Sustainability 10 03690

sustainability
Article
Resource Assessment and Techno-Economic Analysis
of a Grid-Connected Solar PV-Wind Hybrid System
for Different Locations in Saudi Arabia
Yahya Z. Alharthi *, Mahbube K. Siddiki and Ghulam M. Chaudhry
Department of Computer Science Electrical Engineering, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 5110 Rockhill Rd,
Kansas City, MO 64110, USA; siddikim@umkc.edu (M.K.S.); chaudhryg@umkc.edu (G.M.C.)
* Correspondence: yza6x6@mail.umkc.edu

Received: 4 August 2018; Accepted: 10 October 2018; Published: 15 October 2018
Abstract: The economic growth and demographic progression in Saudi Arabia increased spending on
the development of conventional power plants to meet the national energy demand. The conventional
generation and continued use of fossil fuels as the main source of electricity will raise the operational
environmental impact of electricity generation. Therefore, using different renewable energy sources
might be a solution to this issue. In this study, a grid-connected solar PV-wind hybrid energy system
has been designed considering an average community load demand of 15,000 kWh/day and a peak
load of 2395 kW. HOMER software is used to assess the potential of renewable energy resources and
perform the technical and economic analyses of the grid-connected hybrid system. The meteorological
data was collected from the Renewable Resources Atlas developed by the King Abdullah City of
Atomic and Renewable Energy (KACARE). Four different cities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
namely, the cities of Riyadh, Hafar Albatin, Sharurah, and Yanbu were selected to do the analyses.
The simulation results show that the proposed system is economically and environmentally feasible
at Yanbu city. The system at this city has the lowest net present cost (NPC) and levelized the cost of
energy (LCOE), highest total energy that can be sold to the grid, as well as the lowest CO2 emissions
due to a highly renewable energy penetration. This grid-connected hybrid system with the proposed
configuration is applicable for similar meteorological and environmental conditions in the region,
and around the world. Reduction of some greenhouse gasses as well as the reduction of energy costs
are main contributors of this research.
Keywords: solar energy; wind energy; grid-connected hybrid system; sustainability; HOMER
1. Introduction
Tropical and hot climate regions all over the world are underutilized in generating power
and providing alternative resources of energy [1]. For example, the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) countries in the Middle East, which have an abundance of natural resources, there is less
incentive to develop Renewable Energy (RE) projects. Other reasons may be related to political and
economic instability that deprive governments of financial resources to invest in new technology [2,3].
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is considered to be one of the top countries for having some of
the hottest weather worldwide. It is also the top fossil fuel consumer for electric power generation in
the Middle East [4].
KSA’s power demand has significantly increased over the last two decades [5]. In 2003, the Saudi
Electricity Company (SEC) report showed that the peak load of the national grid was 26.2 GW. In 2016,
the total amount of electricity generated, reached more than 74 GW, as shown in Figure 1. It is
expected to reach more than 100 GW by 2030 due to both rapid population and economic growth [6,7].
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Sustainability 2018, 10, 3690 2 of 22
The report also presented the total number of customers, which was 3,622,390 in 2000, and recorded an
average annual growth of 5.4% from 2000 to 2014.
The power sector of KSA relies heavily on fossil fuels for electric power generation [8,9]. Heavy
Fuel Oil (HFO), natural gas, diesel oil, and crude oil are the types of fossil fuels used in power plants.
Figure 2 illustrates the development of fuel consumed for power generation from 2000–2014 [6]. Due to
the rapid increase in commercial and residential loads every year, appropriate and sufficient electrical
power generation must be provided to meet the growth of such demands. However, continued
dependence on fossil fuel as the primary energy source will cause fuel depletion, environmental
pollution, and have an extremely negative impact on human health [10].
The report in Reference [11] shows that KSA is one of the top producers of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
emissions in the world. Hence, implementing renewable energy projects for power generation will not
only reduce the level of CO2 emissions in KSA, but will also contribute to increasing the kingdom’s
revenues [12]. KSA has several suitable locations for implementing renewable power generation
projects. Wind and solar energy have the most potential renewable energy sources in the kingdom [13].
An analytical study, made for evaluating different renewable energy sources in Saudi Arabia, shows
that photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP), and wind energy are the most effective RE
technologies, respectively [14]. Another study, conducted by Munawwar et al. [15], reviewed the
growth of the solar industry and renewable energy in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) areas,
and stated that solar power production is expected to represent up to 16–22% of the KSA’s total energy
generation by 2032. The KSA authorities recognize the importance of wind energy, and will support
investments in this sector [16].
In establishing the King Abdullah City of Atomic and Renewable Energy (KACARE) in 2010,
the aim was to build renewable energy power sector for KSA. One of the most important projects is the
renewable resources atlas of the KSA, which KACARE is developing. Almost 32 monitoring stations
across the country provided extensive information about solar resources, and nine stations for wind
resources provided limited information [17]. By using these types of data to analyze the potential of
renewable energy resources in such hot climate regions, researchers, and power project developers
contribute to the achievement of KSA’s 2032 and 2040 RE visions mentioned in References [18,19].
Analytical studies to explore and conduct the performance of solar and wind energy resources
in KSA are few. For solar power, a study conducted by Erica et al. [20] summarized one year of
solar resource measurement data for 30 stations, which KACARE was provided across the country.
They analyzed the Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), and Diffuse
Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) data, based on one-minute measurements. Arif et al. [21] addressed
the solar energy future aspects and the applications of solar power along with different studies
conducted in the same field with the aim of establishing energy polices for KSA [22,23]. In addition,
Almarshoud [18] presented a review of the photovoltaic system for 32 sites of solar resources across
KSA using three modes of a sun tracking system. That study showed a high productivity of energy
and the difference in percentages of using a fixed tilt angle, and 1-axis and 2-axis tracking modes for
the 32 sites. A.M. Ramli et al. [24] conducted experimental investigations to study the effect of weather
conditions on a PV output power production using a simple rule-based model. This study came up
with results presented as a percentage and showed the significant effect of dust, rain, and clouds on a
PV panel’s efficiency.
For wind energy, researchers conducted several studies for evaluating the potential of wind
energy and resources for different locations in Saudi Arabia. Starting from 2004, S. Rehman et al. [25]
presented an analysis of 14 years of wind data for five costal locations in the KSA with the aim of
assessing the potential wind energy. In their research paper, they found the most suitable location
for harnessing the power of wind. Another study regarding wind power costs in 20 locations in
KSA, used data recorded from 1970 to 1982. Here, S. Rehman et al. [26] showed that the minimum
cost of electricity generated by using different wind turbines with a maximum output of 2500, 1300,
and 600 kW was found to be 0.0234, 0.0295, and 0.0438 $/kWh in the same city. In 2005, Alabbadi [27]
assessed the power density and wind energy resources for five locations by using the data collected
between 1995 and 2002. Another assessment of wind energy performed in 2012, for five different
locations in KSA, was introduced by Eltamaly et al. [28] through a computer program for the purpose
of selecting the most effective size of wind turbine for each site. In 2015, Baseer et al. [29] analyzed
and presented the characteristics of wind speed for Jubail Industrial City at three different heights.
They also analyzed seven locations in the same city by using different wind data at 10 m above ground
level (AGL) [30]. The results showed that the East of Jubail Industrial City is the most promising
area for wind energy production from a 3 MW wind machine. S.M. Shaahid et al. [31] presented an
economic feasibility study for the development of 75 MW wind power plants in four coastal regions
in KSA using different combinations of 600 kW wind turbines (wind farms). This research showed
that the energy from a wind electric conversion system (WECS) would not produce for 41–53% of
the time during the year. Davut Solyali et al. [32] and Farivar Fazelpour et al. [33] did similar studies
in other countries and presented the technical assessment of wind resources and energy density
using the Weibull distribution function to do the estimation. Additionally, A. Dabbaghiyan et al. [34]
and A. Allouhi et al. [35] evaluated the wind energy potential for different sites at various heights
in Iran and Morocco using Weibull distribution to assess the wind power density. In the Bushehr
province of Iran, the average wind power density was approximately 265 W/m2 at the height of 40 m.
In Morocco, the results showed the most suitable location for harnessing the wind power among six
coastal locations.
The literature review shows the potential of solar and wind resources based on the data of
the Renewable Resource Monitoring and Mapping (RRMM) program, which KACARE provided,
and other data of local sites in the KSA. The primary observation by the authors also shows that most
of the existing research work focuses on the evaluation of renewable energy resources and feasibility
of small-scale RE generation in KSA, specifically the solar PV. One very important missing aspect is to
investigate the potential of a large-scale grid-connected PV/Wind hybrid system considering real grid
prices. As per the authors’ knowledge, none of the existing work explored the technical and economic
aspects of a large-scale grid-connected hybrid system for the KSA’s climate conditions.
In the present study, a resource assessment and techno-economic analyzes of grid-connected
solar/wind hybrid systems for different cities was carried out. In order to develop a hybrid
grid-connected system model to analyze the power production and identify the best economic
configuration, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NERL) Hybrid Optimization of Multiple
Electric Renewables (HOMER) was used. This software is considered the best and simplest tool to
evaluate RES among other different renewable energy software [36]. For the selected locations, the load
applied was a hypothetical community load with a maximum daily consumption of 15 MWh/day.
The peak of this load is expected to occur during August due to the high temperatures with 2.395 MW,
as illustrated in Figure 11. The analyses of the grid-connected hybrid systems were performed by
simulating each system’s operation for 25 years—that is, the project lifetime. Capital costs, equipment
replacement cost, operation and maintenance expenses, grid prices, and project lifetime are important
data required by the simulation.
For the simulation of the grid-connected hybrid system, location and wind/solar resources
were the considered key variables that were examined in order to determine which city had the best
and optimal hybrid energy system based on costs, energy production, energy purchased and sold,
and lowest CO2 emissions. For accurate results, ground reflectance, ambient temperature, wind site
altitude, and hub height were included in the computations.
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Figure
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Peak
1. Peak Load
Peak Load Versus
Load Versus Generation
Versus Generation Capacity for (SEC)
Capacity for (SEC) [37].
[37].
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Development of
of Fuels Consumed
Consumed in SEC
SEC Power Plants
Plants from 2000
2000 to 2014
2014 [6].
[6].
Figure 2. Development
Development of Fuels
Fuels Consumed in
in SEC Power
Power Plants from
from 2000 to
to 2014 [6].
2.
2. Resource
Resource Analysis
Analysis
2.1. Solar Data

