Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51

www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco

The effect of afforestation on water infiltration in the tropics:

A systematic review and meta-analysis
Ulrik Ilstedt a,b,*, Anders Malmer b, Elke Verbeeten c, Daniel Murdiyarso a
a
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
b
Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
c
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 06 BP 9478 Ouagadougou 06, Burkina Faso

Abstract
Soil water infiltration influences groundwater recharge and potential top soil loss by erosion, as well as the partitioning of runoff into slow flow
and quick flow. The aim of the work presented here was to critically review studies of the effects of afforestation on infiltrability in the tropics, using
a systematic review approach to select peer-reviewed articles published in English and French. We then applied meta-analysis to test the hypothesis
that afforestation or the use of trees in agriculture increases infiltration capacity. After assessing titles and abstracts, on the basis of specified
selection and quality criteria, four references remained, comprising 14 comparative experiments. The overall result of the meta-analysis was that
infiltration capacity increased on average approximately three-fold after afforestation or planting trees in agricultural fields (95% confidence
interval: 2.4–4.7). For the meta-analysis, the most common problems resulting in exclusion of otherwise relevant experiments were issues with the
experimental design, and the absence of statistics (variances and replicates). Even considering the studies that were excluded in the meta analysis (a
total of six), the low number of studies examining the effects of afforestation is a severe problem with respect to modelling and examining the
underlying processes associated with the full range of different edaphic situations, different species and different methods of establishment.
# 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Afforestation; Agroforestry; Forest; Meta-analysis; Systematic review; Trees; Water conductivity

1. Introduction tropics (Hamilton and King, 1983; Calder, 2002; Bruijnzeel,

In the tropics forests are being planted to achieve a broad
range of benefits. Among these are improvements in the
biological, chemical and physical soil quality with respect to
sustained fertility and water supply quality and quantity. Soil
water infiltrability is a key variable of the soil’s physical
characteristics, which influences groundwater recharge, poten-
tial top soil loss by erosion, and the partitioning of runoff into
slow flow and quick flow (Bonell, 1993, 2005; Bonell and
Balek, 1993).
As such, an understanding of the relationship between soil
physical properties, such as infiltrability, and changes in forest
cover is central to the on-going debate about the interactions
between forests and the use, delivery and quality of water in the
* Corresponding author at: Department of Forest Ecology and Management,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE 901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
Tel.: +46 90 7868390; fax: +46 90 7868163.
E-mail address: ulrik.ilstedt@sek.slu.se (U. Ilstedt).
0378-1127/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.06.014
2004). In the absence of scientific consensus, it has been argued
that decades of development funds spent on afforestation
campaigns (Calder, 1999; Kaimowitz, 2005), including recent
demands for C sequestration (Jackson et al., 2005), have
adversely affected scarce water supplies and other local social
welfare issues.
The reporting of real and potential famine in the Horn of
Africa and the Sahel during the 1980s and 1990s sparked
interest in investigating the soil processes that can result in
erosion and soil degradation following deforestation and/or
intensive land use. The emphasis was on quantifying the risk of
soil degradation and promoting and assessing soil conservation.
In contrast, there are few studies confirming whether soil
improvement actually does take place as a result of
afforestation or other natural or managed soil rehabilitation
processes (Ilstedt, 2002; Ilstedt et al., 2004). In the realm of
policy, the relationship was taken for granted, and to
researchers it was neither a very exciting project nor something
that often attracted funding. A few authors have considered the
subject, for example Bruijnzeel (1990, 1997) and Malmer et al.
46 U. Ilstedt et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51

