HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

WONDO GENET COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND

NATURAL RESOURCE

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADGUATE STUDIES

PROGRAM: WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

COURSE: PEOPLE AND WILDLIFE

Compiled by Girma Mengesha (PhD)

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Table of Contents

1. People and wildlife..................................................................2

2. History of human wildlife conflict..........................................5
3. Nature of human-wildlife conflicts..........................................7
3.1 Causes..................................................................................7
3.2 Outcome of human-wildlife conflict...................................8
4. Hidden Dimensions of Conflict...............................................9
5. Conflict resolution or management.........................................9
5.1 Management techniques....................................................10

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1. People and wildlife
Human–wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild

animals and people and the resultant negative impact on people

or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs

when growing human populations overlap with established

wildlife territory, creating reduction of resources or life to some

people and/or wild animals. The conflict takes many forms

ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and animals both

wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to

loss and degradation of habitat.

Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control,

translocation, and regulation of population size and preservation

of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt

to use scientific research for better management outcomes, such

as behavior modification and reducing interaction. As human-

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wildlife conflicts inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs,

the mitigation of human-wildlife conflict is an important issue in

the management of biodiversity and protected areas.

Human–wildlife conflict is defined by the World Wide Fund for

Nature (WWF) as "any interaction between humans and

wildlife that results in negative impacts on human social,

economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife

populations, or on the environment”

The Creating Co-existence workshop at the 5th Annual World

Parks Congress (8–17 September 2003, Montreal) defined

human-wildlife conflict in the context of human goals and

animal needs as follows “Human-wildlife conflict occurs when

the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the

goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively

impact the needs of wildlife."

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A 2007 review by the US Geological Survey defines human-

wildlife conflict in two contexts; firstly, actions by wildlife

conflict with human goals, i.e. life, livelihood and life-style,

and, secondly, human activities threaten the safety and

survival of wildlife. However, in both cases, outcomes are

decided by human responses to the interactions

The Government of Yukon defines human-wildlife conflict

simply, but through the lens of damage to property, i.e. "any

interaction between wildlife and humans which causes harm,

whether it’s to the human, the wild animal, or property."

Here, property includes buildings, equipment and camps,

livestock and pets, but does not include crops, fields or fences

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2. History of human wildlife conflict
Human–wildlife conflicts have occurred throughout man's

prehistory and recorded history. Amongst the early forms of

human-wildlife conflict is the predation of prehistoric man by a

number of predators of the Miocene such as saber-toothed cats,

leopards, spotted hyenas amongst others.

Fossil remains of early hominids show evidence of predation;

the Taung Child, the fossilized skull of a young

Australopithecus africanus, is thought to have been killed by an

eagle from the distinct marks on its skull and the fossil having

been found amongst egg shells and remains of small animals

A Plio-Pleistocene horned crocodile, Crocodylus

anthropophagus, whose fossil remains have been recorded from

Olduvai Gorge, was the largest predator encountered by

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prehistoric man, as indicated by hominid specimens preserving

crocodile bite marks from these sites

The advent of farming and animal husbandry increased the

scope of conflict between humans and animals. The crops and

the produce formed an abundant and easily obtained food source

for wild animals. Wild herbivores competed with domesticated

ones for pasture. In addition, they were a source for diseases

which affected livestock. The livestock attracted predators

which found them to prey on. The inevitable human reaction

was to eliminate such threats to agriculture and domesticated

animals. In addition, land was converted to agricultural and

other uses and forests cleared, all of which impacted wild

animals adversely. A number of animal species were eliminated

locally or from parts of their range. The deliberate or accidental

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introductions of animals in isolated island animal communities

have caused extinction of a large number of species.

3. Nature of human-wildlife conflicts

3.1 Causes
As human population extends to wild animal habitats, natural

wildlife territory is displaced. Reduction in availability of

natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate

sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw

wildlife resulting in conflict. The population density of wildlife

and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used

increasing their interaction thus resulting in increased physical

conflict. Byproducts of human existence offer un-natural

opportunity for wildlife in the form of food and shelter, resulting

in increased interference and potentially destructive threat for

both man and animals. Competition for food resources also

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occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such

as fish and grassland pasture.

3.2 Outcome of human-wildlife conflict

Human–wildlife conflict occurs with various negative results.

The major outcomes of human-wildlife conflict are:

 Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife

 Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed

wildlife stock

 Damage to human property

 Trophic cascades

 Destruction of habitat

 Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of

geographic ranges

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4. Hidden Dimensions of Conflict
Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions

that are not typically factored in when the focus is on visible

impacts. These can include health impacts, opportunity and

transaction costs. Case studies include work on elephants in

northeast India, where elephant-man interactions are seen to lead

to cases of increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with

resultant enhanced mortality in encountersand issues related to

gender in northern India

5. Conflict resolution or management

The aim of conflict resolution or management is to reduce the

potential for human-wildlife conflicts in order to protect life and

limb, safety and security of animal populations, habitat and

general biodiversity, and also to minimize damage to property.

The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention

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measures but often active intervention is required to be carried

out in conjunction.

5.1 Management techniques

Ecotourism by elephant safari through the Jaldapara Wildlife

Sanctuary in West Bengal, India

Management techniques of wildlife are of two types. The first

type is the traditional techniques which aim to stop conflict

reduce or minimize conflict by controlling animal populations in

different ways. Lethal control has the longest history but has

major drawbacks. Other measures, less costly in terms of life,

are trans-location, regulation and preservation of animal

populations. Modern methods depend upon the understanding of

ecological and ethological understanding of the wildlife and its

environment to prevent or minimize conflict; examples being

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behavioral modification and measures to reduce interaction

between humans and wildlife.

Potential solutions to these conflicts include electric fencing,

land use planning, community-based natural resource

management (CBNRM), compensation, payment for

environmental services, ecotourism, wildlife friendly products,

or other field solutions.

In efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict, World Wide Fund

for Nature (WWF) has partnered with a number of organizations

to provide solutions around the globe. Their solutions are

tailored to the community and species involved. For example, in

Mozambique, communities started to grow more chili pepper

plants after making the discovery that elephants dislike and

avoid plants containing capsaicin. This creative and effective

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method prevents elephants from trampling community farmers'

fields as well as protects the species.

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