2.1. Solar
Solar Data
The analysis presented
The analysis
analysis presented in
presented in this
in paper was
this paper
paper carried out
was carried
carried out using
out using the
using KACARE’s RRMM.
the KACARE’s
KACARE’s RRMM. To
RRMM. To get
To get an
an
overview of
overview
overview ofthe
of thesolar
the solarenergy
solar energy
energy potential
potential
potential at the
at the
at the fourfour
four selected
selected
selected citiescities
cities in Table
in Table
in Table the 1,
1, the
1, the monthly
monthly
monthly averageaverage
average values
values
values
of
of the of the
the GHI,
GHI, DNI,
DNI,GHI, and
andDNI,
DHIand
DHI were
were DHI were analysed
analysed
analysed for
for all 12 for
all 12 all 12of
months
months ofmonths
2015.
2015. Thisof 2015.
This analysis
analysis This
aims
aimsanalysis
to aimsthe
to explore
explore to
the
explore the
availability availability
of solar of
resourcessolar resources
based on thebased
data on the
availabledata
fromavailable from
different different
sites.
availability of solar resources based on the data available from different sites. For this purpose, we For thissites. For
purpose, this
we
purpose, we downloaded
downloaded
downloaded the solar
the datathe
solar data forsolar
for Hafar
Hafardata for Hafar
Albatin,
Albatin, Albatin,
Riyadh,
Riyadh, Riyadh,
Sharurah,
Sharurah, and
andSharurah,
Yanbu from
Yanbu and Yanbu
from from the
the Renewable
the Renewable
Renewable
Resource Resource
Atlas. Figure Atlas.
3 Figure
provides 3
anprovides
overview an overview
of the of
stations the stations
installed installed
across
Resource Atlas. Figure 3 provides an overview of the stations installed across the country and the across
country the
andcountry
were
were
and were classified
classified into
classified into the
the Tierinto the Tier
Tier 11 Research 1 Research
Research station,
station, Tierstation, Tier
Tier 22 Mid-range 2 Mid-range
Mid-range stations, stations,
stations, and
and Tier and Tier
Tier 33 Simple 3 Simple
Simple Stations.
Stations.
Stations. Sulaiman
Sulaiman
Sulaiman et al.
et al. [38] et al.Erica
[38] and
and [38] et
Erica and
et al.Erica
al. et al. [20] more
[20] explained
[20] explained explained
more aboutmore
about theseabout
these typesthese
types and the
and types
the andequipment
major
major the major
equipment
equipment
used for the used
Saudi for the
solar Saudi
resourcesolar
used for the Saudi solar resource network. resource
network. network.
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure3.3.
Figure
Figure 3.Solar
Solarand
Solar andWind
and WindResource
Wind Resource Monitoring
Resource Monitoring Stations,
Monitoring Stations, by
Stations,by Province
byProvince (RRATLAS).
Province(RRATLAS).
(RRATLAS).
Table
Table 1.Solar
Table1.
1. Solarmonitoring
Solar stationsdetails.
monitoring stations
monitoring stations details.
details.
S. NOS. NO
S. NO Monitoring
Monitoring
Monitoring Sites Tier
Sites
Sites Tier Longitude
Tier Longitude (E)
Longitude Latitude
(E) Latitude
(E) Latitude (N) (N) Operating Since Since
Operating
(N) Operating Since
1 Hafar Albatin 2 45.9570 28.3320 6 October 2013
11 2
Hafar
Hafar Albatin
Albatin
Riyadh
22 2
45.9570
45.9570
46.6163
28.3320
28.3320
24.7235
6
6 October
October
15 October 2014
2013
2013
22 3 Riyadh
Riyadh Yanbu 2
2 1C 46.6163
46.6163
38.2046 24.7235
24.7235
24.9865 291515 October
October
October 2014
2014 2014
4 Sharurah 2 47.0861 17.4758 3 September 2013
33 Yanbu
Yanbu 1C
1C 38.2046
38.2046 24.9865
24.9865 29 October
29 October 2014 2014
44 Sharurah
Sharurah 22 47.0861
47.0861 17.4758
17.4758 33 September
September 2013 2013
The DNI data are an important factor for Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies. Figure 4
compares Thethe
The DNI
DNI data are
data
measured are an
an important
important
values factor
of thefactor
DNI for for Concentrating
Concentrating
the four selected Solar
Solar Powerduring
Power
stations (CSP) technologies.
(CSP) technologies. Figure
Figure
2015. This represents
44 compares
compares the
the measured
measured values
values of
of the
the DNI
DNI for
for the
the four
four selected
selected stations
stations
the average monthly data. The main selected cities were Hafar Albatin (Northeast region), Riyadh during
during 2015.
2015. This
This represents
represents
the average
the
(middle average monthly
of themonthly
country), data.
data. The main
The
Sharurah main selected
selected
(South), and cities
cities
Yanbu were(West
were Hafarcoast).
Hafar AlbatinThe
Albatin (Northeast
(Northeast
maximum region),
region), Riyadh
DNIRiyadh
occurred
(middle
(middle of
of the
the country),
country), Sharurah
Sharurah (South),
(South), and
and Yanbu
Yanbu (West
(West
between June and July with approximately 7887 Wh/m as the maximum for Yanbu, 6937.7 Wh/m2
2 coast).
coast). The
The maximum
maximum DNI
DNI occurred
occurred
between
forbetween June and
June
Haver Albatin, andandJuly6293
July withWh/m
with approximately
approximately
2 for Riyadh. 7887 Wh/m
7887 Wh/m as the
22 as
The minimum the maximum
maximum
DNI for for for Yanbu,
HafarYanbu,
Albatin6937.7
6937.7and Wh/m
Wh/m 22
Riyadh
for Haver
Haver Albatin,
Albatin, and
and 6293
6293 Wh/m
Wh/m22 for
wasfor during April with less than 3500 for Wh/m Riyadh.
Riyadh.2 and The minimum
The minimum DNI
4783.8 Wh/m DNI
2 forfor Hafar
for Hafar Albatin
Yanbu Albatin and
during and Riyadh
August.Riyadh
It can
was during
was during April
April with
with less
less than
than 3500
3500 Wh/mWh/m22 and and 4783.8
4783.8 Wh/mWh/m22 forfor Yanbu
Yanbu during
during August.
August. ItIt can
can bebe
be seen from the DNI line graph that when the longitude has the same or a similar value, DNI will
seenfrom
seen fromthe theDNI
DNIline
linegraph
graphthatthatwhen
whenthe thelongitude
longitudehas hasthethesame
sameor oraasimilar
similarvalue,
value,DNI DNIwillwillfollow
follow
follow the uniform pattern as shown for Hafar Albatin and Riyadh-KSU. The DHI is the scattered
the uniform
the uniform pattern
pattern asas shown
shown for for Hafar
Hafar Albatin
Albatin and and Riyadh-KSU.
Riyadh-KSU. The The DHIDHI is is the
the scattered
scattered solar
solar
solar radiation, and it does not include the DNI since it is available from the entire sky. In Figure 4,
radiation, and
radiation, and itit does
does not
not include
include thethe DNIDNI since
since itit is
is available
available fromfrom the
the entire
entire sky.
sky. InIn Figure
Figure 4,4, the
the
the Hafear Albatin and Riyadh stations recorded the highest amount of DHI radiation in the first
Hafear Albatin
Hafear Albatin and and Riyadh
Riyadh stations
stations recorded
recorded the the highest
highest amount
amount of of DHI
DHI radiation
radiation in in the
the first
first quarter
quarter
quarter
of
of while
of 2015,
2015, 2015, while
while Sharurah
SharurahSharurah thehad
had the
had
the maximum
maximum
maximum DHI during
DHI
DHIJuly,
during during
July, andJuly,
and Yanbu
Yanbu
andduring
YanbuAugust.
during during August.
August.
(a) DHI
(a) DHI
Figure 4. Cont.
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(b) DNI
(c) GHI
Figure4.4.Average
Figure AverageMonthly
Monthly DHI,
DHI, DNI, and
and GHI
GHIat
atthe
theselected
selectedstations.
stations.
GHIGHI is is
the theinput
inputdata
dataused
usedin inHOMER
HOMER software
software since
since itit isisan
animportant
importantfactor
factortotophotovoltaic
photovoltaic
installations and it includes the DNI and DHI. In this part, we compared
installations and it includes the DNI and DHI. In this part, we compared the GHI of the selected the GHI of the selected
places
places
using theusing
data of thethedata of the
same yearsame
fromyear from to
January January to December.
December. The solarThe solar radiation
radiation started
started gradually
graduallyfrom
increasing increasing from
the first the first
quarter quarter
of the year of
and thereached
year and reached
the maximum the maximum
in June andin June
July. and July.
Thereafter,
Thereafter, it decreased from August until the minimum values
it decreased from August until the minimum values occurred during December. We observed occurred during December. We a
observed a uniform pattern for the GHI data from the line graph in Figure
uniform pattern for the GHI data from the line graph in Figure 4 with maximum values of 7400 to 4 with maximum values
of 7400
8160 Wh/m to 8160
2 duringWh/m theduring
2
summertheseason
summer season
and and the minimally
the minimally recorded recorded
values values
duringduring
winterwinter
were in
were in between 3239 and 5088 Wh/m for the sites.
2
between 3239 and 5088 Wh/m2 for the sites.
In this study, we took different locations with different topographies into consideration to test
In this study, we took different locations with different topographies into consideration to
and compare the performance of the solar monitoring stations in each city. We observed the
test and compare the performance of the solar monitoring stations in each city. We observed the
minimum annual average daily total DNI at Hafar Albatin and the maximum at Sharurah as it can
minimum annual average daily total DNI at Hafar Albatin and the maximum at Sharurah as it can
be seen in Figure 5. For the DHI, we recorded the maximum annual average daily total in Riyadh by
be 2614.04
seen inWh/mFigure 5. For
2. The the DHI, we recorded the maximum annual average daily total in Riyadh
maximum average daily total of GHI solar radiation was in Sharurah by 6681.62
byWh/m
2614.04 Wh/m 2 . The maximum average daily total of GHI solar radiation was in Sharurah by
2, and the minimum was in Hafar Albatin with 5744.84 Wh/m 2.
6681.62 Wh/m2 , and the minimum was in Hafar Albatin with 5744.84 Wh/m2 .
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Figure 5. Annual average daily total of DNI, GHI, and DHI.