(1998) discussed the lack of knowledge about the effects of (1989–2005) for publications in English and French. On 30
different vegetation types and species litter fall quality on soil November 2005, we conducted the following search:
physical development.
Site-studies confirming the risks of soil physical degradation topic ¼ ððhydraulic conductivit or Infiltra or permeabilit Þ
in the tropics are numerous, early works include those of Van and soil and water andðforest or afforest
der Weert (1974) and Seubert et al. (1977); there are also a or reforest or deforest or agro$forest or oil palm
number of reviews, for example by Bruijnzeel (1990) and Hurni
or palm oil or rubber or tree or shifting$cultivat
and Tato (1992). Reduction in organic matter supply to soils as
a result of intensive land use affects soil structure and reduces or slash$burn or shifting$cultivat or slash
infiltrability. When there is very heavy rainfall this may in turn or logging or clear$felling or clearing or skid
lead to surface runoff, with increased erosion and loss of or burn or hauling or woodland or savanÞÞ:
topsoil, thus exposing subsoils which have even lower
infiltrability (Hudson, 1971; Eckholm, 1976). Repeated wild- ISI Web of Science and BIOSIS have good coverage of peer-
fires in expanding fire climax vegetation and/or intensified reviewed journals, while CAB was included as it has good
shifting cultivation or failed plantation crop schemes may have coverage of land-use issues in the tropics and, in addition, dates
similar negative effects on soil organic matter and soil physical back to 1973. This paper deals with the effects of afforestation,
properties (Malmer et al., 2005). The soil physical process just one aspect of the wider systematic search.
perspective (with its links to fertility management) encouraged From the search results, two of the present authors selected
a positive attitude, in both research and policy, towards forest articles by first excluding papers with titles that clearly did not
cover and organic matter addition as a result of tree based fit the objectives because, for example, they were outside the
agricultural systems. The emphasis in land use related soil tropics, did not measure infiltration in the field or did not
physics research has tended to concentrate on developing and involve growing trees (Fig. 1). Then the same procedure was
optimizing agroforestry systems (Young, 1989), sustainable repeated after reading the remaining abstracts. More than
forest conversion (Lal, 1986) and ways of reducing soil 10% of the references were cross-checked for consistency
disturbance in forestry operations (Malmer and Grip, 1990; independently by the two authors. Articles passing the full
Malmer et al., 1998), including understanding detrimental selection process were obtained through the Swedish
processes such as compaction and crusting (Poesen and University of Agricultural Science and CIFOR libraries.
Nearing, 1993). The same procedure as for titles and abstracts was repeated
Meta-analysis, a technique by which one can test hypotheses for full papers received from the library. Papers with
about treatment effects by combining data from several insufficient information about statistics, design and measure-
experiments, has been extensively used in medical research
(Friedman and Goldberg, 1996; Osenberg et al., 1999), and
there are also a few examples from ecology (Osenberg et al.,
1999). However, it has not been used in forest hydrology. This
approach is more objective than narrative reviews, and by
statistically combining several studies the overall power is
substantially greater than, for example, by ‘vote counting’ of
individual significant studies.
In this article, we aim to synthesise and discuss the facts that
can be drawn from past scientific studies pertaining to the
effects of afforestation in the tropics on one of the key
determining soil processes, namely infiltrability. For published
articles (in English and French), we systematically used quality
criteria to select studies to which we applied meta-analysis
(Osenberg et al., 1999) in order to produce a combined data set.
Our hypothesis was that afforestation or the use of trees in
agriculture increases infiltration capacity in the tropics.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Systematic literature search and selection process

