Zhao et al. Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 / J. Opt. Soc. Am.

A 2631

Two-dimensional nonseparable linear canonical

transform: sampling theorem and
unitary discretization

Liang Zhao,1 John J. Healy,2 and John T. Sheridan1,*

1
School of Electrical, Electronic and Communications Engineering, Communications and Optoelectronic Research
Centre, SFI–Strategic Research Cluster in Solar Energy Conversion, College of Engineering and Architecture,
University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
2
Department of Electronic Engineering, Maynooth University, Co. Kildare, Ireland
*Corresponding author: john.sheridan@ucd.ie

Received August 4, 2014; revised October 5, 2014; accepted October 6, 2014;

posted October 6, 2014 (Doc. ID 214789); published November 11, 2014
The two-dimensional (2D) nonseparable linear canonical transform (NS-LCT) is a unitary, linear integral transform
that relates the input and output monochromatic, paraxial scalar wave fields of optical systems characterized by a
4 × 4 ray tracing matrix. In addition to the obvious generalizations of the 1D LCT (which are referred to as sepa-
rable), the 2D-NS-LCT can represent a variety of nonaxially symmetric optical systems including the gyrator trans-
form and image rotation. Unlike the 1D LCT, the numerical approximation of the 2D-NS-LCT has not yet received
extensive attention in the literature. In this paper, (1) we develop a sampling theorem for the general 2D-NS-LCT
which generalizes previously published sampling theorems for the 1D case and (2) we determine which sampling
rates may be chosen to ensure that the obvious discrete transform is unitary. © 2014 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (000.4430) Numerical approximation and analysis; (070.2025) Discrete optical signal process-
ing; (070.2590) ABCD transforms; (090.1995) Digital holography.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/JOSAA.31.002631

1. INTRODUCTION Discrete transforms that approximate the continuous LCTs

The one-dimensional (1D) linear canonical transform (LCT)
[1–5] is a three-parameter group of linear integral transforms,
which can be used to model the propagation of the coherent
wave fields through first-order optical systems. Among its spe-
cial cases [6,7] are the Fourier transform (FT), the fractional
Fourier transform (FRT), the Fresnel transform (FST), the
scaling transform, and the chirp transform.
The two-dimensional separable linear canonical transform
(2D-S-LCT) can model a wide variety of isotropic optical
systems [8], which can be treated as being made up of two
independent 1D-LCTs. In the case when the system is fully
symmetric and orthogonal, and the parameters for both of
the two dimensions are identical, such systems can be repre-
sented using only three parameters as in the 1D-LCT case [9].
In the case when the system is still orthogonal but the param-
eters for the orthogonal dimensions differ, such systems can
be represented by six free parameters [9,10].
The two-dimensional nonseparable linear canonical trans-
form (2D-NS-LCT) is a more general integral transform, in
which the two dimensions are coupled to each other by four
additional cross-parameters, increasing the total number of
free parameters to ten [8]. This general nonseparable trans-
form is nonorthogonal, nonaxially symmetric, and anamor-
phic [8]. The 2D-NS-LCT is able to represent systems not
only involving coupling and shearing between components
along the different dimensions [9,11,12] but also involving
rotations between any arbitrary planes in phase space, such
as gyrations [13–17]. The 2D-NS-LCT is important in digital sig-
nal processing and optical system modeling [18–26].
allow us to simulate a number of optical propagation prob-
lems. Digital simulations to solve these problems require ac-
cess to a numerical algorithm to approximate the continuous
transform efficiently, accurately, and unitarily [27,28]. In the
area of optics not only is such an algorithm important when
employing iterative techniques to design systems, but it is also
significant when solving inverse scatter problems to extract
information about an object given a known illumination
[27–32], for instance in phase retrieval [33,34].
Traditionally, such problems have been addressed in situa-
tions where the FT and FST were sufficient to describe the
optical system examined. Unitary algorithms for both the
FT [35–40] and FST [41] are widely available. In order to fur-
ther avoid aliasing during sampling processes, Ding [42] devel-
oped a sampling theorem for the general 1D-LCT in 2001 (also
see [7]). In 2005, Hennelly and Sheridan [6] discussed how the
space–bandwidth product of a signal (and thus the sampling
requirements) can be tracked through an LCT system. How-
ever the resulting discrete transforms are not in general
unitary. In [43–52], these results were shown to lead to a fast
and accurate numerical implementation of the 1D-LCT.
Recently a sufficient condition on the sampling rates chosen
during discretization to ensure that the discrete 1D-LCT
(1D-DLCT) is unitary have been presented [52,53]. Proof that
these conditions guarantee unitarity is provided in [53]. It
should be noted that the sampling theorem developed in [53]
is consistent with the Shannon sampling theorem for the FT,
the Gori sampling theorem [41] for the FST, and the Ding
sampling theorem [42] for the LCT.

1084-7529/14/122631-11$15.00/0 © 2014 Optical Society of America

2632 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 Zhao et al.