Figure 5. Annual average daily total of DNI, GHI, and DHI.
2.2. Wind Data
2.2. This
Windpart
Dataprovides a brief description of the four locations considered in this study. The meteorological
data were
This collected beginning
part provides in 2014
a brief by the KACARE
description of the four windlocations
resource considered
monitoring stations across the
in this study. The
country. The measured
meteorological data wereparameters
collectedincluded temperature,
beginning in 2014 byrelative humidity,
the KACARE windpressure,
resource wind speed,
monitoring
wind direction,
stations acrossand
the many other
country. Theparameters
measuredatparameters
40 m, 60 m, included
80 m, 98 m, and 100 m above
temperature, thehumidity,
relative ground
surface. The measurements of the average monthly wind speed were made
pressure, wind speed, wind direction, and many other parameters at 40 m, 60 m, 80 m, 98 m, and at 40 m, 60 m, 80 m,
100
98mm, and the
above 100 ground
m for each site, and
surface. The the average wind
measurements of directions
the averagewere madewind
monthly at 37 speed
m, 80 m, and
were 98 m.at
made
For this60study,
40 m, m, 80the
m, 98details
m, and of the
100 selected
m for eachsites are
site, summarized
and the averageinwindTabledirections
2. At all were
of these locations,
made at 37 m,
the
80 meteorological
m, and 98 m. For measurements
this study, theweredetails
made of
at different
the selected heights.
sites The data used in this
are summarized analysis
in Table covers
2. At all of
12these
months of measurements
locations, stretching
the meteorological from Januarywere
measurements to December
made at2015. The heights.
different reason for choosing
The onlyin
data used
one
thisyear is because
analysis covers we12found
months someof data missing forstretching
measurements some of the months
from in 2014
January and 2016. 2015.
to December FigureThe
3
shows
reasonthe formap of Saudi
choosing onlyArabia. Theisfigure
one year shows
because we the locations
found of the
some data measurement
missing for some sites presented
of the monthsinin
Table
20142and and 2016.
the current
Figurelocations
3 showsofthe the map
otherofwind
Saudi sites in the country.
Arabia. The figure shows the locations of the
measurement sites presented in Table 2 and the current locations of the other wind sites in the
country. Table 2. Wind monitoring stations details.
S. NO Site Longitude (E) Latitude (N) Elevation (m) Data Collection Start
Table 2. Wind monitoring stations details.
1 Riyadh 46.3527 24.5764 924 13 August 2014
S.2NO Yanbu
Site 37.4844
Longitude 24.3420 (N) Elevation
(E) Latitude 18 (m) Data18 Collection
August 2014Start
31 Sharurah
Riyadh 47.0731
46.3527 17.3234
24.5764 764
924 26
13 August
August20142014
4 Hafar Albatin 44.2031 28.2688 360 24 August 2014
2 Yanbu 37.4844 24.3420 18 18 August 2014
3 Sharurah 47.0731 17.3234 764 26 August 2014
One4 of the
Hafar most important 44.2031
Albatin factors about wind farm projects360
28.2688 is the wind direction.
24 AugustTo2014achieve
the optimum design of a wind power plant, the prevailing wind direction of the selected locations
must be Oneassessed.
of the mostIn this paper, we
important applied
factors the wind
about KACARE farmwind roseissimulation
projects for the locations
the wind direction. under
To achieve the
consideration
optimum design to provide the diagrams
of a wind power plant,at a the
height of 80 m wind
prevailing abovedirection
the ground. Each
of the wind rose
selected chartmust
locations has
16becardinal directions,
assessed. as shown
In this paper, weinapplied
Figure 6.
theThese chartswind
KACARE show rose
the frequency
simulation and
forspeed of the wind
the locations as
under
itconsideration
blows from each direction. Designers can make their decisions for a particular site
to provide the diagrams at a height of 80 m above the ground. Each wind rose chart by analyzing the
rose
has plots. We candirections,
16 cardinal observe from these plots
as shown that the
in Figure most prevailing
6. These charts show wind
the direction
frequencyfor Sharurah
and speed of and
the
Riyadh was from the East-Northeast for about 21% of the time and from the Northeast
wind as it blows from each direction. Designers can make their decisions for a particular site by for 13% of the
time, respectively.
analyzing the roseThe Hafar
plots. We Albatin site recorded
can observe from these that thethat
plots most wind
the mostdirection was
prevailing fromdirection
wind the North for
for about 16%
Sharurah and of the time,
Riyadh was and
from39%
the was from the North-Northwest
East-Northeast for about 21% of the direction for from
time and Yanbu,theasNortheast
seen in
Figure
for 13%6. Hence, windrespectively.
of the time, turbines can beTheinstalled upon these
Hafar Albatin site directions.
recorded that Generally,
the mostmodern wind energy
wind direction was
conversion systems
from the North forhave different
about 16% ofcut-in speedsand
the time, that39%
depends on thethe
was from size of the installed wind
North-Northwest turbine.
direction for
Yanbu, as seen in Figure 6. Hence, wind turbines can be installed upon these directions. Generally,
modern wind2018,
Sustainability energy conversion systems have different cut-in speeds that depends on the size of the
10, 3690 8 of 22
installed wind turbine.
(a) Sharurah (b) Hafar Albatin
(c) Riyadh (d) Yanbu
Figure 6. Wind rose diagrams for the selected stations.

Figure 6. Wind rose diagrams for the selected stations.
It is fundamental to analyze the wind energy regime before implementing any wind energy
It is fundamental to analyze the wind energy regime before implementing any wind energy
project since the cost of wind energy production is heavily dependent on the wind resources at these
project since the cost of wind energy production is heavily dependent on the wind resources at these
sites [39]. Speed critically influences the wind resources at a certain site. Accordingly, the average
sites [39]. Speed critically influences the wind resources at a certain site. Accordingly, the average
wind speed is important in assessing the wind energy potential at any site [40]. To describe the wind
wind speed is important in assessing the wind energy potential at any site [40]. To describe the wind
speed distribution, the literature shows several density functions that can be used. The Weibull and
speed distribution, the literature shows several density functions that can be used. The Weibull and
the Rayleigh functions are the two most common distributions. In this study, we used the Weibull
the Rayleigh functions are the two most common distributions. In this study, we used the Weibull
distribution to do the wind distribution analysis for the selected sites. This type is characterized by two
distribution to do the wind distribution analysis for the selected sites. This type is characterized by
parameters, one is the scale parameter c (m/s), and the other is the shape parameter k (dimensionless).
two parameters, one is the scale parameter c (m/s), and the other is the shape parameter k
There are several methods for calculating these two parameters of the Weibull distribution for wind
(dimensionless). There are several methods for calculating these two parameters of the Weibull
speed analysis [41,42]. We used the power density method (PDM) in this study to estimate the scale
distribution for wind speed analysis [41,42]. We used the power density method (PDM) in this study
and shape parameters; it relates to the averaged data of wind speed. We then compared the results
to estimate the scale and shape parameters; it relates to the averaged data2 of wind speed. We then
to the actual data, and we calculated the coefficient of determination (R ) in order to examine how
compared the results to the actual data, and we calculated the coefficient2of determination (R2) in
well the distribution functions, and it fits the data set. Table 3 shows that R was 97% and above for all
order to examine how well the distribution functions, and it fits the data set. Table 3 shows that R2
Weibull distributions. These results illustrate that the fitted functions describe the observed values of
was 97% and above for all Weibull distributions. These results illustrate that the fitted functions
wind speed reasonably well.
describe the observed values of wind speed reasonably well.
Sustainability 2018,
Sustainability 10, x3690
2018, 10, FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 22
22
Table 3. Annual estimated Weibull parameters.