We constructed a search string to create a repeatable search

for finding studies across a broad spectrum, considering
conversion both from and to forestry (and agroforest). The
search string was applied to the ISI Web of Science (1986–
2005), CAB abstracts (1973–2005) and BIOSIS previews
Fig. 1. The algorithm of the search string started with the title and abstract in
order to select research in the tropics dealing with field experiments relating to
specified land-uses. It was then followed by searching in the body of the paper in
order to select studies that passed specified quality criteria for conducting a
meta-analysis using the statistical software.
 U. Ilstedt et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51
ment methods were excluded (Fig. 1). We classified studies on
the basis of the research design used, and included
randomized treatment studies (e.g. completely randomized
studies, block designs, fully factorial designs), true time series
and well conducted ‘false time series’. We excluded studies
with pseudo replication (e.g. treating measurements on the
same sample plot as replicates) or other flawed designs.
Inclusion of robust ‘false time series’ depended on whether
the authors presented non-subjective (random or quasi-
random) strategies for selecting the research plots, or in
other ways tried to ensure that other conditions except
treatment effects did not differ.
Here we present the results for studies dealing with tree
planting (for forest or agroforest). Forest was defined broadly
as any area of trees with more than 10% crown coverage
(FAO, 1998). ‘Afforestation’ denoted plantation on open land
that had been free from forest cover as a result of prolonged
agricultural use, failed reforestation by active replanting or
delayed natural secondary succession. This included pas-
tures, grasslands (non-fallow and fallow) and permanent
cultivation. All types of methods for measuring saturated
steady state infiltrability or conductivity in the surface soil
(0–10 cm) were included and the type of method was
recorded.
2.2. Meta-analysis
We analyzed the combined data from the selected studies
and their respective experiments (comparisons) using the
statistical software MetaWin (Rosenberg et al., 2000). The
response ratio, ln R = ln(Xc/Xe), was used as standardized effect
measure. Xe and Xc denoted the vegetation before and after
conversion, respectively. The variance of ln R was:
yln R = ((Se)2/Ne(Xe)2)/((Sc)2/(Nc(Xc)2)), where Se, Sc, Ne and
Nc denote the standard deviation and number of replicates of Xe
and Xc, respectively. We present antilogarithmic values (R) to
facilitate interpretation. For example, an R-value of 0.5 means
that the infiltration after conversion is half the value it was
before, while a value of 2 indicates that the infiltration is double
the previous value.
All statistical tests were considered significant at the 95%
confidence level. We used non-parametric boot-strapping to
calculate the confidence intervals (CI) for the combined
response ratios. We first used fixed-effect models and tested
for heterogeneity with the x2-test. If heterogeneity was
significant we used random-effects models instead. Given
sufficient availability of data, heterogeneity was then
examined using meta-regression and by categorical analysis
of sub-groups. We intended to test for differences in effect
due to land use, rainfall, soil type, soil texture, time since
treatment and infiltration method. The possible effect of
publication bias was explored by funnel plots and by
calculating the Rosenthal’s fail-safe number. It has been
suggested that a fail-safe value of 5n + 10 (where n is the
original number of studies) is a reasonable, conservative,
critical value against which one can test a fail-safe
calculation (Rosenberg et al., 2000).
47
3. Results
3.1. The search and characteristics of included studies
We retrieved 3001 references from the search. After reading
titles and abstracts according to the selection criteria, four
studies, including 14 comparative experiments, dealing with
different afforestation treatments (two studies; eight experi-
ments) or agroforestry (two studies; six experiments) on former
agricultural land remained (Table 1). Three of the studies (12
experiments) used blocked and/or factorial designs (Hulugalle
and Kang, 1990; Hulugalle and Ndi, 1993; Chirwa et al., 2003),
while one study used the ‘‘false time series approach’’ (Mapa,
1995). Three studies were conducted in Africa and one in Asia,
and they covered a rainfall range of 850–2500 mm (Table 1). Two
studies (Mapa, 1995) had been conducted on highly weathered
soil (Ultisol) and two studies (Chirwa et al., 2003; Hulugalle and
Kang, 1990) on more fertile soil (Alfisol). All studies were
conducted on relatively fine textured soil (three on clayey and one
on loamy soil). The 14 experiments involved 8 different tree
species (2 experiments included a mix of 2 species).
3.2. Result of the meta-analysis
The overall results (Fig. 2) from the four studies, and 14
experiments, was that infiltration increased approximately
three-fold after afforestation or using trees in agricultural fields
(R = 3.2; 95%CI = 2.4–4.7; d.f. 13). A significant (P < 0.000)
heterogeneity was detected, meaning that there was a variation
between individual experiments which should be considered,
and that the random model was used. Plantations and
agroforestry systems were not significantly different, but there
was a tendency for agroforestry to exhibit less improvement
than afforestation: there was a mean of 1.9 for agroforests
compared to 3.8 for afforested sites (Table 2).
3.3. Sensitivity analysis and publication bias
If the study that did not use factorial or blocking designs
(Mapa, 1995) was removed, the overall result changed
Fig. 2. The response ratio and 95% confidence intervals for experiments included
in a meta-analysis on the effect on infiltration capacity of afforestation and
agroforestry in the tropics. The grand mean is calculated from the fixed effects
model. Numbers indicate the individual experiments enumerated in Table 1.
48 U. Ilstedt et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51