Numerical calculation of the 2D-NS-LCT has recently re- where

ceived attention [8,17,22–24,54–57]. This paper will focus
on developing a sampling theorem for this case and demon- k1  d11 b22 − d12 b21 ; k2  2
−d11 b12  d12 b11 ;
strating how a unitary sampling rate can be chosen. This paper
k3  −d21 b12  d22 b11 ; p1  a11 b22 − a21 b12 ;
is organized as follows: In Section 2 we introduce the trans-
forms examined for 1D and 2D signals and provide some p2  2
a12 b22 − a22 b12 ; p3  −a12 b21  a22 b11 : (3-2)
other important definitions. One powerful technique used
to analyze LCTs is to decompose them into, and then apply In this case the transformation matrix M of the system is
sequentially, a set of simpler transforms. In Section 3, we in- defined as
troduce this kind of decomposition, discuss some important
special cases, and look at the insight one such decomposition 0 1
a11 a12 b11 b12  
gives us about 2D-NS-LCT’s application to discrete signals. B a21 b22 C
B
M @
a22 b21 C A B
; (3-3)
In Section 4, the general sampling theorem for the 2D- c11 c12 d11 d12 A C D
NS-LCT is developed. In Section 5, we consider one DLCT, c21 c22 d21 d22
a discrete transformation that approximates the continuous
integral transform. In particular the parameters for which
where A, B, C, and D are now 2 × 2 submatrices, and
the DLCT is unitary are determined. Finally, a brief conclusion
det
B ≠ 0. We note that the 2D-NS-LCT has 16 parameters,
and future work are given in Section 6.
see Eq. (3-3), which must satisfy the constraints ABT 
BAT , CDT  DC T , and ADT − BC T  I, or AT C  C T A,
2. DEFINITIONS OF THE CONTINUOUS BT D  DT B, and AT D − C T B  I, where I is a 2 × 2 identity
LCTs matrix. Since the above equations are equivalent to six con-
A. Definitions of the 1D-LCT and Its Unitary Property straints, the number of independent parameters in the matrix
The continuous 1D-LCT of a signal g
x can be defined by M is in fact reduced to ten [8,54–57]. In addition, the inverse
[5,6,53] 2D-NS-LCT of G
x0 ; y0  is given by

G
x0   LM fg
xg
x0  g
x; y  LM −1 fG
x0 ; y0 g
x; y; (4)

( R h 2 0 Dx02 
i
p1 ∞ −∞ exp jπ
Ax −2xx g
xdx; B≠0 where M −1  f DT −BT ; −C T AT g.
 pjB 
B
; (1)
02
D exp
jπCDx g
Dx ; 0 B0
2.2 Other Definitions
where given M  f A B ; C D g, the parameters of the trans- It should be noted that
form matrix M are restricted to be real numbers with
① When B  0; ⇒ det
B  0, the definition of the 2D-NS-
det
M  1, and det
M represents the determinant of matrix
LCT is [9,24,55,56]
M. For the case of B  0 the LCT is defined as the limit of the
B ≠ 0 case with B → 0 [5]. The LCT with parameters
fA B; C Dg  f0 1; −1 0g corresponds to the FT, while G
x0 ; y0 
fcos θ sin θ; −sin θ cos θg corresponds to the FRT. The FST  LM fg
x; yg
x0 ; y0 
results for f 1 z ; 0 1 g. In addition, the transform matrix p
of the inverse 1D-LCT is given by M −1  f D −B ; −C A g.  det
D expjπ
c11 d11  c12 d12 x02 
× expj2π
c11 d21  c12 d22 x0 y0 
2.1 Unitary Property × expjπ
c21 d21  c22 d22 y02 g
d11 x0  d21 y0 ; d12 x0  d22 y0 ;
One of the most important properties of the continuous LCT
(5)
(both 1D and 2D cases) is the unitary property [3],
LM −1 fLM fggg  g: (2) where M  f DT
−1
0 ; C D g.
② When det
B  0 but B ≠ 0, the 2D-NS-LCT is more com-
plicated; see [24].
B. Definitions of the 2D-NS-LCT
The continuous 2D-NS-LCT of a signal g
x; y can be defined
C. Special Cases of the 2D-LCT
by [8,54–57]
1. Special Cases of the 2D-S-LCT
G
x0 ; y0   LM fg
x; yg
x0 ; y0  In the case when
ZZ
∞  
1 jπ
k1 x02  k2 x0 y0  k3 y02 
 p exp a12  a21  b12  b21  c12  c21  d12  d21  0; (6)
j det
B det
B
−∞
  the 2D-NS-LCT, see Eqs. (3-1) and (5), reduces to the sepa-
j2π
−b22 x0  b12 y0 x 
b21 x0 − b11 y0 y
× exp rable transform, the well-known special cases of which are
det
B
  the 2D FT, the 2D FST [21], the 2D FRT [21,22], the 2D chirp
jπ
p1 x2  p2 xy  p3 y2  transform [18,19,24], and the 2D scaling transform [24]. The
× exp g
x; ydxdy; (3-1)
det
B transform matrix M of these special cases is shown in Table 1.
Zhao et al. Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2633