Table 3. Annual estimated Weibull parameters.
Table 3. Annual estimated Weibull
Standard parameters.
Average WPD
Site Mean (m/s) Standard Average WPD K C (m/s) R2
Site Mean (m/s) Deviation
Standard (W/m )
Average WPD
2
K C (m/s) R2
Site Mean (m/s) Deviation R2
(W/m2(W/m
2) K C (m/s)
Riyadh City Site A 6.30 3.27
Deviation 292.02
) 2 7.11 0.976
Riyadh City Site A
Yanbu 6.30 3.27 292.02 2 7.11 0.976
Riyadh City Site A 8.84 6.30 4.70
3.27 292.02833.78 2 1.95
7.11 9.98
0.976 0.980
Yanbu
Sharurah Yanbu 8.84 8.84
7.07 4.70
4.70
3.78 833.78
833.78426.20 1.95 1.95
9.98
1.95 9.98
0.980
7.98 0.980
0.981
SharurahSharurah
Hafar Albatin 7.07 7.07
7.65 3.78
3.78
3.94
426.20426.20
519.27
1.95 1.95
7.98
2.02 7.98
0.981
8.64 0.981
0.982
Hafar Albatin 7.65 7.65
Hafar Albatin 3.94
3.94 519.27519.27 2.02 8.64
2.02 0.982
8.64 0.982
Figures 7 and 8 show the Weibull distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) at
80 m Figures
height for7 and
the 8selected
show the Weibull
sites. distribution,
From these two graphs, we observedDistribution
and Cumulative that the wind Function (CDF)
(CDF) at
speed remained
80 m height
height for
for the
the selected
selected sites.
sites. From
From these
these two
two graphs,
graphs, we
we observed
observed that
that
above 10 m/s for about 41% of the time at Yanbu, followed by 10 m/s for 27% at Hafar Albatin, 22% the
the wind
wind speed
speed remained
remained
above
at 10 m/s
Sharurah,m/sand
for
for about
14% at41% of the
of
Riyadh. theThis
timealso
time atYanbu,
at Yanbu, followed
showsfollowed
that the by by1010
best m/sfor
m/s
locationforamong
27%atatHafar
27% Hafar
these Albatin,
Albatin,
cities 22%
for22%
windat
at Sharurah,
Sharurah, andand 14%
14% at at Riyadh.
Riyadh. This
This also
also shows
shows that
that the
the best
best location
location among
among
energy production is Yanbu due to the high wind speed, as seen in Figures 7 and 9. The results also these
these cities for wind
energy production
indicate that Yanbuis
production is Yanbu
city has adue to the
better high wind
potential speed,
for using as seen
wind energyin Figures
than the7otherand 9.three
The locations
results also
in
indicate that Yanbu city has a better potential for using wind energy than
the provinces examined. In Table 3, we found the annual mean wind power density (per unit area the other three locations in
the provinces
provinces examined.
examined. In
In Table
Table 3,3,
we we found
found thethe annual
annual mean mean
wind wind
powerpower
P/A) for the selected locations to be about 833.78 W/m at Yanbu, 426.20 W/m at Sharurah, 292.02
2 density
density
2 (per (per
unit unit
area area
P/A)
P/A)
W/m 2for
for the the selected
atselected
Riyadh, locations
locations
and 519.27 to be
W/m to2 be
aboutat 833.78
Hafar W/m2 W/m
about Albatin
833.78 at 2 at Yanbu,
forYanbu,
winds 426.20 426.20of
W/m
at a height
2 W/m
m. at Sharurah,
2
at80Sharurah, 292.022
292.02 W/m
W/m 2 at Riyadh,
at Riyadh, and 519.27
and 519.27 W/m W/m2 2 at Hafar
at Hafar Albatin
Albatin for winds
for winds at a height
at a height of 80 ofm.80 m.
Figure 7. Weibull distribution of the measured data at 80 m.

Figure 7.
Figure Weibull distribution
7. Weibull distribution of
of the
the measured
measured data
data at
at 80
80 m.
m.
Figure 8.
Figure Cumulative density
8. Cumulative density of
of wind
wind speed
speed at
at 80
80 m.
m.
Figure 8. Cumulative density of wind speed at 80 m.
Sustainability
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2018,10,
10,x3690
FOR PEER REVIEW 10
10ofof22
22
Figure 9. Monthly mean wind speed in m/s.

3. Design and System Specifications
3. Design and System Specifications
3.1. Model Design
3.3.1.
Design
Model and System Specifications
Design
The hypothetical load considered in this study is a 15 MWh/day community load. This load is
the AC Theprimary electric
hypothetical loadload that the designed
considered in this studysystem must
is a 15 meet incommunity
MWh/day order to avoid load.the unmet
This load isload.
the
3.1. Model Design
Beside the load, the system consists of four other components: The grid system,
AC primary electric load that the designed system must meet in order to avoid the unmet load. Beside DC to AC converter,
solar The
PV hypothetical
array, loadwind
and 1consists
MW considered
turbine inasthis study isinaFigure
presented 15 MWh/day community load. This load is
the load, the system of four other components: The grid10. An inverter
system, DC toisAC required
converter,by the
solargrid-
PV
the AC
connected primary electric load that the designed system must meet in order to avoid the unmet load.
array, and 1system
MW wind to adapt
turbinetheasdirect
presentedcurrent DC produced
in Figure by the isPV
10. An inverter array and
required by thefeed it to the AC
grid-connected
Beside
busbar the load,the
where theload
system consistsSince
connected. of four other
this components:
design has no The grid
backup system,
system, the DC to AC
utility gridconverter,
willwhere
serve
system to adapt the direct current DC produced by the PV array and feed it to the AC busbar
solar
as PV array, and 1 MW wind turbine as presented in Figure 10. An inverter is required by the grid-
theaload
reliable supplierSince
connected. to the load
this due to
design hasthe
noelectric
backupintermittence caused
system, the utility by will
grid the renewable energy
serve as a reliable
connected
sources. system to adapt the direct current DC produced by the PV array and feed it to the AC
supplier to the load due to the electric intermittence caused by the renewable energy sources.
busbar where the
Figure load connected. Sincemonthly
this design has no backup system, the utility grid willinserve
Figure 11 11 shows
shows the the profile
profile of
of the
the monthly average
average load load with
with aa peak
peak demand
demand beginning
beginning in May May
as a reliable
through supplier to the load due to the electric intermittence caused by the renewable energy
through August and declining from September to the end of the year. This increase is mainly due to
August and declining from September to the end of the year. This increase is mainly due to
sources.
the
the high
high temperatures
temperatures during during the the summer,
summer, which which cause
cause the
the significant
significant usage
usage of of air
air conditioning
conditioning in in
KSA. Figureaverage
11 shows the profile of the monthly average load with awithpeak demand beginning in May
KSA. TheThe average scaled power consumed
scaled power consumed per day
per day is 15
is 15 MWh/day
MWh/day with aa peak
peak ofof 2.395
2.395 MWMW occurring
occurring
through
in August and declining from September to the end of the year. This increase is mainly due to
in August.
August.
the high temperatures during the summer, which cause the significant usage of air conditioning in
KSA. The average scaled power consumed per day is 15 MWh/day with a peak of 2.395 MW occurring
in August.
10. Design configuration of Wind/PV