Leucaena leucocephala (8 years) + crops

The mean infiltration, standard deviation and number of replicates (N) before and after treatment is reported, as well as the country of the study, the mean annual rainfall, soil texture, soil type and vegetation before and
Table 2

Alchornea cordifolia (8 years) + crops

Summary of the meta-analysis of the effect (response ratio) on infiltration of

Gliricidia sepium (8 years) + crops

Cassia spectabilis + crops (1 year)
Cassia spectabilis + crops (1 year)
afforestation and agroforestry on former deforested land

Leucaena leucocephala (3 years)

Acioa barterii (8 years) + crops

Gliricidia + Sesbania (3 years)
Acacia angustissima (3 years)
Studies Experiments Response ratio (after/before)

Acacia + Sesbania (3 years)

Tectonia grandis (12 years)
Tectonia grandis (12 years)

Gliricidia sepium (3 years)

Sesbania sesban (3 years)
Mean Lower CI Upper CI
Afforestation 2 8 3.8 2.7 5.5
Agroforestry 3 6 1.9 1.7 2.8
Subtotal 4 14 3.2 2.4 4.7
Means and confidence intervals (CI) are reported for afforestation and agrofor-
After

estry studies combined and separately, as well as the number of studies for each
group and the number of experiments used within each study.
Vegetation
Before

Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Crops
Grass

marginally (R = 3.7; 95%CI = 2.5–5.4; d.f. 11). However, there

was then a significant difference between agroforests and
afforested sites (R = 1.8; 95%CI = 1.7–2.9 and R = 5.0;
Ultisol
Ultisol
Ultisol
Ultisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Soil
Description of the data and experiments used for a meta-analysis of the effect on infiltration of afforestation and agroforestry on former deforested land

95%CI = 3.6–6.9, respectively). To consider the possible effect

of using multiple experiments within studies, we considered 10
Texture

Loamy
Loamy
Loamy
Loamy

different analyses with only 1 experiment from each study. The

Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay

95%CI for these tests ranged from 1.7–4.2 to 1.9–7.3 indicating

that the overall results seem robust. Despite our intentions, we
Rainfall (mm)

refrained from undertaking further regression and categorical

analysis because of the limited number of studies. Rosenthal’s
2500
2500
1522
1522

1250
1250
1250
1250
850
850
850
850
850
850

fail-safe number indicated that 225 non-significant, unpub-

lished or missing studies would be needed to change the overall
Latitude

result to being non-significant.

10 N
14 S
15 S
16 S
17 S
18 S
19 S
7N
7N
3N
3N

7N
8N
9N

3.4. Excluded studies

Cameroon
Cameroon
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Country

Zambia
Zambia
Zambia
Zambia
Zambia
Zambia
Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria

After applying the selection criteria to titles and abstracts,

343 studies remained for evaluation of the full text. Out of
these, for the full search set, 179 studies were not used for the
After

full meta-analysis. Of these 179, 116 were not relevant in terms

15
15
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

of latitude, studied variables or vegetation compared. The

Before

remaining 51 of these 179 were rejected on grounds of

after treatment. The age of the trees at the time of study is indicated in parenthesis.
15
15
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
N

information about and handling of design (37), statistics (7) and

methodology (7). Of the papers specifically about the effects of
1.0
1.0
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
After
Standard deviation

127
127
127
127
12
12

afforestation, 12 were rejected (6 about afforestation, 6 about

agroforest); they were excluded on grounds of design (7),
statistics (3) and methodology (2).
Before

The most common reason for exclusion from a secure meta-

1.0
1.0
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
127
127
127
127
12
12

analysis was a non-randomized design (e.g. Nyamadzawo et al.,

2003). Rejection on the basis of statistics was usually because
5.5
5.5
After

of the absence of complete data sets or any indication of

Infiltration (mm/h)

57
57

95
44
37
55
71

95
119
152
118

172

variation within the results. All cases rejected on the basis of

methodology were because only initial/unsaturated infiltration
was measured. Several studies that were rejected met more than
Before

one of these criteria.