Table 1. Transform Matrices of Some Well-known Cases of the 2D-S-LCT and 2D-NS-LCT
2D-Separable 2D-Nonseparable
0 1 0 1
FT 0 0 1 0 cos θ 0 0 sin θ
B 0 Gyrator
B 0 0 1CC B 0 cos θ sin θ 0 C
@ −1 B C
0 0 0A @ 0 − sin θ cos θ 0 A
0 −1 0 0 − sin θ 0 0 cos θ
0 1 0 1
FST 1 0 z 0 Coupling 1 0 0 0
B0 1 0 zC B0 1 0 0C
B C B C
@0 0 1 0A @0 τ 1 0A
0 0 0 1 τ 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
FRT cos θx 0 sin θx 0 Coordinate (general) a11 a12 0 0
B 0 cos θy 0 sin θy C B a21 a22 0 0 C
B C B −a21 C
@ − sin θx 0 cos θx 0 A @ 0 0 det
A
a22
A
det
A
0 − sin θy 0 cos θy −a12
0 0 det
A a11
det
A
0 1 0 1
Chirp 1 0 0 0 Rotation cos θ sin θ 0 0
B 0 1 0 0C B − sin θ cos θ 0 0 C
B C B C
@ −1∕f x 0 1 0A @ 0 0 cos θ sin θ A
0 −1∕f y 0 1 0 0 − sin θ cos θ
0 1 0 1
Scaling-x 1∕sx 0 0 0 Shearing-x 1 shx 0 0
B 0 1 0 0C B0 1 0 0C
B C B C
@ 0 0 sx 0A @0 0 1 0A
0 0 0 1 0 0 −shx 1
0 1 0 1
Scaling-y 1 0 0 0 Shearing-y 1 0 0 0
B 0 1∕sy 0 0C B shy 1 0 0 C
B C B C
@0 0 1 0A @ 0 0 1 −shy A
0 0 0 sy 0 0 0 1

2. Special Cases of the 2D-NS-LCT 3. MATRIX DECOMPOSITION AND

Three well-known 2D nonseparable transforms are the gyra- CONSEQUENCES FOR THE LOCATIONS OF
tor transform [13–17,21], the coupling (i.e., multiplication) THE SAMPLES IN THE OUTPUT PLANE
transform [24], and the homogenous coordinate/affine trans- The ABCD matrices of concatenated systems may be obtained
form [24–26], which can be defined by by multiplication; for example, if a wave field propagates
through a system with ABCD matrix M 1 and then a second
LM gyrator fg
x;yg with matrix M 2 , the overall system’s ABCD matrix is given
by M 3  M 1 M 1 . We can use this result in two ways: First,
Z∞
Z  
1 j2π
xy  x0 y0 cos θ −
xy0  yx0  we can find the output of a series of systems in a single
 exp g
x;ydxdy;
jsin θj sin θ calculation. Second, we can decompose a calculation into a
−∞ sequence of simpler operations. A simple example is the
(7-1) venerable spectral method for calculating the FST,
     
1 λz 0 −1 1 0 0 1
 : (8)
LM Coupling xy fg
x; yg  exp
jπτxyg
x; y; (7-2-1) 0 1 1 0 −λz 1 −1 0

Equation (8) shows that the FST may be calculated by taking a

LM Coupling x0 y0 fG
x0 ; y0 g  exp
jπτx0 y0 G
x0 ; y0 ;
 
a x0 − a12 y0 −a21 x0  a11 y0
LM coordinate fg
x; yg  g 22 ; : (7-3)
det
A det
A
FT, a chirp multiplication, and an inverse FT, all of which may
(7-2-2) be calculated using simple or mature software packages.
Two decompositions have been proposed in the literature
to numerically calculate the 2D-NS-LCT, the Iwasawa decom-
position [8] and a second decomposition which may be
thought of as a generalization of the direct method for calcu-
lating the 1D case [55]. This second decomposition is given by

The transform matrices of these three cases are listed in

M  M 4M 3M 2M 1
Table 1. For brevity, the homogenous coordinate transform     
is referred to as the “coordinate transform” below. The coor- I 0 B 0 0 I I 0
 −1 T −1 −1 ; (9-1)
dinate transform includes some well-known transforms, like DB I 0 B −I 0 B A I
rotation [8,20,21,24] and shearing (interferometer) [24]; see
Table 1. where
2634 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 Zhao et al.

0 k1 k2 1
and 1(e). The relevant sampling relationships are discussed
B det
B 2 det
B C in Section 4.
DB−1  B@
C;
A The decomposition in Eq. (9) is valid only if det
B  0. No
k2 k3
2 det
B det
B general result exists at this time for the det
B  0 case. How-
0 1 ever, if we further specify that B  0, we can decompose the
p1 p2
B det
B 2 det
B C matrix as follows:
B−1 A  B
@
C;
A
p2 p3   −1