Figure 10.
Figure grid-connected system.
Wind/PV grid-connected system.
Figure 10. Design configuration of Wind/PV grid-connected system.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. The
The monthly
monthly average
average load
load profile
profile applied.
applied.
3.2.
3.2. System
System Components
Components Figure 11. The monthly average load profile applied.
3.2.1. 3.2.
Electric
System Grid
Components
3.2.1. Electric Grid
The
3.2.1.utility
Electricgrid
Grid is the most reliable system that can be used, whereas the solar PV/wind system
The utility grid is the most reliable system that can be used, whereas the solar PV/wind system
depends on the renewable energy resources only. However, if the produced power by the solar
depends The on the
utility grid is theenergy
renewable resources
most reliable systemonly. However,
that can be used,ifwhereas
the produced power by
the solar PV/wind the solar
system
PV/wind exceeds the load requirements, the excess electricity is sold in a certain tariff to the grid.
PV/wind
dependsexceeds
on the therenewable
load requirements,
energy resources the excess electricityif isthesold
only. However, in a certain
produced powertariffby thetosolar
the grid.
Several researches have proven that the LCOE is reduced when the excess energy is used in this
PV/wind
Several exceeds
researches havetheproven
load requirements,
that the LCOE the excess electricity
is reduced whenis the
soldexcess
in a certain
energy tariff to the
is used ingrid.
this way
way [43]. Theresearches
Renewable Energy Feed in theTariff (REFIT) is an agreement to accelerate the investment
this way in
[43]. Several
The Renewable have
Energy proven
Feedthat
in Tariff LCOE is reduced
(REFIT) is anwhen the excess
agreement to energy
accelerateis usedtheininvestment in
renewable
[43]. energy
The technology.
Renewable Energy In KSA,
Feed in A.M.
Tariff Ramliiset
(REFIT) an al. [44] conducted
agreement to a study
accelerate the on the analysis
investment in
renewable energy technology. In KSA, A.M. Ramli et al. [44] conducted a study on the analysis of
of renewable
renewableenergy feed-in tariffs
energy technology. andA.M.
In KSA, concluded
Ramli etthat applying
al. [44] conducted fixed REFIT
a study helps
on the to enhance
analysis of
renewable energy feed-in tariffs and concluded that applying fixed REFIT helps to enhance
sustainability
renewablebyenergyeliminating
feed-inthe inflation
tariffs and effect in such
concluded thata region.
applying In fixed
2017, REFIT
SEC changed
helps tothe residential
enhance
sustainability by eliminating the inflation effect in such a region. In 2017, SEC changed the residential
sustainabilityrate
and commercial by eliminating
of electricity the to
inflation effect inThe
new prices. suchtwoa region. In 2017, SEC
consumption changed the
categories residential
of the residential
and commercial
and commercial raterateof electricity
of electricitytotonew
new prices.
prices. The
The twoconsumption
two consumption categories
categories of of residential
the the residential
loads are 1–6000 kWh and more than 6000 kWh, which have the rate charge of 0.048 $/kWh and
loads are 1–6000 kWh andand more than
than6000 kWh, whichhavehavethe therate
rate charge of 0.048 $/kWh and 0.080
0.080 loads
$/kWh, are 1–6000 kWh
respectively. more
Accordingly, 6000thekWh,
newwhich
rates utilized to charge
schedule of 0.048
fixed$/kWh
prices and
at 0.080
different
$/kWh, respectively.
$/kWh, respectively. Accordingly,
Accordingly,the thenewnewrates
rates utilized
utilized totoschedule
schedule fixed
fixed prices
prices at different
at different timestimes
times during the day and month, as shown in Figure 12. This figure shows the grid schedule rate for
during the day
during andand
the day month,
month, as as
shown
shownininFigure
Figure 12. ThisThisfigure
figureshows
shows thethe grid
grid schedule
schedule rate rate for the
for the
the whole day and each row represents the hours of the day starting at 00.00. The rate includes peak,
whole whole
day dayandand eacheach row row representsthe
represents thehours
hours ofof the
the day
daystarting
startingatat 00.00.
00.00.TheTheraterate
includes peak,peak,
includes
shoulder, and and
shoulder, off-peak
off-peak times,
times, whereas
whereasthe the sellbackelectric
thesellback
sellback electric charges are 0.070 $/kWh, 0.040 and$/kWh,
shoulder, and off-peak times, whereas electriccharges
chargesare 0.070
are 0.070$/kWh,
$/kWh, 0.040 $/kWh,
0.040 $/kWh, and
and 0.038 $/kWh, asasshown
shown in in Figure 13.
0.0380.038
$/kWh,$/kWh,
as shown Figure
in Figure 13.13.
Figure Grid
12.12.
Figure Griddaily
dailyschedule ratefor
schedule rate forall
allmonths.
months.
Figure 12. Grid daily schedule rate for all months.

Defined rates
Figure 13. Defined
Figure rates during the day.
3.2.2. PV
3.2.2. PV Modules
Modules andand Wind
Wind Turbine
Turbine
In this
In thisstudy, thethe
study, hybrid solarsolar
hybrid PV/wind is a system
PV/wind integrated
is a system with the grid
integrated withtothe
reduce
griddependence
to reduce
on fossil fuels as a primary source of electricity. The size of a grid-connected
dependence on fossil fuels as a primary source of electricity. The size of a grid-connectedRES depends onRES
the
system constraints.
depends In theconstraints.
on the system present design,
In thethe solar PV/wind
present hybrid
design, the solarsystem should
PV/wind be sized
hybrid systemto meet at
should
least 60% of the peak load demand, and this will identify the required output power from
be sized to meet at least 60% of the peak load demand, and this will identify the required output the hybrid
grid-connected
power from thesystem.
hybrid In HOMER, the system.
grid-connected PV output power canthe
In HOMER, be PV
calculated
output using
powerEquation (1)
can be calculated
using Equation (1) !
GT
PPV = YPV f PV ̅ [1 + α P ( Tc − Tc,STC )] (1)
= G T,STC 1+ − , (1)
̅ ,
where YPV is the capacity of PV array in [kW], f PV refers to the derating factor in [%], G̅ T PV solar
where is the capacity of PV array in [kW], refers to the derating factor in [%], PV solar
irradiation in [kW/m2 ], G T,STC
̅ is the incident radiation at standard test conditions and it is [1 kW/m2 ],
irradiation in [kW/m ], 2
, is the incident radiation at standard test conditions and it is [1
α P is the
2], Temp coefficient of power in [% /◦ C], Tc PV cell Temp in current time step [◦ C], and Tc,STC
kW/m is the Temp coefficient of power in [% /°C], ◦ C].
PV cell Temp in current time step [°C],
the cell temperature
and the cell under stander
temperature underteststander
conditions
test [25
conditions [25 °C].
,
It can be seen from Equation (1) that several factors, including solar irradiation and the cell
It can be seen from Equation (1) that several factors, including solar irradiation and the cell
temperature have
temperature havethe theinfluence
influence onon thethe
generated
generated power fromfrom
power the PV.theTable
PV.4Table
presents the PV technical
4 presents the PV
and financial input data and the inverter types. These types of PV
technical and financial input data and the inverter types. These types of PV and convertersand converters have shown a goodhave
performance in KSA [36]
shown a good performance in KSA [36]
The wind
The wind speeds
speedshave havebeen beendescribed
described in in
thethe previous
previous sections
sections for selected
for all all selected locations.
locations. The
The technical and estimated financial input data of the 1 MW wind turbine
technical and estimated financial input data of the 1 MW wind turbine are presented in Table 4. are presented in Table 4.
Figure 14
Figure 14shows
showsthe thepower
power curve
curve of of
thethe considered
considered wind wind turbine,
turbine, which which hascut-in
has the the cut-in
speed speed of
of 4 m/s,
4 m/s, and the total output power of 1 MW can be obtained at a
and the total output power of 1 MW can be obtained at a wind speed of 12 m/s to 20 m/s. The wind speed of 12 m/s to 20 m/s.
The measurement
measurement of wind
of wind speedspeedwaswas taken
taken at the
at the height
height of of
8080mmand andthe
theapproximate
approximatehub hubofof the
the wind
wind
turbine is
turbine is 80
80 mm above
above the
the ground
ground at at which
which thethe rotor
rotor sits
sits [45].
[45]. By
By knowing
knowing the the hub
hub height
height wind
wind speed,
speed,
the wind turbine power can be determined from the power curve.
the wind turbine power can be determined from the power curve. In HOMER software, the power In HOMER software, the power
curve is
curve is typically
typically used
used to to specify
specify the the performance
performance of of any
any wind
wind turbine
turbine under
under conditions
conditions of of standard
standard
temperature and pressure (STP). The power value shown by the power
temperature and pressure (STP). The power value shown by the power curve is multiplied by the curve is multiplied by the air
air
density ratio to adjust the actual conditions,
density ratio to adjust the actual conditions, as follows as follows

ρ
PWTG == .. PWTG,STP
,
ρ0
where is considered the actual output power of the wind turbine in kW, , is the power
where PWTG is considered the actual output power of the wind turbine in kW, PWTG,STP is the power
output of the wind turbine at STP in kW, is the actual air density kg/m 3
3, and is the air density
output of the wind turbine at STP in kW, ρ is the actual air density kg/m , and ρ0 is the air density at
at STP, which is 1.225 kg/m 3.
STP, which is 1.225 kg/m3 .

