have already noted for the soils of the order. This result demonstrates
the protective effect of the forest floor against erosive processes and
the high resistance of Andisols to erosion under forest conditions.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Hernández-Moreno (Universidad de La
Laguna) for reviewing the manuscript. The present research was un-
dertaken as part of a project entitled “Characterisation of the soils of
the island of Tenerife, with particular reference to hydric functions”,
funded by the Consejo Insular de Aguas de Tenerife (Tenerife Water
Council).
References
Agassi, M., Bradford, J.M., 1999. Methodologies for interrill soil erosion studies. Soil &
Tillage Research 49, 277–287.
Armas-Espinel, S., Hernández-Moreno, J.M., Muñoz-Carpena, R., Regalado, C.M., 2003.
Physical properties of “sorriba”‐cultivated volcanic soils from Tenerife in relation
to andic diagnostic parameters. Geoderma 117, 297–311.
Bartoli, F., Burtin, G., Herbillon, A.J., 1991. Disaggregation and clay dispersion of
Oxisols–Na resin, a recommended methodology. Geoderma 49, 301–317.
Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density. In: Klute, A.K. (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis.
Part I: Physical and mineralogical methods. American Society of Agronomy – Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, pp. 363–375.
Borselli, L., Torri, D., Poesen, J., Sanchis, P.S., 2001. Effects of water quality on infiltra-
tion, runoff and interrill erosion processes during simulated rainfall. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms 26, 329–342.
Buttle, J.M., Creed, I.F., Pomeroy, J.W., 2000. Advances in Canadian forest hydrology,
1995–1998. Hydrological Processes 14, 1551–1578.
Buttle, J.M., Creed, I.F., Moore, R.D., 2005. Advances in Canadian forest hydrology,
1999–2003. Hydrological Processes 19, 169–200.
Cerdà, A., 1998. The influence of geomorphological position and vegetation cover
on the erosional and hydrological processes on a Mediterranean hillslope. Hydro-
logical Processes 12, 661–671.
Cerdà, A., 1999. Parent material and vegetation affect soil erosion in eastern Spain. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 63, 362–368.
Cerdà, A., Doerr, S.H., 2005. Influence of vegetation recovery on soil hydrology and
erodibility following fire: an 11-year investigation. International Journal of Wild-
land Fire 14, 423–437.
Cerdà, A., Doerr, S.H., 2007. Soil wettability, runoff and erodibility of major dry-
Mediterranean land use types on calcareous soils. Hydrological Processes 21,
2325–2336.
Cerdà, A., Doerr, S.H., 2008. The effect of ash and needle cover on surface runoff and
erosion in the immediate post-fire period. Catena 74, 256–263.
DeBano, L.F., 1971. Effect of hydrophobic substances on water movement in soil during
infiltration. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 35, 340–343.
del Arco, M., Pérez-de-Paz, P.L., Acebes, J.R., González-Mancebo, J.M., Reyes-Betancort, J.A.,
Bermejo, J.A., de Armas, S., González-González, R., 2006. Bioclimatology and climato-
philous vegetation of Tenerife (Canary Islands). Annales Botanici Fennici 43, 167–192.
Descroix, L., Viramontes, D., Vauclin, M., Barrios, J.L.G., Esteves, M., 2001. Influence of
soil surface features and vegetation on runoff and erosion in the western Sierra
Madre (Durango, northwest Mexico). Catena 43, 115–135.
Doerr, S.H., Thomas, A.D., 1998. The role of soil moisture in controlling water repellency:
New evidence from forest soils in Portugal. International Workshop on Soil Water
Repellency, Wageningen, Netherlands, pp. 134–147.
Doerr, S.H., Shakesby, R.A., Walsh, R.P.D., 2000. Soil water repellency: its causes, character-
istics and hydro-geomorphological significance. Earth-Science Reviews 51, 33–65.
Fernández Caldas, E., Tejedor Salguero, M.L., 1975. Andosoles de las Islas Canarias. Servicio
de Publicaciones de la Caja General de Ahorros de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Santa Cruz
de Tenerife. 210 pp.
Gee, G.W., Bauder, J.W., 1986. Particle size-analysis. In: Klute, A. (Ed.), Methods of soil
analysis. Part I. Physical and mineralogical methods. American Society of Agrono-
my – Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp. 383–411.