2 det
B det
B I 0 DT 0
M  M 2M 1  ; (10-1)
0 b −b21 1
CDT I 0 D
22
B det
B det
B C
BT  B C; −d21 −d12
−1 d22 d11
@ −b A (9-2) where DT−1  f det
D det
D ; det
D det
D g. Here M 2 produces
12b 11 a phase term in the LCT domain, while M 1 generates the fol-
det
B det
B lowing coordinate transform,

and where k1 ∼ k3 and p1 ∼ p3 are as defined in Eq. (3-2). M 1

LM 1 fg
x; yg
x0 ; y0   g
d11 x0  d21 y0 ; d12 x0  d22 y0 : (10-2)
and M 4 in Eq. (9-1) produce phase terms in the space and LCT
domains, respectively; M 3 generates a coordinate transform;
Consequently, beginning with a rectangular grid of samples,
and M 2 is an FT. The matrix decompositions are discussed in
once again one ends up with a parallelogram arrangement
detail in Appendix A.
of output samples.
This decomposition would appear to be an excellent can-
didate for numerical approximation of the 2D-NS-LCT. It con-
sists of two generalized chirps (M 1 and M 4 ), a 2D FT (M 2 ) and
an image coordinate transformation (M 3 ). This last operation 4. SAMPLING THEOREM FOR THE
indicates an interesting and vital feature of such numerical 2D-NS-LCT
approximations. Given an input comprised of a rectangular A. Sampling Effects
grid of regular samples, we normally expect a discrete trans- We consider the impulse sampled version of g
x; y,
form to relate this input with a rectangular grid of output sam-
ples. However, in the discrete 2D-NS-LCT case, it will in X
∞ X
∞
ĝ
x; y  g
x; y δ
x − nT x ; y − mT y 
general result in a skewed output grid. This is illustrated
n−∞ m−∞
in Fig. 1.
X
∞ X
∞
This has significant implications for an appropriate sam-  g
nT x ; mT y δ
x − nT x ; y − mT y 
pling theorem. Consider the 1D case. Given a figure’s width n−∞ m−∞
in the input and output domains, it has been shown that X
∞ X
∞    
1 j2πnx j2πmy
the appropriate sampling rates are related to these widths.  g
x; y exp exp ;
T xT y n−∞ m−∞
Tx Ty
In the separable 2D case, a similar result is obtained given the
input and output widths in both directions; see Figs. 1(b) and (15)
1(d). However, for the nonseparable case, the output samples
obtained form a parallelogram of points; see Figs. 1(c) where T x and T y are the sampling intervals in the x and y
directions, respectively.

1. The Effect of Sampling in the det
B ≠ 0 Case

From Eq. (3), the 2D-NS-LCT of ĝ
x; y can be defined by

Ĝ
x0 ; y0   LM fĝ
x;yg
x0 ; y0 
1 X
∞ X∞
 p H ×G
T x T y j det
B n−∞ m−∞
 
0 nb11 mb12 0 nb21 mb22
× x− − ;y − −
Tx Ty Tx Ty
1 X
∞ X∞
 p H × G
x0 − x̂0n;m ; y0 − ŷ0n;m ;
T x T y j det
B n−∞ m−∞
(12-1)

Fig. 1. Input image shape, output image shapes, and their sampling
where
grids: (a) rectangular shape of an input image, with length Lx and
height Ly . (b) and (c) are the output image shapes of the 2D S-LCT
and NS-LCT, respectively; the output image shape in the separable nb11 mb12 nb21 mb22
case is still a rectangle, while the output image shape in the nonsepar- x̂0n;m   ; and ŷ0n;m   ; (12-2)
Tx Ty Tx Ty
able case is skewed, that is, becomes a parallelogram (the side lengths
of which are different from the values in the separable case). (d) and
(e) are the sampling grids of (b) and (c), respectively. and
Zhao et al. Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2635

 
−jπk1
x0 − x̂0 2  k2
x0 − x̂0 
y0 − ŷ0   k3
y0 − ŷ0 2  B. Sampling Theorem
H  exp The sampling rate should be such that the replicas indicated
det
B
  by Eq. (12-1) do not overlap; then the continuous signal may
jπ
k1 x  k2 x y  k3 y02 
02 0 0
× exp : (12-3) be recovered from the samples taken at this rate.
det
B

1. Sampling Theorem for the det
B ≠ 0 Case

Equation (12-1) indicates that the 2D-NS-LCT of ĝ
x; y,
Using Eq. (12), and in order to avoid aliasing, the output LCT
namely Ĝ
x0 ; y0 , is made up of modulated shifted replicas
image extents should satisfy
of the original signal G
x0 ; y0  [7,53,57]. The 2D-NS-LCT of a
sampled signal is therefore a periodically replicated version
q q
of the 2D-NS-LCT of the original continuous signal before 1 1
Lx0 ≤ b211  b221 ; and Ly0 ≤ b212  b222 ; (14-1)
sampling. Tx Ty
From Eq. (12-2), the center point (coordinates) of the

n; mth replica are designated by
x̂0 ; ŷ0 n;m , the location of q
1
which is dependent on
T x ; T y  and on the values of all four where Txb211  b221 is the distance between the n-direction
q
parameters of the 2 × 2 matrix B in the 2D-NS-LCT.
replicas, while T1y b212  b222 is the distance between the
It should be noted that, in the separable case, the
x̂0 ; ŷ0 n;m
points are located on a Cartesian coordinate system; see the m-direction replicas [see Fig. 2(b)], in which θx0  arctan
bb21
11

dashed lines in Fig. 2(a). In the nonseparable case, the and θy0  arctan
bb22 . The derivations of these two distances

x̂0 ; ŷ0 n;m points are located along a series of parallel lines; 12
are discussed in Appendix B.
see Fig. 2(b).