Table 4. Components Specifications.
Components Parameters
Table 4. Components Specifications.
Value Unit
Capacity 1 kW
Components Parameters
Life time Value
25 Unit
Year
Capital
Capacity 1640
1 $/kW
kW
Life time
Replacement 25
1640 Year
$/kW
PV (CS6K-280M-T4-4BB) Capital
O&M 1640
10 $/kW
$/yr
Replacement 1640 $/kW
PV (CS6K-280M-T4-4BB) Dual
O&M
axis tracker 1000
10
$
$/yr
Dual axis tracker −0.50
1000 %/°C$
αP 80
−0.50 % ◦C
%/
f
Efficiency
PV 80
18 %%
Efficiency 18 %
Capacity 1 kW
Capacity
Life time 1
15 kW
Year
Life time 15 Year
Converter Efficiency 95 %
Converter Efficiency 95 %
Capital
Capital 300
300 $$
Replacement
Replacement 300
300 $$
Initial
Initial Capacity
Capacity 1,300,000.0
1,300,000.0 $$
Replacement
Replacement 1,300,000.0
1,300,000.0 $$
O&M
O&M 1200
1200 $/yr
$/yr
Wind Turbine Life time 25 Year
Wind Turbine Life time 25 Year
Hub Height 80 m
Hub Losses
Applied Height 80
15 m%
Applied
CapacityLosses 15
1 %
MW
Capacity
Project life time 1
25 MWYear
Economical parameters
RealProject lifeRate
Discount time 25
6 Year%
Economical parameters
Real Discount
PV Rate 6
0.5 %
MW
PV/wind Size
PV
Wind Turbine 0.5
1 MWMW
PV/wind Size
Wind Turbine 1 MW
Figure 14. Wind turbine power curve.

Figure 14. Wind turbine power curve.
3.3. Economic Model
3.3. Economic Model
In HOMER, there are two main economic factors used to rank different system configurations.
These Inare
HOMER, there are
the net present two
cost main or
(NPC), economic factors
the life-cycle used
cost andtothe
rank different
levelized costsystem configurations.
of energy (LCOE) [46].
These are the net present cost (NPC), or the life-cycle cost and the levelized cost of energy
NPC is defined as the present value of all system costs over the project’s lifetime, minus the value (LCOE)of
all revenues earned. Additionally, it can be calculated from Equation (2). The LCOE is the average
cost in $/kWh of the actual consumed energy produced by the system and it can be calculated from
Equation (3)
Cann,tot
CNPC = (2)
CRF i, R proj
where i is the annual interest rate, Cann,tot represents the system total annualized cost, R Proj is the
project lifetime in years, and the capacity recovery factor (CRF) can be calculated by
i (1 + i ) N
CRF =
(1 + i ) N − 1
i is the real discount rate and N refers to the number of years
Cann,tot
LCOE = (3)
R prim + Rtot,grid,sales
where R prim is the AC primary load in kWh/year and Rtot,grid,sales is the total grid sales in kWh/year.
An alternative economic performance measure could be investigated by decision makers along
with the NPC and the cost of energy. The Return on Investment (ROI) is the yearly cost savings relative
to the initial or reference system. In HOMER software, the ROI can be calculated using Equation (4)
R proj
∑i=0 Ci,re f − Ci
ROI = (4)
R proj Ccap − Ccap,re f
where Ci,re f is the nominal annual cash flow for the base (reference) system; Ci is the nominal annual
cash flow for current system; R proj is the project lifetime in years; Ccap is the capital cost of the current
system, and Ccap,re f is the capital cost of the base (reference) system, which is the grid.
4. Simulation Results and Discussion

Performance of the grid-connected solar PV/wind hybrid system in the selected cities is discussed
in this section. Technical and economic details along with electricity production for four different cases
are compared and then the saved CO2 emissions for the defined cases are considered.
4.1. System Electricity Production