3.3
26
29

13
13
13
13
13
13
47
47
47
47
3

4. Discussion
11. Hulugalle and Kang (1990)
12. Hulugalle and Kang (1990)
13. Hulugalle and Kang (1990)
14. Hulugalle and Kang (1990)
3. Hulugalle and Ndi (1993)
4. Hulugalle and Ndi (1993)

10. Chirwa et al. (2003)

4.1. The benefit of tree plantations on soil infiltrability

5. Chirwa et al. (2003)
6. Chirwa et al. (2003)
7. Chirwa et al. (2003)
8. Chirwa et al. (2003)
9. Chirwa et al. (2003)

Our meta-analysis confirms the beneficial effect of tree

1. Mapa (1995)
2. Mapa (1995)

planting on soil infiltrability over a wide range of humidity

levels (Table 1). However, the second most important finding is
Table 1

Source

the scarcity of studies examining the effects of afforestation on

soil physical properties in the tropics generally, and in
 U. Ilstedt et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51
particular with a sufficiently robust methodology for a
statistical synthesis. This means that any analysis of the
importance of various factors such as planted species, soil and
climate can be no more than narrative and hypothetical.
Similarly, the small number of studies underlines the lack of
reference data pertaining to infiltration, and the growing
demand for this in order to model the hydrological effects of
land use changes (Ranieri et al., 2004), not least from the
climate change perspective (Bonell, 1998). On the other hand,
the over all result indicating a two- to five-fold increase in
infiltrability underlines the importance of including soil
physical quality in any model of forest water relations. With
infiltrability levels before afforestation in the range found in
this review (3–47 mm h1; Table 1), normal rainfall intensities
(Bonell et al., 2005) provide the potential for both reduced
surface runoff and increased input to groundwater.
Another problem associated with modelling is the wide
range of changes to infiltrability upon afforestation (Table 2).
As stated above, there is insufficient information to explain this
variation. Caution is required even in taking published data at
face value for the environments studied. Most studies are
designed to examine and confirm the significance of differences
in effects between different land uses; there is no guarantee of
coverage of the total range of variation in each land use or
vegetation category (Warrick and Nielsen, 1980) or that the
measurement technique reflects true infiltrability, e.g. on
sloping ground (Janeau et al., 2003). Studies aiming to
describe and explain the soil physical and ecological processes
that underlie differences in infiltrability in certain ecosystems
(e.g. Bromley et al., 1997) are even more scarce than studies
investigating land use effects.
4.2. Overall completeness and applicability of evidence
Even though some bias might be expected as a result of the
relative difficulty in publishing non-significant results, the
‘‘Rosenthal’s fail-safe number test’’ does indicate that the
results are fairly robust for such ‘‘publication bias’’. Despite the
low number of studies included in the meta-analysis these all
describe the same trend. Furthermore, looking at the five studies
on afforestation not included in the meta analysis due to lack of
robustness in design and statistical information (Baconguis and
Rondilla, 1979; Dagar, 1987; Jaiyeoba, 2001; Godsey and
Elsenbeer, 2002; Nyamadzawo et al., 2003) and initial
infiltration (Deuchars et al., 1999), they all report increases
in infiltrability.
To our knowledge this is the first systematic review and
meta-analysis on the effect of afforestation on infiltrability.
However, for the tropics Bruijnzeel (2004) reviewed studies on
forest and water issues generally, Scott et al. (2005) reviewed
hydrological impacts of ‘forestation’, and Bonell (2005)
reviewed studies on runoff processes in forests. These reviews
confirm the general paucity of studies with respect to the effect
of afforestation, agroforestry and natural successions. Scott
et al. (2005) considered some published and unpublished
studies, and stated that ‘tentatively’ a pattern of increased
infiltrability over time seemed to be discernible from the data.
49
They emphasized that more information was needed to
substantiate such claim.
A way to increase the low number of studies would be to
include studies from the subtropics. Our search did not
systematically include this region, but there are several studies,
for example from Northern India and the Himalayan southern
slopes (Soni et al., 1985; Gilmour et al., 1987). At a first glance,
studies from this region seem to have cases of insufficient