2. Sampling Theorem for the B  0 Case

2. Effect of Sampling in the B  0 Case When det
B  0, the effect of the LCT on the shape change is
From Eq. (8) [24], as in the former det
B ≠ 0 case, the discussed in Appendix A. The sampling theorem for this
2D-NS-LCT of ĝ
x; y can be defined by case is

Ĝ
x0 ; y0  q q

    Lx d212  d222 Ly d211  d221
X
∞ X
∞
nd md12 nd md22 Lx0 ≤ ; and Ly0 ≤ ; (14-2)
 G
x0 ; y0  δ x0 − 11 − δ y0 − 21 − : det
D det
D
n−∞ m−∞
Tx Ty Tx Ty
(13) where θx0  − arctan
dd12  and θy0  − arctan
dd11 ; see Fig. 2(b).
22 21
In conclusion, as long as Eq. (14) is satisfied, G
x0 ; y0  can
It should be noted that be reconstructed from the periodically replicated version of
① In the case when det
B ≠ 0, the 2D-NS-LCT of the G
x0 ; y0 , namely Ĝ
x0 ; y0 .
sampled input signal ĝ
x; y, namely Ĝ
x0 ; y0 , is still a continu-
ous signal; see Fig. 2b. C. Sampling Theorem for Special Cases
② In the case when B  0, the 2D-NS-LCT of the sampled The sampling theorems for some well-known special cases are
input signal ĝ
x; y is a discrete signal. The output S-LCT sam- shown in Table 2. The well-known Nyqist sampling theorem
ples and NS-LCT samples are arranged as shown in Figs. 1(d) for the FT, the Gori sampling theorem [41] for the FST, and
and 1(e). the Ding sampling theorem [42] for the 1D-LCT are special
cases of the theorem developed here.

5. UNITARY DISCRETE TRANSFORM

A. Unitary Discretization
During discretization, the continuous coordinates
x; y are re-
placed by the
n; mth sample locations
x; yn;m , that is, the
coordinates
nT x ; mT y , while
x0 ; y0  are replaced by the

n0 ; m0 th sample
x0 ; y0 n0 ;m0 , where the integers n, m, n0 ,
m0 ∈ −N∕2  1; N∕2. N is the number of sampling points,
which is assumed to here to be even valued. When N is
odd, the analysis is similar and does not warrant separate
attention.

1. Unitary Discretization for the det
B ≠ 0 Case

Fig. 2. (a) and (b) are the outputs of a 2D-S-LCT and a 2D-NS-LCT,
respectively, given a discrete input. Were the inputs continuous, we The corresponding discrete transform is unitary, if the
would obtain outputs at locations indicated by the shaded (blue
n0 ; m0 th sample
x0 ; y0 n0 ;m0 is defined by
where color is available) tetrahedrons, while the other tetrahedrons
indicate the locations of replicas that appear because of the discrete n0 b11 m0 b12 n0 b21 m0 b22
input. Were we to sample the outputs, we should do so on grids cor- x0n0 ;m0   ; and y0n0 ;m0   ; (15)
responding to Figs. 1(d) and 1(e) located in the shaded regions. Lx Ly Lx Ly
2636 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 Zhao et al.

Table 2. Sampling Theorem and Unitary Sampling Rates for Some Well-known Cases of the 2D-S-LCT and
2D-NS-LCT
LCTs Sampling Theorems Unitary Rate Chosen
S-LCT when B ≠ 0 2D-FT Lx0 ≤ 1∕T x , and Ly0 ≤ 1∕T y T x0  1∕Lx , and T y0  1∕Ly
2D-FRT Lx0 ≤ sin θx ∕T x , and Ly0 ≤ sin θy ∕T y T x0  sin θx ∕Lx , and T y0  sin θy ∕Ly
2D-FST Lx0 ≤ λz∕T x , and Ly0 ≤ λz∕T y T x0  λz∕Lx , and T y0  λz∕Ly
2D-S-LCT Lx0 ≤ b11 ∕T x , and Ly0 ≤ b22 ∕T y T x0  b11 ∕Lx , and T y0  b22 ∕Ly
S-LCT when B  0 2D Chirp Lx0 ≤ Lx , and Ly0 ≤ Ly T x0  T x , and T y0  T y
Scaling-x L ≤ Lx ∕S x , and L ≤ Ly
x0 y0 T x0  T x ∕S x , and T y0  T y
Scaling-y Lx0 ≤ Lx , and Ly0 ≤ Ly ∕S y T x0  T x , and T y0  T y ∕S y
NS-LCT when B ≠ 0 Gyrator Lx0 ≤ sin θ∕T y , and Ly0 ≤ sin θ∕T x T x0  sin θ∕Ly , and T y0  sin θ∕Lx
q q q q
NS-LCT when B  0 Coordinate Lx0 ≤ Lx a211  a221 , and Ly0 ≤ Ly a212  a222 T x0  T x a211  a221 , and T y0  T y a212  a222
Coupling Lx0 ≤ Lx , and Ly0 ≤ Ly T x0  T x , and T y0  T y
p p
Shearing-x Lx0 ≤ Lx , and Ly0 ≤ Ly 1  sh2x T x0  T x , and T y0  T y 1  sh2x
q q
Shearing-y Lx0 ≤ Lx 1  sh2y , and Ly0 ≤ Ly T x0  T x 1  sh2y , and T y0  T y