Figure 15 illustrates the total annual electricity production from the grid, wind turbine, and solar
PV systems in kWh/yr. The effect of renewable energy penetration on the consumption from the
grid can be seen from the graph. At Yanbu city, the annual electricity production from the RE system
represents almost 70% out of the total due to the high output power, specifically from the wind turbine,
which represents 53%. This reduces the annual energy purchased from the grid to 1,978,631 kWh/yr,
which represents only 30% out of the total annually consumed power. The wind energy production in
Yanbu city was compared to a study presented by S.M. Shaahid et al. [31] and the capacity factor of the
wind turbine were higher in this study due to the different size and hub height of the wind turbine.
The yearly total renewable power output at Hafar Albatin is 3993.2 MWh/yr versus 2418.7 MWh/yr
from the grid. At this city, wind energy production represents 62%, whereas the solar PV is around 17%,
and the remaining power produced by the grid. Sharurah city has the highest solar irradiation among
others. 19% of the annual electricity production comes from the PV system. However, the wind energy
and electricity purchased have almost the same amount of consumption, as illustrated in Figure 15.
Riyadh city has recorded the highest electricity purchased from the grid due to the low renewable
output power.
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Total
Total annual
annual electricity
electricity production
production from the grid,
from the grid, PV,
PV, and
and wind
wind turbine.
turbine.
Figure 16 shows
showsthe thetime
timeseries
seriesanalysis
analysisofof the
the first
first weekweek of August
of August in cities.
in all all cities.
As itAscanitbe
can be
seen
seen from these graphs, all systems have the same load shape and different output
from these graphs, all systems have the same load shape and different output power. As the output power. As the
output
power power
producedproduced
by thebyhybrid
the hybrid system
system increases,
increases, the the consumed
consumed powerfrom
power fromthethe grid
grid declines
instantaneously.
instantaneously.Additionally,
Additionally, thethe
sumsum
of the
of renewable outputoutput
the renewable power and the grid
power and power
the gridis equivalent
power is
to
equivalent to the total electrical load served, which indicates that the designed grid-connectedmet
the total electrical load served, which indicates that the designed grid-connected system has the
system
electric
has metload requirements
the electric with zero unmet
load requirements with power demand.
zero unmet power demand.
(a) Yanbu
(b) Hafar Albatin
(c) Sharurah
Figure 16. Cont.
Sustainability 2018, 10,
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3690
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22
(d) Riyadh
(d) Riyadh
Figure 16. One-week generation of grid along with PV/wind hybrid system to maintain load demand.
Figure 16.
Figure 16. One-week generation
generation of
of grid
grid along
along with
with PV/wind
PV/wind hybrid
hybrid system to maintain load demand.
In KSA, the main source of electricity is fossil fuel-based power plants. As a consequence, the
In KSA,
KSA,the
vast majority ofmain
the CO2 source
main sourceofof
emissions electricity
are fromis the
electricity fossil
is fossilfuel-based
power fuel-based
sector.power power
Figure plants. As aAs
plants.
17 shows consequence,
amount the
a consequence,
the of vast
COthe2
majority
vast of
majority CO
emissions in kg/yr of
2 emissions
CO 2 are
emissions from arethe power
from the sector.
power Figure
sector.
that can be saved if the renewable hybrid system is connected to the 17 shows
Figure the
17 amount
shows theof CO
amount emissions
of
2 grid. The2CO
in kg/yrCO
emissions
annual that
in can bethat
kg/yr saved canifbe thesaved
renewable
if the hybrid
renewablesystem is connected
hybrid system istoconnected
2 emission produced by the grid system only (with no hybrid system) is 3,460,200 kg/yr,
the grid. The annual
to the grid.CO The 2
emission
annual CO produced
2 emission by the
producedgrid system
by the only
grid (with
system no hybrid
only
which means that the hybrid grid-connected system has contributed significantly to lower CO2 system)
(with no is
hybrid 3,460,200
system) kg/yr,
is which
3,460,200 means
kg/yr,
that
whichthemeans
emissions. hybrid
As can grid-connected
that betheseen fromsystem
hybrid has contributed
grid-connected
the graph, system
the system significantly
has contributed
performance toatlower CO 2 emissions.
significantly
Yanbu city Asthe
to lower
can reduce canCO
CO be22
seen from the
emissions.
emissions by graph,
Asalmost
can be 63%,the
seensystemfrom the
which performance
graph,
equals to the at Yanbu
system
2,209,705 cityfollowed
can reduce
performance
kg/yr at the CO
byYanbu
Hafar 2 emissions
city can reduce
Albatin, bythe
Sharurah, almost
CO
and2
63%, which
emissions by equals
Riyadh, respectively.almost to 2,209,705
63%, which kg/yr
equalsfollowed
to by
2,209,705 Hafar
kg/yr Albatin,
followed Sharurah,
by Hafar and Riyadh,
Albatin, respectively.
Sharurah, and
Riyadh,
One respectively.
of the most important indicators of renewable energy
One of the most important indicators of renewable energy system productivity is the capacity system productivity is the capacity
factor.
factor.One of the most it
Additionally,
Additionally, itimportant
is considered
is considered indicators
the
the most of renewable
most effective energy
effective parameter
parameter system
in productivity
in analyzing
analyzing is the capacity
renewable
renewable energy
energy
factor.
system Additionally,
performance it
due is considered
to the direct the
effectmoston effective
the cost ofparameter
generated
system performance due to the direct effect on the cost of generated power. It is defined as the in analyzing
power. It is renewable
defined as theenergy
ratio
ratio
of the real energy output to the theoretical full energy output over a specific period of time [34].ratio
system
of the performance
real energy due
output toto thethe direct effect
theoretical on the
full cost
energy of generated
output over power.
a It
specific is defined
period ofas the
time [34].
The
annual capacity factor and the annual energy output power of wind and solar are evaluatedThe
of
Thethe real
annual energy
capacity outputfactor to the
and theoretical
the annual full energy
energy output
output over
power a
of specific
wind period
and solarof time
are [34].
evaluated in
annual
in Figures
Figures capacity
16 16 and factor
and17 17using
usingandHOMER the annual
HOMER energyFor
software.
software. output
For bothpower
both solar and
solar of wind
and wind,
wind, and solar parameters
several
several are evaluated
parameters were
were in
Figures 16 including
considered
considered and 17 using
including the HOMER software.
thetemperature,
temperature, derating
derating For both
factor, solar system,
tracking
factor, tracking and wind,
system, wake,several
turbine
wake, parameters
hub hub
turbine height, were
and
height,
considered
about 15% including
generation the
losses temperature,
of wind derating
turbine in orderfactor,
to tracking
evaluate
and about 15% generation losses of wind turbine in order to evaluate the production. Figure 18 thesystem,
production.wake, turbine
Figure 18 hub height,
summarizes
andannual
the about capacity
summarizes 15% generation
the annual factors capacitylosses
for the of wind
four
factors turbine
considered
for the in orderThe
foursystems.
considered tosystems.
evaluate theresults
results clearly
The production.
showclearly
that theFigure
showannual 18
that
summarizes
capacity
the annual factor theisannual
capacity significantly
factor capacity factors
affected
is significantly byfor
the the fourbyconsidered
availability
affected theof systems.
renewable
availability The results
energy
of resources.
renewable clearly
energy show
Asresources. that
indicated
the
in annual
the figure, capacity
Yanbu factor
city has is significantly
the highest affected
capacity by
factor the
for availability
wind energy
As indicated in the figure, Yanbu city has the highest capacity factor for wind energy and Riyadh city of
andrenewable
Riyadh energy
city has resources.
the lowest
As indicated
potential
has the lowest in the
for installing figure,
potential wind Yanbu
forturbines. city On
installing haswind
theother
the highest capacity
hand,
turbines. therethe
On factor
is no forhand,
wind energy
significant
other isand
difference
there Riyadh
nobetween
significantcity
the
has
PV the
system lowest
capacity potential
factors for
in installing
all selected wind
cities.
difference between the PV system capacity factors in all selected cities. turbines. On the other hand, there is no significant
difference between the PV system capacity factors in all selected cities.
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Saved CO22 emission by each system.
Figure 17. Saved CO2 emission by each system.
Figure
Figure 18.18.Solar
SolarPV
PVand
and wind
wind capacity
capacityfactor
factorinin
each city.
each city.
Figure 18. Solar PV and wind capacity factor in each city.
4.2. Economic Analysis
4.2. Economic Analysis
4.2.InEconomic
In HOMER,
HOMER, Analysisa discountedcash
a discounted cash flow
flow (DCF)
(DCF)isisthe thenominal
nominal cashcash
flowflowdiscounted to yearto
discounted zero.
year In zero.
this
In this In study,
study,
HOMER, the considered
the considered
a discounted real discount
realcash
discount rate
flow (DCF) for
rate for each system
each
is the is
systemcash
nominal 6%. Figure
is 6%. flow 19
Figure shows a
19 shows
discounted comparison of In
a comparison
to year zero.
of thisthe cumulative
the study,
cumulative discounted
discounted cash flow for all considered grid-connected systems throughout the
the considered realcash flowrate
discount for for
all each
considered
system grid-connected
is 6%. Figure 19 shows systems throughoutofthe
a comparison
projects lifetime compared with the base case. This method was used to estimate the attractiveness
the cumulative
projects lifetime compareddiscountedwith cashthe flow
basefor all considered
case. This method grid-connected
was used to estimate systems the throughout the
attractiveness
of an investment opportunity in such cases. A DCF was completed for all projects located at the
of projects lifetime opportunity
an investment compared with in the
such base case.AThis
cases. DCF method was used tofor
was completed estimate the attractiveness
all projects located at the
selected cities and compared to the grid as a base case. Consequently, NPC for each system was found
of an investment
selected cities and opportunitytointhe such cases. aAbase
DCFcase.was Consequently,
completed for all projects located at the
by summing up compared grid
the yearly total discounted ascash flows of the project lifetime.NPC for 19,
In Figure eachthesystem
system was
selected
found at by cities
summing
Yanbu and compared
up the yearly
city demonstrated to the grid
thetotal as
lowest a base
discounted case.
NPC andcash Consequently,
LCOE flows NPC for
of the projectand
of $3,080,182.00 each system
lifetime. was
0.03655In$/kWh, found
Figure 19,
thebysystem
summing
respectively. upAt
at Yanbu thecity
yearly
Hafar total discounted
demonstrated
Albatin city, the cash flows
the lowest
system NPC of
NPC is the
and project
LCOE
$3,558,756.30oflifetime. In Figure
$3,080,182.00
and has and19,
a LCOE ofthe
0.03655 system
0.04392$/kWh,
at Yanbu
$/kWh. city
In demonstrated
Sharurah city, the the
system lowest
performedNPC and LCOE
reasonably, evenof $3,080,182.00
respectively. At Hafar Albatin city, the system NPC is $3,558,756.30 and has a LCOE of 0.04392 $/kWh.
with a high NPC andand 0.03655
LCOE. $/kWh,
Based
In respectively.
on the annual
Sharurah Atthe
city, Hafar
solar Albatin
irradiation
system city,
and the
performed systemwind
thereasonably,
mean NPC is $3,558,756.30
energy
even density,
with a high and city
Riyadh
NPC has
andis aLCOE.
LCOE
not of 0.04392
particularly
Based on the
$/kWh.
suitableIn Sharurah city, the system performed reasonably, even with a high NPC and LCOE. Based
annual solar for the installation
irradiation and the of large-scale
mean wind hybrid
energygrid-connected
density, Riyadh system. cityAdditionally, the electric
is not particularly and
suitable for
on economic
the annual solar irradiation
analysis showed that andusingthe only
meanthe wind
gridenergy
system density,
in Riyadh Riyadh
city iscity
the is noteconomical
best particularly
the installation of large-scale hybrid grid-connected system. Additionally, the electric and economic
suitable
optionfor duethetoinstallation
the high cost of and
large-scale hybrid grid-connected
low production, as seen in Figures system.
15 and Additionally,
20. However, theYanbu
electric
cityand
analysis showed that using only the grid system in Riyadh city is the best economical option due to the
economic
has more analysis showed
appropriate that using
renewable only resources,
energy the grid system in Riyadh
specifically city is the
for utilization of best
windeconomical
turbine
high cost and low
technology.
production,
The high
model
as seen
at this
in Figures 15 and ROI 20. However, Yanbu cityithas moresuitable
appropriate
option due to the cost andcity
lowrecorded
production,the highest
as seen in of 7.5%, which
Figures 15 and makes the mostYanbu
20. However, city
renewable
hasplace
more
energy
since resources,
it makes
appropriate
specifically
a renewable
profit during thefor
energy
utilization
project’s of
lifetime.
resources,
wind
Thus,turbine
specifically it isfor technology.
considered
utilizationas the The
of best
model
windcity forat this
turbine
city recorded
wind energy
technology. the highest
Thedevelopment ROI
model at thisamongof 7.5%, which
all the others.
city recorded makes it the most suitable place since
the highest ROI of 7.5%, which makes it the most suitable it makes a profit
during
place the
since project’s
it makeslifetime. Thus, itthe
a profit during is project’s
considered as theThus,
lifetime. best itcity for wind energy
is considered as the bestdevelopment
city for
among all the others.
wind energy development among all the others.
Figure 19. Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow for all Systems and Base Case.
Figure19.
Figure 19.Cumulative
Cumulative Discounted
Discounted Cash
Cash Flow
Flowfor
forall
allSystems
Systemsand
andBase
BaseCase.
Case.
Figure 20. Systems NPC and