Guevara-Escobar, A., González-Sosa, E., Ramos-Salinas, M., Hernández-Delgado, G.D.,
2007. Experimental analysis of drainage and water storage of litter layers. Hydrology
and Earth System Sciences 11, 1703–1716.
Harden, C.P., 1991. Land-use, soil-erosion, and reservoir sedimentation in an Andean
drainage-basin in Ecuador. International Workshop and Field Excursions: Moun-
tain Geoecology of the Andes, Santiago, Chile, pp. 177–184.
Hoyos, N., Comerford, N.B., 2005. Land use and landscape effects on aggregate stability
and total carbon of Andisols from the Colombian Andes. Geoderma 129, 268–278.
Huffman, E.L., MacDonald, L.H., Stednick, J.D., 2001. Strength and persistence of fire-
induced soil hydrophobicity under ponderosa and lodgepole pine, Colorado Front
Range. Hydrological Processes 15, 2877–2892.
IUSS Working Group, W.R.B., 2006. World reference base for soil resources 2006, 2nd
edition. World Soil Resources Reports, 103. FAO, Rome.
Jiménez, C., Tejedor, M., Morillas, G., Neris, J., 2006. Infiltration rate in Andisols: effect of
changes in vegetation cover (Tenerife, Spain). Journal of Soil and Water Conserva-
tion 61, 153–158.
Keith, D.M., Johnson, E.A., Valeo, C., 2010a. A hillslope forest floor (duff) water budget
and the transition to local control. Hydrological Processes 24, 2738–2751.
Keith, D.M., Johnson, E.A., Valeo, C., 2010b. Moisture cycles of the forest floor organic
layer (F and H layers) during drying. Water Resources Research 46.
Klute, A., 1986. Water retention: Laboratory methods. In: Klute, A. (Ed.), Methods of
soil analysis. Part I. Physical and mineralogical methods. American Society of
Agronomy – Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp. 635–662.
Lauren, A., Mannerkoski, H., 2001. Hydraulic properties of mor layers in Finland. Scan-
dinavian Journal of Forest Research 16, 429–441.
Lauren, A., Mannerkoski, H., Orjasniemi, T., 2000. Thermal and aeration properties of
mor layers in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 15, 433–444.
Letey, J., 1969. Measurement of contact angle, water drop penetration time and critical
surface tension. Proceedings of the Symposium on Water Repellent Soils, Riverside,
EEUU, pp. 43–47.
Lin, C.Y., Chou, W.C., Tsai, J.S., Lin, W.T., 2006. Water repellency of Casuarina wind-
breaks (Casuarina equisetifolia forst.) caused by fungi in central Taiwan. Ecological
Engineering 26, 283–292.
Maeda, T., Soma, K., 1985. Classification of Andisols in Japan based on physical proper-
ties. In: Schultz, L.G., van Olphen, H., Mumpton, F.A. (Eds.), International clay con-
ference. The Clay Minerals Society, Denver, EEUU, pp. 174–178.
Martínez-Zavala, L., Jordán, A., 2008. Effect of rock fragment cover on interrill soil ero-
sion from bare soils in western Andalusia, Spain. Soil Use and Management 24,
108–117.
 J. Neris et al. / Catena 108 (2013) 50–57
Martínez-Zavala, L., Jordán-López, A., 2009. Influence of different plant species on
water repellency in Mediterranean heathland soils. Catena 76, 215–223.
Martínez-Zavala, L., González, F.A., Jordán, A., 2009. Intensity and persistence of water
repellency in relation to vegetation types and soil parameters in Mediterranean
SW Spain. Geoderma 152, 361–374.
Marzol Jaén, M.V., 2005. La captación del agua de la niebla en la isla de Tenerife. Sevicio
de Publicaciones de la Caja General de Ahorros de Canarias. 220 pp.
Mataix-Solera, J., Cerdà, A., Arcenegui, V., Jordán, A., Martínez-Zavala, L., 2011. Fire
effects on soil aggregation: a review. Earth-Science Reviews 109, 44–60.
Molina, A., Govers, G., Vanacker, V., Poesen, J., Zeelmaekers, E., Cisneros, F., 2007. Runoff
generation in a degraded Andean ecosystem: interaction of vegetation cover and
land use. Catena 71, 357–370.
Nacci, S., Pla, I., 1991. Técnicas y equipos desarrollados en el país para evaluar propie-
dades físicas de los suelos. FONAIAP, Maracay. 48 pp.