where Lx and Ly are the extents (i.e., length and height) of the 2. Unitary Discretization for the B  0 Case
input image; see Fig. 1(a). The input and output samples each The corresponding discrete transform is unitary if
form N × N vectors. The sampling intervals in the space do-
main are T x  Lx ∕N and T y  Ly ∕N. The kernel of the dis- nd22 T x − md21 T y
x0n;m  ; and
crete transform is a 4D matrix [58–60], namely an det
D
N × N × N × N matrix, which is denoted as W M . The final dis- −nd12 T x  md11 T y
crete transform is y0n;m  : (17)
det
D

G
x0n0 ;m0 ; y0n0 ;m0 

B. Unitary Properties
X
N∕2 X
N∕2 The continuous 2D-NS-LCT is unitary, but discretization can
 W M
n0 ; m0 ; n; mg
nT x ; mT y : (16-1) destroy this property. Mathematically, a square matrix W M is
n−N∕21 m−N∕21
unitary if

M W M  I;
WH (18-1)
The operation in Eq. (16-1) corresponds to a matrix multi-
plication. From Eq. (15), the elements of the kernel W M are where W HM represents the conjugate transpose of W M , and I is
given by an identity matrix, that is,

8 h
2 0
0
0
2 i9
>
> 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b >
>
1 X
N∕2 X
N∕2 <jπ k1 L  L
n 11 m 12
 k2 L  L
n b11 m 12 n
L  L
b 21 m 22
 k3 L  L
n b 21 m 22 =
W M
n0 ; m0 ; n; m  p
x y x y x y x y
exp
j det
B n−N∕21 m−N∕21 >
> det
B >
>
: ;
8 nh 0
0
i h 0
0
i o9
>
> >
mT y >
0b 0b 0b 0b
<j2π −b22 L  L
n b 11 m 12
 b12 L  L
n b21 m 22
nT x  b21 L  L
n b 11 m 12
− b11 L  L
n b21 m 22 =
x y x y x y x y
× exp
>
> det
B >
>
: ;
 
jπp1
nLx 2  p2 nLx mLy  p3
mLy 2 
× exp : (16-2)
N 2 det
B

It should be noted that in the separable case, the sampling M  W M −1 :

WH (18-2)
points in the LCT domain are located in a rectangular grid;
see Fig. 1(d). In the nonseparable case, the sampling points ① For the 1D-DLCT, this identity matrix is 2D.
are located in an irregular grid, namely a skewed grid; see ② In the general 2D-NS-DLCT, the matrix is 4D [58–60]. It
Fig. 1(e). should be noted that since the two dimensions in the
Zhao et al.
2D-S-DLCT can be treated independently, by means of the
row–column algorithm [53], the identity matrix in separable
cases can be reduced to a 2D matrix [53].
Significantly, unlike the corresponding continuous LCTs in
Eq. (2), the DLCTs are not necessarily unitary; that is, without
due care discretization can destroy this property. In fact
Eq. (16-2) must be multiplied by a scaling factor in order to
make it unitary; see Appendix D.
First, in order to show how the sampling grid can be
skewed by the 2D-NS-LCT, one example is given in Fig. 3.
In this example, the sample locations are calculated using
Eq. (15), which guarantees that the corresponding discrete
transform is unitary. As we discussed in Section 3, the trans-
form can be decomposed in a number of ways. Of particular
interest for this discussion is Eq. (9), which shows that we can
decompose any 2D LCT where B−1 exists into several ele-
ments which do not alter the sampling grid and one coordinate
transform. In the example given in Fig. 3, we have chosen LCT
parameters such that the coordinate transform is simply a ro-
tation. Consequently, the sampling grid in the LCT domain is
rotated, specifically by 60° clockwise; see Fig. 3(b) (where
θx0  −60° and θy0  30°).
In Section 4 of this paper, we have shown that the sampling
rates that result in a unitary discrete transform are integer
multiples of the rate given by Ding’s sampling theorem for
the LCT. One might reasonably wonder if the gains made
by using this transform are simply the result of using an ap-
propriate sampling rate, if indeed unitarity is of real impor-
tance. This is not the case. We merely constrain the
relationship between the input and output sampling rates; this
is signal-independent. In order to demonstrate this, we have
generated Fig. 4. This figure shows the error that arises when
using the same input signal and LCT used to generate Fig. 3.
This signal is sampled and then forward transformed. Finally
the resulting output is inverse transformed and compared to
the original input. Were the improvement merely a matter of a
higher sampling rate reducing aliasing, we would expect to
see a monotonic decrease in error with decreasing sampling
period. Instead, we observe a “sweet spot” where the trans-
form is unitary. We vary the sampling period of x0 from
Fig. 3. One example of unitary calculation using the DLCT: (a) the
input signal is a 2D Gaussian, 20 × 20 pixels, variances 0.004 and 0.002.
The extents (Lx and Ly ) are both 0.05. (b) The DLCT for parameters
[0.08 0.09 0.5 0.866; 0.1 −0.0858 −0.8660.5 0.5; −0.495 −0.858 0.05 0.06;
0.856 −0.494 0.07 −0.0558] was calculated using the formula in Eq. (16)
and plotted using the contour function in MATLAB. If we decompose
the matrix of parameters as per Eq. (9), we find the coordinate
transformation matrix is a rotation matrix, which is accounted for
in the plotting of the results. According to Subsection 4.B, here
θx0  arctan
bb21
11
  arctan
−0.866
0.5   −60°, and θy0  arctan
bb2212