quality for meta-analysis. Krishnakumar et al. (1990) reported
on only limited increases in infiltration upon establishment of a
rubber plantation in Northeast India. Within the tropics we were
unable to find a single study the effects on infiltrability of
establishing rubber or oil palm plantations. This could be a
potential weakness for a complete picture of afforestation, since
such plantations are often established by the use of radical
clearing and soil disturbance. It is also noteworthy that Latin
America and the soil order Oxisols/Ferralsols are completely
absent from the selected studies.
4.3. Agroforestry versus afforestation
Arguments for both agroforestry and afforestation are often
from the perspective of rehabilitating or improving soil
physical properties. Our meta-analysis indicates that there is
greater improvement as a result of afforestation (Table 2). This
is logical in the sense that the various potential benefits of
planted trees (e.g. litterfall, deep roots, shade, etc., Young,
1989) are likely to be more effective with increased cover. With
much shorter crop cycles in agroforestry, one could assume that
agroforestry experiments are likely to be evaluated after a
shorter time period. However, in the studies included in the
meta-analysis this was not the case (Table 1). In agroforestry,
research is concentrated on optimizing the effects of soil
improvement in different settings by using different tree species
(Wallace et al., 2005). This aspect of research is less common in
the case of afforestation. O’Connell and Sankaran (1997)
reviewed litter accumulation and decomposition rates for some
tropical plantation tree species, but most studies in this area
deal with nutrient mineralization and dynamics and do not
determine the effects on soil physical properties. As an
exception, Malmer et al. (1998) indicated higher infiltrability in
forest succession after fire (Nykvist, 1996) compared to their
control dipterocarp forest (Sim and Nykvist, 1991). They also
found that the physical properties of soils disturbed by tractors
rehabilitate more rapidly under young secondary dipterocarp
forest than under plantation (Acacia mangium) or selectively
logged dipterocarp forest.
4.4. Recommendations for future research
Most of the studies which were excluded during the
selection process were excluded because they were not relevant
to the particular research question at hand. For example, they
could be situated outside the tropics, or did primarily look at
other issues and merely discussed infiltrability or afforestation
in general terms. Therefore, many studies which were excellent
with respect to their primary objective could not be used in this
50 U. Ilstedt et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007) 45–51
meta-analysis. However, it is also evident that many published
studies could easily have been of better value with small
changes in methodology and presentation. Too often it was
unclear whether there had been any randomization of
treatments and basic statistical information was lacking. Also
the methodology was commonly insufficiently explained, for
example if the infiltrability measurements represented steady
state or not. Many studies further failed to provide the
information needed to be useful for generalizations with respect
of edaphic factors, climate and management. It is therefore not
enough to recommend just executing more studies, but an
important lesson is that capacity building with respect to
research design and presentation of research is needed.
In future meta-analyses the data base could be improved by
adding more languages than English and French. Including
Portuguese and Spanish might solve the poor representation of
Latin America. It is also likely that expanding the search to the
‘gray literature’ (e.g. proceedings, thesis works and institu-
tional reports) provides useful studies.
5. Conclusions
Published studies suggest increased infiltrability after
tropical afforestation and tree planting for agroforestry.
However, the level of knowledge about rates of infiltration
under different edaphic conditions and the effects of species
and techniques is severely lacking. For more robust hydro-
logical model construction and application we need more
information based on well-designed experiments under varied
biophysical conditions in the tropics.
Acknowledgements
Part of this study was made possible by grants from Swedish
Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and
Spatial Planning (Formas) through a common research call with
the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida).
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