and LCOE.
Figure 20. Systems
Figure 20. Systems NPC
NPC and LCOE.
LCOE.
It is
It is interestingtotodiscuss
interesting discuss theelectricity
electricity purchasing and selling for each month during the year.
It is interesting to discussthe the electricity purchasing
purchasing and and selling
sellingfor
foreach
eachmonth
monthduring
during thethe year.
year.
TheThe monthlypower
monthly powerflowflow toto and
and from
from the
thegrid
grid for
forthe
thefour
fourconsidered
consideredsystems
systemsis depicted
is in Figures
depicted in 21
Figures
The monthly power flow to and from the grid for the four considered systems is depicted in Figures
and
21 21
and 22. In
22.22.
InIn the
the first four months of the year, the air temperature and the load demand are at their
and thefirst
firstfour
fourmonths
monthsof ofthethe year,
year, the
the air temperatureand
air temperature andthe theload
loaddemand
demand areare
at at their
their
lowest.
lowest. Consequently,
Consequently, allall systems
systems show
show thethe highest
highest amount
amount of of power
power sold
sold to to
thethe grid.
grid. More
More thanthan
50%
lowest. Consequently, all systems show the highest amount of power sold to the grid. More than 50%
50%
of of of
thethe the
total total
annual annual sold energy to the grid for all systems occurred during this period. However,
total annualsoldsoldenergy
energytotothethe grid
grid for
for all systems occurredduring
systems occurred duringthis thisperiod.
period.However,
However,
because of the high demand, in addition to the rising temperatures during most of the year, all systems
because of the high demand, in addition
because of the high demand, in addition to the to the rising temperatures during most
temperatures during most of the year, of the year,allall
become more reliant on the grid. Among all cities, the Yanbu city grid-connected system has the
systems
systems become
become more
morereliant
relianton
onthe
thegrid.
grid.Among
Among all cities,
cities, the
theYanbu
Yanbucity
citygrid-connected
grid-connected system
system hashas
highest amount of energy sold to the grid and it is 1118 MWh/yr followed by Hafar Albatin, Sharurah,
the highest amount of energy
the highest amount of energy sold to the grid sold to the grid and it is 1118 MWh/yr followed by Hafar
1118 MWh/yr followed by Hafar Albatin, Albatin,
and Riyadh with 863.5 MWh/yr, 824.6 MWh/yr, and 504.7 MWh/yr, respectively.
Sharurah,
Sharurah, and and Riyadhwith
Riyadh with863.5
863.5MWh/yr,
MWh/yr, 824.6 824.6 MWh/yr,
MWh/yr, and and504.7
504.7MWh/yr,
MWh/yr,respectively.
respectively.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Monthly
Monthly energy
energy purchased
purchased from
from grid.
grid.
Figure 21. Monthly energy purchased from grid.
Figure
Figure 22. Monthly
22. Monthly
Figure22. energysold
energy
Monthly energy soldto
sold togrid.
to grid.
grid.
Figure
Figure 2323shows
showsaaacomparison
shows comparisonbetween
comparison betweenthe
between capital
thecapital
capital cost
cost
cost and
and and the
the cost
the
cost ofofthe
cost theenergy
of energy
the energy produced
produced by by
produced
PV/Wind
by PV/Wind
PV/Wind systemsystem
system inineach
ineach
eachcity.
city. These
city. These
These results represent
results
results represent
represent the
thetheenergy
energy
energy cost atatat
cost
cost the
thethe grid
grid
grid price
price
price overoverthethe
considered
considered lifetime.
lifetime.InInHOMER
lifetime. HOMERPro, Pro,thethecapital
capital cost isis part
part of
ofthetheNPC.
NPC.Since
Sinceone onemodel
model waswas applied
applied
at
allall
at all selected
selected
selected locations,
locations,
locations, thethe
the capital
capital
capital costs
costs
costs are
are
are almost
almost the
the
the same
same
same forfor
for each
eacheach system.
system.
system. However,
However,
However, thethe
the costs
costs ofofthe
costs of
thethe
producedproduced
producedenergy energy
energy overthe
overover
the theproject’s
project’s
project’s life-time
are are
life-time
life-time different,
different,
different, as
asillustratedinin
illustrated
as illustrated inthe
the thegraph.
graph.
graph. From
FromFrom Figure
Figure
Figure 13
13 13
the thethe applied
applied
applied grid grid
grid prices
prices
prices are
areare0.08 0.08
0.08 $/kWh
$/kWh
$/kWh duringpeak
during
during peak demand
peakdemand
demandand and 0.048
0.048$/kWh
and0.048 $/kWhatat
$/kWh the
at shoulder
the
the shoulder
shoulder andand
off-peak times. At Yanbu
off-peak times. At Yanbu city, city,
city, thethe total
thetotal annual
totalannual electricity
annualelectricity produced
electricityproduced
producedby by PV/Wind
byPV/Wind systems is
PV/Wind systems is around around
4684.53/yrMWh
4684.53/yr
4684.53/yr MWhand
MWh andthe
and thecost
the costof
cost of this
of this annual
this annual amount
annual amount
amount basedbasedon
based onthethegrid
gridprices
pricesexceeds
exceeds 6.86.8
million
million
million
dollars
dollars over
over thethe project’s
project’s life
life time,
time, as
as seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 23.
23. The
The system
system capital
capital
dollars over the project’s life time, as seen in Figure 23. The system capital costs at Yanbu city represent costs
costs at Yanbu
at Yanbu citycity
representonly
represent only 32%ofofthe the energy cost. cost. The
The model
model at at Hafar albatin
albatinacity
cityshows a total annual
only 32% of the32% energy cost.energy The model at Hafar albatin Hafar
city shows total shows
annual aproduction
total annual of
production of 3993.2 MWh/yr from the PV/Wind system. Over 25 years, the expected energy cost at
production
3993.2 MWh/yr of 3993.2
fromMWh/yr
the PV/Wind from the PV/Wind
system. Over system.
25 years,Over 25 years, energy
the expected the expected
cost atenergy
the same cost at
city
the same city is almost 5.8 million dollars and the capital costs represent around 38% of this value.
the same city is almost 5.8 million dollars and the capital costs represent
is almost 5.8 million dollars and the capital costs represent around 38% of this value. Sharurah and around 38% of this value.
Sharurah and Riyadh show the lowest energy production with 3774.6 MWh/yr and 3157.5 MWh/yr,
Sharurah
Riyadh andthe
show Riyadh
lowestshow the production
energy lowest energy withproduction
3774.6 MWh/yr with 3774.6 MWh/yr
and 3157.5 and 3157.5
MWh/yr, MWh/yr,
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
Figure
Figure 23.23.Capital
Capital cost
cost versus
versus the
thetotal
totalcost of of
cost energy produced
energy by the
produced by PV/Wind systemsystem
the PV/Wind at the grid
at the
price.
grid price.
Figure 23. Capital cost versus the total cost of energy produced by the PV/Wind system at the grid
price.
5. Conclusions
This paper presents an overview of the current status of Saudi Arabia’s power generation and a
possible increase in the demand for electricity over the next 15 years. Additionally, an investigation of
solar and wind energy resources along with technical and economic analysis of a grid-connected hybrid
system for four selected locations are presented. Based on real data provided by KSA’s renewable
resources atlas, the HOMER-Pro optimization tool developed by NREL is utilized to select the best
system performance. The following are the key findings of this study:
- For solar resources, GHI values are high at all of our selected sites with relatively low variability.
Due to the effect of pollution, dust, and clouds, DNI levels were more variable. The highest
annual average daily total of GHI and DNI of solar radiation was in the city of Sharurah by
6681.62 Wh/m2 and 6206.91 Wh/m2 , respectively. For wind energy resources, the frequency
analysis showed that the availability of wind speeds above 10 m/s was 41% of the time at
Yanbu followed by 27% at Hafar Albatin, 22% at Sharurah, and 14% at Riyadh at 80 m for the
entire year. In addition, the annual mean wind power density for Yanbu city was the highest
with 833.78 W/m2 at the height of 80 m, which indicates that this location is the best for wind
energy production.
- The effects of changing renewable energy resources on the power generation are analyzed.
Four different grid-connected hybrid systems have the same components and the costs are
considered. Since every location has a different wind speed and solar radiation intensity over
the year, different configurations of power generation at each location are expected to meet the
same load demand requirements. The simulation results show that the solar and wind resources
potential at Yanbu city, leads to the minimum LCOE of $0.03655 followed by Hafar Albatin,
Sharurah, and Riyadh. The system’s capacity factors at each location also show that Yanbu city
has the highest renewable energy output power, particularly the power from the wind turbine
which that represents 53% out of the total annual generation. The systems performance at Hafar
Albatin and Sharurah shows reasonable power production and lower CO2 emissions even though
the systems have high NPC and LCOE. However, the solar PV and wind turbine capacity factors
at Riyadh city are low compared to other systems. Therefore, it is not economically viable.
The analyses presented in this study can have a strong influence on the selection of technology
and location of solar and wind energy power plants in KSA. Additionally, the proposed system design
and techno-economic analysis could be applied to any location worldwide to improve the performance
of grid-connected hybrid solar/wind considering the variation of the components’ costs, load profile,
and the sites’ metrological conditions. We should note that using long-term data analysis would help to
understand the inter-annual variability of renewable energy resources that limit this study. Therefore,
continuing the operations of renewable energy monitoring stations is needed to assemble data for
long-term forecasting. In future research, performance analysis of a large-scale hybrid grid-connected
solar-wind-biomass will be investigated for various locations with different metrological conditions.
Author Contributions: The main idea of this paper was proposed by Y.Z.A. All authors contributed to the data
analysis and writing of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the King Abdullah City of Atomic and Renewable Energy
(KACARE) for facilitating access to the wind and solar Atlas of Saudi Arabia at (http://rratlas.kacare.gov.sa).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Sustainability 2018, 10, 3690; doi:10.3390/su10103690 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2.1. Solar Data

Figure 5. Annual average daily total of DNI, GHI, and DHI.

(a) Sharurah (b) Hafar Albatin

(c) Riyadh (d) Yanbu

Figure 6. Wind rose diagrams for the selected stations.

Table 3. Annual estimated Weibull parameters.

Figure 7. Weibull distribution of the measured data at 80 m.

Figure 9. Monthly mean wind speed in m/s.

Figure 9. Monthly mean wind speed in m/s.

10. Design configuration of Wind/PV

Figure 10. Design configuration of Wind/PV grid-connected system.

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

Figure 12. Grid daily schedule rate for all months.

Sustainability 2018, 10, 3690 13 of 22

Figure 14. Wind turbine power curve.

i is the real discount rate and N refers to the number of years

4. Simulation Results and Discussion

4.1. System Electricity Production

(b) Hafar Albatin

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

Figure 20. Systems NPC and

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