0.5
arctan
0.866   30°, that is, the rectangular sampling grid in the LCT
domain is rotated 60° clockwise.
Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2637
Fig. 4. If we propagate to a given LCT domain and then back to the
input domain, how does the error vary with sampling period? In this
plot, we show the MSE is minimized, and in fact is 0, only at the sam-
pling rate we propose, see Eq. (15) , i.e., the rate at which the DLCT is
unitary.
95% to 105% of the rate we propose, which gives unitarity.
The mean square error (MSE) between the transformed sig-
nal, ḡ
x; y, and the original signal, g
x; y, is calculated by
PP
jg
x; y − ḡ
x; yj2
MSE  PP ; (19)
jg
x; yj2
where ḡ is a N × N array of complex values. It can be seen that
(1) the minimum MSE value is obtained by choosing the uni-
tary sampling rate defined in Eq. (15); (2) as the difference
between the unitary and nonunitary sampling rates increases,
the corresponding MSE increases rapidly.
C. Special Cases of the Unitary 2D-NS-DLCT
1. Some Special Cases of the Unitary S-LCT
For the separable cases when det
B ≠ 0, Eq. (15) can be
simplified as
n0 b11 m0 b22
x0n0 ;m0  ; and y0n0 ;m0  : (20)
Lx Ly
After dividing each side by N, Eq. (20) becomes
b11 b22
T x0  ; and T y0  : (21)
Lx Ly
Equation (21) is in fact Ding sampling [42]. For the 2D-S-LCT
case, we have offered a sufficient condition to ensure it is uni-
tary [53]. Unitary sampling rates for some special cases of the
2D-S-LCT are shown in Table 2.
In order to obtain the kernal in the 2D-S-DLCT case when
det
B ≠ 0, we only need to set b12  b21  0 in Eq. (16-2).
However, this approach does not provide a fast way to evalu-
ate the continuous transform. The row–column algorithm
provides an efficient way to numerically approximate the
2D-S-LCT [53], in which the 2D transform is reduced to two
1D-LCTs. The corresponding sampling points in the LCT do-
main are located in a rectangular grid; see Fig. 1(d).
2. Some Special Cases of the Unitary NS-LCT
The unitary sampling rates for some special cases are shown
in Table 2.
2638 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 Zhao et al.

0 10 1
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 1 shx 0 0 1 0 0 0
  B CB C
The 2D case of the LCT has not received as much attention as 0 B0 1 0 0C B 0 C
B B CB shy 1 0 C
the 1D case, and in most 2D cases examined it has been as- B CB C
0 BT−1 B0 0 1 0C B 0 0 1 −shy C
sumed that the optical system is separable, thus permitting 1D @ A@ A
analysis. In this paper the general 2D-NS-LCT is explored, 0 0 −shx 1 0 0 0 1
namely those cases of the 2D-LCT explicitly not reducible 0 10 1
1∕sx 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
to 1D-LCT analysis. A sampling theorem for this transform B CB C
B 0 0C B C
has been derived, and it has been shown that the 1D sampling B 1 0 CB 0 1∕sy 0 0 C
×B CB C;
theorems of Nyquist, Gori, and Ding are special cases of this B 0 0C B 1 0C
new general theorem. The discrete transform obtained by @ 0 sx A@ 0 0 A
sampling the LCT kernel directly has been discussed. It has 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 sy
been shown that using the sampling rates derived in this pa- (A1)
per, this discrete transform is unitary, which is as indicated 1
where shx  , shy  b12
 and sy 
b21 b22
det
B , sx
b22
det
B,
The first b22 .
important in multistage and iterative calculations. b22
Future work will continue to focus on issues relevant to the two matrices in Eq. (A1) represent shearing operations along
numerical approximation of the 2D-NS-LCT. One topic of in- x and y axes, respectively [24], while the last two matrices are
terest arises because we have found that in some cases, the scaling operations along the x and y axes [24].
FFT can be employed to calculate the 2D-NS-LCT efficiently. Second, the phase term in the space domain can be decom-
An example of one such case is shown in Fig. 5. In this case, it posed into a coupling operation (between x and y) followed
is possible to use the samples inside the new rectangular grid by a chirp transform. Similarly, the phase term in the LCT
(red-dashed line square) instead of those inside the original domain can be decomposed into another coupling operation
irregular sampling grid (blue solid line parallelogram) with (between x0 and y0 ) and a 2D chirp; see Eq. (A2):
 