Nanzyo, M., Shoji, S., Dahlgren, R., 1993. Physical characteristics of volcanic ash soils. In:
Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M., Dahlgren, R. (Eds.), Volcanic ash soils: genesis, properties and
utilization. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, p. 288.
Perret, S., Michellon, R., Boyer, J., Tassin, J., 1996. Soil rehabilitation and erosion control
through agro-ecological practices on Reunion Island (French Overseas Territory,
Indian Ocean). Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 59, 149–157.
Perrin, J.L., Bouvier, C., Janeau, J.L., Menez, G., Cruz, F., 2001. Rainfall/runoff processes in
a small peri-urban catchment in the Andes mountains. The Rumihurcu Quebrada,
Quito (Ecuador). Hydrological Processes 15, 843–854.
Podwojewski, P., Poulenard, J., Zambrana, T., Hofstede, R., 2002. Overgrazing effects on
vegetation cover and properties of volcanic ash soil in the páramo of Llangahua
and La Esperanza (Tungurahua, Ecuador). Soil Use and Management 18, 45–55.
Poulenard, J., Podwojewski, P., Janeau, J.L., Collinet, J., 2001. Runoff and soil erosion
under rainfall simulation of Andisols from the Ecuadorian Páramo: Effect of tillage
and burning. Catena 45, 185–207.
Poulenard, J., Michel, J.C., Bartoli, F., Portal, J.M., Podwojewski, P., 2004. Water repellency of
volcanic ash soils from Ecuadorian Paramo: effect of water content and characteristics
of hydrophobic organic matter. European Journal of Soil Science 55, 487–496.
Quantin, P., 1994. The Andosols. 15th World Congress of Soil Science, Acapulco, Mexico, 6,
pp. 848–859.
Regalado, C.M., Ritter, A., 2009. A bimodal four-parameter lognormal linear model of
soil water repellency persistence. Hydrological Processes 23, 881–892.
57
Robichaud, P.R., Waldrop, T.A., 1994. A comparison of surface runoff and sediment yields
from low-severity and high-severity site preparation burns. Water Resources Bulletin
30, 27–34.
Rodríguez Rodríguez, A., Guerra, J.A., Gorrín, S.P., Arbelo, C.D., Mora, J.L., 2002. Aggre-
gates stability and water erosion in Andosols of the Canary Islands. Land Degrada-
tion & Development 13, 515–523.
Sharma, K.D., Singh, H.P., Pareek, O.P., 1983. Rainwater infiltration into a bare loamy
sand. Hydrological Sciences Journal 28, 417–424.
Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. Hand-
book, 18. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 437 pp.
Soil Survey Staff, 1999. Soil Taxonomy. A basic system of soil classification for making
and interpreting soil surveys. N.R.C.S. USDA, Washington, D.C. 869 pp.
Tejedor, M.L., Hernández-Moreno, J.M., Jiménez, C.C., 2007. Soils of volcanic systems
in Spain. In: Arnalds, O., et al. (Ed.), Soils of volcanic regions in Europe. Springer,
Berlin, pp. 101–112.
Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining
soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration
method. Soil Science 37, 29–38.
Wallach, R., Jortzick, C., 2008. Unstable finger-like flow in water-repellent soils during
wetting and redistribution – the case of a point water source. Journal of Hydrology
351, 26–41.
Warkentin, B.P., Maeda, T., 1980. Physical and mechanical characteristics of Andisols.
In: Theng, B.K.G. (Ed.), Soils with variable charge. Offset Publications, Palmerston
North, pp. 281–352.
Woods, S.W., Balfour, V.N., 2008. The effect of ash on runoff and erosion after a severe
forest wildfire, Montana, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 535–548.
Woods, S.W., Balfour, V.N., 2010. The effects of soil texture and ash thickness on the
post-fire hydrological response from ash-covered soils. Journal of Hydrology 393,
274–286.
Zavala, L.M., Jordán, A., Gil, J., Bellinfante, N., Pain, C., 2009. Intact ash and charred litter
reduces susceptibility to rain splash erosion post-wildfire. Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 34, 1522–1532.
Zehetner, F., Miller, W.P., 2006. Erodibility and runoff-infiltration characteristics of vol-
canic ash soils along an altitudinal climosequence in the Ecuadorian Andes. Catena
65, 201–213.