no loss of information. It seems that under certain circumstan- I 0
ces the grids align and that (as is made clear by examining the
color coding of the samples in Fig. 5) all of the sampled values B−1 A I
0 10 1
appears appropriately in the corresponding replicas—a most 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
B CB C
fortuitous situation! Currently attempts are being made to B 0 1 0 0C B 0C
B CB 0 1 0 C
identify the general sampling conditions under which the B p2 CB p1 C
2D-NS-LCT can be calculated using the fast FT. B
B 0 1 0C B
CB det
B 0 1 0CC
B 2 det
B CB C
B CB C
@ p2 A@ p3 A
0 0 1 0 0 1
2 det
B det
B
APPENDIX A  
I 0
In this appendix, the detailed matrix decompositions of the
phase term and the coordinate term in Eq. (9) are presented. DB−1 I
First, the coordinate transform can be further decomposed 0 10 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
using the following multiplication of the shearing transforms B CB C
B 0 1 0 0C B 0C
and the scaling transforms: B CB 0 1 0 C
B k2 CB k1 C
B
B 0 1 0C B
CB det
B 0 1 0CC:
B 2 det
B CB C
B CB C
@ k2 A@ k3 A
0 0 1 0 0 1
2 det
B det
B
(A2)

APPENDIX B
In this appendix, the mathematical derivation of the sampling
theorem for the det
B ≠ 0 case developed in this paper is
discussed.
From Eq. (12), the center point of the zero-order term
(n  m  0) of Ĝ
x0 ; y0  is defined by
x̂0 ; ŷ0 0;0 
0; 0. From
Fig. 2(b) we know that Lx0 is the distance between (0,0) and

x̂0 ; ŷ0 1;0 
bT11x ; bT21x ; Ly0 is the distance between (0,0) and
Fig. 5. One example of the 2D-NS-LCT of a sampled image: The origi-
x̂0 ; ŷ0 0;1 
bT12y ; bT22y , which indicates that
nal output LCT image parallelogram shape is indicated by a solid bold s
 2  2
(blue) line, while its replicas are shown bounded by thin (black) lines. q
b11 b21 1
The parallelogram shapes outline the skewed sample grid. In this ex- Lx0  −0  −0  b211  b221 ; (B1)
ample all the sampling points are located in a regular Cartesian coor- Tx Tx Tx
dinate system. As a result all the color coded points (yellow, purple, s
 2  2 q
light blue, and red) in the central parallelogram are found suitably b12 b22 1
arranged inside the new central square shape, bound by the thick- Ly0  −0  −0  b212  b222 (B2)
Ty Ty Ty
dashed (red) line.
Zhao et al. Vol. 31, No. 12 / December 2014 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2639

APPENDIX C
In this appendix, the mathematical derivation of the sampling theorem for the B  0 case developed in this paper is
discussed.
The shape or boundary of the new output image can be defined by the corner co-ordinate,
    L −Lx 
x01 x02 x03 x04 1 d22 −d21 x Lx −Lx

y01 y02 y03 y04 2 det
D −d12 d11 Ly −Ly −Ly Ly
 d L −d L d22 Lx  d21 Ly −d22 Lx  d21 Ly −d22 Lx − d21 Ly 
1 22 x 21 y
 : (C1)
2 det
D −d12 Lx  d11 Ly −d12 Lx − d11 Ly d12 Lx − d11 Ly d12 Lx  d11 Ly

Then,
q q
Lx
Lx0 
x02 − x03 2 
y02 − y03 2  d212  d222 ; (C2a)
det
D

q Ly q
Ly 0 
x01 − x02 2 
y01 − y02 2  d211  d221 : (C2b)
det
D

APPENDIX D
In this appendix, the mathematical proof regarding how the DLCT is made unitary is presented.
The multiplication of W M and W M −1 is shown as

X
N X  
N
1 jπp1
n2 − n02 L2x  p2
nm − n0 m0 Lx Ly  p3
m2 − m02 L2y 
W M −1 W M  W M −1 n0 m0 kl W M klnm  exp ;
k1 l1
det
B N 2 det
B
8 n
o n
o9
>
> >
>
XN X N <j2π L  L −b22
n − n Lx  b21
m − m Ly  
kb11 lb12 0 0 kb21 lb22 0 0
Lx  Ly b12
n − n Lx − b11
m − m Ly 
=
x y
exp
>
>
2
N det
B >
>
k1 l1 : ;
 
1 jπp1
n2 − n02 L2x  p2
nm − n0 m0 Lx Ly  p3
m2 − m02 L2y 
 exp ;
det
B N 2 det
B
X     N    
N
−j2πk
n − n0  −j2πk
m − m0  X −j2πl
n − n0  −j2πl
m−0 
exp exp exp exp : (D1)
k1
N N l1
N N

It can be seen that when n  n0 , m  m0 , Eq. (D1) can be support of the Science Foundation Ireland, the Irish Research
rearranged as Council, and Enterprise Ireland under the National Develop-
ment Plan.
N2
W M −1 W M  I; (D2)
det
B
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